- published: 05 Oct 2007
- views: 94431
- author: mostcynical
Vimeo results:
Youtube results:
MORE VIDEOS
Loading...
Open Collage in a new Window
Email the Collage
- Loading...
Loading suggestions ...
- Abba Ahimeir
- Abbasid Caliphate
- Abstract art
- Acerbo Law
- Achaemenid Empire
- Action T4
- Actual idealism
- Adal Sultanate
- Adam Tooze
- Adolf Eichmann
- Adolf Hitler
- Afrika Korps
- Afsharid dynasty
- Agfacolor
- Ahnenerbe
- Air superiority
- Ajuuraan State
- Akkadian Empire
- Alaouite dynasty
- Albanian Militia
- Alben W. Barkley
- Albert Speer
- Alfred Hugenberg
- Alfred Rosenberg
- Alfred Sohn-Rethel
- Allach (porcelain)
- Almohad Caliphate
- Almoravid dynasty
- Alsace-Lorraine
- Altmark Incident
- American Nazi Party
- Amt Rosenberg
- Anastasy Vonsyatsky
- Ancient history
- Andreas Hillgruber
- Angevin Empire
- Animal welfare
- Annexation
- Anschluss
- Ante Pavelić
- Anti-Comintern Pact
- Anti-communism
- Anti-Communist
- Anti-communists
- Anti-fascism
- Anti-intellectualism
- Anti-Nazi League
- Anti-Semitism
- Antisemitism
- Antony Beevor
- Appeasement
- Ardennes offensive
- Arditi
- Arnold Leese
- Arrow Cross Party
- Art Deco
- Arthur Seyss-Inquart
- Aryan Race
- Aryan race
- Asbestos
- Auschwitz
- Austria
- Austria-Hungary
- Austrian Empire
- Authoritarianism
- Autobahn
- Avant-garde
- Axis powers
- Ayyubid dynasty
- Azania
- Balkans
- Baltic Sea
- Baltic states
- Battle of Berlin
- Battle of Britain
- Battle of Crete
- Battle of France
- Battle of Greece
- Battle of Kursk
- Battle of Stalingrad
- Battlecruiser
- Bavaria
- BBC
- Beer Hall Putsch
- Belarus
- Belgium
- Benin Empire
- Benito Mussolini
- Berghof (residence)
- Berlin
- Bernhard Rust
- Black Brigades
- Blackshirts
- Blitzkrieg
- Blood and soil
- Blueshirts
- Bohemia and Moravia
- Bolshevik
- Book capital
- Bornu Empire
- Bountiful Harvest
- Brit HaBirionim
- British Commonwealth
- British Empire
- British Fascists
- British people
- Buchenwald
- Bulgarian Empire
- Bund Deutscher Mädel
- Buyid dynasty
- Byzantine Empire
- Cabinet Hitler
- Caliphate
- Caliphate of Córdoba
- Carolingian Empire
- Case Blue
- Category Fascism
- Category Nazism
- Caucasus
- Central Norway
- Chagatai Khanate
- Chola Dynasty
- Christadelphian
- Christofascism
- Cinema of Germany
- Class collaboration
- Claudia Koonz
- Clerical fascism
- Co-belligerence
- Colonial empire
- Confessing Church
- Constituent country
- Corporatism
- Courts-martial
- Croatia
- Crown of Aragon
- Crypto-fascism
- Cubism
- Cuxhaven
- Czech Republic
- Czech Silesia
- Czechoslovakia
- Czechs
- Dada
- Daniel Goldhagen
- Danzig
- Das deutsche Mädel
- Das Schwarze Korps
- David Irving
- David Schoenbaum
- Debellation
- Degenerate art
- Delhi Sultanate
- Denazification
- Der Angriff
- Der Pimpf
- Der Stürmer
- Dervish State
- Detlev Peukert
- Deutschlandlied
- Dictatorship
- Die große Liebe
- Die Welt
- Dimitrije Ljotić
- District of Brussels
- Dividends
- Doctors' Trial
- Drava Banovina
- Dutch Empire
- Dutch people
- East Prussia
- Eberhard Kolb
- Ecofascism
- Economic liberalism
- Economics of fascism
- Einsatzgruppen
- Einsatzkommando
- Empire
- Empire of Brazil
- Empire of Japan
- Enabling Act of 1933
- Enrico Corradini
- Environmentalists
- Eoin O'Duffy
- Epidemiology
- Eric Michaud
- Ernst Kaltenbrunner
- Ernst Röhm
- Ernst vom Rath
- Erwin Rommel
- Esoteric Nazism
- Ethiopian Empire
- Ethnic cleansing
- Ethnic Germans
- Eugenics
- Eupen-Malmedy
- Euphemism
- Eva Braun
- Expressionism
- Faisceau
- Falange
- Far-right politics
- Fascio
- Fascism
- Fascism and ideology
- Fascism in Africa
- Fascism in Asia
- Fascism in Canada
- Fascism in Europe
- Fascist (epithet)
- Fascist architecture
- Fascist manifesto
- Fascist paramilitary
- Fascist symbolism
- Fatherland's Front
- Fatimid Caliphate
- Fauvism
- Felix Steiner
- Ferenc Szálasi
- Figli d'Italia
- Film industry
- Final Solution
- First French Empire
- First Mexican Empire
- Flemish people
- Flensburg Government
- Forest management
- Four Year Plan
- Four year plan
- Four-Year Plan
- Fourth Reich
- France
- Francisco Franco
- Franz Gürtner
- Franz Rademacher
- Franz Seldte
- Franz von Papen
- Free City of Danzig
- Freemasonry
- Freethinkers
- French Popular Party
- Friends of Nature
- Fritz Hippler
- Fritz Todt
- Fronten
- Fumimaro Konoe
- Führer
- Führerbunker
- Führerprinzip
- Galeazzo Ciano
- Ganap Party
- Gau (German)
- Gauleiter
- General Government
- Generalplan Ost
- German American Bund
- German Army
- German autobahns
- German Empire
- German language
- German question
- German re-armament
- German Reich
- German resistance
- Germanic people
- Germanic peoples
- Germanisation
- Germanization
- Germany
- Gestapo
- Ghana Empire
- Ghaznavids
- Ghettos
- Giovanni Gentile
- Gioventù Fascista
- Gisela Bock
- Gleichschaltung
- Gobroon Dynasty
- Gold shirts
- Gold standard
- Golden Horde
- Gottbegnadeten list
- Great Depression
- Great Seljuq Empire
- Greyshirts
- Guido Knopp
- Gupta Empire
- Gurjara-Pratihara
- Gustavs Celmiņš
- Gândirea
- Götz Aly
- Hamburg
- Han Dynasty
- Hanna Reitsch
- Hanns Kerrl
- Hans Frank
- Hans Lammers
- Health informatics
- Hebrew language
- Heer (1935–1945)
- Heim ins Reich
- Heimwehr
- Heinrich Himmler
- Heinz Höhne
- Heligoland
- Helmuth Weidling
- Henry Ashby Turner
- Herbert Backe
- Hermann Fegelein
- Hermann Göring
- Hero
- Heroic capitalism
- Heroic realism
- Heroism
- Herrenvolk
- Herschel Grynszpan
- Historical powers
- History of China
- History of France
- History of Germany
- History of Haiti
- History of India
- History of Iran
- History of Morocco
- Hitler Youth
- Hjalmar Schacht
- HMS Hood (51)
- Holocaust
- Holy Roman Empire
- Horst-Wessel-Lied
- Hossbach Memorandum
- Hotel Adlon
- Hunger Plan
- Hunnic Empire
- Ian Kershaw
- Idrisid dynasty
- Ifat Sultanate
- Ikki Kita
- Il Popolo d'Italia
- Ilkhanate
- Imperial Way Faction
- Imperialism
- Impressionism
- Inca Empire
- Indische Legion
- Indoctrination
- Inflation
- Interwar period
- Invasion of Poland
- Iron Guard
- Islamofascism
- Istria
- Italian Empire
- Italian Fascism
- Italianization
- Italy
- Japanization
- Je suis partout
- Jehovah's Witnesses
- Jewish question
- Jews
- Johann Strauß II
- Johannes Heesters
- John Wheeler-Bennett
- Johns-Manville
- Josef Mengele
- Joseph Goebbels
- Julius Dorpmüller
- Julius Streicher
- Jungmädel
- Kaliningrad Oblast
- Kanem Empire
- Karl Dönitz
- Keynesian
- Khmer Empire
- Khwarazmian dynasty
- Kingdom of Aksum
- Kingdom of Kush
- Klaipėda Region
- Kolberg (film)
- Konrad Henlein
- Korean Empire
- Kresy
- Kriegsmarine
- Kristallnacht
- Ku Klux Klan
- Kurt Schmitt
- Kurt Schuschnigg
- Kushan Empire
- La Cagoule
- La France au travail
- Land of Punt
- Lapua Movement
- Law of Germany
- League of Nations
- Lebensborn
- Lebensraum
- Left-wing fascism
- Leila J. Rupp
- Lend-Lease
- Leni Riefenstahl
- List of empires
- List of German flags
- List of Nazis
- List of SS personnel
- Lithuania
- Low Countries
- Luftwaffe
- Luxembourg
- Lynn H. Nicholas
- Léon Degrelle
- Lăncieri
- Machtergreifung
- Majapahit
- Majeerteen Sultanate
- Makapili
- Mali Empire
- Maratha Empire
- Marcel Déat
- March on Rome
- Marika Rokk
- Marinid dynasty
- Martial law
- Martin Bormann
- Martin Broszat
- Martin Kitchen
- Master race
- Maurya Empire
- Medes
- Mein Kampf
- Memel Territory
- Mental illness
- Mercury (element)
- Mexican Empire
- Middle Ages
- Militarism
- Ming Dynasty
- Mixed economy
- Modern history
- Molotov Pact
- Mongol Empire
- Mughal Empire
- Munich Agreement
- Munich, Bavaria
- Musical film
- Münchener Beobachter
- Nasjonal Samling
- National Fascisti
- National syndicalism
- Nationalisation
- Nationalism
- Nationalists
- Nazi
- Nazi architecture
- Nazi eugenics
- Nazi Germany
- Nazi Party
- Nazi plunder
- Nazi propaganda
- Nazi salute
- Nazi songs
- Nazi symbolism
- Nazis
- Nazism
- Nazism and cinema
- Nazism and race
- Neo-Assyrian Empire
- Neo-fascism
- Neo-Nazism
- Netherlands
- Neville Chamberlain
- New Kingdom
- New Objectivity
- New Order (Nazism)
- Nordic race
- Nordic theory
- North Norway
- North Sea
- North Sea Empire
- Norway
- Norwegian Campaign
- Novopress
- NS Månedshefte
- NS-Frauen-Warte
- NS-Frauenschaft
- NSDAP AO
- Nuremberg
- Nuremberg Laws
- Nuremberg Rally
- Nuremberg Trials
- Oder-Neisse line
- ODESSA
- Olympia (1938 film)
- Operation Bagration
- Operation Barbarossa
- Operation Overlord
- Operation Sea Lion
- Operation Shingle
- Operetta
- Ossewabrandwag
- Oswald Mosley
- Otto Meißner
- Otto Thierack
- Ottoman Empire
- Oyo Empire
- Pahlavi dynasty
- Pala Empire
- Palestine
- Pan-Germanism
- Pantheon, Rome
- Panzerwaffe
- Parthian Empire
- Party Chancellery
- Patriarchal
- Paul Garson
- Paul von Hindenburg
- Pearl Harbor
- Persianate society
- Philip Bouhler
- Philippe Petain
- Phoney War
- Plínio Salgado
- Pogrom
- Poland
- Poles
- Polish corridor
- Polish Corridor
- Political prisoner
- Porajmos
- Portal Fascism
- Portal Germany
- Portal Politics
- Portugal
- Portuguese Empire
- Potsdam Conference
- Prague
- Prices
- Proletarian nation
- Propaganda
- Province of Silesia
- Prussia
- Ptolemaic Kingdom
- Puppet state
- Pērkonkrusts
- Qajar dynasty
- Qin Dynasty
- Qing Dynasty
- Quadrumvirs
- Racial purity
- Racialism
- Rainbow Five
- Rainer Zitelmann
- Rashidun Caliphate
- Rassenschande
- Red Army
- Red Shirts (Mexico)
- Refugee
- Reich
- Reich Chancellery
- Reichsbank
- Reichsführer-SS
- Reichsgau
- Reichsgau Flandern
- Reichsgau Wallonien
- Reichskommissar
- Reichskommissariat
- Reichsmark
- Reichsrat (Germany)
- Reichsstatthalter
- Reichstag fire
- Reichswehr
- Reinhard Heydrich
- Rexism
- Rhineland
- Richard C. Lukas
- Richard Grunberger
- Richard J. Evans
- Richard Overy
- Robert N. Proctor
- Roger Moorhouse
- Roland Freisler
- Roman architecture
- Roman Empire
- Roman salute
- Romani people
- Romanian Front
- Rome-Berlin Axis
- Rosenstrasse protest
- Rudolf Hess
- Rudolf Höß
- Russia
- Russian Empire
- Russians
- Saadi dynasty
- Saar (protectorate)
- Saar protectorate
- Sadao Araki
- Safavid dynasty
- Sakurakai
- Sallarid
- Samanids
- Sassanid Empire
- Scandinavia
- Scapa Flow
- Schutzstaffel
- Second French Empire
- Seleucid Empire
- Serbian Empire
- Sfarmă-Piatră
- Sic
- Siege of Leningrad
- Siegfried Line
- Signal (magazine)
- Sikh Empire
- Silesia
- Single-party state
- Slavic people
- Slavic peoples
- Slavs
- Slovakia
- Slovenia
- Social Darwinism
- Social fascism
- Social welfare
- Solomonic dynasty
- Somali people
- Sondergerichte
- Song Dynasty
- Songhai Empire
- South Tyrol
- Soviet Union
- Spain under Franco
- Spanish Civil War
- Spanish Empire
- Srivijaya
- State capitalism
- State socialism
- Stettin
- Stormfront (website)
- Strasserism
- Strength Through Joy
- Strike action
- Sturmabteilung
- Sudeten German
- Sudeten German Party
- Sudetenland
- Sui Dynasty
- Sultanate of Hobyo
- Supremacism
- Surrealism
- Swastika flag
- Sweden
- Swedish Empire
- Switzerland
- Sylt
- Synarchism
- Syncretic politics
- Synthetic rubber
- Tahirid Dynasty
- Tang Dynasty
- Template Empires
- Template Fascism
- Template Nazism
- Template talk Nazism
- Teotihuacan
- The Blitz
- The Holocaust
- Third Position
- Time (magazine)
- Timothy Snyder
- Timurid dynasty
- Torgau
- Totalitarian
- Totalitarian state
- Totalitarianism
- Traditional values
- Treaty of Versailles
- Trieste
- Tripartite Pact
- Triumph of the Will
- Triumphal arch
- Tu'i Tonga Empire
- Tunisia Campaign
- Tōhōkai
- U-boats
- Ukraine
- Ukrainians
- Umayyad Caliphate
- Untermensch
- Urban warfare
- Ustashe
- Ustaše
- Vasily Chuikov
- Veit Harlan
- Vichy
- Vichy France
- Vidkun Quisling
- Vienna
- Vihtori Kosola
- Viktor Lutze
- Vlajka
- Volk
- Volksdeutsche
- Volksgemeinschaft
- Volksgerichtshof
- Volkshalle
- Volksliste
- Volkswagen
- Völkisch movement
- Waffen-SS
- Walther Funk
- Wannsee Conference
- War crime
- War economy
- War reparations
- Warsangali Sultanate
- Wehrmacht
- Weimar Constitution
- Weimar Republic
- Werwolf
- West Prussia
- West Siberian Plain
- Western Allies
- Western Roman Empire
- Wikipedia Link rot
- Wilhelm Frick
- Wilhelm Ohnesorge
- Wilhelmshaven
- William L. Shirer
- Winter Relief
- World War II
- Wunschkonzert
- Württemberg
- Yellow badge
- Yuan Dynasty
- Yugoslavia
- Zagwe dynasty
- Zand dynasty
- ZBOR
- Ziyarid dynasty
- Zoltán Böszörmény
- Zweites Buch
- Édouard Daladier
- Šiauliai
-
Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire (/ækəˈmɛnɪˌdi/; Old Persian: Parsā, name of ruling dynasty: Haxāmanišiya) (c. 550–330 BCE), sometimes known as First Persian Empire, was an Iranian empire in Southwest Asia, founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation. It expanded to eventually rule over significant portions of the ancient world which at around 500 BCE stretched from the Indus Valley in the east, to Thrace and Macedon on the northeastern border of Greece making it the biggest empire the world had yet seen. The Achaemenid Empire would eventually control Egypt as well. It was ruled by a series of monarchs who unified its disparate tribes and nationalities by constructing a complex network of roads.
Calling themselves the Parsa after their original Aryan tribal name Parsua, Persians settled in a land which they named Parsua, bounded on the west by the Tigris River and on the south by the Persian Gulf. This became their heartland for the duration of the Achaemenid Empire. It was from this region that eventually Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II of Persia) would advance to defeat the Median, the Lydian, and the Babylonian Empires, opening the way for subsequent conquests into Egypt and Asia minor.
wn.com/Achaemenid_Empire -
Akkadian Empire
Coordinates: 33°6′N 44°6′E / 33.1°N 44.1°E / 33.1; 44.1
The Akkadian Empire (Akkadian URUAkkad KI, Hittite KUR A.GA.DÈ.KI "land of Akkad"; Biblical Hebrew אַכַּד Akkad) was an empire centered in the city of Akkad (Sumerian: Agade) and its surrounding region in Mesopotamia.
During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism.Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate).
The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests of its founder Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BC). Under Sargon and his successors, Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam. Akkad is sometimes regarded as the first empire in history, though there are earlier Sumerian claimants.[citation needed]
The precise archaeological site of the city of Akkad has not yet been found.[citation needed] The form Agade appears in Sumerian, for example in the Sumerian King List; the later Assyro-Babylonian form Akkadû ("of or belonging to Akkad") was likely derived from this. The etymology and meaning of Akkad (written a.ga.dèKI or URIKI) are unknown. Centuries later, the neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus mentioned in his archaeological records that Ishtar's worship in Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess Anunit, whose shrine was at Sippar—suggesting proximity of Sippar and Agade. Despite numerous searches, the city has never been found. One theory holds that Agade was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of the Euphrates, and was perhaps the oldest part of the city of Sippar. Another theory is that the ruins of Akkad are to be found beneath modern Baghdad. Reputedly it was destroyed by invading Gutians with the fall of the Akkadian Empire.
wn.com/Akkadian_Empire -
Alsace-Lorraine
The Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine (German: Reichsland Elsass-Lothringen) generally Elsass-Lothringen, was a territory created by the German Empire in 1871 after it annexed most of Alsace and the Moselle region of Lorraine following its victory in the Franco-Prussian War. The Alsatian part lay in the Rhine Valley on the west bank of the Rhine River and east of the Vosges Mountains. The Lorraine section was in the upper Moselle valley to the north of the Vosges Mountains.
The Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine was made up of 93% of Alsace (7% remained French) and 26% of Lorraine (74% remained French). For historical reasons, specific legal dispositions are still applied in the territory in form of a local law. In relation to its special legal status, since its reversion to France following World War I, the territory has been referred to administratively as Alsace-Moselle.
The Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine had a land area of 14,496 km2 (5,597 sq mi). Its capital was Strasbourg. It was divided in three districts (Bezirke in German):
wn.com/Alsace-Lorraine -
Altmark Incident
The Altmark Incident (Norwegian: Altmark-affæren) was a naval skirmish of World War II between the United Kingdom and Nazi Germany, which happened on 16 February 1940. It took place in what were, at that time, neutral Norwegian waters. To date, it is the last major boarding action fought by the Royal Navy.
In February 1940, the German tanker Altmark was returning to Germany with 299 British merchant sailors on board, prisoners of war who had been picked up from ships sunk by the pocket battleship Admiral Graf Spee. On its way from the southern Atlantic to Germany, Altmark passed through Norwegian waters. It was investigated three times on 15 February by the Royal Norwegian Navy. First, the tanker was boarded by officers from the torpedo boat HNoMS Trygg off Linesøy Island, then by officers from the torpedo boat HNoMS Snøgg in the Sognefjord, and finally personally by Admiral Carsten Tank-Nielsen and naval personnel from the destroyer HNoMS Garm in the Hjeltefjord. In each instance, the men who boarded the ship carried out cursory searches and took the Germans' word that the vessel was conducting purely commercial business. Following the third boarding, Altmark was escorted southwards by the torpedo boats HNoMS Skarv and HNoMS Kjell and the guard boat HNoMS Firern. The British prisoners held in the ship's hold reportedly made strenuous efforts to signal their presence, such as shouting loudly and banging on the sides of the hull, to the point where the German crew had to drown out the noise by running winches. However, the Norwegian search parties did not inspect the hold, and allowed the ship to continue on its way.
wn.com/Altmark_Incident -
Austria
Austria (
i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] (
listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: 
Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
wn.com/Austria -
Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire (German: Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling Kaisertum Österreich) was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867 to 1918) was itself dissolved by the victors at the end of World War I and broken into separate new states.
The term "Austrian Empire" is also used for the Habsburg possessions before 1804, which had no official collective name, although Austria is more frequent; the term of Austria-Hungary has also been used.[citation needed]
The Austrian Empire was founded by the Habsburg monarch Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (who became Emperor Francis I of Austria), as a state comprising his personal lands within and outside of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.
wn.com/Austrian_Empire -
Baltic states
The term Baltic states (also Baltics, Baltic nations or Baltic countries) refers to the Baltic territories which gained independence from the Russian Empire in the wake of World War I: primarily the contiguous trio of Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania (from north to south); Finland also fell within the scope of the term from the 1920s to 1939.Estonia is only considered Baltic geographically, not linguistically or culturally, as Estonians and Finns are descendants of the Baltic Finns.
The term in the indigenous languages of the Baltic states is:
The term "Baltic" stems from the name of the Baltic Sea – a hydronym dating back to the 11th century (Adam of Bremen mentioned Latin: Mare Balticum) and earlier.
The Latvian and Lithuanian term Baltija most likely originates from the Indo-European root *bhel meaning white, fair. In modern Baltic languages, namely, Lithuanian language, baltas literally means white, and in Latvian language balts means white also.
Beginning in the Middle Ages and through the present day, the Baltic Sea appears on the maps subscribed in Germanic languages as German: Ostsee, Danish: Østersøen, Dutch: Oostzee, Swedish: Östersjön, etc. In English "Ost" is "East", and in fact, the Baltic Sea mostly lies to the east for Germany, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. Clearly, part of the Baltic Sea lies to the east of Germany and Sweden, and due north of parts of Germany.
wn.com/Baltic_states -
Battle of Stalingrad
Coordinates: 48°42′N 44°31′E / 48.7°N 44.517°E / 48.7; 44.517
The Battle of Stalingrad was a major and decisive battle of World War II in which Nazi Germany and its allies fought the Soviet Union for control of the city of Stalingrad (now Volgograd) in southwestern Russia. The battle took place between 23 August 1942 to 2 February 1943 and was the largest battle on the Eastern Front, marked by brutality and disregard for military and civilian casualties. It is among the bloodiest battles in the history of warfare, with the higher estimates of combined casualties amounting to nearly two million. The heavy losses inflicted on the German army made it a significant turning point in the whole war. After the Battle of Stalingrad, German forces never recovered their earlier strength, and attained no further strategic victories in the East.
The German offensive to capture Stalingrad commenced in late summer 1942, and was supported by intensive Luftwaffe bombing which reduced much of the city to rubble. The German offensive eventually became mired in building-to-building fighting; and despite controlling nearly all of the city at times, the Wehrmacht was unable to dislodge the last Soviet defenders clinging tenaciously to the west bank of the Volga River.
wn.com/Battle_of_Stalingrad -
Bavaria
Bavaria, formally the Free State of Bavaria (German: Freistaat Bayern, pronounced [ˈfʁaɪʃtaːt ˈbaɪ.ɐn] ( listen)), is a state of Germany, located in the southeast of Germany. With an area of 70,548 square kilometres (27,200 sq mi), it is the largest state by area, forming almost 20% of the total land area of Germany. Bavaria is Germany's second most populous state (after North Rhine-Westphalia), with 12.5 million inhabitants, more than any of the three sovereign states on its borders. Bavaria's capital is Munich.
One of the oldest states of Europe, it was established as a duchy in the mid first millennium. In the 17th century, the Duke of Bavaria became a Prince-elector of the Holy Roman Empire. The Kingdom of Bavaria existed from 1806 to 1918, and Bavaria has since been a free state (republic). Modern Bavaria also includes parts of the historical regions of Franconia and Swabia.
The Bavarians emerged in a region north of the Alps, originally inhabited by the Gauls, which had been part of the Roman provinces of Raetia and Noricum. The Bavarians spoke Old High German but, unlike other Germanic groups, probably did not migrate from elsewhere. Rather, they seem to have coalesced out of other groups left behind by Roman withdrawal late in the 5th century. These peoples may have included the Celtic Boii, some remaining Romans, Marcomanni, Allemanni, Quadi, Thuringians, Goths, Scirians, Rugians, Heruli. The name "Bavarian" ("Baiuvarii") means "Men of Baia" which may indicate Bohemia, the homeland of the Celtic Boii and later of the Marcomanni. They first appear in written sources c. 520. Saint Boniface completed the people's conversion to Christianity in the early-8th century. Bavaria was, for the most part, unaffected by the Protestant Reformation.
wn.com/Bavaria -
Beer Hall Putsch
The Beer Hall Putsch (also known as the Munich Putsch,German: Hitlerputsch or German: Hitler-Ludendorff-Putsch) was a failed attempt at revolution that occurred between the evening of 8 November and the early afternoon of 9 November 1923, when Nazi Party leader Adolf Hitler, Generalquartiermeister Erich Ludendorff, and other heads of the Kampfbund unsuccessfully tried to seize power in Munich, Bavaria, Germany.
Beer halls in the early 20th century existed in most larger southern German cities, where hundreds or even thousands of people were able to gather during the evenings, drink beer and often engage in political or social debate. They were also places where political rallies could be held, a tradition still alive today. One of the largest beer halls in Munich was the "Bürgerbräukeller", where the Beer Hall Putsch was launched.
German power and prestige were destroyed in the aftermath of World War I. Like many other German nationalists, Hitler believed in the Dolchstoßlegende (Stab-in-the-back legend), which claimed that the army, "undefeated in the field," had been "stabbed in the back" by civilian leaders and Marxists back on the home front, later dubbed the November Criminals. In Munich, Hitler took part in "national thinking" courses organized by the Education and Propaganda Department of the Bavarian Reichswehr under Captain Karl Mayr. Thereafter, Captain Mayr ordered Hitler, then an Army corporal, to infiltrate the tiny Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, abbreviated DAP (German Workers Party). Hitler joined the DAP on 12 September 1919. Hitler rose to its top post in the chaotic political atmosphere of postwar Munich. By agreement, Hitler was given the political leadership of several Bavarian "patriotic associations" (revanchist) which collectively were known as the Kampfbund. With this political base, Hitler could call on about 15,000 brawlers, mostly ex-soldiers.
wn.com/Beer_Hall_Putsch -
Belarus
Belarus (i/bɛləˈruːs/ bel-ə-ROOSS; Belarusian: Беларусь, Russian pronunciation: [bʲɛlaˈrusʲ] Russian: Беларусь, Белоруссия, Belarus', Belorussiya), officially the Republic of Belarus, is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered clockwise by Russia to the northeast, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the northwest. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno (Hrodna), Gomel (Homiel), Mogilev (Mahilyow) and Vitebsk (Vitsebsk). Over forty percent of its 207,600 square kilometres (80,200 sq mi) is forested, and its strongest economic sectors are agriculture and manufacturing.
Until the 20th century, the lands of modern-day Belarus belonged to several countries, including the Principality of Polotsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution, Belarus became a founding constituent republic of the Soviet Union and was renamed as the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (BSSR). The borders of Belarus took their modern shape in 1939 when some lands of the Second Polish Republic were incorporated into it after the Soviet invasion of Poland. The nation and its territory were devastated in World War II, during which Belarus lost about a third of its population and more than half of its economic resources. The republic was redeveloped in the post-war years. In 1945 the Belorussian SSR became a founding member of the United Nations, along with the Soviet Union and the Ukrainian SSR.
wn.com/Belarus -
Belgium
Belgium (i/ˈbɛldʒəm/ BEL-jəm), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO. Belgium covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi), and it has a population of about 11 million people. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Latin Europe, Belgium is home to two main linguistic groups, the Dutch-speakers, mostly Flemish (about 60%), and the French-speakers, mostly Walloons (about 40%), plus a small group of German-speakers. Belgium's two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region, officially bilingual, is a mostly French-speaking enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia. Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in the political history and a complex system of government.
wn.com/Belgium -
Berghof (residence)
The Berghof was Adolf Hitler's home in the Obersalzberg of the Bavarian Alps near Berchtesgaden, Bavaria, Germany. Other than the Wolfsschanze in East Prussia, Hitler spent more time at the Berghof than anywhere else during World War II. It was also one of the most widely known of his headquarters, which were located throughout Europe.
Rebuilt, much expanded and renamed in 1935, the Berghof was Hitler's vacation residence for ten years. In late April 1945 the house was damaged by British aerial bombs, set on fire by retreating SS troops in early May, and looted after Allied troops reached the area. The burnt out shell was demolished by the West German government in 1952.
The Berghof began as a much smaller chalet called Haus Wachenfeld, a holiday home built in 1916 by Otto Winter, a businessman from Buxtehude. Winter's widow rented the house to Hitler in 1928 and his half-sister Angela came to live there as housekeeper, although she left soon after her daughter Geli's 1931 death in Hitler's Munich apartment. By 1933 Hitler had purchased Haus Wachenfeld with funds he received from the sale of his political manifesto Mein Kampf.
wn.com/Berghof_(residence) -
Berlin
Berlin ( /bɜrˈlɪn/; German pronunciation: [bɛɐ̯ˈliːn] ( listen)) is the capital city of Germany and one of the 16 states of Germany. With a population of 3.5 million people, Berlin is Germany's largest city and is the second most populous city proper and the eighth most populous urban area in the European Union. Located in northeastern Germany, it is the center of the Berlin-Brandenburg Metropolitan Region, which has 5.9 million residents from over 190 nations. Located in the European Plains, Berlin is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. Around one third of the city's area is composed of forests, parks, gardens, rivers and lakes.
First documented in the 13th century, Berlin was the capital of the Kingdom of Prussia (1701–1918), the German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1919–1933) and the Third Reich (1933–1945).Berlin in the 1920s was the third largest municipality in the world. After World War II, the city became divided into East Berlin—the capital of East Germany—and West Berlin, a West German exclave surrounded by the Berlin Wall (1961–1989). Following German reunification in 1990, the city regained its status as the capital of Germany, hosting 147 foreign embassies.
wn.com/Berlin -
British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time, and covered more than 33,700,000 km2 (13,012,000 sq mi), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous territories.
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain) the dominant colonial power in North America and India. The loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after a war of independence deprived Britain of some of its oldest and most populous colonies.
wn.com/British_Empire -
Buchenwald
Coordinates: 51°01′20″N 11°14′53″E / 51.02222°N 11.24806°E / 51.02222; 11.24806
Buchenwald concentration camp (German: Konzentrationslager (KZ) Buchenwald, IPA: [ˈbuːxənvalt]) was a German Nazi concentration camp established on the Ettersberg (Etter Mountain) near Weimar, Germany, in July 1937, one of the first and the largest of the concentration camps on German soil.
Camp prisoners from all over Europe and Russia—Jews, non-Jewish Poles and Slovenes, religious and political prisoners, Roma and Sinti, Freemasons, Jehovah's Witnesses, criminals, homosexuals, and prisoners of war— worked primarily as forced labor in local armament factories. From 1945 to 1950, the camp was used by the Soviet occupation authorities as an internment camp, known as NKVD special camp number 2.
In 1937, the Nazis constructed Buchenwald concentration camp, near Weimar, Germany. Embedded in the camp's main entrance gate is the slogan Jedem das Seine (literally "to each his own", but figuratively "everyone gets what he deserves”). The camp was operational until its liberation in 1945. Between 1945 and 1950 the former camp was used by the Soviet Union as an NKVD special camp for Nazis. On 6 January 1950, the Soviets handed over Buchenwald to the East German Ministry of Internal Affairs.
wn.com/Buchenwald -
Caucasus
The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia (for endonyms, see below), is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, which contain Europe's highest mountain, Mt. Elbrus. Politically, the Caucasus region is separated between northern and southern parts.
The northern portion of the Caucasus is known as the Ciscaucasus and the southern portion as the Transcaucasus.
The Ciscaucasus contains the larger majority of the Greater Caucasus Mountain range, also known as the Major Caucasus mountains. It includes Southwestern Russia and northern parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan.
The Transcaucasus is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by the Black Sea and Turkey, on the east by the Caspian Sea, and on the south by Iran. It includes the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding lowlands. All of Armenia, Azerbaijan (excluding the northern parts) and Georgia (excluding the northern parts) are in South Caucasus.
wn.com/Caucasus -
Central Norway
Central Norway (Norwegian: Midt-Norge (bokmål); Midt-Noreg (nynorsk)) is an administrative division that includes the counties of Nord-Trøndelag, Sør-Trøndelag and Møre og Romsdal and is used by, for example, the Regional Health Authorities and the Norwegian Public Roads Administration. Compared to the traditional regions of Norway it covers all of Trøndelag and some of Vestlandet. It has a total population of just over 650,000 people, with the Trondheim metropolitan region accounting for roughly 260,000.
There has been some political movement towards replacing the counties with larger regions. It is then expected that much of Central Norway, at least Trøndelag and Nordmøre, will form one such region due to the historical, cultural and linguistic ties.
Coordinates: 63°29′23″N 9°50′38″E / 63.48972°N 9.84389°E / 63.48972; 9.84389
wn.com/Central_Norway -
Croatia
Croatia (i/kroʊˈeɪʃə/ kroh-AY-shə; Croatian: Hrvatska pronounced [xř̩ʋaːtskaː]), officially the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska listen (help·info)), is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of Central Europe, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles) and has diverse, mostly continental and Mediterranean climates. Croatia's Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The country's population is 4.29 million, most of whom are Croats, with the most common religious denomination being Roman Catholicism.
In the early 7th century the Croats arrived in area of present-day Croatia. They organised the state into two dukedoms by the 9th century. Tomislav became the first king by 925 AD, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Peter Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir. Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs that declared independence from Austria–Hungary and co-founded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. A Croatian state briefly existed during World War II as a fascist puppet state. After the war, Croatia became a founding member and a federal constituent of the Second Yugoslavia, a socialist state. In June 1991, Croatia declared independence, which came into effect on 8 October of the same year. The Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration.
wn.com/Croatia -
Czech Republic
The Czech Republic (i/ˈtʃɛk/ CHEK;Czech: Česká republika, pronounced [ˈtʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka] ( listen), short form Česko Czech pronunciation: [ˈtʃɛskɔ]) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Poland to the north, Germany to the west, Austria to the south and Slovakia to the east. Its capital and largest city, with 1.3 million inhabitants, is Prague.
It is a pluralist multi-party parliamentary representative democracy, a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the OSCE, the Council of Europe and the Visegrád Group.
The Czech state, formerly known as Bohemia, was formed in the late 9th century as a small duchy around Prague, at that time under dominance of the powerful Great Moravian Empire (which reached its greatest territorial extent during the reign of Svatopluk I from the House of Mojmír). After the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power was transferred from Moravia to Bohemia, under the Přemyslids. During the rule of Přemyslid dukes/kings and their successors, the Luxembourgs, the country reached its greatest territorial extent (13th–14th century). Life in the country was significantly affected by the Hussite wars, during which it faced economic embargo and crusades from all over Europe. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg monarchy as one of its three principal parts alongside the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Bohemian Revolt (1618–20) led to the further centralization of the monarchy including forced recatholization and Germanization. During radical reforms in the 18th century the Bohemian Crown was even de facto abolished (1749). In the 19th century the Czech lands became the industrial powerhouse of the monarchy and the core of the Republic of Czechoslovakia which was formed in 1918, following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire after World War I.
wn.com/Czech_Republic -
Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia (Czech and Slovak: Československo, Česko-Slovensko) was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992. From 1939 to 1945, the state did not de facto exist because of its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, but the Czechoslovak government-in-exile nevertheless continued to exist during this period. In 1945, the eastern part of Carpathian Ruthenia was taken over by the Soviet Union. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Form of state:
Neighbours:
Topography:
The country was of generally irregular terrain. The western area was part of north-central European uplands. The eastern region was composed of northern reaches of Carpathian Mountains and Danube River basin lands.
Climate:
The weather was predominantly continental, but varied from the moderate temperature of Western Europe in the west, to more severe weather of Eastern Europe and the western Soviet Union in the east.
wn.com/Czechoslovakia -
Danzig
Gdańsk ( /ɡəˈdænsk/ or /ɡəˈdɑːnsk/; Polish: [ˈɡdaɲsk]; German: Danzig, pronounced [ˈdantsɪç]) is a Polish city on the Baltic coast, at the center of the country's fourth-largest metropolitan area.
The city lies on the southern edge of Gdańsk Bay (of the Baltic Sea), in a conurbation with the city of Gdynia, spa town of Sopot, and suburban communities, which together form a metropolitan area called the Tricity (Trójmiasto), with a population of over 800,000. Gdańsk itself has a population of 455,830 (June 2010), making it the largest city in the Pomerania region of Northern Poland.
Gdańsk is Poland's principal seaport as well as the capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship. It is also historically the largest city of the Kashubian region. The city is close to the former late medieval/modern boundary between West Slavic and Germanic lands and it has a complex political history with periods of Polish rule, periods of German rule, and extensive self-rule, with two spells as a free city. It has been part of modern Poland since 1945.
wn.com/Danzig -
East Prussia
East Prussia (German: Ostpreußen, pronounced [ˈɔstˌpʁɔʏsən] ( listen); Polish: Prusy Wschodnie; Lithuanian: Rytų Prūsija or Rytprūsiai; Russian: Восточная Пруссия or Vostochnaya Prussiya; Latin: Borussia orientalis) was the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast from the 13th century to the end of World War II in May 1945. From 1772–1829 and 1878–1945, the Province of East Prussia was part of the German state of Prussia. The capital city was Königsberg.
East Prussia enclosed the bulk of the ancestral lands of the Baltic Old Prussians. During the 13th century, the native Prussians were conquered by the crusading Teutonic Knights. The indigenous Balts who survived the conquest were gradually converted to Christianity. Because of Germanization and colonisation over the following centuries, Germans became the dominant ethnic group, while Poles and Lithuanians formed minorities. From the 13th century, East Prussia was part of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights, which became the Duchy of Prussia in 1525. The Old Prussian language had become extinct by the 17th or early 18th century.
wn.com/East_Prussia -
Einsatzgruppen
Einsatzgruppen (German: "task forces"; singular Einsatzgruppe; official full name Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD) were SS paramilitary death squads that were responsible for mass killings, typically by shooting, of Jews in particular, but also significant numbers of other population groups and political categories. The Einsatzgruppen operated throughout the territory occupied by the German armed forces following the German invasions of Poland, in September, 1939, and later, of the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941. The Einsatzgruppen carried out operations ranging from the murder of a few people to operations which lasted over two or more days, such as the massacres at Babi Yar (33,771 killed in two days) and Rumbula (25,000 killed in two days). The Einsatzgruppen were responsible for the murders of over 1,000,000 people, and they were the first Nazi organizations to commence mass killing of Jews as an organized policy.
The Einsatzgruppen were formed under the direction of SS-Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich (deputy to Heinrich Himmler) and operated by the Schutzstaffel (SS) before and during World War II. From September 1939 forward the SS-Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA - Reich Main Security Office) had overall command of the Einsatzgruppen. Their principal task during the war (according to SS General Erich von dem Bach at the Nuremberg Trials) "... was the annihilation of the Jews, Gypsies, and Soviet political commissars". The Einsatzgruppen had a leading role in the implementation of the final solution of the Jewish question (Die Endlösung der Judenfrage) in the conquered territories.
wn.com/Einsatzgruppen -
Empire of Brazil
The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories which form modern Brazil. Its government was a representative parliamentary constitutional monarchy under the rule of Emperors Dom Pedro I and his son Dom Pedro II, both members of the House of Braganza—a branch of the Capetian dynasty. A colony of the Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil became the seat of the Portuguese colonial Empire in 1808, when the Portuguese Prince regent, later King Dom João VI (John VI), fled from Napoleon I's invasion of Portugal and established himself and his government in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro. João VI later returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son and heir, Pedro, to rule Brazil as regent.
wn.com/Empire_of_Brazil -
France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
wn.com/France -
Free City of Danzig
The Free City of Danzig (German: Freie Stadt Danzig; Polish: Wolne Miasto Gdańsk) was a semi-autonomous city-state that existed between 1920 and 1939, consisting of the Baltic Sea port of Danzig (today Gdańsk) and surrounding areas.
The Free City was created on 15 November 1920 in accordance with the terms of Part III, Section XI of the Treaty of Versailles of 1919 without a referendum. The Free City included the city of Danzig and over two hundred nearby towns, villages, and settlements. As the League of Nations decreed, the region was to remain separated from the nation of Germany, and from the newly resurrected nation of Poland. The Free City was not an independent state; it was under League of Nations protection and put into a binding customs union with Poland. Poland also had special utilization rights towards the city. The Free City was created in order to give Poland sufficient access to the sea, while at the same time recognizing that its population was mainly German.
In 1933, the City's government was taken over by the local Nazi Party and the democratic opposition was suppressed. After the German invasion of Poland in 1939, the Free City was abolished and incorporated into the newly formed Reichsgau of Danzig-West Prussia. Widespread anti-Semitic and anti-Polish discrimination and organized murder followed.
wn.com/Free_City_of_Danzig -
Führerbunker
The Führerbunker (German: "Führer's bunker") was an air-raid shelter located near the Reich Chancellery in Berlin, Germany. It was part of a subterranean bunker complex which was constructed in two major phases, one part in 1936 and the other in 1943. It was the last of the Führer Headquarters (Führerhauptquartiere) to be used by the Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler.
Hitler took up residence in the Führerbunker on 16 January 1945 and it became the epicentre of the Nazi regime until the last week of World War II. Hitler married Eva Braun here during the last week of April 1945, shortly before they committed suicide.
The ruins of both the old and new Chancellery buildings were levelled by the Soviets between 1945 and 1949, but the bunker largely survived, although some areas were partially flooded. Apart from one unsuccessful attempt in 1959 by the government of East Germany to blow it up, the underground complex remained largely undisturbed until after the reunification of Germany. During the reconstruction of that area of Berlin after reunification, those sections of the complex that were excavated were for the most part destroyed.
wn.com/Führerbunker -
General Government
The General Government (German: Generalgouvernement, Polish: Generalne Gubernatorstwo, Ukrainian: Генеральна губернія) was an area of Second Republic of Poland under Nazi German rule during World War II; designated as a separate region of the Third Reich (Großdeutsches Reich) between 1939–1945. Following Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, the former Polish eastern voivodeships (districts) of Kresy (earlier invaded by the Red Army in Nazi–Soviet pact) were added to the General Government by a decree issued by Adolf Hitler.
In terms of international and civil law, all of these acts were illegal from their inception, according to section III of the Fourth Hague Convention (1907) accepted by Germany. The area was not a puppet state; its rulers had no goal of collaborating with Poles throughout the war, regardless of their political orientation. The Nazi authorities made a determined effort to avoid even mentioning the name "Poland" in government correspondence. The only exception to this were the German-backed banknotes and coins (called 'zloty' and 'grosz') printed in 1940 in which the word was used for propaganda purposes. The government and administration of the General Government was composed entirely of Germans, with the intent that the area was eventually to become an ethnic German province. According to Heim ins Reich initiative the only locals remaining were to be those of German descent.
wn.com/General_Government -
German Empire
The German Empire (German: Deutsches Kaiserreich) is the common name given to the state officially named the Deutsches Reich (literally: "German Realm"), designating Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.
The German Empire consisted of 27 constituent territories (most of them ruled by royal families). While the Kingdom of Prussia contained most of the population and most of the territory of the Reich; the Prussian leadership became supplanted by German leaders and Prussia itself played a lesser role. As Dwyer (2005) points out, Prussia's "political and cultural influence had diminished considerably" by the 1890s. Its three largest neighbors were rivals Imperial Russia to the east and France to the west and ally Austria-Hungary to the south.
After 1850, Germany industrialized rapidly, with a foundation in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals and railways. From a population of 41 million people in 1871, it grew to 68 million in 1913. From a heavily rural nation in 1815, it was now predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological and scientific giant, receiving more Nobel Prizes in science than Britain, France, Russia and the United States combined.
wn.com/German_Empire -
Germany
Germany (i/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
wn.com/Germany -
Gestapo
The Gestapo (German pronunciation: [ɡeˈstaːpo, ɡəˈʃtaːpo] ( listen); abbreviation of Geheime Staatspolizei, "Secret State Police") was the official secret police of Nazi Germany. Beginning on 20 April 1934, it was under the administration of the SS leader Heinrich Himmler in his position as Chief of German Police (Chef der Deutschen Polizei). From September 1939 forward it was administered by the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA) ("Reich Main Security Office") and was considered a sister organization of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) ("Security Service") and also a suboffice of the Sicherheitspolizei (SiPo) ("Security Police").
As part of the deal in which Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, Hermann Göring—future commander of the Luftwaffe and an influential Nazi Party official—was named Interior Minister of Prussia. This gave him command of the largest police force in Germany. Soon afterward, Göring detached the political and intelligence sections from the police and filled their ranks with Nazis. On 26 April 1933, Göring merged the two units as the Gestapo. He originally wanted to name it the Secret Police Office (German: Geheimes Polizeiamt), but discovered the German initials "GPA" would be too similar to the Soviet GPU.
wn.com/Gestapo -
Gurjara-Pratihara
The Gurjara Pratihara (Sanskrit: गुर्जर प्रतिहार, Gurjara Pratihâra), often simply called Pratihara Empire, was an imperial Indian dynasty that ruled much of Northern India from the 6th to the 11th centuries. At its peak of prosperity and power (c. 836–910), the Gurajara-Pratihara Empire rivaled or even exceeded the Gupta Empire in the extent of its territory.
Kannauj was the capital of imperial Gurjara Pratiharas. The Gurjara Pratihara rulers in the tenth century was entitled as Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta (i.e. Lords of Northern India).
The word "Pratihara" means protector or "who takes over the enemy/opponent" and was used by the Gurjara-Pratihara rulers as self-designation.It is derived mainly from buddhist term "Pratiharya" wich is quoted in many buddhist sutra, as title awarded to them for defending the vedic realm of Aryavarta . The Pratihara rulers claim descent from the Hindu mythological character Lakshmana, who had performed the duty of a gaurdian ("pratihara") for his elder brother Rama. They were thus Suryavansh dynasty according to traditional Indology.
wn.com/Gurjara-Pratihara -
Hamburg
Hamburg ( /ˈhæmbɜrɡ/; German pronunciation: [ˈhambʊɐ̯k], local pronunciation [ˈhambʊɪç]; Low German/Low Saxon: Hamborg [ˈhaˑmbɔːx]), officially Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg, is the second-largest city in Germany, the thirteenth largest German state, and the sixth-largest city in the European Union. The city is home to over 1.8 million people, while the Hamburg Metropolitan Region (including parts of the neighbouring Federal States of Lower Saxony and Schleswig-Holstein) has more than 4.3 million inhabitants. Situated on the river Elbe, the port of Hamburg is the second largest port in Europe (after the Port of Rotterdam) and 11th-largest worldwide.
Hamburg's official name, Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (German: Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg), reflects Hamburg's history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, as a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, and that Hamburg is a city-state and one of the sixteen States of Germany.
Hamburg is a major transport hub in Northern Germany and is one of the most affluent cities in Europe. It has become a media and industrial centre, with plants and facilities belonging to Airbus, Blohm + Voss and Aurubis. The radio and television broadcaster Norddeutscher Rundfunk and publishers such as Gruner + Jahr and Spiegel-Verlag are pillars of the important media industry in Hamburg. In total, there are more than 120,000 enterprises.
wn.com/Hamburg -
Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty (simplified Chinese: 汉朝; traditional Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàn Cháo; Wade–Giles: Han Ch'ao; IPA: [xân tʂʰɑ̌ʊ̯]) (206 BCE – 220 CE) was an imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220–280 CE). It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty (9–23 CE) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han into two periods: the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the "Han people" and Chinese characters are referred to as "Han characters".
wn.com/Han_Dynasty -
HMS Hood (51)
HMS Hood (pennant number 51) was the last battlecruiser built for the Royal Navy. Commissioned in 1920, she was named after the 18th-century Admiral Samuel Hood. Hood operated in World War II and was sunk by the German battleship Bismarck in 1941.
One of four Admiral-class battlecruisers ordered in mid-1916, her design—although drastically revised after the Battle of Jutland and improved while she was under construction—still had serious limitations. For this reason she was the only ship of her class to be completed. Hood was involved in a number of showing the flag exercises between her commissioning in 1920 and the outbreak of war in 1939, including training exercises in the Mediterranean Sea and a circumnavigation of the globe with the Special Service Squadron in 1923 and 1924. She was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet following the outbreak of the Second Italo-Abyssinian War. When the Spanish Civil War broke out, Hood was officially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet until she had to return to England in 1939 for an overhaul. At this point in her service, Hood's usefulness had deteriorated because of advances in naval gunnery. She was scheduled to undergo a major rebuild in 1941 to correct these issues, but the outbreak of World War II forced the ship into service without the upgrades.
wn.com/HMS_Hood_(51) -
Hotel Adlon
Hotel Adlon is a hotel on Unter den Linden, the main boulevard in the Berlin city centre, directly opposite the Brandenburg Gate.
The first Hotel Adlon was built in 1907 by Lorenz Adlon, a successful Berlin wine merchant and restaurateur. Adlon wanted to build his hotel on the Pariser Platz, at the heart of Berlin. He had Kaiser Wilhelm II personally intercede with the owners of the Palais Redern, a landmark designed by Karl Friedrich Schinkel, which sat at Adlon's chosen location. The Kaiser cleared the way for Adlon's purchase of the Palais and its demolition.
The Adlon was one of the most famous hotels in Europe between the two World Wars and hosted celebrities including Louise Brooks, Charlie Chaplin, Herbert Hoover, Josephine Baker and Marlene Dietrich. It was also a favorite hangout of journalists, located in the heart of the government quarter next to the British Embassy, on the same square as the French and American Embassies and only blocks from the Chancellery and other government ministries.
wn.com/Hotel_Adlon -
Idrisid dynasty
The Idrisids (Arabic: الأدارسة al-Idārisah, Berber: Idrisiyen) were a Zaydi-Shia dynasty of Morocco, ruling from 788 to 985. It was named after its founder Idriss I, the great grandchild of Hasan ibn Ali. Idrisids are traditionally regarded as the founders of the Moroccan state.
The founder of the dynasty was Idris ibn Abdallah (788–791), who traced his ancestry back to Ali ibn Abi Talib and his wife Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. After the battle of Fakh, near Mecca, between the Abbasids and a Shiite party, he fled to the Maghreb. He first arrived in Tangier, at that time the most important city of Morocco, and by 788 he had settled in Volubilis.
wn.com/Idrisid_dynasty -
Istria
Istria (Croatian, Slovene: Istra, Čakavian: Istrija, Jistra, Croatian pronunciation: [îstra]; Italian: Istria; Istriot: Eîstria; German: Istrien; Hungarian: Isztria), formerly Histria (Latin), is the largest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea. The peninsula is located at the head of the Adriatic between the Gulf of Trieste and the Bay of Kvarner. It is shared by three countries: Croatia, Slovenia, and Italy.
The geographical features of Istria include the Učka mountain ridge, which is the highest portion of the Ćićarija mountain range; the rivers Dragonja, Mirna, Pazinčica, and Raša; and the Lim bay and valley. Istria lies in three countries: Croatia, Slovenia and Italy. By far the largest portion (89%) lies in Croatia. "Croatian Istria" is divided into two counties, the larger being Istria County in western Croatia. Important towns in Istria County include Pula, Poreč, Rovinj, Pazin, Labin, Umag, Motovun, Buzet, and Buje. Smaller towns in Istria County include Višnjan, Roč, and Hum.
The northwestern part of Istria lies in Slovenia: it is known as Slovenian Istria, and includes the coastal municipalities of Piran, Izola and Koper, and the Karstic municipality of Hrpelje-Kozina. Northwards of Slovenian Istria, there is a tiny portion of the peninsula that lies in Italy. This smallest portion of Istria consists of the comunes of Muggia and San Dorligo della Valle.
wn.com/Istria -
Italian Empire
The Italian Empire (Italian: Impero Italiano) was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the "scramble for Africa". Modern Italy as a unified state only existed from 1861. By this time France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Netherlands, had already carved out large empires over several hundred years. One of the last remaining areas open to colonisation was on the African continent.
By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy had annexed Eritrea and Somalia, and had wrested control of portions of the Ottoman Empire, including Libya, though it was defeated in its attempt to conquer Ethiopia. The Fascist government under Italian dictator Benito Mussolini which came to power in 1922 sought to increase the size of the empire further. Ethiopia was successfully taken, four decades after the previous failure, and Italy's European borders were expanded. An official "Italian Empire" was proclaimed on 9 May 1936 following the conquest of Ethiopia. Italy sided with Nazi Germany during World War II and initially enjoyed successes. However, Allied forces eventually captured Italian overseas colonies and by the time Italy itself was invaded in 1943, its empire had all but ceased to exist.
wn.com/Italian_Empire -
Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
wn.com/Italy -
Kaliningrad Oblast
Kaliningrad Oblast (Russian: Калинингра́дская о́бласть, Kaliningradskaya oblast) is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast) situated on the Baltic coast. It has a population of 941,873 (2010 Census).
The oblast forms the westernmost part of Russia, but it has no land connection to the rest of the country. Since its creation it has been an exclave of the Russian SFSR and then of the Russian Federation. The fall of the Soviet Union left it isolated from the "mainland". It is surrounded by Lithuania, Poland, and the Baltic Sea. Borderless travel to the main part of Russia is only possible by sea or air. This political isolation became more pronounced when Lithuania and Poland both became members of the European Union and NATO, and entered the Schengen Zone, which means that the oblast is surrounded by the territories of these organizations as well.
The oblast's largest city and the administrative center is Kaliningrad (formerly known as Königsberg), which has historical significance as both a major city of the historical state of Prussia and the capital of the former German province of East Prussia, partitioned after World War II between the USSR and Poland, and renamed after the Soviet Head of State Mikhail Kalinin.
wn.com/Kaliningrad_Oblast -
Kingdom of Aksum
The Kingdom of Aksum or Axum, also known as the Aksumite Empire and Abyssinia, was an important trading nation in northeastern Africa, existing from approximately 100–940 AD. It grew from the proto-Aksumite Iron Age period ca. 4th century BC to achieve prominence by the 1st century AD, and was a major player in the commerce between the Roman Empire and Ancient India. The Aksumite rulers facilitated trade by minting their own currency, the state established its hegemony over the declining Kingdom of Kush and regularly entered the politics of the kingdoms on the Arabian peninsula, eventually extending its rule over the region with the conquest of the Himyarite Kingdom.
Under Ezana (fl 320–360), Aksum became the first major empire to convert to Christianity, and was named by Mani (216–276) as one of the four great powers of his time along with Persia, Rome, and China. In the 7th century the Muslims, who originated in Mecca, sought refuge from Quraysh persecution by travelling to Aksum (Abyssinia), a journey famous in Islamic history as the First Hijra. Aksum's ancient capital is found in northern Ethiopia. The Kingdom used the name "Ethiopia" as early as the 4th century. It is also the alleged resting place of the Ark of the Covenant and the purported home of the Queen of Sheba.[citation needed].
wn.com/Kingdom_of_Aksum -
Korean Empire
The Korean Empire (Hangul: 대한제국; Hanja: 大韓帝國; Daehan Jeguk; literally Great Korean Empire) is the name of the state of Korea that existed from the Proclamation of the Korean Empire in October 1897 to the Annexation of Korea by Japan on August 20, 1910. It succeeded the Joseon Dynasty.
In October 1897, Emperor Gojong proclaimed the new entity at Gyeongungung Palace and oversaw the partially successful modernization of the military, economy, land system, education system, and various industries. Japan became terrified by the speed of the modernisation the Korean Empire was having and decided to speed up its plans for annexation. This was further speeded by the assassination of Ito Hirobumi. On August 22, 1910, Korea was annexed by Imperial Japan, which defeated the Russian Empire in 1905.
The Sino-Japanese War marked the rapid decline of any power the Joseon Dynasty of Korea had managed to hold against foreign interference, as the battles of the conflict itself had been fought on Korean soil and the surrounding seas. With its newfound preeminence over the waning and weak Qing Dynasty, Japan had delegates negotiate the Treaty of Shimonoseki with the Qing emissaries, through which Japan wrested control over the Liaodong Peninsula from the Qing (a move designed to prevent the southern expansion of Japan's new rival, Russia), and, more importantly over Korea. However, Russia recognized this agreement as an act against its interests in northeastern China and eventually brought France and Germany to its side in saying that the Liaodong Peninsula should be repatriated to the Qing China.
wn.com/Korean_Empire -
Lithuania
Lithuania (i/ˌlɪθuːˈeɪniə/ or /ˌlɪθjuːˈeɪniə/; Lithuanian: Lietuva), officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Respublika) is a country in Northern Europe, the largest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark. It borders Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and a Russian exclave (Kaliningrad Oblast) to the southwest. Lithuania has an estimated population of 3.2 million as of 2011, and its capital and largest city is Vilnius. The Lithuanians are a Baltic people, and the official language, Lithuanian, is one of only two living languages (together with Latvian) in the Baltic branch of the Indo-European language family.
For centuries, the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea was inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s the Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, who was crowned as King of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the first Lithuanian state, on 6 July 1253. During the 14th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the largest country in Europe: present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia were territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. With the Lublin Union of 1569, Lithuania and Poland formed a voluntary two-state union, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighboring countries systematically dismantled it from 1772 to 1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory.
wn.com/Lithuania -
Luxembourg
Luxembourg (i/ˈlʌksəmbɜrɡ/ LUKS-əm-burg), officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Luxembourgish: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg, French: Grand-Duché de Luxembourg, German: Großherzogtum Luxemburg, Dutch: Groothertogdom Luxemburg), is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland ("good country") in the south. Luxembourg has a population of over half a million people in an area of approximately 2,586 square kilometres (998 sq mi). A representative democracy with a constitutional monarch, it is ruled by a grand duke. It is now the world's only remaining sovereign grand duchy. The country has a highly developed economy, with the world's highest GDP (nominal) per capita according to the IMF. Its historic and strategic importance dates back to its founding as a Roman era fortress site and Frankish count's castle site in the Early Middle Ages. It was an important bastion along the Spanish Road when Spain was the principal European power influencing the whole western hemisphere and beyond in the 16th–17th centuries.
wn.com/Luxembourg -
Medes
The Medes (/midz/) (from Old Persian Māda-) were an ancient Iranian people who lived in Iran in an area known as Media and spoke a northwestern Iranian language referred to as the Median language. Their arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of Iranian tribes in the late second millennium BCE (the Bronze Age collapse) through the beginning of the first millennium BCE.
In the 7th century BCE a unified Median state was formed which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. An alliance with the Babylonians helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BCE which resulted in the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal centre) beyond their original homeland (central-western Iran) and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Halys River in Anatolia. The Median kingdom was conquered in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great who established the next Iranian dynasty—the Achaemenid Empire.
wn.com/Medes -
Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China for 276 years (1368–1644) following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, described by some as "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic Han Chinese. Although the Ming capital Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng (who established the Shun Dynasty, soon replaced by the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty), regimes loyal to the Ming throne—collectively called the Southern Ming—survived until 1662.
Ming rule saw the construction of a vast navy and a standing army of one million troops. Although private maritime trade and official tribute missions from China had taken place in previous dynasties, the tributary fleet under the Muslim eunuch admiral Zheng He in the 15th century far surpassed all others in size. There were enormous construction projects, including the restoration of the Grand Canal and the Great Wall and the establishment of the Forbidden City in Beijing during the first quarter of the 15th century. Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200 million.
wn.com/Ming_Dynasty -
Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire, Shahan-e-Gurkhani, Shahan-e-Mughal, Sultanate-e-Mughliya, Daulat-e-Mughliya (Persian: شاهان گورکانی Shāhān-e Gūrkānī; Urdu: مغلیہ سلطنت; self-designation: گوركانى Gūrkānī ), or Mogul (also Moghul) Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were direct descendants of Genghis Khan through Chagatai Khan and Timur. The Mughal Empire began in 1526; at the height of their power in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, they controlled most of the Indian Subcontinent—extending from Bengal in the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south. According to "Babur-Nama", Kazakh tribal aristocracy along with number of other Turkic soldiers participated actively in the campaign of Babur, which made great influence over the development of Mughal Empire. Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million, over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles).
wn.com/Mughal_Empire -
Nazi Germany
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..." Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
wn.com/Nazi_Germany -
Neo-Assyrian Empire
The Neo-Assyrian Empire was an empire in Mesopotamian history which began in 934 BC and ended in 605 BC. During this period, Assyria assumed a position as the most powerful nation on earth, successfully eclipsing Babylonia, Egypt, Urartu/Armenia and Elam for dominance of the Near East, Asia Minor, Caucasus, North Africa and east Mediterranean, though not until the reforms of Tiglath-Pileser III in the 8th century BC did it become a vast empire. Assyria was originally an Akkadian kingdom which evolved in the 25th to 24th Centuries BC. The earliest Assyrian kings such as Tudiya were relatively minor rulers, and after the founding of the Akkadian Empire, which lasted from 2334 BC to 2154 BC, these kings became subject to Sargon of Akkad, who united all the Akkadian and Sumerian speaking peoples of Mesopotamia under one rule.
wn.com/Neo-Assyrian_Empire -
Netherlands
The Netherlands (
i/ˈnɛðərləndz/; Dutch: Nederland [ˈneːdə(r)lɑnt] or [ˈneɪ̯də(r)lɑnt] (
listen); West Frisian: Nederlân; Papiamento: Hulanda) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with some islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders with Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom. It is a parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. The country capital is Amsterdam and the seat of government is The Hague. The Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to as Holland, although North and South Holland are actually only two of its twelve provinces (a case of pars pro toto; see terminology of "the Netherlands").
wn.com/Netherlands -
North Norway
Northern Norway (Norwegian: Nord-Norge (Bokmål) or Nord-Noreg (Nynorsk), North Sámi: Davvi-Norga) is the geographical region of Norway, consisting of the three northernmost counties Nordland, Troms and Finnmark, in total about 35% of the Norwegian mainland. Some of the largest towns in Northern Norway (from south to north) are Mo i Rana, Bodø, Narvik, Harstad, Tromsø and Alta. Northern Norway is often described as the land of the midnight sun and the land of the northern lights. Further north, halfway to the North Pole, is the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, traditionally not regarded as part of Northern Norway.
The region is multi-cultural, housing not just Norwegians but also the indigenous Sami people, the Norwegian Finns (known as Kvens) and Russian populations (mostly in Kirkenes). The Norwegian language dominates in most of the area; Sami speakers are mainly found inland and in some of the fjord areas of Nordland, Troms and particularly Finnmark – though ethnic Sámi who do not speak the language are found more or less everywhere in the region. Finnish is spoken in only a few communities in the east of Finnmark.
wn.com/North_Norway -
Norway
Norwayi/ˈnɔrweɪ/ (Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and the subantarctic Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of about 5 million. It is the second least densely populated country in Europe. The majority of the country shares a border to the east with Sweden; its northernmost region is bordered by Finland to the south and Russia to the east; in its south Norway borders the Skagerrak Strait across from Denmark. The capital city of Norway is Oslo. Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords.
wn.com/Norway -
Nuremberg Trials
Coordinates: 49°27.2603′N 11°02.9103′E / 49.4543383°N 11.048505°E / 49.4543383; 11.048505 The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals, held by the victorious Allied forces of World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of the defeated Nazi Germany. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany, in 1945–46, at the Palace of Justice. The first and best known of these trials was the Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT), which tried 25 of the most important captured leaders of the Third Reich, though several key architects of the war (such as Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels) had committed suicide before the trials began.
The initial trials were held from November 20, 1945 to October 1, 1946. The second set of trials of lesser war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at the US Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT); among them included the Doctors' Trial and the Judges' Trial. This article primarily deals with the IMT; see the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials for details on those trials.
wn.com/Nuremberg_Trials -
Oder-Neisse line
The Oder–Neisse line (Polish: granica na Odrze i Nysie Łużyckiej, German: Oder-Neiße-Grenze) is the border between Germany and Poland which was drawn in the aftermath of World War II. The line is formed primarily by the Oder and Lusatian Neisse rivers, and meets the Baltic Sea west of the seaport cities of Szczecin (German: Stettin) and Świnoujście (Swinemünde). All pre-war German territory east of the line (23.8% of the former Weimar Republic lands, most of them from Prussia) was awarded either to Poland or the Soviet Union after the war, and the vast majority of its native German population was killed, fled or was expelled by force. The Oder–Neisse line marked the border between the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) and Poland from 1950 to 1990. East Germany confirmed the border with Poland in 1950, while West Germany, after a period of refusal, finally accepted the border in 1970. In 1990 the newly reunified Germany and the Republic of Poland signed a treaty recognizing it as their border.
wn.com/Oder-Neisse_line -
ODESSA
The ODESSA, from the German Organisation der ehemaligen SS-Angehörigen, meaning “Organization of Former SS Members,” is believed to have been an international Nazi network set up toward the end of World War II by a group of SS officers. The purpose of the ODESSA was to establish and facilitate secret escape routes, later known as ratlines, to allow SS members to avoid their capture and prosecution for war crimes. Most of those fleeing out of Germany and Austria were helped to South America and the Middle East.
Several books by those involved in the War Crimes Commission (including T.H. Tetens and Joseph Wechsberg) have verified the organization's existence and provided details of its operations. Wechsberg studied Simon Wiesenthal's memoirs on the ODESSA and verified them with his own experiences in the book The Murderers Among Us.
In a note, persons claiming to represent the ODESSA claimed responsibility for a 9 July 1979 car bombing in France, which was aimed at anti-Nazi activists Serge and Beate Klarsfeld.[citation needed]
wn.com/ODESSA -
Operation Overlord
Operation Overlord was the code name for the Battle of Normandy, the operation that launched the invasion of German-occupied western Europe during World War II by Allied forces. The operation commenced on 6 June 1944 with the Normandy landings (Operation Neptune, commonly known as D-Day). A 12,000-plane airborne assault preceded an amphibious assault involving almost 7,000 vessels. Nearly 160,000 troops crossed the English Channel on 6 June; more than three million troops were in France by the end of August.
Allied land forces that saw combat in Normandy on D-Day itself came from Canada, the United Kingdom and the United States. Free French Forces and Poland also participated in the battle after the assault phase, and there were also minor contingents from Belgium, Greece, the Netherlands, and Norway. Other Allied nations participated in the naval and air forces.
Once the beachheads were secured, a three-week military buildup occurred on the beaches before Operation Cobra, the operation to break out from the Normandy beachhead, began. The battle for Normandy continued for more than two months, with campaigns to expand the foothold on France, and concluded with the closing of the Falaise pocket on 24 August, the Liberation of Paris on 25 August, and the German retreat across the Seine which was completed on 30 August 1944.[verification needed]
wn.com/Operation_Overlord -
Parthian Empire
The Parthian (pronounced /ˈpɑrθiən/) Empire (247 BC – 224 AD), also known as the Arsacid (/ˈɑrsəsɪd/) Empire (Modern Persian: اشکانیان Ashkāniān), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Persia. Its latter name comes from Arsaces I of Parthia who, as leader of the Parni tribe, founded it in the mid-3rd century BC when he conquered the Parthia region in Iran's northeast, then a satrapy (province) in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire. Mithridates I of Parthia (r. c. 171–138 BC) greatly expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates, in what is now south-eastern Turkey, to eastern Iran. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and Han Empire of China, became a center of trade and commerce.
The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions. The Arsacid rulers were titled the "King of Kings", as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa, Turkmenistan to Ctesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals.
wn.com/Parthian_Empire -
Poland
Polandi/ˈpoʊlənd/ (Polish: Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska; Kashubian: Pòlskô Repùblika; Silesian: Polsko Republika), is a country in Central Europe, bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous post-communist member. Poland is a unitary state made up of 16 voivodeships. Poland is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Economic Area, International Energy Agency, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Atomic Energy Agency, G6, Council of the Baltic Sea States, Visegrád Group, Weimar Triangle and Schengen Agreement.
wn.com/Poland -
Portugal
Portugali/ˈpɔrtʃʉɡəl/ (Portuguese: Portugal, IPA: [puɾtuˈɣaɫ]), officially the Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: República Portuguesa) is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula . Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are part of Portugal. The country is named after its second largest city, Porto, whose Latin name was Portus Cale.
The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continuously settled since prehistoric times: occupied by Celts like the Gallaeci and the Lusitanians, integrated into the Roman Republic and later settled by Germanic peoples such as the Suebi, Swabians, Vandals and the Visigoths. In the 8th century most of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Moorish invaders professing Islam, which were later expelled by the Knights Templar under the Order of Christ. During the Christian Reconquista, Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom from León in 1139, claiming to be the oldest European nation state.
wn.com/Portugal -
Portuguese Empire
The Portuguese Empire (Portuguese: Império Português), also known as the Portuguese Overseas Empire (Ultramar Português) or the Portuguese Colonial Empire (Império Colonial Português), was the first global empire in history. In addition, it was the longest-lived of the modern European colonial empires, spanning almost six centuries, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the handover of Macau in 1999 or the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002. The empire spread throughout a vast number of territories that are now part of 53 different sovereign states.
Portuguese sailors began exploring the coast of Africa in 1419, using recent developments in navigation, cartography and maritime technology such as the caravel, in order that they might find a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice trade. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the crown's secret design, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil on the South American coast. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts and factories as they went. By 1571, a string of outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and Asia. This commercial network brought great wealth to Portugal.
wn.com/Portuguese_Empire -
Prague
Prague ( /ˈprɑːɡ/; Czech: Praha pronounced [ˈpraɦa] ( listen)) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic and fourteenth largest city in European Union. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of nearly 2.0 million. The city has a temperate oceanic climate with warm summers and chilly winters.
Prague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its 1,100 year existence. Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic and Renaissance eras, Prague was the seat of two Holy Roman Emperors and thus then also the capital of the Holy Roman Empire. It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire and after World War I became the capital of Czechoslovakia. The city played major roles in the Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, and in modern history generally as the principal conurbation in Bohemia and Moravia whose second city is Brno.
wn.com/Prague -
Province of Silesia
The Province of Silesia (German: Provinz Schlesien; Polish: Prowincja Śląsk; Silesian: Prowincyjo Ślůnsko) was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia, existing from 1815 to 1919, when it was divided into the Upper and Lower Silesia provinces, and briefly again from 1938 to 1941. As a Prussian province, Silesia became part of the German Empire during the Prussian-led unification of Germany in 1871. The provincial capital was Breslau (present-day Wrocław, Poland).
The territory on both sides of the Oder river formed the southeastern part of the Prussian kingdom. It comprised the bulk of the former Bohemian crown land of Upper and Lower Silesia as well as the adjacent County of Kladsko, which the Prussian King Frederick the Great had all conquered from the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy under Empress Maria Theresa in the 18th century Silesian Wars. It furthermore included the northeastern part of Upper Lusatia around Görlitz and Lauban, ceded to Prussia by the Kingdom of Saxony according to the resolutions of the Vienna Congress in 1816.
wn.com/Province_of_Silesia -
Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China.
The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in contemporary Northeastern China. The Aisin Gioro leader, Nurhachi, who was originally a vassal of the Ming emperors, began unifying the Jurchen clans in the late sixteenth century. By 1635, Nurhachi's son Hong Taiji could claim they constituted a single and united Manchu people and began forcing the Ming out of Liaoning in southern Manchuria. In 1644, the Ming capital Beijing was sacked by a peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng, a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt, who then proclaimed the Shun dynasty. The last Ming ruler, the Chongzhen Emperor, committed suicide when the city fell. When Li Zicheng moved against Ming general Wu Sangui, the latter made an alliance with the Manchus and opened the Shanhai Pass to the Manchurian army. Under Prince Dorgon, they seized control of Beijing and overthrew Li Zicheng's short-lived Shun Dynasty. Complete pacification of China was accomplished around 1683 under the Kangxi Emperor.
wn.com/Qing_Dynasty -
Reich Chancellery
The Reich Chancellery (German: Reichskanzlei) was the traditional name of the office of the Chancellor of Germany (then called Reichskanzler) in the period of the German Reich from 1871 to 1945. Its seat from 1875 was the former city palace of Prince Antoni Radziwiłł (1775–1833) on Wilhelmstrasse in Berlin.
Today the office of the German chancellor is usually called Kanzleramt (Chancellor's Office), or more formally Bundeskanzleramt (Federal Chancellor's Office).
When the military alliance of the North German Confederation was reorganised as a federal state with effect from July 1, 1867, the office of a Federal Chancellor (Bundeskanzler) was implemented at Berlin and staffed with the Prussian Prime Minister Otto von Bismarck. After the unification of Germany on January 18, 1871 by accession of the South German states, Bismarck became Reich Chancellor of the new German Empire.
In 1869 the Prussian state government had acquired the Rococo city palace of late Prince Radziwiłł on Wilhelmstraße No. 77 (former "Palais Schulenburg"), which from 1875 was refurbished as the official building of the Chancellery. It was inaugurated with the meetings of the Berlin Congress in July 1878, followed by the Congo Conference in 1884.
wn.com/Reich_Chancellery -
Rosenstrasse protest
The Rosenstrasse protest was a nonviolent protest in Rosenstraße ("Rose street") in Berlin in February and March 1943, carried out by the non-Jewish ("Aryan") wives and relatives of Jewish men who had been arrested for deportation. The protests escalated until the men were released. It was a significant instance of opposition to the events of the Holocaust.
Just after the German defeat in the Battle of Stalingrad, Gestapo had arrested the last of the Jews in Berlin during the Fabrikaktion. Around 1,800 Jewish men, almost all of them married to non-Jewish women (others being the so-called Geltungsjuden), were separated from the other 6,000 of the arrested, and housed temporarily at Rosenstraße 2–4, a welfare office for the Jewish community located in Central Berlin.
According to the German historian Wolf Gruner (in his book Der geschlossene Arbeitseinsatz deutscher Juden : zur Zwangsarbeit als Element der Verfolgung 1938-1943, Berlin : Metropol, c1997), the reason for the separation of these men was that they were not to be deported, since they were exempt from deportation because of their privileged status as spouses of Germans. Rather, they were being held for a period of time so that new officials of the various legal Jewish organizations could be selected from among them, to replace those of the existing officials who were not married to Germans had been dismissed from their posts prior to deportation. However, the purpose of their confinement was not publicly known, and the rumor spread that they were to be deported, along with the unprivileged Jews who had been arrested; because of that rumor, the wives and other close relatives of many of them turned up on the street near the building. For a week, the protesters, mainly women, demanded their husbands back by holding a peaceful protest. The protesters appeared first in ones and twos; afterwards their number grew rapidly, and perhaps a total of 6000 participated at one time or another.
wn.com/Rosenstrasse_protest -
Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
wn.com/Russia -
Scapa Flow
Scapa Flow (Old Norse: Skalpaflói—"bay of the long isthmus") is a body of water in the Orkney Islands, Scotland, United Kingdom, sheltered by the islands of Mainland, Graemsay, Burray,South Ronaldsay and Hoy. It is about 312 square kilometres (120 sq mi). It has a shallow sandy bottom not deeper than 60 metres (200 ft) and most of it about 30 metres (98 ft) deep, and is one of the great natural harbours/anchorages of the world, with sufficient space to hold a number of navies. Viking ships anchored in Scapa Flow more than 1000 years ago, but it is best known as the site of the United Kingdom's chief naval base during World War I and World War II. The base was closed in 1956.
The Viking expeditions to Orkney are recorded in detail in the 11th century Orkneyinga sagas and later texts such as the Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar. According to the latter, King Haakon IV of Norway anchored his fleet, including the flagship Kroussden that could carry nearly 300 men, on 5 August 1263 at St Margaret's Hope, where he witnessed an eclipse of the sun prior to sailing south to the Battle of Largs. En route back to Norway Haakon anchored some of his fleet in Scapa Flow for the winter, but he died that December whilst staying at the Bishop's Palace in Kirkwall. In the 15th century towards the end of Norse rule in Orkney, the islands were run by the jarls from large manor farms, some of which were sited at Burray, Burwick, Paplay, Hoy, and Cairston (near Stromness) to guard the entrances to the Flow.
wn.com/Scapa_Flow -
Schutzstaffel
The Schutzstaffel (German pronunciation: [ˈʃʊtsʃtafəl] ( listen), translated to Protection Squadron or defence corps, abbreviated SS—or 
with stylized "Armanen" sig runes) was a major paramilitary organization under Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party. Built upon the Nazi ideology, the SS under Heinrich Himmler's command was responsible for many of the crimes against humanity during World War II (1939–1945). After 1945, the SS was banned in Germany, along with the Nazi Party, as a criminal organization.
The SS began as a small permanent guard unit made up of NSDAP volunteers to provide security for Nazi Party meetings in Munich. Formed at the end of 1920, they were known as the "Saal-Schutz" (Hall-Protection). Later under the leadership of Heinrich Himmler between 1929 and 1945, the SS was renamed the "Schutz-Staffel" and grew from a small paramilitary formation to one of the largest and most powerful organizations in the Third Reich.
The SS grew from a small paramilitary unit to a powerful force that served as the Führer's "Praetorian Guard", the Nazi Party's "Protection Squadron" and a force that, fielding almost a million men (both on the front lines and as political police), managed to exert as much political influence in the Third Reich as the Wehrmacht (Germany's regular armed forces).
wn.com/Schutzstaffel -
Second French Empire
The Second French Empire (French: Le Second Empire Français) was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.
Although the machinery of government was almost the same under the Second Empire as it had been under the First, its founding principles were different. The function of the Empire, as Emperor Napoleon III often repeated, was to guide the people internally towards justice and externally towards perpetual peace. Holding his power by universal male suffrage, and having frequently, from his prison or in exile, reproached previous oligarchical governments with neglecting social questions, he set out to solve them by organising a system of government based on the principles of the "Napoleonic Idea", i.e. of the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, and as such supreme; and of himself, the representative of the great Napoleon I of France, "who had sprung armed from the French Revolution like Minerva from the head of Jove", as the guardian of the social gains of the revolutionary period.
wn.com/Second_French_Empire -
Slovakia
The Slovak Republic (short form: Slovakiai/sloʊˈvɑːkiə/ or /sləˈvækiə/; Slovak: Slovensko (help·info), long form Slovenská republika (help·info)) is a landlocked state in Central Europe. It has a population of over five million and an area of about 49,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi). Slovakia is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east and Hungary to the south. The largest city is the capital, Bratislava, and the second largest is Košice. Slovakia is a member state of the European Union, NATO, United Nations, OECD and WTO among others. The official language is Slovak, a member of the Slavic language family.
The Slavs arrived in the territory of present day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries during the migration period. In the course of history, various parts of today's Slovakia belonged to Samo's Empire (the first known political unit of Slavs), Principality of Nitra (as independent polity, as part of Great Moravia and as part of Hungarian Kingdom), Great Moravia, Kingdom of Hungary, the Austro-Hungarian Empire or Habsburg Empire, and Czechoslovakia. A separate Slovak state briefly existed during World War II, during which Slovakia was a dependency of Nazi Germany between 1939 and 1944. From 1945 Slovakia once again became a part of Czechoslovakia. The present-day Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia.
wn.com/Slovakia -
Slovenia
Slovenia (i/sloʊˈviːniə/ sloh-VEE-nee-ə, Slovene: Slovenija), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija, [reˈpublika sloˈveːnija]) is a Slavic nation state, situated in South-Central Europe, at the crossroad of main European cultural and trade routes. It borders Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Croatia to the south and southeast, and Hungary to the northeast. It covers 20,273 square kilometres (7,827 sq mi) and has a population of 2.05 million. It is a parliamentary republic, member of the European Union and NATO. Relative to its geography, history, economy, culture, and language, it is a very diverse country distinguished by a transitional character. It is characterised by a high economic and social level. Its capital and largest city is Ljubljana.
The territory of Slovenia is mainly hilly or mountainous and has an exceptionally high landscape and biological diversity and a mosaic structure, which are a result of natural attributes and the long-lasting presence of humans. Four major European geographic units interweave here: the Alps, the Dinaric Alps, the Mediterranean, with a small portion of coastline along the Adriatic Sea, and the Pannonian Plain. The climate is temperate and significantly influenced by the variety of territory, with a strong interaction of the continental climate, the sub-Mediterranean climate and Alpine climate across most of the country. The country is one of the water-richest in Europe, with a dense river network, a rich aquifer system, and significant karstic underground watercourses. Over half of the territory is covered by forest.
wn.com/Slovenia -
Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
wn.com/Soviet_Union -
Spain under Franco
Francoist Spain refers to a period of Spanish history between 1936 and 1975 when Spain was under the authoritarian dictatorship of Francisco Franco.
The regime was formed on 1 October 1936[citation needed] by Francisco Franco and the National Defense Committee (a faction of the Spanish army rebelling against the Republic). The regime was entrenched upon the victory in the Spanish Civil War, which the regime called the Guerra de Liberación Nacional, of the rebel Nacionales coalition. Besides the internal support, Franco's rebellion had been backed from abroad by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany, while the Second Spanish Republic was backed by the Stalinist Soviet Union and Mexico.
At the end of the Spanish Civil War, according to the calculations of the regime, there were more than 270,000 men and women held in the regime's prisons and some 500,000 fled into exile. Large numbers of those captured were returned to Spain or interned in Nazi concentration camps as stateless enemies. Between six and seven thousand exiles from Spain died in Mauthausen. It has been estimated that more than 200,000 Spaniards died in the first years of the dictatorship, from 1940–42, as a result of political repression, hunger and disease related to the conflict.
wn.com/Spain_under_Franco -
Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire (Spanish: Imperio Español) comprised territories and colonies administered by Spain in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its political and economic power when it became the foremost global power. Its establishment in the 15th century ushered in the modern global era and five centuries of European dominance of global affairs. Spain's territorial reach beyond Europe spanned six centuries, from the first voyages to the Americas in 1492 until the independence of its last African colonies in the 1970s.
After the War of the Castilian Succession (1475–1479), Spain had emerged with a personally unified monarchy, with the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs or los Reyes Catolicos between the Queen of Castile and the King of Aragon: the internal and foreign policy was coordinated although the rule was separate. In 1492, the Spanish monarchs completed the Reconquista with the incorporation of Granada to the Kingdom of Castile. That same year Christopher Columbus commanded the first Spanish exploratory voyage west across the Atlantic Ocean, leading to the Discovery of America and Europe's eventual colonial engagement in the New World. The Americas thereby became the focus of Spanish exploration and colonization.
wn.com/Spanish_Empire -
Stettin
Szczecin ([ˈʂt͡ʂɛt͡ɕin] ( listen); German: Stettin [ʃtɛˈtiːn] ( listen)}), is the capital city of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship in Poland. In the vicinity of the Baltic Sea, it is the country's seventh-largest city and the largest seaport in Poland. As of June 2011 the population was 407,811.
Szczecin is located on the Oder River, south of the Szczecin Lagoon and the Bay of Pomerania. The city is situated along the southwestern shore of Dąbie Lake, on both sides of the Oder and on several large islands between the western and eastern branches of the river. Szczecin borders with the town of Police.
The city's beginnings were as an 8th century Slavic Pomeranian stronghold, built at the site of today's castle. In the 12th century, when Szczecin had become one of Pomerania's main urban centres, it lost its independence to Piast Poland, Saxony, the Holy Roman Empire and Denmark. At the same time, the Griffin dynasty established themselves as local rulers, the population was converted to Christianity, and German settlers arrived. The native Slavic population was assimilated and sometimes discriminated against in the following centuries. In 1237/43, the town was built anew and granted vast autonomy rights, and it joined the Hanseatic League.
wn.com/Stettin -
Sturmabteilung
The Sturmabteilung (SA) (German pronunciation: [ˈʃtʊʁmʔapˌtaɪlʊŋ] ( listen);Storm Detachment or Assault Division) or Brownshirts) functioned as the original paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party. It played a key role in Adolf Hitler's rise to power in the 1920s and 1930s. Their main assignments were providing protection for Nazi rallies and assemblies; the disruption of opposing political parties and the fight against their paramilitary units (esp. the Rotfrontkämpferbund); and the intimidation of Jewish citizens (eg. the Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses).
The SA was the first Nazi paramilitary group to develop pseudo-military titles for bestowal upon its members. The SA ranks were adopted by several other Nazi Party groups, chief amongst them the SS, itself originally a branch of the SA. SA men were often called "brownshirts" for the colour of their uniforms (similar to Benito Mussolini's blackshirts). Brown-coloured shirts were chosen as the SA uniform because a large batch of them were cheaply available after World War I, having originally been ordered during the war for colonial troops posted to Germany's former African colonies.
wn.com/Sturmabteilung -
Sweden
Sweden (i/ˈswiːdən/ SWEE-dən; Swedish: Sverige [ˈsværjɛ] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)), is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland, and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Øresund.
At 450,295 square kilometres (173,860 sq mi), Sweden is the third largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of about 9.4 million. Sweden has a low population density of 21 inhabitants per square kilometre (54 /sq mi) with the population mostly concentrated to the southern half of the country. About 85% of the population live in urban areas. Sweden's capital city is Stockholm, which is also the largest city.
Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages. In the 17th century, the country expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire. The empire grew to be one of the great powers of Europe in the 17th and early 18th century. Most of the conquered territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The eastern half of Sweden, present-day Finland, was lost to Russia in 1809. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Sweden by military means forced Norway into a personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, practicing "non-participation in military alliances during peacetime and neutrality during wartime". However, Sweden has been a member of the European Union since 1 January 1995 and is a member of the OECD.
wn.com/Sweden -
Switzerland
Switzerland (German: die Schweiz[ˈʃvaɪts]; French: Suisse [sɥis(ə)]; Italian: Svizzera [ˈzvit͡sːɛra]; Romansh: Svizra [ˈʒviːtsrɐ] or [ˈʒviːtsʁːɐ]), in its full name the Swiss Confederation (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica, hence its abbreviation CH), is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western Europe, where it is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Italy to the south, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east.
Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2 (15,940 sq mi). While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately 8 million people is concentrated mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found. Among them are the two global cities and economic centres of Zurich and Geneva.
The Swiss Confederation has a long history of armed neutrality—it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815—and did not join the United Nations until 2002. It pursues, however, an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. Switzerland is also the birthplace of the Red Cross and home to a large number of international organizations, including the second largest UN office. On the European level, it is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association and is part of the Schengen Area – although it is notably not a member of the European Union, nor the European Economic Area.
wn.com/Switzerland -
Sylt
Coordinates: 54°54′N 8°20′E / 54.9°N 8.333°E / 54.9; 8.333
Sylt (German pronunciation: [ˈzʏlt]; Danish: Sild; Söl'ring North Frisian: Söl' ) is an island in northern Germany, part of Nordfriesland district, Schleswig-Holstein, and well known for the distinctive shape of its shoreline. It belongs to the North Frisian Islands and is the largest island in North Frisia. The northernmost island of Germany, it is known for its tourist resorts, notably Westerland, Kampen and Wenningstedt-Braderup, as well as for its 40 km long sandy beach. It is frequently covered by the media in connection with its exposed situation in the North Sea and its ongoing loss of land during storm tides. Since 1927, Sylt has been connected to the mainland by the Hindenburgdamm causeway.
With 99.14 km², Sylt is the fourth-largest German island and the largest German North Sea island. Sylt is situated at 9 to 16 km off the mainland, being connected there by the Hindenburgdamm. Southeast of Sylt the islands Föhr and Amrum are located, to the north lies the Danish island Rømø. The island of Sylt extends for 38 km in a north-south direction and on its northern peak at Königshafen is only 320 m wide. Its widest distance, from the town of Westerland in the west to the eastern Nössespitze near Morsum, measures 12.6 km. On the western and northwestern shore a 40 km sand beach is located, east of Sylt the Wadden Sea is situated, which belongs to the Schleswig-Holstein Wadden Sea National Park and mostly falls dry during low tide.
wn.com/Sylt -
Teotihuacan
Coordinates: 19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.6925°N 98.8438°W / 19.6925; -98.8438
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica.
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC and continued to be built until about 250 AD. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps 125,000 or more, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the Mexican Highland around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
wn.com/Teotihuacan -
Trieste
Trieste (/triːˈɛst/;Italian pronunciation: [triˈɛste] listen (help·info); Slovene: Trst, German: Triest) is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is situated towards the end of a narrow strip of land lying between the Adriatic Sea and Italy's border with Slovenia, which lies almost immediately south and east of the city. Trieste is located at the head of the Gulf of Trieste and throughout history it has been influenced by its location at the crossroads of Germanic, Latin and Slavic cultures. In 2009, it had a population of about 205,000 and it is the capital of the autonomous region Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trieste province.
Trieste was one of the oldest parts of the Habsburg Monarchy from 1382 until 1918. In the 19th century, it was the most important port of one of the Great Powers of Europe. As a prosperous seaport in the Mediterranean region, Trieste became the fourth largest city of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (after Vienna, Budapest, and Prague). In the fin-de-siecle period, it emerged as an important hub for literature and music. However, the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Trieste's union to Italy after World War I led to some decline of its "Mittel-European" cultural and commercial importance. Enjoying an economic revival during the 1930s and throughout the Cold War, Trieste was an important spot in the struggle between the Eastern and Western blocs. Today, the city is in one of the richest regions of Italy, and has been a great centre for shipping, through its port (Port of Trieste), shipbuilding and financial services.
wn.com/Trieste -
Ukraine
Ukraine (i/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
wn.com/Ukraine -
Vienna
Vienna ( /viːˈɛnə/; German: Wien (help·info) [viːn]) is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million (2.4 million within the metropolitan area, more than 25% of Austria's population), and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre. It is the 9th-largest city by population in the European Union. Until the beginning of the 20th century it was the largest German speaking city in the world, and before the first world war and the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian empire the city had 2 million inhabitants. Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city lies in the east of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region. Along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
wn.com/Vienna -
Wannsee Conference
The Wannsee Conference was a meeting of senior officials of the Nazi German regime, held in the Berlin suburb of Wannsee on 20 January 1942. The purpose of the conference was to inform administrative leaders of Departments responsible for various policies relating to Jews that Reinhard Heydrich had been appointed as the chief executor of the "Final solution to the Jewish question". In the course of the meeting, Heydrich presented a plan, presumably approved by Adolf Hitler, for the deportation of the Jewish population of Europe and French North Africa (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia) to German-occupied areas in eastern Europe, and the use of the Jews fit for labour on road-building projects, in the course of which they would eventually die according to the text of the Wannsee Protocol, the surviving remnant to be annihilated after completion of the projects. Instead, as Soviet and Allied forces gradually pushed back the German lines, most of the Jews of German-occupied Europe were sent to extermination or concentration camps, or killed where they lived. As a result of the efforts of historian Joseph Wulf, the Wannsee House, where the conference was held, is now a Holocaust Memorial.
wn.com/Wannsee_Conference -
Warsangali Sultanate
The Warsangali Sultanate (Somali: Saldanadda Warsangeli, Arabic: سلطنة الورسنجلي) was a Somali imperial ruling house centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the Sanaag region and parts of the northeastern Bari region of the country, an area historically known as Maakhir or the Maakhir Coast. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the Warsangali branch of the Darod clan, and was ruled by the descendants of the Gerad Dhidhin. In the late 19th century, the influential Sultan Mohamoud Ali Shire governed the Sultanate, assuming control during some of its most turbulent years. The Akil Dhahar ruled south of Sanaag and some portions of the Bari region. In 1884, the United Kingdom established the protectorate of British Somaliland through various treaties with the northern Somali sultanates, including the Warsangali Sultanate.
wn.com/Warsangali_Sultanate -
Weimar Republic
The Weimar Republic (Weimarer Republik [ˈvaɪmaʁɐ ʁepuˈbliːk] ( listen)) is the name given by historians to the federal republic and parliamentary representative democracy established in 1919 in Germany to replace the imperial form of government. It was named after Weimar, the city where the constitutional assembly took place. Its official name was German Reich (Deutsches Reich)
Following World War I, the republic emerged from the German Revolution in November 1918. In 1919, a national assembly convened in Weimar, where a new constitution for the German Reich was written, then adopted on 11 August of that same year. The ensuing period of liberal democracy lapsed in the early 1930s, leading to the ascent of the nascent Nazi Party and Adolf Hitler in 1933. The legal measures taken by the Nazi government in February and March 1933, commonly known as Gleichschaltung ("coordination") meant that the government could legislate contrary to the constitution. The republic nominally continued to exist until 1945, as the constitution was never formally repealed. However, the measures taken by the Nazis in the early part of their rule rendered the constitution irrelevant. Thus, 1933 is usually seen as the end of the Weimar Republic and the beginning of Hitler's Third Reich.
wn.com/Weimar_Republic -
Württemberg
The Kingdom of Württemberg (German: Königreich Württemberg) was a state that existed from 1806 to 1918, located in the area that is now Baden-Württemberg, Germany. The kingdom was a continuation of the Duchy of Württemberg, which came into existence in 1495. Prior to 1495, the ruling house of Württemberg had consisted of counts ruling only a fragment of the Duchy of Swabia, which had dissolved after the death of Conrad I in 1268.
The border of the Kingdom of Württemberg, as defined in 1813, was situated between 47°34' and 49°35' North and 8°15' and 10°30' East. The greatest distance north-south was 225 km and the greatest east-west was 160 km. The border had a total length of 1800 km. The total area of the state was 19,508 km².
It shared a boundary on the East with Bavaria, and on the other three sides with Baden, with the exception of a short distance on the south, where it bordered Hohenzollern and Lake Constance.
Württemberg, once a Duchy within the Holy Roman Empire, on 1 January 1806 Duke Frederick II assumed the title of king as King Frederick I, abrogated the constitution and united old and new Württemberg. Subsequently he placed the property of the church under the control of the kingdom, whose boundaries were also greatly extended by the process "mediatisation".
wn.com/Württemberg -
Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty (Chinese: 元朝, p Yuán Cháo; Mongolian: Их Юань улс) was the branch of Mongol Borjigin dynasty established by Kublai Khan. Although the Mongols had ruled northern China for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Chinese style. His realm – the Great Yuan Empire (t 大元帝國, s 大元帝国, p Dà Yuán Dìguó) – was by this point isolated from the other khanates and controlled only most of present-day China and its surrounding areas including modern Mongolia. It was the first non-Han dynasty to rule all of China and lasted until 1368, after which its remnants in Mongolia were known as the Northern Yuan.
The Yuan is considered both a successor to the Mongol Empire and as an imperial Chinese dynasty. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan Dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven, following the Song Dynasty and preceding the Ming Dynasty. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as Taizu.
wn.com/Yuan_Dynasty -
Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia (Croatian, Serbian, Slovene, Macedonian: Jugoslavija; Cyrillic: Југославија) was a country in the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century which was established three times under differing forms of government.
The first country to be known by this name was the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which before 3 October 1929 was known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It was established on 1 December 1918 by the union of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia (the Kingdom of Montenegro was annexed on 13 November 1918, and the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris gave international recognition to the union on 13 July 1922). The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers in 1941, and because of the events that followed, was officially abolished in 1943 and 1945.
The second country with this name was the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, proclaimed in 1943 by the Yugoslav Partisans resistance movement during World War II. It was renamed to the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia in 1946, when a communist government was established. In 1963, it was renamed again to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). This was the largest Yugoslav state, as Istria, Rijeka and Zadar were added to the new Yugoslavia after the end of World War II.
wn.com/Yugoslavia -
Šiauliai
Šiauliai ( Lithuanian (help·info)), is the fourth largest city in Lithuania, with a population of 133,900. It is the capital of Šiauliai County. Unofficially, the city is the capital of Northern Lithuania.
Šiauliai is referred to by a various names in different languages: Samogitian: Šiaulē, Latvian Saule (historic) and Šauļi (modern), German: Schaulen, Polish: Szawle, Russian: Шавли (Shavli - historic) and Шяуля́й (Shyaulyai - modern), Yiddish: שאַװל (Shavel).
The city was first mentioned in written sources as Soule in Livonian Order chronicles describing the battle of Saule. Thus the city's founding date is now considered to be September 22, 1236, the same date when the battle took place, not far from Šiauliai. At first it developed as a defense post against the raids by the Teutonic and Livonian Orders. After the battle of Grunwald in 1410, the raids stopped and Šiauliai started to develop as an agricultural settlement. In 1445, a wooden church was built. It was replaced in 1634 with the brick church which can be seen in the city center today.
wn.com/Šiauliai
-
Abba Ahimeir
Abba Ahimeir (Hebrew: אב"א אחימאיר, 2 November 1897 - 6 June 1962) was a Russian-born Jewish journalist, historian and political activist. One of the ideologues of Revisionist Zionism, he was the founder of the Revisionist Maximalist faction of the Zionist Revisionist Movement (ZRM) and of the clandestine Brit HaBirionim.
Abba Shaul Geisinovich (later Abba Ahimeir) was born in Dolgi, a village near Babruysk in the Russian Empire (today in Belarus). From 1912-1914, he attended the Herzliya Gymnasium high school in Tel Aviv. While with his family in Babruysk for summer vacation in 1914, World War I broke out and he was forced to complete his studies in Russia. In 1917, he participated in the Russian Zionist Conference in Petrograd and underwent agricultural training as part of Joseph Trumpeldor’s HeHalutz movement in Batum, Caucasia to prepare him for a life as a pioneer in the Land of Israel. In 1920, he left Russia and changed his name from Gaisinovich to Ahimeir (in Hebrew: Meir’s brother) in memory of his brother Meir who had fallen in battle that year fighting against Poles during a pogrom.
wn.com/Abba_Ahimeir -
Adam Tooze
Adam Tooze (born in 1967) is a British historian and was Reader in Modern European Economic History at the University of Cambridge. In 2002, he was awarded a Philip Leverhulme Prize for Modern History. As of Summer 2010, he is a professor of history at Yale University.
Tooze studied for a Bachelor degree in Economics at King's College London and received his Ph.D in Economic History from the London School of Economics.
He is currently best known for his economic study of the Third Reich, entitled The Wages of Destruction. It was one of the winners of the Wolfson History Prize for 2006.
wn.com/Adam_Tooze -
Adolf Eichmann
Karl Adolf Eichmann (March 19, 1906 – May 31, 1962) was a German Nazi SS-Obersturmbannführer (Lieutenant Colonel) and one of the major organizers of the Holocaust. Because of his organizational talents and ideological reliability, Eichmann was charged by Obergruppenführer (General) Reinhard Heydrich with the task of facilitating and managing the logistics of mass deportation of Jews to ghettos and extermination camps in German-occupied Eastern Europe.
After the war, he fled to Argentina using a fraudulently obtained laissez-passer issued by the International Red Cross. He lived in Argentina under a false identity, working for Mercedes-Benz until 1960. He was captured by Mossad operatives in Argentina and taken to Israel to face trial in an Israeli court on 15 criminal charges, including crimes against humanity and war crimes. He was found guilty and executed by hanging in 1962. He is the only person to have been executed in Israel on conviction by a civilian court.
Adolf Eichmann was born to a Lutheran family in Solingen, Germany. His parents were businessman and industrialist Adolf Karl Eichmann and Maria née Schefferling. After his mother died in 1914, his family moved to Linz, Austria. During the First World War, Eichmann's father served in the Austro-Hungarian Army. At the war's conclusion, Eichmann's father moved the family back to Linz where he operated a business. Eichmann left high school—Realschule—without having graduated and began training to become a mechanic, which he also discontinued. In 1923, he started working in the mining company of his father. From 1925 to 1927 he worked as a sales clerk for the Oberösterreichische Elektrobau AG and then until spring 1933 Eichmann worked as district agent for the Vacuum Oil Company AG, a subsidiary of Standard Oil. During this time he was a member of the Jungfrontkämpfervereinigung, the youth section of Hermann Hiltl's right-wing veterans movement. In July 1933 he moved back to Germany.
wn.com/Adolf_Eichmann -
Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler (German: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ] ( listen); 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is commonly associated with the rise of fascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust.
A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup d'état, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anticommunism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. After his appointment as chancellor in 1933, he transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. His aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe.
wn.com/Adolf_Hitler -
Alben W. Barkley
Alben William Barkley (November 24, 1877 – April 30, 1956) served as the 35th Vice President of the United States (1949–1953), under President Harry S. Truman. A member of the Democratic Party, he previously served as a U.S. Representative (1913–1927) and a U.S. Senator (1927–1949) from Kentucky. He served as Senate Majority Leader from 1937 to 1947.
After an unsuccessful candidacy in the 1952 presidential election, Barkley was elected again to the U.S. Senate after defeating John Sherman Cooper in 1954. He died shortly afterwards in 1956 at age 78.
Barkley was born Willie Alben Barkley in a log cabin near Lowes, Graves County, Kentucky. His parents, John Wilson Barkley and Electra Eliza (Smith) Barkley, were deeply religious tenant farmers. He graduated from Marvin College in 1897, where he excelled in speech and debate. He worked his way through college with a full-time janitorial job. Barkley later attended Emory College, in Oxford, Georgia. He was a member of Delta Tau Delta social fraternity, graduated in 1900, and then attended the University of Virginia School of Law. It was during this time that he legally changed his name from "Willie Alben" to "Alben William."
wn.com/Alben_W._Barkley -
Albert Speer
Albert Speer (born Berthold Konrad Hermann Albert Speer; ; pronounced [ˈʃpeːɐ̯] ( listen); March 19, 1905 – September 1, 1981) was a German architect who was, for a part of World War II, Minister of Armaments and War Production for the Third Reich. Speer was Adolf Hitler's chief architect before assuming ministerial office. As "the Nazi who said sorry", he accepted responsibility at the Nuremberg trials and in his memoirs for crimes of the Nazi regime. His level of involvement in the persecution of the Jews and his level of knowledge of the Holocaust remain matters of dispute.
Speer joined the Nazi Party in 1931, launching him on a political and governmental career which lasted fourteen years. His architectural skills made him increasingly prominent within the Party and he became a member of Hitler's inner circle. Hitler commanded him to design and construct a number of structures, including the Reich Chancellery and the Zeppelinfeld stadium in Nuremberg where Party rallies were held. Speer also made plans to reconstruct Berlin on a grand scale, with huge buildings, wide boulevards, and a reorganized transportation system.
wn.com/Albert_Speer -
Alfred Hugenberg
Alfred Ernst Christian Alexander Hugenberg (19 June 1865 – 12 March 1951) was an influential German businessman and politician. Hugenberg, a leading figure within nationalist politics in Germany for the first few decades of the twentieth century, became the country's leading media proprietor within the inter-war period. As leader of the German National People's Party Hugenberg was instrumental in helping Adolf Hitler become Chancellor of Germany and served in his first cabinet in 1933. Hugenberg had hoped to control Hitler and use him as his "tool" but ultimately he had little to no influence in the Third Reich.
Born in Hanover to Carl Hugenberg, a royal Hanoverian official who in 1867 entered the Prussian Landtag as a member of the National Liberal Party, he studied law in Göttingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, as well as economics in Strassburg. In 1891, Hugenberg co-founded, along with Karl Peters, the ultra-nationalist General German League and in 1894 its successor movement the Pan-German League (Alldeutscher Verband). In 1900 Hugenberg married his second cousin, Gertrud Adickes. At the same time he was also involved in a scheme in the Province of Posen where the Prussian Settlement Commission bought up land from Poles in order to settle ethnic Germans there.
wn.com/Alfred_Hugenberg -
Alfred Rosenberg
Alfred Ernst Rosenberg (help·info) (12 January 1893 – 16 October 1946) was an early and intellectually influential member of the Nazi Party. Rosenberg was first introduced to Adolf Hitler by Dietrich Eckart; he later held several important posts in the Nazi government. He is considered one of the main authors of key Nazi ideological creeds, including its racial theory, persecution of the Jews, Lebensraum, abrogation of the Treaty of Versailles, and opposition to "degenerate" modern art. He is also known for his rejection of Christianity, having played an important role in the development of Positive Christianity, which he intended to be transitional to a new Nazi faith. At Nuremberg he was tried, sentenced to death and executed by hanging as a war criminal.
Rosenberg was born in 1893 in Reval (today's Tallinn, in Estonia, then part of the Russian Empire) to a family of Baltic Germans: his father, Waldemar Wilhelm Rosenberg, was a wealthy merchant from Latvia, his mother, Elfriede, was from Estonia. (Tallinn archivist J. Rajandi claimed in the 1930s that Rosenberg's family had Estonian origins).
wn.com/Alfred_Rosenberg -
Alfred Sohn-Rethel
Alfred Sohn-Rethel (4 January 1899 – 6 April 1990) was a Marxist economist and philosopher especially interested in epistemology. He also wrote about the relationship of German industry with national socialism.
Born in Neuilly-sur-Seine near Paris, Sohn-Rethel came from a family of painters and his father was a painter too. His mother came from the Oppenheim family and had influential relations with big business.
As his family did not want him also to become a painter, he was brought up by his uncle, the steel industrialist Ernst Poensgen. On Christmas 1915 he expressed a wish for a copy of Karl Marx Capital as a present. He received one and studied it intensively. Thrown out of home, he participated in the anti-war student protest in his first year at Heidelberg University in 1917.
From 1920 Sohn-Rethel was a friend of the philosopher Ernst Bloch, and he met Walter Benjamin in 1921. He came to live in Positano in 1923-4, and Naples: philosophy of the broken recorded his fascination with the relaxed Neopolitan attitude to technology. Between 1924 and 1927 he remained in Italy, "mainly in Capri, where Benjamin and Bloch were staying", meeting Adorno and Kracauer also at Capri in 1924. He stayed in contact with different members of the Frankfurt School, to whom his theoretical concerns were close. However, they never established a close working relationship because Horkheimer was afraid of social theory becoming too speculative.
wn.com/Alfred_Sohn-Rethel -
Almohad Caliphate
The Almohad Dynasty (Berber: Imweḥḥden, from Arabic الموحدون al-Muwaḥḥidun, "the monotheists" or "the Unitarians"), was a MoroccanBerber-Muslim dynasty founded in the 12th century that established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120.
The movement was started by Ibn Tumart in the Masmuda tribe, followed by Abd al-Mu'min al-Gumi between 1130 and his death in 1163, the Almohads defeated the ruling Almoravids, extending their power over all of the Maghreb. Al-Andalus, Moorish Iberia (modern Portugal and southern Spain) under the Almoravid dynasty, followed the fate of Africa.
The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad III, "al-Nasir" (1199–1214) was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248 respectively.
wn.com/Almohad_Caliphate -
Almoravid dynasty
The Almoravids (Berber: ⵉⵎⵕⴰⴱⴹⴻⵏ Imṛabḍen, Arabic: المرابطون Al-Murābiṭūn) were a Berber dynasty of Morocco, who formed an empire in the 11th-century that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus. Their capital was Marrakesh, a city which they founded in 1062 CE. The dynasty originated amongst the Lamtuna and the Gudala, which were nomadic Berber tribes of the Sahara traversing the territory between southern Morocco, the Niger river and the Senegal river.
The Almoravids were crucial in avoiding a precipitated fall of Al-Andalus to the Iberian Christian kingdoms, when they decisively beat a coalition of the Castilian and Aragonese armies at the Battle of Sagrajas. This enabled them to control an empire that stretched 3,000 kilometers north to south. However, the rule of the dynasty was relatively short-lived and the Almoravids fell - at the height of their power - when they failed to quell the Masmuda-led rebellion initiated by Ibn Tumart. As a result, their last king Ishaq ibn Ali was killed in Marrakesh in April 1147 CE by the Almohads who replaced them as a ruling dynasty both in Morocco and Al-Andalus.
wn.com/Almoravid_dynasty -
Anastasy Vonsyatsky
Anastasy Andreyevich Vonsyatsky (Russian: Анастасий Андреевич Вонсяцкий; June 12, 1898 - February 5, 1965), better known in the United States as Anastase Andreivitch Vonsiatsky, was a Russian anti-Bolshevik émigré and fascist leader based in the United States since the 1920s.
A naturalized American citizen while leading a splinter far-right organization, the Russian National Revolutionary Labor and Workers Peasant Party of Fascists. The headquarters RFO based on Putnam, Connecticut. Vonsyatsky was charged with the support of secret contacts with agents of Nazi Germany's and arrested by the FBI in 1942, following the United States' entry into war with Germany and Japan.
Released early from prison in 1945, Vonsyatsky lived out the remainder of his life in the United States. He died in St. Petersburg, Florida, in 1965.
Anastasy Andreyevich Vonsyatsky was born in Warsaw, Poland (then part of the Russian Empire) to a privileged Russian family known for its long devotion to the Russian czars; one of Vonsyatsky's great-grandparents had been handed a titled estated from the Romanovs.
wn.com/Anastasy_Vonsyatsky -
Andreas Hillgruber
Andreas Fritz Hillgruber (18 January 1925 - 8 May 1989) was a conservative German historian. Hillgruber was influential as a military and diplomatic historian.
At his death in 1989, the American historian Francis L. Loewenheim said: "Andreas Hillgruber was probably the leading West German historian of his generation - a scholar of indefatigable energy and fierce independence, a scholar of weighty judgment even if one did not always agree with him". Other historians were more hostile, with the British historian Richard J. Evans taking the view that Hillgruber was a great historian whose once-sterling reputation as a historian was in ruins.
wn.com/Andreas_Hillgruber -
Ante Pavelić
Ante Pavelić (14 July 1889 – 28 December 1959) was a Croatian fascist leader and revolutionary. As Poglavnik, he ruled the Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state of Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany. He was founder and leader of the Croatian fascist movement Ustaše.
Pavelić was a lawyer and politician in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia known for his nationalistic beliefs, particularly about an independent Croatia. From 1927 until 1929, he was a member of the Yugoslav Parliament where he declared his beliefs about Croatian independence. In 1920s he radicalized his political activity and called on Croats to revolt against Yugoslavia.
After King Alexander I declared his 6 January Dictatorship Pavelić escaped to Vienna, where he established contact with Croatian political émigrés and formed a link with the Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization in advocating independence for Croatia and Macedonia. He then moved to Italy where he founded the Ustaše (Croatian Revolutionary Movement); initially, this was a Croatian nationalist movement with the goal of creating an independent Greater Croatia via armed revolt. In October 1934 he planned the assassination of King Alexander I and spent time in prison in Italy until 1936. From 1936 until 1939, Italian authorities banned Ustaše, so he dissolved the group. He lived under police watch, eventually seeking German support but without success. After 1939 he was active again, focusing mainly on Ustaše activity in Yugoslavia.
wn.com/Ante_Pavelić -
Arnold Leese
Arnold Spencer Leese (1878–1956) was a British veterinarian and fascist politician. He was born in Lytham St Annes, Lancashire, England and educated at Giggleswick School.
After qualifying as a veterinary surgeon, he accepted a post in British India, where he became an expert on the camel. He had previously worked in the East End of London. He worked there for six years before becoming Camel Specialist for the East Africa Protectorate of the British Empire. He would remain an animal lover and teetotaller throughout his life.
He published numerous articles on the camel and its maladies, the first appearing in The Journal of Tropical Veterinary Science in 1909. He had the honour of a camel parasite being named after him: Thelazia leesei.
He joined the Royal Army Veterinary Corps of the British Army at the start of World War I and served on the Western Front and the Middle East. Captain Leese returned to England where he continued his practice, retiring and publishing A Treatise on the One-Humped Camel in Health and in Disease (1927), which would remain a standard work in India for fifty years.
wn.com/Arnold_Leese -
Arthur Seyss-Inquart
Arthur Seyss-Inquart (help·info) (in German: Seyß-Inquart) (22 July 1892 – 16 October 1946) was a Chancellor of Austria, lawyer and later Nazi official in pre-Anschluss Austria, the Third Reich and for wartime Germany in Poland and the Netherlands. At the Nuremberg Trials, he was found guilty of crimes against humanity and later executed.
Seyss-Inquart was born in 1892 in Stonařov (German: Stannern), Moravia, then part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, to the school principal Emíl Seyss-Inquart and his German-speaking wife Auguste Hýrenbach. The family moved to Vienna in 1907. Seyss-Inquart later went to study law at the University of Vienna. At the beginning of World War I in August 1914 Seyss-Inquart enlisted with the Austrian Army and was given a commission with the Tyrolean Kaiserjäger, subsequently serving in Russia, Romania and Italy. He was decorated for bravery on a number of occasions and while recovering from wounds in 1917 he completed his final examinations for his degree. Seyss-Inquart had five older siblings: Hedwig (born 1881), Richard (born 3 April 1883, became a Catholic priest, but left the Church and ministry, married in civil ceremony and became Oberregierungsrat and prison superior by 1940 in the Ostmark), Irene (born 1885), Henriette (born 1887) and Robert (born 1891).
wn.com/Arthur_Seyss-Inquart -
Austria
Austria (i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] ( listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
wn.com/Austria -
Ayyubid dynasty
The Ayyubid dynasty (Arabic: الأيوبيون) was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origin, founded by Saladin and centered in Egypt. The dynasty ruled much of the Middle East during the 12th and 13th centuries CE. The Ayyubid family, under the brothers Ayyub and Shirkuh, originally served as soldiers for the Zengids until they supplanted them under Saladin, Ayyub's son. In 1174, Saladin proclaimed himself Sultan following the death of Nur al-Din. The Ayyubids spent the next decade launching conquests throughout the region and by 1183, the territories under their control included Egypt, Syria, northern Mesopotamia, Hejaz, Yemen, and the North African coast up to the borders of modern-day Tunisia. Most of the Kingdom of Jerusalem and beyond Jordan River fell to Saladin after his victory at the Battle of Hattin in 1187. However, the Crusaders regained control of Palestine's coastline in the 1190s.
After the death of Saladin, his sons contested control over the sultanate, but Saladin's brother al-Adil eventually established himself as Sultan in 1200. In the 1230s, the Ayyubid rulers of Syria attempted to assert their independence from Egypt and remained divided until Egyptian Sultan as-Salih Ayyub restored Ayyubid unity by taking over most of Syria, excluding Aleppo, by 1247. By then, local Muslim dynasties had driven out the Ayyubids from Yemen, the Hejaz, and parts of Mesopotamia. After repelling a Crusader invasion of the Nile Delta, as-Salih Ayyub's Mamluk generals overthrew al-Mu'azzam Turanshah who succeeded Ayyub as Sultan after his death in 1250. This effectively ended Ayyubid power in Egypt and a number of attempts by the rulers of Syria, led by an-Nasir Yusuf of Aleppo, to recover it failed. In 1260, the Mongols sacked Aleppo and wrested control of what remained of the Ayyubid territories soon after. The Mamluks, who forced out the Mongols after the destruction of the Ayyubid dynasty, maintained the Ayyubid principality of Hama until deposing its last ruler in 1341.
wn.com/Ayyubid_dynasty -
Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (Italian pronunciation: [beˈniːto musːoˈliːni]; 29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party, ruling the country from 1922 to his ousting in 1943, and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of fascism.
Originally a member of the Italian Socialist Party and editor of the Avanti! from 1912 to 1914, Mussolini fought in World War I as an ardent nationalist and created the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919, catalyzing his nationalist and socialist beliefs in the Fascist Manifesto, published in 1921. Following the March on Rome in October 1922 he became the 27th Prime Minister of Italy and began using the title Il Duce by 1925, about which time he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means, aspiring to create a totalitarian state. After 1936, his official title was Sua Eccellenza Benito Mussolini, Capo del Governo, Duce del Fascismo e Fondatore dell'Impero ("His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head of Government, Duce of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire") Mussolini also created and held the supreme military rank of First Marshal of the Empire along with King Victor Emmanuel III, which gave him and the King joint supreme control over the military of Italy. Mussolini remained in power until he was replaced in 1943; for a short period after this until his death, he was the leader of the Italian Social Republic.
wn.com/Benito_Mussolini -
Bernhard Rust
Dr. Bernhard Rust (30 September 1883 — 8 May 1945) was Minister of Science, Education and National Culture (Reichserziehungsminister) in Nazi Germany. A combination of school administrator and zealous Nazi, he issued decrees, often bizarre, at every level of the German educational system to immerse German youth in the National Socialist philosophy.
Rust was born in Hannover, and obtained a doctorate in German philology and philosophy. After passing the state teaching examination in 1908 he became a high school teacher at Hannover's Ratsgymnasium, then served in the army during World War I. He reached the rank of lieutenant and was awarded the Iron Cross for bravery.
Rust joined the NSDAP in 1922, and became the district leader for Hannover and Brunswick. In 1930, he was elected to the Reichstag. When Hitler became Chancellor in 1933, Rust was appointed as the Prussian Minister for Cultural Affairs. On 1 June 1934, he was selected as Minister of Science, Education and National Culture (Reichsminister für Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung), and set about to reshape the German educational system to conform to his ideals of National Socialism. Considered by many to be mentally unstable, Rust would spuriously create new regulations and then repeal them just as quickly. One noted example was in 1935, when he changed the traditional six-day school week to five days, with Saturday to be "Reich's Youth Day" when children in the Hitler Youth and the League of German Girls would be out of school for study and testing. He then ordered the creation of a "rolling week", with six days for study, followed by the "youth day" and a rest day, in 8-day periods. Thus, a rolling week starting on Monday would end with rest on the following Monday; the next rolling week would start on Tuesday and end 8 days later on the next Tuesday. When the 8-day week proved unworkable, Rust went back to the former system.
wn.com/Bernhard_Rust -
British people
British people (also referred to as the British, Britons, or informally as Brits or Britishers) are citizens or natives of the United Kingdom, of the Isle of Man, of any of the Channel Islands, or of any of the British overseas territories, and their descendants.British nationality law governs modern British citizenship and nationality, which can be acquired, for instance, by birth in the UK or by descent from British nationals. When used in a historical context, the term British people refers to the ancient Britons, the indigenous inhabitants of Great Britain south of the Forth.
Although early assertions of being British date from the Late Middle Ages, the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707 triggered a sense of British national identity. The notion of Britishness was forged during the Napoleonic Wars between Britain and the First French Empire, and developed further during the Victorian era. The complex history of the formation of the United Kingdom created a "particular sense of nationhood and belonging" in Great Britain; Britishness became "superimposed on much older identities", of English, Scots and Welsh cultures, whose distinctiveness still resist notions of a homogenised British identity. Because of longstanding ethno-sectarian divisions, British identity in Northern Ireland is controversial, but it is held with strong conviction by unionists.
wn.com/British_people -
Carolingian Empire
Carolingian Empire (800–888) is a historiographical term which has been used to refer to the realm of the Franks under the Carolingian dynasty in the Early Middle Ages. This dynasty is seen as the founders of France and Germany, and its beginning date is based on the crowning of Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, and ends with the death of Charles the Fat. Depending on one's perspective, this Empire can be seen as the later history of the Frankish Realm or the early history of France and of the Holy Roman Empire.
The term refers to the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III in 800. Because Charles and his ancestors had been rulers of the Frankish realm earlier (his grandfather Charles Martel had essentially founded the empire during his lifetime), the coronation did not actually constitute a new empire. Most historians prefer to use the term "Frankish Kingdoms" or "Frankish Realm" to refer to the area covering parts of today's Germany and France from the 5th to the 9th century.
Though Charles Martel chose not to take the title King, as his son Pepin III the Short would, or Emperor, as his grandson Charlemagne would be titled, he was absolute ruler of virtually all of today's continental Western Europe north of the Pyrenees. Only the remaining Saxon realms, which he partly conquered, Lombardy, and the Marca Hispanica north of the Pyrenees were significant additions to the Frankish realms after his death.
wn.com/Carolingian_Empire -
Chagatai Khanate
The Chagatai Khanate (Mongolian: Tsagadai Khan Uls/Цагадайн улс) was a Turko-Mongolkhanate that comprised the lands ruled by Chagatai Khan, second son of Genghis Khan, and his descendents and successors. Initially it was considered a part of the Mongol Empire, but it later became fully independent.
At its height in the late 13th century, the Khanate extended from the Amu Darya south of the Aral Sea to the Altai Mountains in the border of modern-day Mongolia and China.
The khanate lasted in one form or another from 1220s until the late 17th century, although the western half of the khanate was lost to Tamerlane in the 1360s. The eastern half remained under Chagatai khans who were, at times, allied or at war with Timur's successors. Finally, in the 17th century, the remaining Chagatai domains fell under the theocratic regime of Apaq Khoja and his descendants, the Khojijans, who ruled East Turkestan under Dzungar and Manchu overlordships consecutively.
Genghis Khan's empire was inherited by his third son, Ögedei, the designated Great Khan who personally controlled the lands east of Lake Balkash as far as Mongolia. Tolui, the youngest, the keeper of the hearth, was accorded the northern Mongolian homeland. Chagatai, the second son, received Transoxania, between the Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers in modern Uzbekistan, and the area around Kashgar. He made his capital at Almalik near what is now Kulja in northwestern China. Apart from problems of lineage and inheritance, the Mongol Empire was endangered by the great cultural and ethnic divide between the Mongols themselves and their mostly Islamic Turkic subjects.
wn.com/Chagatai_Khanate -
Claudia Koonz
Claudia Ann Koonz is an American feminist historian of Nazi Germany. Her principal area of interest is the experience of women during the Nazi era.
Koonz first came to fame in 1969 with a dissertation on Walther Rathenau. She was awarded a PhD from Rutgers University in 1970. She has taught at the College of the Holy Cross in Worcester, Massachusetts and at Duke University.
Koonz is best known for documenting the appeal of Nazism to German women, and that German women played an enthusiastic role in supporting the Nazi regime. Koonz has established that the leaders of German feminist groups were happy to go along with Gleichschaltung that coerced Germans into following Nazi policy. Koonz has noted that female supporters of the Nazis accepted the Nazi division of the sexes into a public sphere for men and a private sphere for women. Koonz has claimed that women involved in resistance activities were more likely to escape notice owing to the 'masculine' values of the Third Reich. Another notable claim made by Koonz is that women who most successfully asserted themselves in the Third Reich were also the women who violated the norms of civilized society such as Ilse Koch. Koonz maintains that only women who were opposed to Nazism 100% can be considered to be a resistance; those women who protested against sterilization and the Action T4 program, but who did not protest the deportation of Jews to death camps are not considered by Koonz to be part of the resistance. Koonz's views have often had her pitted against Gisela Bock in battle some have referred to as the Historikerinnenstreit (Women Historians' Dispute).
wn.com/Claudia_Koonz -
Daniel Goldhagen
Daniel Jonah Goldhagen (born June 30, 1959) is an American author and former associate professor of political science and social studies at Harvard University. Goldhagen reached international attention and broad criticism as the author of two controversial books about the Holocaust, Hitler's Willing Executioners (1996) and A Moral Reckoning (2002). He is also the author of Worse Than War (2009), which examines the phenomenon of genocide.
Daniel Jonah Goldhagen was born June 30, 1959 in Boston, Massachusetts to Erich and Norma Goldhagen. He grew up in nearby Newton. His wife Sarah (née Williams) is an architectural historian, and critic forThe New Republic magazine.
Goldhagen's father, retired Harvard professor Erich Goldhagen, is a Holocaust survivor who lived in a Romanian–Jewish ghetto in Czernowitz (present-day Ukraine). He credits his father as a "model of intellectual sobriety and probity". Goldhagen has written that his "understanding of Nazism and of the Holocaust is firmly indebted" to his father's influence. In 1977, Goldhagen entered Harvard and remained there for some twenty years, first as an undergraduate and graduate student, then as an assistant professor in the Government and Social Studies Department.
wn.com/Daniel_Goldhagen -
David Irving
David John Cawdell Irving (born 24 March 1938) is an English writer, best known for his denial of the Holocaust, who specialises in the military and political history of World War II, with a focus on Nazi Germany. He is the author of 30 books on the subject, including The Destruction of Dresden (1963), Hitler's War (1977), Uprising! (1981), Churchill's War (1987), and Goebbels: Mastermind of the Third Reich (1996).
His work on Nazi Germany became controversial because of his sympathy for the Third Reich, antisemitism and racism. He has associated with far right and neo-Nazi causes, famously during his student days seconding British Union of Fascists founder Oswald Mosley in a University College London debate on immigration. He has been described as "the most skillful preacher of Holocaust denial in the world today".
Irving's reputation as an historian was widely discredited after he brought an unsuccessful libel case against the American historian Deborah Lipstadt and Penguin Books. The court found that Irving was an active Holocaust denier, antisemite, and racist, who "associates with right-wing extremists who promote neo-Nazism," and that he had "for his own ideological reasons persistently and deliberately misrepresented and manipulated historical evidence."
wn.com/David_Irving -
David Schoenbaum
David Schoenbaum (born 1935, Milwaukee, Wisconsin) is an American social scientist and historian.
He was teaching as a professor of History at the University of Iowa until 2008. Schoenbaum received his BA at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. In 1965, he was awarded a D.Phil at Oxford University.
Schoenbaum is best known for his 1966 social history book, Hitler’s Social Revolution, where Schoenbaum challenged the then prevailing notion that the National Socialist regime was a backwards looking, reactionary anti-modernizing dictatorship, and instead argued that, in effect at least, the Nazi regime was a modernizing dictatorship. Schoenbaum argued that the Nazi revolution was a "double revolution...of means and ends". In order to accomplish its foreign policy goals, namely war, the Nazi regime was forced to encourage modernization and industrialization, despite the anti-modernist nature of Nazi ideology. Schoenbaum wrote that "The revolution of ends was ideological—war against bourgeois and industrial society. The revolution of means was its reciprocal. It was bourgeois and industrial since in a industrial age, even a war against industrial society must be fought with industrial means and bourgeois are necessary to fight the bourgeoise".
wn.com/David_Schoenbaum -
Detlev Peukert
Detlev Peukert (September 20, 1950, Gütersloh – May 17, 1990, Hamburg) was a German historian, noted for his studies of the relationship between what he called the "spirit of science" and the Holocaust and in social history and the Weimar Republic. Peukert taught modern history at the University of Essen and served as director of the Research Institute for the History of the Nazi Period. Peukert was a member of the German Communist Party until 1978, when he joined the Social Democratic Party of Germany.
One of Peukert's first books was Ruhrarbeiter gegen den Faschismus (Ruhr Workers Against Fascism), a study of anti-Nazi activities amongst the working class of the Ruhr during the Third Reich. Peukert was a leading expert in Alltagsgeschichte (history of everyday life) and his work often examined the effect of Nazi social policies on ordinary Germans and on persecuted groups such as Jews and Roma. In particular, Peukert looked at how in "everyday" life in Nazi Germany, aspects of both "normality" and "criminality" co-existed with another. Peukert was one of the first historians to make a detailed examination of the persecution of the Roma. Peukert often compared Nazi policies towards Roma with Nazi policies towards Jews.
wn.com/Detlev_Peukert -
Dimitrije Ljotić
Dimitrije Ljotić (Serbian Cyrillic: Димитрије Љотић; August 12, 1891, Belgrade - April 23, 1945, Ajdovščina) was a Serbian fascist politician and Nazi German collaborationist during World War II.
Although born in Belgrade he spent most of his life in Smederevo. His Serbian ancestors came to Serbia from the village of Blace in what is today Greek Macedonia during the first half of 19th century. His father Vladimir Ljotić had a notable political and diplomatic career during which he was a consul in Thessaloniki, mayor of Smederevo and a Member of Parliament in the Serbian Parliament. Dimitrije started his education in Smederevo, before going on to graduate at the age of 16 from the Serbian lycée in Thesaloniki, and concluding his education by graduating at the University of Belgrade's Law School.
During the Balkan wars he volunteered for military medical service. In 1913 he stayed in Paris where he remained until the beginning of World War I; soon after he returned to Serbia and enlisted in the Serbian Army. After the Great War he served as commander of a railway station in Bakar, Croatia where he broke a railway strike arresting 36 workers. This event proved crucial in his life and career since it determined his choice to become a politician rather than a clergyman. In Bakar he met his wife Ivka, with whom he moved back to Smederevo in 1920 and started practicing law. In Smederevo he joined the People's Radical Party soon becoming president of the Youth branch. In 1931 King Alexander I proclaimed him Minister of Justice in the government of Petar Živković, in which capacity he would make a new draft Constitution and present it to the King. He proposed voters should vote in free and secret elections whilst candidates would be nominated by non-governmental organizations. The King refused his proposal and Ljotić resigned from office.
wn.com/Dimitrije_Ljotić -
Dutch people
The Dutch people (Dutch: Nederlanders (help·info)) are an ethnic group native to the Netherlands. They share a common culture and speak the Dutch language. Dutch people and their descendants are found in migrant communities worldwide, notably in Suriname, Chile, Brazil, Canada,Australia,South Africa,New Zealand, and the United States.
The traditional art and culture of the Dutch encompasses various forms of traditional music, dances, architectural styles and clothing, some of which are globally recognizable. Internationally, Dutch painters such as Rembrandt, Vermeer and Van Gogh are held in high regard. The dominant religion of the Dutch is Christianity (both Catholic and Protestant), although in modern times the majority is no longer (openly) religious. Significant percentages of the Dutch are adherents of humanism, agnosticism, atheism or individual spirituality.
In the Middle Ages the Low Countries were situated around the border of France and the Holy Roman Empire, forming a part of their respective peripheries, and the various territories of which they consisted had de facto become virtually autonomous by the 13th century. Under the Habsburgs, the Netherlands were organised into a single administrative unit, and in the 16th and 17th centuries the Northern Netherlands gained independence from Spain as the Dutch Republic. The high degree of urbanization characteristic of Dutch society was attained at a relatively early date. During the Republic the first series of large scale Dutch migrations outside of Europe took place.
wn.com/Dutch_people -
Eberhard Kolb
Professor Eberhard Kolb (born 8 August 1933, Stuttgart) is one of Germany's foremost authorities on German history of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Eberhard Kolb studied at the universities of Tübingen and Bonn, and attained a doctorate 1960 at the University of Goettingen on the topic of the influence of workers' councils on German domestic politics.
He wrote his habilitation in 1969, and one year later became a professor of modern history at the University of Würzburg. He served as a professor at the University of Cologne from 1979 until his retirement in 1998. In 1981 he spent a year as a visiting professor at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.
Professor Kolb has published outstanding books on Imperial Germany, the Weimar Republic, and the Third Reich. His learned summary of research on the Weimar Republic is mandatory reading for all students of modern German history. It has been frequently revised and reissued since its publication in 1984, and was translated into English in 1988.
wn.com/Eberhard_Kolb -
Enrico Corradini
Enrico Corradini (July 20, 1865 — December 10, 1931) was an Italian novelist, essayist, journalist and nationalist political figure.
Corradini was born near Montelupo Fiorentino, Tuscany.
A follower of Gabriele D'Annunzio, he founded the right-wing newspaper Il Regno (1903-1905), together with intellectuals Giovanni Papini, Vilfredo Pareto, and Giuseppe Prezzolini. It quickly became a staple for irredentist and radical thought that was to blend into Fascism. In 1910, the Italian Nationalist Association (Associazione Nazionalista Italiana, ANI) was founded with the participation of Corradini, who was among the leaders. It made a name for itself after giving full support to Italian imperialism and the Italo-Turkish War of 1911 - Corradini wrote two political essays on the matter (Il volere d'Italia - "Italy's Desire", and L'ora di Tripoli - "Tripoli's Moment"). He expanded such bellicose theories in the weekly L'Idea Nazionale, founded by him together with Alfredo Rocco and Luigi Federzoni.
wn.com/Enrico_Corradini -
Eoin O'Duffy
Eoin O'Duffy (Irish: Eoin Ó Dubhthaigh; 30 October 1892 – 30 November 1944) was in succession a Teachta Dála (TD), the Chief of Staff of the Irish Republican Army (IRA), the second Commissioner of the Garda Síochána, leader of the Army Comrades Association and then the first leader of Fine Gael (1933–34), before leading the Irish Brigade to fight for Francisco Franco during the Spanish Civil War. He once proclaimed himself the "third most important man in Europe" after Adolf Hitler and fellow fascist Benito Mussolini.
Eoin O'Duffy was born Owen O'Duffy in Lough Egish, near Castleblayney, County Monaghan. O'Duffy did an apprenticeship as an engineer in Wexford before working as an engineer and architect in Monaghan. In 1919 he became an auctioneer. O'Duffy was a leading member of the Gaelic Athletic Association in Ulster in the 1910s. A stand in a ground in Clones, County Monaghan, is named after him.
In 1917 O'Duffy joined the Irish Volunteers and took an active part in the Irish War of Independence. In February 1920, he (along with Ernie O'Malley) was involved in the first capture of a Royal Irish Constabulary barracks by the IRA in Ballytrain, in his native Monaghan. He came to the attention of Michael Collins, who enrolled him into the Irish Republican Brotherhood and supported his advancement in the Nationalist hierarchy.
wn.com/Eoin_O'Duffy -
Ernst Kaltenbrunner
Ernst Kaltenbrunner (4 October 1903 – 16 October 1946) was an Austrian-born senior official of Nazi Germany during World War II. Between January 1943 and May 1945, he held the offices of Chief of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt (RSHA, Reich Main Security Office), President of Interpol and, as a Obergruppenführer und General der Polizei und Waffen-SS, he was the highest-ranking Schutzstaffel (SS) leader to face trial at the first Nuremberg Trials. He was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity and executed.
Born in Ried im Innkreis, Austria, Kaltenbrunner was the son of a lawyer, and was educated at the State Realgymnasium in Linz and at Graz University. He obtained a law degree in 1926, and briefly worked as a lawyer in Linz and Salzburg. He was a very tall man, standing just over 6' 7" (201 cm) tall,[citation needed] and had deep scars on his face from dueling in his student days. However, according to some sources, these "dueling scars" were actually the result of an alcohol-related driving accident.
wn.com/Ernst_Kaltenbrunner -
Ernst Röhm
Ernst Julius Günther Röhm, (November 28, 1887 – July 2, 1934) was a German officer in the Bavarian Army and later an early Nazi leader. He was a co-founder of the Sturmabteilung ("Storm Battalion"; SA), the Nazi Party militia, and later was its commander. In 1934, as part of the Night of the Long Knives, he was executed on Hitler's orders as a potential rival.
Ernst Röhm was born in Munich, the youngest of three children (older sister and brother). His father, a railway official, was described as "a harsh man". Although the family had no military tradition, Röhm entered the Royal Bavarian 10th Infantry Regiment Prinz Ludwig at Ingolstadt as a cadet on 23 July 1906. He obtained his commission on 12 March 1908. At the outbreak of war in August 1914, he was adjutant of the 1st Battalion, 10th Infantry Regiment König. The following month, he was seriously wounded in the face at Chanot Wood in Lorraine, and carried the scars for the rest of his life. He was promoted to senior lieutenant (Oberleutnant) in April 1915. During an attack on the fortification at Thiaumont, Verdun, on 23 June 1916, he sustained a serious chest wound. As a result, he spent the remainder of the war in both France and Romania as a staff officer. He was awarded the Iron Cross First Class on 20 June 1916, just before he was wounded at Verdun, and was promoted to captain (Hauptmann) in April 1917. In October 1918, while serving on the Staff of the Gardekorps, he contracted the deadly Spanish influenza and was not expected to live; however, he survived and recovered after a long period of convalescence.
wn.com/Ernst_Röhm -
Erwin Rommel
Erwin Johannes Eugen Rommel (15 November 1891 – 14 October 1944), popularly known as the Desert Fox (Wüstenfuchs, listen (help·info)), was a German Field Marshal of World War II. He won the respect of both his own troops and the enemies he fought.
He was a highly decorated officer in World War I, and was awarded the Pour le Mérite for his exploits on the Italian front. In World War II, he further distinguished himself as the commander of the 7th Panzer Division during the 1940 invasion of France. However, it was his leadership of German and Italian forces in the North African campaign that established the legend of the Desert Fox. He is considered to have been one of the most skilled commanders of desert warfare in the conflict.[page needed] He later commanded the German forces opposing the Allied cross-channel invasion in Normandy.
As one of the few generals who consistently fought the Western Allies (he was never assigned to the Eastern Front), Rommel is regarded as having been a humane and professional officer. His Afrikakorps was never accused of war crimes. Soldiers captured during his Africa campaign were reported to have been treated humanely. Furthermore, he ignored orders to kill captured commandos, Jewish soldiers and civilians in all theaters of his command.
wn.com/Erwin_Rommel -
Eva Braun
Eva Anna Paula Hitler (née Braun; 6 February 1912 – 30 April 1945) was the longtime companion of Adolf Hitler and, for less than 40 hours, his wife. Braun met Hitler in Munich when she was 17 years old, while she was working as an assistant and model for his personal photographer, and began seeing him often about two years later. She attempted suicide twice during their early relationship. By 1936, she was a part of his household at the Berghof near Berchtesgaden and lived a sheltered life throughout World War II. Braun was a photographer, and many of the surviving colour photographs and films of Hitler were taken by her. She was a key figure within Hitler's inner social circle, but did not attend public events with him until mid-1944, when her sister Gretl married Hermann Fegelein, the SS liaison officer on his staff.
As the Third Reich collapsed towards the end of the war, Braun swore loyalty to Hitler and went to Berlin to be by his side in the heavily reinforced Führerbunker beneath the Reich Chancellery. As Red Army troops fought their way into the neighbourhood on 29 April 1945, she married Hitler during a brief civil ceremony; she was 33 and he was 56. Less than 40 hours later, they committed suicide together in a sitting room of the bunker, she by biting into a capsule of cyanide. The German public was unaware of Braun's relationship with Hitler until after her death.
wn.com/Eva_Braun -
Felix Steiner
Felix Martin Julius Steiner (23 May 1896 – 12 May 1966) was a German Reichswehr and Waffen-SS officer who served in both World War I and World War II. He was also a recipient of the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords (German: Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern). The Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross and its higher grade Oak Leaves and Swords were awarded in recognition of extreme battlefield bravery or successful military leadership.
Steiner ranks as one of the most innovative commanders of the Waffen-SS. He skillfully commanded the SS-Deutschland Regiment through the invasions of Poland, France and the Low Countries. He was then chosen by Himmler to oversee the creation of, and then command the volunteer SS Division, SS-Division Wiking. In 1943, he was promoted to the command of III (Germanic) SS Panzer Corps.
On 28 January 1945, Steiner was placed in command of the 11th SS Panzer-Army. His army was part of Army Group Vistula.
On 21 April, during the Battle for Berlin, Steiner was placed in command of Army Detachment Steiner. On 22 April, the Russians outnumbered Steiner's worn out and exhausted unit by ten to one. Hitler gave orders for Steiner's forces through a pincer attack to envelop 1st Belorussian Front, advancing from north of Berlin. Later in the day, Steiner made it plain that he did not have the divisions to do this. On 22 April, at his afternoon situation conference, Hitler fell into a tearful rage when he realised that his plans of the day before were not going to be realised.
wn.com/Felix_Steiner -
Ferenc Szálasi
Ferenc Szálasi (Szálasi Ferenc in Hungarian, Hungarian pronunciation: [saːlaʃi fɛrɛnts]) (6 January 1897 – 12 March 1946) was the leader of the National Socialist Arrow Cross Party – Hungarist Movement, the "Leader of the Nation" (Nemzetvezető), being both Head of State and Prime Minister of the Kingdom of Hungary's "Government of National Unity" (Nemzeti Összefogás Kormánya) for the final three months of Hungary's participation in World War II. During his brief rule, Szálasi's men murdered 10–15,000 Jews. After the war, he was executed by the Soviets for crimes against the state.
Born the son of a soldier in Kassa (now Košice in Slovakia) of mixed Armenian (the surname of his great-grandfather was Saloshyan), German, Hungarian (one grandparent), Slovak and Rusyn heritage.
Szálasi followed in his father's footsteps and joined the army at a young age. He eventually became an officer and served in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I. Upon the dissolution and break-up of Austria-Hungary after the war, the Hungarian Democratic Republic and then the Hungarian Soviet Republic were briefly proclaimed in 1918 and 1919 respectively. The short-lived communist government of Béla Kun launched what was known as the "Red Terror" and ultimately involved Hungary in an ill-fated war with Romania. In 1920, the country went into a period of civil conflict with Hungarian anti-communists and monarchists violently purging the nation of communists, leftist intellectuals, and others they felt threatened by, especially Jews. This period was known as the "White Terror" and, in 1920, after the pullout of the last of the Romanian occupation forces, it led to the restoration of the Kingdom of Hungary (Magyar Királyság).
wn.com/Ferenc_Szálasi -
Francisco Franco
Francisco Franco y Bahamonde, better known under the name of Franco, (Spanish: [fɾanˈθisko ˈfɾaŋko]; 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish general, dictator and the leader of the Nationalist military rebellion in the Spanish Civil War, and totalitarian head of state of Spain, from October 1936 (as a unified nation from 1939 onwards) until his death in November 1975. He came to power while recognizing the principles of the far-right Falange movement, although this was for propaganda reasons, as he belonged to no political party before becoming Head of State. As head of state, Franco used the titles Caudillo de España and Generalísimo, but also was called formally as His Excellency, The Head of State.
Franco was from a military family, and although originally intent on entering the Spanish Navy, he instead became a soldier. He participated in the Rif War in Morocco, becoming the youngest general in Europe by 1926. After returning to the Spanish mainland, he saw service suppressing an anarchist-led strike in 1934, defending the stability of Alcalá-Zamora's conservative government. Following the formation of a Popular Front government, made up of various left-wing factions, instability heightened. Violence between militant groups rose sharply with assassination of conservative parliamentary leader José Calvo Sotelo, in retaliation for the killing of José Castillo. Franco and his co-conspirators used Calvo's death as their pretext for war, as they had already initiated the plan for their rebellion.
wn.com/Francisco_Franco -
Franz Gürtner
Franz Gürtner (26 August 1881 – 29 January 1941) was a German Minister of Justice in Adolf Hitler's cabinet, responsible for coordinating jurisprudence in the Third Reich. Detesting the cruel ways of the Gestapo and SA in dealing with prisoners of war, he protested unsuccessfully to Hitler, nevertheless staying on in the cabinet, hoping to reform the establishment from within. Instead, he found himself providing official sanction and legal grounds for a series of criminal actions under the Hitler administration.
Gürtner was born in Regensburg, the son of a locomotive engineer. After secondary school in Regensburg, he attended the University of Munich where he studied law. During World War I, he served on the western front and in Palestine, receiving the Iron Cross (first and second class).
After the war, Gürtner pursued a successful legal career, being appointed Bavarian Minister of Justice on 8 November 1922, a position he held until his nomination by Franz von Papen as Reich Minister of Justice on 2 June 1932. As a Deutschnationale (German national) Party member, Gürtner was sympathetic to right-wing extremists such as Hitler, seeing to it during his trial in 1924, following the Beer Hall Putsch that the judiciary was lenient, and that a light sentence was given to the Nazi Party leader[citation needed]. During the trial, Hitler was allowed to interrupt the proceedings as often as he wished, to cross-examine witnesses at will, and to speak on his own behalf at almost any length[citation needed]. Gürtner obtained Hitler's early release from Landsberg Prison, and later persuaded the Bavarian government to legalize the banned NSDAP, and allow Hitler to speak again in public.
wn.com/Franz_Gürtner -
Franz Rademacher
Franz Rademacher (20 February 1906, Neustrelitz - 17 March 1973) was an official in the Nazi government of the Third Reich during World War II, known for initiating action on the Madagascar Plan.
Rademacher was born on February 20, 1906 in Neustrelitz, Mecklenburg-Strelitz. His father was a railway engineer. He studied law in Rostock and Munich, and entered the profession as a jurist in April 1932. He held membership in the Sturmabteilung (Nazi stormtroopers) between 1932 and 1934. In 1933, he joined the Nazi party. He was a vocal anti-semite.
From 1937, he was a diplomat with the German Foreign Office, serving at the German embassy in Montevideo, Uruguay until May, 1940. In 1940, he was selected to lead Referat D III, or Judenreferat, of Ribbentrop's Foreign Affairs Ministry. His direct superior was Nazi diplomat Martin Luther. It was during his tenure in this office, throughout the spring and summer of 1940, that Rademacher kick-started the Madagascar Plan, which sought to forcibly deport all of Europe's Jews to the island of Madagascar. He jousted briefly with Adolf Eichmann over organizational control of the plan, which would shortly be abandoned amidst Germany's changing fortunes in World War II.
wn.com/Franz_Rademacher -
Franz Seldte
Franz Seldte (29 June 1882 – 1 April 1947) was cofounder of the German Stahlhelm paramilitary organization, a Nazi politician, and Minister for Labour of the German Reich from 1933 to 1945.
Born in Magdeburg in the Prussian province of Saxony, Seldte was the son of an owner of a factory producing chemical products and soda water. He attended the Wilhelm-Raabe-Gymnasium in Magdeburg and, after an apprenticeship as a salesman, he studied chemistry at the universities of Braunschweig and Greifswald. In 1908 he took over the business of his early deceased father.
As an officer of the German Army he was wounded in World War I and lost his left arm. He then became a front reporter. Awarded with the Iron Cross 2nd and 1st class, he also was promoted to the rank of a Hauptmann (captain) in the 7th Reserve Division.
As a reaction to the German Revolution of 1918–1919, Seldte founded the Stahlhelm organization of World War I veterans on 25 December 1918, agitating against the Treaty of Versailles and German war reparations. He took over the leadership, however, from 1923 onwards he had to cope with the constant rivalry of his deputy leader, the militant Theodor Duesterberg.
wn.com/Franz_Seldte -
Franz von Papen
Lieutenant-Colonel Franz Joseph Hermann Michael Maria von Papen zu Köningen ( listen (help·info)) (29 October 1879 – 2 May 1969) was a German nobleman, General Staff officer and right-wing politician. He served as as Chancellor of Germany in 1932 and as Vice-Chancellor under Adolf Hitler in 1933–1934. He belonged to the group of close advisers to President Paul von Hindenburg in the late Weimar Republic. It was largely Papen, believing that Hitler could be controlled once he was in the government, who persuaded Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as Chancellor in a cabinet not under Nazi Party domination. However, Papen and his allies were quickly marginalized by Hitler and he left the government after the Night of the Long Knives, during which some of his confidants were killed by the Nazis.
Born to a wealthy and noble Catholic family in Werl, Province of Westphalia, son of Friedrich von Papen zu Köningen (1839 – 1906) and his wife Anna Laura von Steffens (1852 – 1939), Papen was educated as an officer, including a period as a military attendant in the Kaiser's Palace, before joining the German General Staff in March 1913. He entered diplomatic service in December 1913 as a military attaché to the German ambassador in the United States. He travelled to Mexico (to which he was also accredited) in early 1914 and observed the Mexican Revolution, returning to Washington, D.C. on the outbreak of World War I in August 1914. He married Martha von Boch-Galhau (1880 – 1961) on 3 May 1905.
wn.com/Franz_von_Papen -
Fritz Hippler
Fritz Hippler (17 August 1909 – 22 May 2002) was a German filmmaker who ran the film department in the Propaganda Ministry of the Third Reich, under Joseph Goebbels. He is most famous as director of the propaganda film Der ewige Jude (The Eternal Jew).
Hippler grew up in Berlin as the son of a petty official. His father died in 1918 in the First World War in France. Hippler resented the Treaty of Versailles and its associated regulations, such as the assignment of the Danzig Corridor, the occupation of the Rhineland and the disarmament of Germany as unjustified humiliation, and rejected the Weimar democracy.
In 1927, Hippler became a student member of the 1927 Nazi Party. Later he studied law in Heidelberg and Berlin. He was a member of the Teutonia dueling team in Heidelberg and the Berlin Arminia country team. In 1932 he became NSDAP district speaker . In 1933 he was appointed the district and high school group leader for Berlin-Brandenburg in the National Socialist German Student Federation.
wn.com/Fritz_Hippler -
Fritz Todt
Fritz Todt (4 September 1891, Pforzheim – 8 February 1942) was a German engineer and senior Nazi figure, the founder of Organisation Todt. He died in a plane crash during World War II.
Todt was born in Pforzheim to a father who owned a small factory. He studied engineering in Karlsruhe and the School for Advanced Technical Studies at the Technical University Munich.
In World War I, he initially served with the infantry and then as front line reconnaissance observer within the Luftstreitkräfte (the German Air Forces - DLSK), winning the Iron Cross. After his military service, he finished his studies in 1920 and joined at first the "Grün & Bilfinger AG, Mannheim" company and, later, the civil engineering company Sager & Woerner (1921).
He joined the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP) (better known as the Nazi Party) on 5 January 1922. In 1931, he became an Oberführer (a rank equivalent to senior Colonel) in the Sturmabteilung (SA), which was then commanded by Ernst Röhm: that year, Todt also completed his doctorate (on "Fehlerquellen beim Bau von Landstraßendecken aus Teer und Asphalt" – "Sources of defects in the construction of tarmac and asphalt road surfaces").
wn.com/Fritz_Todt -
Fumimaro Konoe
Prince Fumimaro Konoe (近衛 文麿, Konoe Fumimaro?, often Konoye, October 12, 1891 – December 16, 1945) was a politician in the Empire of Japan who served as the 34th, 38th and 39th Prime Minister of Japan and founder/leader of the Taisei Yokusankai.
Prince Fumimaro Konoe was born into the ancient Fujiwara clan, and was the heir of the princely Konoe family in Tokyo. This was a highly prestigious Japanese family, so lofty that the older and more powerful noble, Saionji Kinmochi, addressed the young student as "your Excellency" when he first met him. The Prince received a broad education, acquiring both German and English. He was particularly drawn to Socialist writings, he studied socialist philosopher Hajime Kawakami, and at age 23 translated and published Oscar Wilde’s The Soul of Man Under Socialism.
Konoe’s father, Atsumaro, had been politically active, having organized the Anti-Russia Society in 1903. Atsumaro had been considered a potential candidate for Prime Minister, but died in 1904. That left Konoe with the title of Prince, plenty of social standing but not much money, and plenty of room for a mentor/father-figure. That mentor was Saionji. Even so, Konoe never fully embraced his mentor’s pro-Western attitudes.
wn.com/Fumimaro_Konoe -
Galeazzo Ciano
Gian Galeazzo Ciano, 2nd Count of Cortellazzo and Buccari (18 March 1903 – 11 January 1944) was an Italian Minister of Foreign Affairs and Benito Mussolini's son-in-law. In early 1944 Count Ciano was shot by firing squad at the behest of his father-in-law, Mussolini, under pressure from Nazi Germany.
Ciano was born in Livorno, Italy, in 1903, to an aristocratic family. He was the son of Count Costanzo Ciano and his wife Carolina Pini; his father was an Admiral and World War I hero in the Royal Italian Navy, founding member of the National Fascist Party and re-organizer of the Italian Merchant Marine in the 1920s. The elder Ciano (he was nicknamed Ganascia, meaning "The Jaw") was not above making a private profit from his public office; and as a side effect his son was soon used to living a high-profile glamorous life, which he continued to maintain until almost the end. He would use his influence to depress the stock of a company, after which he would buy a controlling interest, which would increase his wealth after its value rebounded and owned among other holdings a newspaper, farmland in Tuscany, and other properties worth millions. After studying Philosophy of Law, the younger Ciano had a brief experience as a journalist before choosing a diplomatic career, and served as an attaché in Rio de Janeiro. On 24 April 1930, he married Benito Mussolini's daughter Edda Mussolini, with whom he soon left for Shanghai where he served as Italian Consul. Back in Italy, a few years later, he became the minister of press and propaganda.
wn.com/Galeazzo_Ciano -
Germanic peoples
The Germanic peoples (also called Teutonic or Gothic in older literature) are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age.
wn.com/Germanic_peoples -
Giovanni Gentile
Giovanni Gentile (Italian pronunciation: [dʒoˈvanni dʒenˈtiːle]; May 30, 1875 – April 15, 1944) was an Italian neo-Hegelian Idealist philosopher, a peer of Benedetto Croce. He described himself as 'the philosopher of Fascism', and ghostwrote A Doctrine of Fascism (1932) for Benito Mussolini. He also devised his own system of philosophy, Actual Idealism.
Giovanni Gentile was born in Castelvetrano, Sicily. He was inspired by Italian intellectuals such as Mazzini, Rosmini, Gioberti, and Spaventa from whom he borrowed the idea of autoctisi, “self-construction”, but also was strongly influenced by the German idealist and materialist schools of thought — namely Karl Marx, Hegel, and Fichte with whom he shared the ideal of creating a Wissenschaftslehre, theory for a structure of knowledge that makes no assumptions. Friedrich Nietzsche, too, influenced him, as seen in an analogy between Nietzsche's Übermensch and Gentile's Uomo Fascista.
He won the fierce competition and became one of the four exceptional students of the mythic Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, where he enrolled at the Faculty of Humanities.
wn.com/Giovanni_Gentile -
Gisela Bock
Gisela Bock (born 1942 in Karlsruhe, Germany) is a German historian. She studied in Freiburg, Berlin, Paris and Rome. She took her doctorate at the Free University Berlin in 1971 (on early modern intellectual history in Italy) and her Habilitation at the Technical University Berlin in 1984. She has taught at the Free University Berlin (1971-1983) and was professor at the European University Institute (1985-1989) in Florence, Italy, at the University of Bielefeld (1989-1997) and then at the Free University Berlin. She retired in 2007.
In the 1970s, Bock was active in the international campaign for "wages for/against housework“ and she was one of the pioneers in the emergence and establishment of women’s and gender history. She was a co-founder of the International Federation for Research in Women’s History (1987). Bock's best known works are her theoretical articles on gender history and the volume Women in European History (all of them in many languages). Only in German is her 1986 book Zwangssterilisation im Nationalsozialismus (Compulsory Sterilization in National Socialism), a study of the 400,000 compulsory sterilizations performed in Nazi Germany on "genetically inferior“ men and women. Bock examined the history of sterilization in Nazi Germany with respect to the perpetrators as well as the victims, both women and men. She showed how the treatment and the experience of male and female victims was both similar and different, and she argued that Nazi gender policy was shaped by Nazi racism just as Nazi race policy was shaped by gender. Bock also examined the Nazi sterilization policy as an integral part of the regime’s population policy as well as a prelude to Nazi genocide.
wn.com/Gisela_Bock -
Great Seljuq Empire
The Great Seljuq Empire (Turkish: Büyük Selçuklu Devleti, Persian: دولت سلجوقیان) was a medieval Persianate,Turko-PersianSunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qynyq branch of Oghuz Turks. The Seljuq Empire controlled a vast area stretching from the Hindu Kush to eastern Anatolia and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf. From their homelands near the Aral sea, the Seljuqs advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia before eventually conquering eastern Anatolia.
The Seljuq empire was founded by Tughril Beg in 1037 after the efforts by the founder of the Seljuq dynasty, Seljuq Beg, back in the first quarter of the eleventh century. Seljuq Beg's father was in a higher position in the Oghuz Yabgu State, and gave his name both to the state and the dynasty. The Seljuqs united the fractured political scene of the Eastern Islamic world and played a key role in the first and second crusades. Highly Persianized in culture and language, the Seljuqs also played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition, even exporting Persian culture to Anatolia. The Seljuqs conquest gave impetus to the progressive Turkicization of parts of Anatolia, Iran and the Caucasus.
wn.com/Great_Seljuq_Empire -
Guido Knopp
Guido Knopp (born January 29, 1948, in Treysa, Hesse) is a German journalist and author. He is well known in Germany, mainly because he has produced a great number of TV documentaries, predominantly about the "Third Reich" and National Socialism, but also about other topics, such as Stalinism.
After gaining his doctorate degree in history and political science, Knopp worked as a newspaper editor at the Welt am Sonntag and the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung. In 1978 he took up employment at the German TV station ZDF. Since then, he has produced many documentaries about the Nazi dictatorship like Hitlers Helfer ("Hitler's Henchmen"), Hitler-Eine Bilanz ("Hitler-taking stock") or Die SS: Eine Warnung der Geschichte ("The SS: A warning from history"), but also for example Vatikan (about the power of the popes) or Kanzler: Die Mächtigen der Republik (about Germany's post-war federal chancellors). He also hosts a weekly show on German television, usually broadcast on Sundays, called "History". In 1999 he produced a series called "100 Jahre – der Countdown", which sums up the whole 20th Century year by year and is still sometimes broadcast, mainly during holidays, by the German TV station Phoenix.
wn.com/Guido_Knopp -
Gustavs Celmiņš
Gustavs Celmiņš (April 1, 1899 in Riga – April 10, 1968), was a Latvian politician. He was educated at the commerce school of the Riga Stock Exchange, and graduated in Moscow. In 1917, he began studies at the Riga Polytechnical Institute which had been evacuated to Moscow. After the October Revolution, he returned to Latvia.
In 1918, Celmiņš enlisted into the newly-created Latvian Army, and was promoted to lieutenant the following year, and was then appointed Latvian military attaché in Poland. In 1921, he was awarded the Order of Lāčplēsis.
Retired from army in 1924, he worked in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs from 1925 to 1927. Celmiņš became the secretary of Minister of Foreign Affairs, and subsequently worked in the Finance Ministry. On 24 January 1932, the Latvian nationalist group Ugunskrusts was founded, and Gustavs Celmiņš was elected as its leader. After Ugunskrusts was banned, he founded the organization Pērkonkrusts ("Thundercross"). Common for both organisations was that they advocated a national revolution for a radical re-organisation of society, politics, and the economy in Latvia. Following Kārlis Ulmanis' 15 May 1934 coup d'état, Celmiņš was arrested and imprisoned for three years. He was exiled from Latvia in 1937.
wn.com/Gustavs_Celmiņš -
Götz Aly
Götz Haydar Aly (born May 3, 1947 in Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg) is a German journalist, historian and social scientist.
After attending the German School of Journalists, Aly studied history and political science in Berlin. As a journalist, he worked for the taz, the Berliner Zeitung and the FAZ.
Presently, from 2004 to 2005, he is a visiting professor for interdisciplinary Holocaust research at the Fritz Bauer Institut in Frankfurt am Main.
Aly researches the history of the Holocaust and the participation of social elites in Nazi destruction policies. In 2005 he gained public attention in Germany for the popular success of his book Hitlers Volksstaat (Hitler's People's State). In it, Aly characterises Nazi Germany as a "convenience dictatorship" that until late in the war retained broad public support, in particular by making possible an unprecedented social mobility for the lower classes, by introducing redistributive fiscal policies and by greatly extending the German welfare state. Aly also recounts how all this was paid for in large part by confiscation of Jewish property in Germany and later the plunder of the conquered countries, and especially their Jewish populations. He maintains that the reason for the massive support the Nazi regime enjoyed among the German population was not so much a consequence of their violent anti-Semitism as their enjoying the fruits of the loot acquired by the Nazis in the occupied territories. He also shows how the Wehrmacht was directly involved in this mass plunder of the conquered populations and how in many cases it was the initiator of policies which led to confiscation and eventual extermination. His other point is that the conservative, non-Nazi financial state bureaucracy and the leading banks were crucial in formulating this policy of mass plunder and murder.
wn.com/Götz_Aly -
Hanna Reitsch
Hanna Reitsch (29 March 1912 – 24 August 1979) was a German aviator and the only woman awarded the Iron Cross First Class and the Luftwaffe Combined Pilots-Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds during World War II. She set over forty aviation altitude and endurance records during her career, both before and after World War II, and several of her international gliding records still stand in 2012.
Reitsch was born in Hirschberg, Silesia on 29 March 1912 to an upper-middle-class family. She had a brother, Kurt, and a sister. Although her mother was a devout Catholic, Reitsch and her siblings were brought up in the Protestant religion of their father, an ophthalmologist who wanted her to become a doctor. Interested in aviation, she thought she might become a flying missionary doctor in North Africa and studied medicine for a time at the Colonial School for Women at Rendsburg. She began flying in 1932 in gliders and left medical school in 1933 at the invitation of Wolf Hirth to become a full-time glider pilot/instructor at Hornberg in Baden-Württemberg. She was soon breaking records, earning a Silver C Badge No 25 in 1934. She flew from Salzburg across the Alps in 1938 in a Sperber Junior.
wn.com/Hanna_Reitsch -
Hanns Kerrl
Hanns Kerrl (11 December 1887 - 12 December 1941) was a German Nazi politician. His most prominent position, from July 1935, was that of Reichsminister of Church Affairs. He was also President of the Prussian Landtag (1932–1934) and head of the Zweckverband Reichsparteitag Nürnberg and in that capacity edited a number of Nuremberg rally yearbooks.
Kerrl was born into a Protestant family in Fallersleben; his father was a headmaster. Hanns Kerrl joined the NSDAP in 1923 and soon afterwards went into regional politics.
On 17 June 1934 he became Reichsminister without Portfolio. In the following year, on 16 July 1935, he was appointed Reichsminister für die kirchlichen Angelegenheiten (Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs), to head a newly created ministry. On the one hand, Kerrl was supposed to mediate between those Nazi leaders who hated religion (for example Heinrich Himmler) and the churches themselves and stress the religious aspect of the Nazi ideology. On the other hand, in tune with the policy of Gleichschaltung, it was Kerrl's job to subjugate the churches—subject the various denominations and their leaders and subordinate them to the greater goals decided by the Führer. Indeed, Kerrl had been appointed after Ludwig Müller had been unsuccessful in getting the Protestants to unite in one "Reich Church."
wn.com/Hanns_Kerrl -
Hans Frank
Hans Michael Frank (23 May 1900 – 16 October 1946) was a German lawyer who worked for the Nazi party during the 1920s and 1930s. After Hitler's accession to power in 1933, Frank became Nazi Germany's chief jurist and Governor-General of occupied Poland's 'General Government' territory. During his tenure (1939–1945), he instituted a reign of terror against the civilian population and became directly involved in the mass murder of Polish Jews. At the Nuremberg trials, he was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity and executed.
Frank was born in Karlsruhe to Karl Frank, a lawyer, and his wife, Magdalena (née Buchmaier). He had an older brother, Karl Jr., and a younger sister, Elisabeth. He joined the German army in 1917, during World War I. After the war he served in the Freikorps under Franz Ritter von Epp's command, and then joined the German Worker's Party (which soon evolved into NSDAP), in 1919. He was one of the party's earliest members.
wn.com/Hans_Frank -
Hans Lammers
Dr.jur. Hans Heinrich Lammers (27 May 1879 – 4 January 1962) was a German jurist and prominent Nazi politician. From 1933 until 1945 he served as head of the Reich Chancellery under Adolf Hitler.
Born in Lubliniec in Upper Silesia, the son of a veterinarian, Lammers completed law school at the universities of Wrocław and Heidelberg, obtained his doctorate in 1904, and was appointed judge at the Amtsgericht of Beuthen (Bytom) in 1912. As a volunteer and officer of the German Army he received the Iron Cross, First and Second Class during World War I, then resumed his career as a lawyer and joined the national conservative German National People's Party (DNVP), reaching the position of a undersecretary at the Reich Ministry of the Interior by 1922.
In 1932, Lammers joined the Nazi Party and achieved rapid promotion, appointed head of the police department, and in the course of the Nazi Machtergreifung in 1933 a State Secretary and Chief of the Reich Chancellery. At the recommendation of Reich Minister Wilhelm Frick, he became the center of communications and chief legal adviser for all government departments. From 1937, he was a member of Hitler's cabinet as a Reich Minister without portfolio, and from 30 November 1939 a member of the Council of Ministers for the Defence of the Reich. In this position he was able to review all pertinent documents regarding national security and domestic policy even before they were forwarded to Hitler personally.
wn.com/Hans_Lammers -
Heinrich Himmler
Heinrich Luitpold Himmler (pronounced [ˈhaɪnʁɪç ˈluˑɪtˌpɔlt ˈhɪmlɐ] ( listen) 7 October 1900 – 23 May 1945) was Reichsführer of the Schutzstaffel (SS), a military commander, and a leading member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). As Chief of the German Police and the Minister of the Interior from 1943, Himmler oversaw all internal and external police and security forces, including the Gestapo (Secret State Police). Serving as Reichsführer and later as Commander of the Replacement (Home) Army and General Plenipotentiary for the entire Reich's administration (Generalbevollmächtigter für die Verwaltung), Himmler was one of the most powerful men in Nazi Germany and one of the persons most directly responsible for the Holocaust.
As overseer of the concentration camps, extermination camps, and Einsatzgruppen (literally: task forces, often used as death squads operating to the rear of frontline troops to murder Jews, communists and 'untermensch' in occupied territories), Himmler coordinated the killing of some six million Jews, between 200,000 and 500,000 Roma, many prisoners of war, and possibly another three to four million Poles, as well as other groups whom the Nazis deemed unworthy to live, including people with physical and mental disabilities, Jehovah's Witnesses, members of the Confessing Church, and homosexuals. Shortly before the end of the war, he offered to surrender both Germany and himself to the Western Allies if he were spared prosecution. After being arrested by British forces on 22 May 1945, he committed suicide the following day before he could be questioned.
wn.com/Heinrich_Himmler -
Heinz Höhne
Heinz Höhne (1926 Berlin, Germany - 27 March 2010 in Großhansdorf) was a German journalist and historian who specialized in Nazi and intelligence history.
Born in Berlin in 1926, Höhne was educated there until he was called to fight during the last months of the Second World War. After the war, he studied journalism in Munich and went on to work for various newspapers as a freelance reporter. In 1955, he was hired by the weekly magazine Der Spiegel, where he joined the foreign staff of the magazine and eventually took charge of the Anglo-American department. It is while employed for Der Spiegel that he became famous for his exploits. Heinz's controversial efforts in covering unexploited areas of Nazi history earned him renown as his painstaking efforts exposed and elucidated missing pieces of the Nazi puzzle. His most famous of these works is titled The Order of the Death's Head: The Story of Hitler's SS. (Der Orden unter dem Totenkopf: Die Geschichte der SS). This work first appeared in 1967, and many other notable works subsequently followed, such as his 1971 revisionist study of the Soviet Union's spy network entitled Codeword: Direktor. In 1976, Höhne went on to write Canaris, a radical interpretation of Hitler's spymaster, who was in charge of the Abwehr.
wn.com/Heinz_Höhne -
Helmuth Weidling
Helmuth Otto Ludwig Weidling (2 November 1891 – 17 November 1955) was an officer in the German Army (Wehrmacht Heer) before and during World War II. Weidling was the last commander of the Berlin Defence Area during the Battle of Berlin, and led the defence of the city against Soviet forces, finally surrendering just before the end of World War II in Europe.
During his military career, he was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords.
Weidling was born on November 2, 1891 in Halberstadt, Province of Saxony. He entered the military in 1911 initially serving in a field artillery regiment in Breslau. His next assignment was to a balloon battalion in the Tegel district of Berlin and whilst in Berlin he was promoted to lieutenant on 10 August 1912.
In November 1938, Weidling became a Colonel (Oberst) of the 56th Artillery Regiment. He fought with this regiment in the Polish Campaign of 1939. In April 1940, Weidling was appointed Artillery Commander of the XL Tank Corps (XL Panzer Korps). He commanded this corps during the Battle of France and during the early stages of Operation Barbarossa.
wn.com/Helmuth_Weidling -
Hermann Göring
Hermann Wilhelm Göring, (or Goering;German pronunciation: [ˈɡøːʁɪŋ] ( listen); 12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946) was a German politician, military leader, and leading member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). A veteran of World War I as an ace fighter pilot, he was a recipient of the coveted Pour le Mérite, also known as "the Blue Max". He was the last commander of Jagdgeschwader 1, the fighter wing once led by Manfred von Richthofen, "the Red Baron".
A member of the NSDAP from its early days, Göring was wounded in 1923 during the failed coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch. He suffered from a lifelong addiction to morphine after being treated with the drug for his injuries. He founded the Gestapo in 1933. Göring was appointed commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe (air force) in 1935, a position he held until the final days of World War II. By 1940 he was at the peak of his power and influence; as minister in charge of the Four Year Plan, he was responsible for much of the functioning of the German economy in the build-up to World War II. Adolf Hitler promoted him to the rank of Reichsmarschall, a rank senior to all other Wehrmacht commanders, and in 1941 Hitler designated him as his successor and deputy in all his offices.
wn.com/Hermann_Göring -
Herschel Grynszpan
Herschel Feibel Grynszpan (March 28, 1921 — declared dead 1960) was a Polish Jew and political assassin. Grynszpan's assassination of the German diplomat Ernst vom Rath on November 7, 1938, after the deportation of his family, provided the excuse for the Nazi Kristallnacht, the antisemitic pogrom of November 9–10, 1938. Grynszpan was seized by the Gestapo after the German invasion of France and brought to Germany.
Herschel Grynszpan was born in Hanover, Germany. His parents, Sendel and Rivka Grynszpan, were Polish Jews who had immigrated from Poland in 1911 and settled in Hanover, where Sendel opened a tailor's shop, from which the family made a modest living. They became Polish citizens after World War I and retained that status during their years in Germany. Herschel was one of six children of whom only three survived childhood. The first child was born dead in 1912. The second child, daughter Sophie Helena, born in 1914, died in 1928 of scarlet fever. Daughter Esther was born on January 31, 1916, and a son, Mordechai, on August 29, 1919. A fifth child, son Salomon, was born in 1920 and died in 1931 as a result of a traffic accident. On March 28, 1921, Herschel was born.
wn.com/Herschel_Grynszpan -
History of Germany
The concept of Germany as a distinct region in central Europe can be traced to Roman commander Julius Caesar, who referred to the unconquered area east of the Rhine as Germania, thus distinguishing it from Gaul (France), which he had conquered. The victory of the Germanic tribes in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9) prevented annexation by the Roman Empire. Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the Franks conquered the other West Germanic tribes. When the Frankish Empire was divided among Charlemagne's heirs in 843, the eastern part became East Francia. In 962, Otto I became the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, the medieval German state.
In the High Middle Ages, the dukes and princes of the empire gained power at the expense of the emperors. Martin Luther led the Protestant Reformation against the Catholic Church after 1517, as the northern states became Protestant, while the southern states remained Catholic. They clashed in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which was ruinous to the twenty million civilians. 1648 marked the effective end of the Holy Roman Empire and the beginning of the modern nation-state system, with Germany divided into numerous independent states, such as Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony.
wn.com/History_of_Germany -
Hjalmar Schacht
Dr. Hjalmar Horace Greeley Schacht (22 January 1877 – 3 June 1970) was a German economist, banker, liberal politician, and co-founder of the German Democratic Party. He served as the Currency Commissioner and President of the Reichsbank under the Weimar Republic. He was a fierce critic of his country's post-World War I reparation obligations.
He became a supporter of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party, and served in Hitler's government as President of the Reichsbank and Minister of Economics. As such, Schacht helped implement Hitler's policies of redevelopment, reindustrialization, and rearmament.
He was forced out of the government by disagreements with Hitler and other prominent Nazis in December 1937, and had no role during World War II. He became a fringe member of the German Resistance to Hitler and was imprisoned by the Nazis after the 20 July plot. After the war, he was tried at Nuremberg and acquitted.
In 1953, he founded his own bank, and advised developing countries on economic development.
wn.com/Hjalmar_Schacht -
Hunnic Empire
The Hunnic empire was formed under the reign of Attila, centered in present-day Hungary; its territory included parts of Germany, the Balkans, and Ukraine. It bordered the Eastern Roman Empire to the southeast and the Western Roman Empire to the west and southwest; its other boundaries are uncertain. The empire dissolved after Attila's death in 453 as a result of struggles over succession and leadership, finally disappearing around 469.
The origins of the Huns that swept through Europe during the 4th Century remain unclear; they may have been connected with the Xiongnu and the later Northern Xiongnu, defeated and dispersed by China some three centuries before. However, most mainstream historians consider them as a group of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with mixed origin.[citation needed] There was a Hunnic language, and Gothic seems also to have been used as a lingua franca.
European accounts first mention the Huns in the lands north-west of the Caspian Sea about 370, when they conquered a tribe of Alans to their west. Pushing further westward, the Huns subjugated many Ostrogoths. In 395, a Hun raid across the Caucasus mountains devastated Armenia, then captured Erzurum, besieged Edessa and Antioch, and even reached Tyre.
wn.com/Hunnic_Empire -
Ian Kershaw
Sir Ian Kershaw, FBA (born 29 April 1943) is a British historian of 20th-century Germany whose work has chiefly focused on the period of the Third Reich. He is regarded by many as one of the world's leading experts on Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany, and is particularly noted for his monumental biography of Hitler, which has been called "soberly objective."
He was the leading disciple of the late West German historian Martin Broszat, and (until his retirement) professor at the University of Sheffield. Kershaw has called Broszat an "inspirational mentor" who did much to shape his understanding of National Socialist Germany. Kershaw served as historical adviser on numerous BBC documentaries, notably The Nazis: A Warning From History and War of the Century. He taught a module entitled 'Germans against Hitler'.
His wife Dame Betty Kershaw was a Dean at Sheffield.
wn.com/Ian_Kershaw -
Ikki Kita
Ikki Kita (北 一輝, Kita Ikki?, 3 April 1883 – 19 August 1937) was a Japanese author, intellectual and political philosopher who was active in early-Shōwa period Japan.
Born on Sado Island, Niigata Prefecture, Ikki Kita’s real name was Kita Terujirō (北 輝次郎). He audited lectures at Waseda University in Tokyo, and while a student, was attracted to socialist ideas, meeting with many influential figures in the early socialist movement in Japan. This movement was, however, full of "opportunist" and other statist currents. The Shakai seisaku gakkai, or Japanese social-policy school, followed their authoritarian and statist, Bismarckian and von Schmollerian German forebears in arguing for, as well as being very practical in, their implementation of extending state controls from above—including the social insurance policies that were adopted by Bismarck to prevent any further expansion of the mass-revolutionary socialist party in late 19th-century Germany.
The socialism that Kita espoused in his early period was a nationalism brand of socialism (or right-wing Romantic anti-capitalism[clarification needed]) that had nothing in common with any Marxian notions of "socialism from below".
wn.com/Ikki_Kita -
Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century.
From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, including, besides Peru, large parts of modern Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and central Chile, and southern Colombia into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia.
The official language of the empire was Quechua, although hundreds of local languages and dialects of Quechua were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as The Four Regions or The Four United Provinces.
There were many local forms of worship, most of them concerning local sacred "Huacas", but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti—the sun god—and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama. The Incas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun."
wn.com/Inca_Empire -
Istria
Istria (Croatian, Slovene: Istra, Čakavian: Istrija, Jistra, Croatian pronunciation: [îstra]; Italian: Istria; Istriot: Eîstria; German: Istrien; Hungarian: Isztria), formerly Histria (Latin), is the largest peninsula in the Adriatic Sea. The peninsula is located at the head of the Adriatic between the Gulf of Trieste and the Bay of Kvarner. It is shared by three countries: Croatia, Slovenia, and Italy.
The geographical features of Istria include the Učka mountain ridge, which is the highest portion of the Ćićarija mountain range; the rivers Dragonja, Mirna, Pazinčica, and Raša; and the Lim bay and valley. Istria lies in three countries: Croatia, Slovenia and Italy. By far the largest portion (89%) lies in Croatia. "Croatian Istria" is divided into two counties, the larger being Istria County in western Croatia. Important towns in Istria County include Pula, Poreč, Rovinj, Pazin, Labin, Umag, Motovun, Buzet, and Buje. Smaller towns in Istria County include Višnjan, Roč, and Hum.
The northwestern part of Istria lies in Slovenia: it is known as Slovenian Istria, and includes the coastal municipalities of Piran, Izola and Koper, and the Karstic municipality of Hrpelje-Kozina. Northwards of Slovenian Istria, there is a tiny portion of the peninsula that lies in Italy. This smallest portion of Istria consists of the comunes of Muggia and San Dorligo della Valle.
wn.com/Istria -
Jews
The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.
In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel's Law of Return states: "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh." Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient history. The first of these periods lasted from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora. A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.
wn.com/Jews -
Johann Strauß II
Johann Strauss II (October 25, 1825 – June 3, 1899), also known as Johann Baptist Strauss or Johann Strauss, Jr., the Younger, or the Son (German: Sohn), was an Austrian composer of light music, particularly dance music and operettas. He composed over 500 waltzes, polkas, quadrilles, and other types of dance music, as well as several operettas and a ballet. In his lifetime, he was known as "The Waltz King", and was largely then responsible for the popularity of the waltz in Vienna during the 19th century.
Strauss was born in St. Ulrich (now a part of Neubau), the son of Johann Strauss I, another composer of dance music. His father did not wish him to become a composer, but rather a banker; however, the son defied his father's wishes, and went on to study music with the composer Joseph Drechsler and the violin with Anton Kollmann, the ballet répétiteur of the Vienna Court Opera. Strauss had two younger brothers, Josef and Eduard Strauss, who became composers of light music as well, although they were never as well known as their elder brother.
wn.com/Johann_Strauß_II -
Johannes Heesters
Johan Marius Nicolaas "Johannes" Heesters (5 December 1903 – 24 December 2011) was a Dutch actor, singer, and entertainer with a career dating back to 1921. Active almost exclusively in the German-speaking world from the mid-1930s, he was a controversial figure for his actions during the Second World War and his success in Nazi Germany. Heesters was considered one of the oldest stage performers in history.
Heesters was born in Amersfoort, Netherlands, the youngest of four sons. His father Jacobus Heesters (1865–1946) was a salesman and his mother Geertruida Jacoba van den Heuvel (1866–1951), a homemaker.
Heesters was fluent in German from a very early age having lived for several years in the household of a German great uncle from Bavaria. Heesters decided to become an actor and a singer at the age of sixteen and began vocal training. Heesters specialized in Viennese operetta very early in his career, and made his Viennese stage debut in 1934 in Carl Millöcker's Der Bettelstudent (The Beggar Student).
wn.com/Johannes_Heesters -
Josef Mengele
Josef Rudolf Mengele (help·info) (German pronunciation: [ˈjoːzɛf ˈʁuːdɔlf ˈmɛŋɡələ], March 16, 1911 – February 7, 1979), also known as the Angel of Death (German: Todesengel) was a German SS officer and a physician in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz. He earned doctorates in anthropology from Munich University and in medicine from Frankfurt University. He initially gained notoriety for being one of the SS physicians who supervised the selection of arriving transports of prisoners, determining who was to be killed and who was to become a forced laborer, but is far more infamous for performing human experiments on camp inmates, including children, for which Mengele was called the "Angel of Death". Mengele wrote, "I personally have not killed, injured or caused bodily harm to anyone."
In 1940, he was placed in the reserve medical corps, after which he served with the 5th SS Panzergrenadier Division Wiking in the Eastern Front. In 1942, he was wounded at the Soviet front and was pronounced medically unfit for combat, and was then promoted to the rank of SS-Hauptsturmführer (Captain) for saving the lives of three German soldiers. He survived the war, and after a period living incognito in Germany he fled to South America, where he became an abortionist and evaded capture for the rest of his life despite being hunted as a Nazi war criminal.
wn.com/Josef_Mengele -
Joseph Goebbels
Dr. Paul Joseph Goebbels (help·info) (German: [ˈɡœbəls]; 29 October 1897 – 1 May 1945) was a German politician and Reich Minister of Propaganda in Nazi Germany from 1933 to 1945. As one of Adolf Hitler's closest associates and most devout followers, he was known for his zealous oratory and anti-Semitism.
Goebbels earned a Ph.D. from Heidelberg University in 1921, writing his doctoral thesis on 19th century romantic drama; he then went on to work as a journalist and later a bank clerk and caller on the stock exchange. He also wrote novels and plays, but they were rejected by publishers. Goebbels came into contact with the National Socialist German Worker's Party (NSDAP) or Nazi Party in 1923 during the French occupation of the Ruhr and became a member in 1924. He was appointed Gauleiter (regional party leader) of Berlin. In this position, he put his propaganda skills to full use, combating the local socialist and communist parties with the help of Nazi papers and the paramilitary Sturmabteilung (Brownshirts). By 1928, he had risen in the party ranks to become one of its most prominent members.
wn.com/Joseph_Goebbels -
Julius Dorpmüller
Julius Heinrich Dorpmueller (24 July 1869 in Elberfeld - 5 July 1945 in Malente) was general manager of Deutsche Reichsbahn-Gesellschaft from 1926–45 and the German Reich Transport Minister from 1937-45.
Dorpmueller was the son of a railway engineer, and studied railway and road construction from 1889 to 1893. After graduating in 1898, Dorpmueller was active in the Prussian state railway administration. In 1907 he stepped down as an executive of the technical office and went into the service of the Schantung railway in Tsingtao. In 1908 he was appointed chief engineer for the German section of the new Chinese Imperial state Tianjin-Pukou railway. Due to the declaration of war by China against the German Reich, he returned as a refugee in 1918, passing through Manchuria, Siberia and Russia to Germany. In the light railway service he was active in the management of the Transcaucasian SFSR railways. In 1919 he became departmental head with German Reich Railways (Deutsche Reichseisenbahnen) in the Stettin district. From 1922 to 30 September 1924 he was a president in the Deutsche Reichseisenbahnen in the Oppeln district, and from 1 October 1924 to 1925 he was president in the Ruhr district; due to his comprehensive experience in light railways, Dorpmueller was consulted as part of the Dawes plan.
wn.com/Julius_Dorpmüller -
Julius Streicher
Julius Streicher (12 February 1885 – 16 October 1946) was a prominent Nazi prior to World War II. He was the founder and publisher of Der Stürmer newspaper, which became a central element of the Nazi propaganda machine. His publishing firm also released three anti-Semitic books for children, including the 1938 Der Giftpilz ("The Toadstool" or "The Poison-Mushroom"), one of the most widespread pieces of propaganda, which purported to warn about insidious dangers Jews posed by using the metaphor of an attractive yet deadly mushroom. After the war, he was convicted of crimes against humanity and executed.
Streicher was born in Fleinhausen, Kingdom of Bavaria, one of nine children of the teacher Friedrich Streicher and his wife Anna (née Weiss). He worked as an elementary school teacher like his father, and in 1909 he began his political career, joining the German Democratic Party. He would later claim that because his political work brought him into contact with German Jews, he “must therefore have been fated to become later on a writer and speaker on racial politics.” In 1913 Streicher married Kunigunde Roth, a baker's daughter, in Nuremberg. They had two sons, Lothar (born 1915) and Elmar (born 1918).
wn.com/Julius_Streicher -
Karl Dönitz
Karl Dönitz (German pronunciation: [ˈdøːnɪts] ( listen); 16 September 1891 – 24 December 1980) was a German naval commander during World War II. He started his career in the German Navy (Kaiserliche Marine, or "Imperial Navy") before World War I. In 1918, while he was in command of UB-68, the submarine was sunk by British forces and Dönitz was taken prisoner. While in a prisoner of war camp, he formulated what he later called Rudeltaktik ("pack tactic", commonly called "wolfpack"). At the start of World War II, he was the senior submarine officer in the German Navy. In January 1943, Dönitz achieved the rank of Großadmiral (Grand Admiral) and replaced Grand Admiral Erich Raeder as Commander-in-Chief of the German Navy (Oberbefehlshaber der Kriegsmarine). On 30 April 1945, after the death of Adolf Hitler and in accordance with Hitler's last will and testament, Dönitz was named Hitler's successor as Staatsoberhaupt (Head of State), with the title of Reichspräsident (President) and Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces. On 7 May 1945, he ordered Alfred Jodl to sign the German instruments of surrender in Rheims, France. Dönitz remained as head of the Flensburg Government, as it became known, until it was dissolved by the Allied powers on 23 May.
wn.com/Karl_Dönitz -
Konrad Henlein
Konrad Ernst Eduard Henlein (May 6, 1898 – May 10, 1945) was a leading Sudeten German politician in Czechoslovakia. Upon the German occupation he joined the Nazi Party as well as the SS and was appointed Reichsstatthalter of the Sudetenland in 1939.
The son of an accounts clerk was born in Maffersdorf (present-day Vratislavice nad Nisou), in what was then the Bohemian crown land of Austria-Hungary. In light of his being a leader of the Sudeten German movement, Henlein's origin was not without problems. His mother, Hedvika (Hedwig) Anna Augusta Dvořáček, was the daughter of a German-speaking mother but her father was of Czech origin. As Henlein after 1938 pursued a Germanisation policy against mixed marriages, he was forced to change his still-living mother's name from Dvořáček to the more German spelling of Dworatschek, which would be thus more comfortable for Henlein's career as a high Nazi official.
He attended business school in Gablonz (Jablonec nad Nisou). From 1916 he served in the Austro-Hungarian Army at the Italian Front of World War I, becoming a POW in November 1917. He was held in Italian captivity at Asinara Island, where he spent his time studying the history of the German Turner (gymnastics) movement of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn. Returned home after the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy in 1919, Henlein worked as a bank clerk in Gablonz, now part of the newly established Czechoslovakian state. Influenced by the German national movement, he became a gym teacher of the gymnastics club in Asch (Aš) in 1925, which, similar to the Czech Sokol movement, took an active part in Sudeten German communal life.
wn.com/Konrad_Henlein -
Kurt Schmitt
Kurt Paul Schmitt (7 October, 1886 in Heidelberg – 2 November, 1950 in Heidelberg) was a German economic leader and the Reich Economy Minister.
The jurist Kurt Schmitt graduated in 1911 in Munich with the thesis "The Ongoing Information File, in Particular the Information Convention". and then went into the service of the Allianz AG insurance company. From 1914 to 1917 he participated in the First World War and was discharged having reached the rank of captain. In 1917, he became a member of the Allianz board of directors, leading the company from 1921 to 1933 as Chairman of the Board. During these years, he made a name for himself as one of the most gifted leaders when it came to organization in the Weimar Republic's insurance industry. (1)
Allianz's leadership, represented by directors Kurt Schmitt and Eduard Hilgard, led a policy of drawing nearer to the Nazis, even before they seized power. Already in October 1930, ties were forged with Hermann Göring. These contacts were realized through company dinners and by providing private financial loans. Heinrich Brüning and Franz von Papen tried without success to get Schmitt a ministerial office.
wn.com/Kurt_Schmitt -
Kurt Schuschnigg
Kurt Alois Josef Johann Schuschnigg (until 1919 Kurt Alois Josef Johann Edler von Schuschnigg, 14 December 1897 – 18 November 1977) was Chancellor of the First Austrian Republic, following the assassination of his predecessor, Dr. Engelbert Dollfuss, in July 1934, until Germany’s invasion of Austria, (Anschluss), in March 1938. He was opposed to Hitler’s ambitions to absorb Austria into the Third Reich. After his efforts to keep Austria independent had failed he resigned his office. After the invasion he was arrested by the Germans, kept in solitary confinement and eventually interned in various concentration camps. He was liberated in 1945 by the advancing American Army and spent most of the rest of his life in academia in the United States.
Schuschnigg came into a Tyrolean family of Carinthian Slovenian descent. The spelling of the family name in Slovenian is Šušnik. Schuschnigg was born in Riva del Garda, now in Trentino, Italy, but then part of Austria-Hungary. He was the son of the Austrian General Artur von Schuschnigg. The young Schuschnigg received his education at the Stella Matutina Jesuit College in Feldkirch. During the First World War he was taken prisoner by the Italians who held him captive until September 1919. Subsequently, after graduating from Innsbruck University, where he is member of the catholic fraternity A.V. Austria Innsbruck, he practiced as a lawyer in Innsbruck.
wn.com/Kurt_Schuschnigg -
Leila J. Rupp
Leila J. Rupp (born 1950) is a historian, feminist, and professor of Feminist Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara. She is an alumna of Bryn Mawr College, a member of the Seven Sisters women's colleges, where she received her bachelor's degree in 1972 as well as Ph.D. in 1976, both in history. Her areas of interest include women's movements, sexuality, and LGBT and women's history.
She was the editor of the Journal of Women's History from 1996 to 2004.
Excerpt reprinted in Perspectives on the American Past (Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath, forthcoming).
wn.com/Leila_J._Rupp -
Leni Riefenstahl
Helene Bertha Amalie "Leni" Riefenstahl (German pronunciation: [ˈʁiːfənʃtaːl]; 22 August 1902 – 8 September 2003) was a German film director, actress and dancer widely noted for her aesthetics and innovations as a filmmaker. Her most famous film was Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will), a propaganda film made at the 1934 Nuremberg congress of the Nazi Party. Riefenstahl's prominence in the Third Reich, along with her personal friendship with Adolf Hitler, destroyed her film career following Germany's defeat in World War II, after which she was arrested but released without any charges.
Triumph of the Will gave Riefenstahl instant and lasting international fame, as well as infamy. Although she directed only eight films, just two of which received significant coverage outside of Germany, Riefenstahl was widely known all her life. The propaganda value of her films made during the 1930s repels most modern commentators, but many film histories cite the aesthetics as outstanding.The Economist wrote that Triumph of the Will "sealed her reputation as the greatest female filmmaker of the 20th century".
wn.com/Leni_Riefenstahl -
List of SS personnel
Between 1925 and 1945, the German SS grew from a mere eight members to over a quarter of a million Waffen-SS and over a million Allgemeine-SS members. The following list of SS personnel gives the names of persons who are counted among the organization's most famous, influential, and notorious members.
Prior to 1934 the SS were nominally under the command of the Sturmabteilung and so it could be said that both Adolf Hitler as Oberster SA-Führer and Ernst Röhm as Stabschef SA outranked the most senior SS position of Reichsführer. Following the Night of the Long Knives Hitler "raised the SS, hitherto subordinate to the SA, to the rank of an independent organisation". Hitler also was considered SS Member #1, Emil Maurice (considered the founder of the SS) was Member #2, while Himmler was SS Member #168. Based on the seniority system of SS membership number, this made Hitler senior in the SS to all other members even if not by rank.
After the Night of the Long Knives, when the SS became independent from the SA, Hitler was listed on SS officer rolls as Member #1 and considered supreme commander of the entire SS by virtue of his position as the Führer of Germany. There is no photographic record of Hitler ever wearing an actual SS uniform nor was there a special SS insignia for Hitler above that worn by Himmler
wn.com/List_of_SS_personnel -
Léon Degrelle
Léon Joseph Marie Ignace Degrelle (15 June 1906 – 31 March 1994) was a Walloon Belgian politician, who founded Rexism and later joined the Waffen SS (becoming a leader of its Walloon contingent) which were front-line troops in the fight against the Soviet Union. After World War II, he was a prominent figure in neo-nazi movements.
After studying at a Jesuit college and successfully studying for a law doctorate at the Université catholique de Louvain, Degrelle worked as a journalist for the conservative Roman Catholic periodical Christus Rex. During his time at this publication, he became attracted to the ideas of Charles Maurras and French Integralism. Until 1934, Degrelle worked as a correspondent for the paper in Mexico, during the Cristero War. He led a militant tendency inside the Catholic Party, which he formed around the Éditions de Rex he founded. The Éditions drew its name from the battle cry of the Cristeros: Viva Cristo Rey y Santa María de Guadalupe, alluding to Christ the King.
wn.com/Léon_Degrelle -
Marcel Déat
Marcel Déat (7 March 1894, Guérigny, France – 5 January 1955, near Turin, Italy) was a French Socialist until 1933, when he initiated a spin-off from the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO) along with other right-wing 'Neosocialists'. He then founded the collaborationist National Popular Rally (RNP) during the Vichy regime. In 1944, he became "Minister of Labor and National Solidarity" in Pierre Laval's government, before escaping to Sigmaringen along with Vichy officials after the Allied landings in Normandy. Condemned in absentia for collaborationism, he died while still in hiding in Italy.
Marcel Déat was raised in a modest environment, which shared republican and patriotic values. After brilliant studies, he entered in 1914 the École Normale Supérieure (ENS) after having been the student of Alain, a philosopher who was active in the Radical Party and who would write a deeply anti-militarist book after World War I. The same year, Déat joined the SFIO.
While he attended the ENS and worked to get a philosophy degree, World War I broke out. He joined the French Army as a private and saw active duty, winning the Légion d'honneur and five bravery citations. By the war's end, Déat had achieved the rank of captain. Under the pseudonym of Taëd, he then published Cadavres et maximes, philosophie d'un revenant (approximately translated by "Corpses and Maxims, Philosophy of a Ghost"), in which he expressed his horror of trenches, strong pacifist views, as well as his fascination for collective discipline and war camaraderie. When the war ended in 1918, he finished his studies at the École Normale and passed his agrégation of philosophy, and oriented himself towards sociology under the direction of Célestin Bouglié, a friend of Alain and also member of the Radical Party. In the meanwhile, Déat taught philosophy in Reims.
wn.com/Marcel_Déat -
Marika Rokk
Marika Rökk (3 November 1913 – 16 May 2004) was an Austrian-German singer, dancer and actress of Hungarian descent, who became famous in German films, notably in the Nazi era.
Rökk was born in Cairo, Egypt, the daughter of the Hungarian architect and contractor Eduard Rökk and his wife Maria Karoly. She spent her early childhood in Budapest, before in 1924 her family moved to Paris. Here she learned to dance and starred with the "Hoffmann Girls" at the Moulin Rouge cabaret. After a tour that led her to the Broadway she continued her dance training in the United States, where she worked with Ned Wayburn. In 1929 she returned to Europe and the next year acted in her first film, Why Sailors Leave Home, a British comedy directed by Monty Banks, starring Leslie Fuller.
An acclaimed revue dancer on numerous European stages, Rökk in 1934 was offered a two-years contract with the Universum Film AG (UFA) in Nazi Germany, where she became one of the most famous filmstars of the time. She debuted in operetta movies like Leichte Kavallerie (1935) directed by Werner Hochbaum, Der Bettelstudent and Gasparone, followed by Hello Janine! in 1939, all together with Johannes Heesters as a "dream couple" of the musical comedy. In her appearances she cultivated her magyar accent conveying a notion of "paprika" exoticism.
wn.com/Marika_Rokk -
Marinid dynasty
The Marinid dynasty or Benemerine dynasty (Arabic: مرينيون Marīniyūn or بنو مرين Banū Marīn) was a Zenata Berber dynasty of Morocco. The Marinid dynasty overtook the Almohads controlling Morocco in 1244. They controlled most of the Maghreb from the mid-14th century to the 15th century and supported the Kingdom of Granada in Al-Andalus in the 13th and 14th centuries. The last Marinid fortress in the Iberian Peninsula fell to Castile in 1344.[citation needed] They were replaced in turn by the Wattasids in 1465.
They were the founders of Fes Jdid and built the most important monuments in Fes.
The Marinids were a nomadic Zenata Berber tribe from the area between Tlemcen and Tahert. They advanced through the Moulouya basin east of Morocco. As early as 1145, the Marinids engaged in several battles with the Almohads, the ruling dynasty at the time, who regularly defeated them until 1169. In that year, the Marinids began a dedicated pursuit to take Morocco from the Almohads. Following their expulsion from the south, the Marinids moved northwards under the command of Abu Yahya ibn Abd al-Haqq and took Fes in 1244, making it their capital. This date marks the beginning of the Marinid dynasty.
wn.com/Marinid_dynasty -
Martin Bormann
Martin Ludwig Bormann (17 June 1900 – 2 May 1945?) was a prominent Nazi official. He became head of the Party Chancellery (Parteikanzlei) and private secretary to Adolf Hitler. He gained Hitler's trust and derived immense power within the Third Reich by controlling access to the Führer and by regulating the orbits of those closest to him.
Born in Wegeleben (now in Saxony-Anhalt) in the Kingdom of Prussia in the German Empire, Bormann was born to a Lutheran family, the son of Theodor Bormann (1862–1903), a post office employee, and his second wife, Antonie Bernhardine Mennong. He had two half-siblings (Else and Walter Bormann) from his father's earlier marriage to Louise Grobler, who died in 1898. Antonie Bormann gave birth to three sons, one of whom died in infancy. Martin (born 1900) and Albert (born 1902) survived to adulthood.
Bormann dropped out of school to work on a farm in Mecklenburg. He served in an artillery regiment in the last days of World War I, but never saw action. He then became an estate manager in Mecklenburg, which brought him into contact with the Freikorps residing on the estate. He took part in their activities, mostly in assassinations and the intimidation of trade union organisers.[better reference needed]
wn.com/Martin_Bormann -
Martin Kitchen
Martin Kitchen (December 21, 1936, Nottingham, England) is a British-Canadian historian, specialized in modern European history, with an emphasis on Germany. Professor Emeritus of history at Simon Fraser University, he started teaching in 1966. He also taught at the Cambridge Group for Population Studies (Cambridge University).
He was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford and the School of Slavonic and East European Studies at the University of London. Throughout his career, Kitchen has served in several editorial boards such as the International History Review, the Canadian Journal of History / Annales canadiennes d'histoire and International Affairs. Kitchen's work has been translated into German, Polish, Portuguese, Spanish, Korean and Chinese. He is internationally regarded as a key author for the study of contemporary history.
Martin Kitchen is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and the Royal Historical Society. In 1978 was awarded with the Moncado Prize of the American Military Academy. In 1983-84 he received the Simon Fraser University Research Professor award.
wn.com/Martin_Kitchen -
Medes
The Medes (/midz/) (from Old Persian Māda-) were an ancient Iranian people who lived in Iran in an area known as Media and spoke a northwestern Iranian language referred to as the Median language. Their arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of Iranian tribes in the late second millennium BCE (the Bronze Age collapse) through the beginning of the first millennium BCE.
In the 7th century BCE a unified Median state was formed which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. An alliance with the Babylonians helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BCE which resulted in the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal centre) beyond their original homeland (central-western Iran) and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Halys River in Anatolia. The Median kingdom was conquered in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great who established the next Iranian dynasty—the Achaemenid Empire.
wn.com/Medes -
Neville Chamberlain
Arthur Neville Chamberlain FRS (18 March 1869 – 9 November 1940) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from May 1937 to May 1940. Chamberlain is best known for his appeasement foreign policy, and in particular for his signing of the Munich Agreement in 1938, conceding the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany. When Adolf Hitler continued his aggression by invading Poland, Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, and Chamberlain led Britain through the first eight months of the Second World War.
After working in business and local government and after a short spell as Director of National Service in 1916 and 1917, Chamberlain followed his father and older half-brother in becoming a Member of Parliament in the 1918 general election at age 49. He declined a junior ministerial position, remaining a backbencher until 1922. He was rapidly promoted in 1923 to Minister of Health and then Chancellor of the Exchequer. After a short Labour-led government, he returned as Minister of Health, introducing a range of reform measures from 1924 to 1929. He was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in the National Government in 1931.
wn.com/Neville_Chamberlain -
Oswald Mosley
Sir Oswald Ernald Mosley, 6th Baronet, of Ancoats, (16 November 1896 – 3 December 1980) was an English politician, known principally as the founder of the British Union of Fascists. He was a Member of Parliament for Harrow from 1918 to 1924 and for Smethwick from 1926 to 1931, as well as Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in the Labour Government of 1929–1931.
Mosley was the eldest of three sons of Sir Oswald Mosley, 5th Baronet, of Ancoats (29 December 1873 - 21 September 1928), and wife Katharine Maud Edwards-Heathcote (1874–1950), the second child of Captain Justinian Edwards-Heathcote of Market Drayton, Shropshire. Mosley's family were Anglo-Irish. His branch were prosperous landowners in Staffordshire, seated at Rolleston Hall, near Burton-on-Trent. Through the intermarriage common among the British upper classes, the 5th Baronet was the third cousin of the Earl of Strathmore, which would eventually make Oswald Mosley, the 6th baronet, fourth cousin to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother, who was the Earl of Strathmore's daughter, and fourth cousin once removed to Queen Elizabeth II.
wn.com/Oswald_Mosley -
Otto Meißner
Otto Meissner (13 March 1880, Bischwiller, Alsace – 27 May 1953, Munich) was head of the Office of the President of Germany during the entire period of the Weimar Republic under Friedrich Ebert and Paul von Hindenburg and, finally, at the beginning of the Nazi era under Adolf Hitler.
The son of a postal official, Meissner studied law in Strasbourg from 1898 to 1903, where he also became a member of the Strassburg Student Youth Fraternity (Burschenschaft) Germania. Later he also studied in Berlin and earned his Doctor of Laws in 1908, at the age of 28, in Erlangen, Bavaria. Afterwards, he became a bureaucrat for the national railroad, the Reichsbahn, in Strasbourg. Between 1915 and 1917 he participated in the First World War in an infantry regiment. Up to 1919 he was more active behind the front, first in Bucharest, Romania, then in Kiev, and finally as a German business agent for the Ukrainian government.
Thanks to his good contacts, in 1919 Meissner became "Acting Advisor in the Bureau of the President" (who at that time was the social democrat Friedrich Ebert), and by 1920 rose to the position of "Ministerial Director and Head of the Bureau of the President." Ebert named Meissner to the post of State Secretary in 1923. He continued in that post under Ebert's successor Paul von Hindenburg.
wn.com/Otto_Meißner -
Otto Thierack
Otto Georg Thierack (19 April 1889 – 22 November 1946) was a Nazi jurist and politician.
Thierack was born in Wurzen in Saxony. He took part in the First World War from 1914 to 1918 as a volunteer, reaching the rank of lieutenant. He suffered a face injury and was decorated with the Iron Cross, second class. After the war ended, he resumed his interrupted law studies and ended them in 1920 with his Assessor (junior lawyer) examination. In the same year, he was hired as a court Assessor in Saxony.
On 1 August 1932, Thierack joined the Nazi Party. After the Nazis seized power in 1933, he managed within a very short time to rise high in the ranks from a prosecutor to President of the People's Court (Volksgerichtshof). The groundwork on which this rise was built was not merely that Thierack had been a Nazi Party member, but rather also that he had been leader of the National Socialist jurists' organization, the so-called Rechtswahrerbund.
On 12 May 1933, having been appointed Saxony's justice minister, it was Thierack's job to "Nazify" justice, which was a part of the Nazis' Gleichschaltung that he had to put into practice in Saxony. After going through several mid-level professional posts, he became Vice President of the Reich Court in 1935 and in 1936 President of the Volksgerichtshof, which had been newly founded in 1934. He held this job, interrupted as it was by two stints in the armed forces, until 1942, when he was succeeded in the position by Roland Freisler.
wn.com/Otto_Thierack -
Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire or Turkish Empire or Sublime Ottoman State or sometimes also referred to as Turkey (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye (also عثمانلى دولتى Osmanlı Devleti),Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Devleti or Osmanlı İmparatorluğu) was a Turkish empire which lasted from 27 July 1299 to 1 November 1922, when the Sultanate was abolished.
The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and longest lasting empires in history; such that the Ottoman State, its politics, conflicts, and cultural heritage in a vast geography provide one of the longest continuous narratives. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire was one of the most powerful states in the world – a multinational, multilingual empire that stretched from the southern borders of the Holy Roman Empire to the outskirts of Vienna, Royal Hungary (modern Slovakia) and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the north to Yemen and Eritrea in the south; from Algeria in the west to Azerbaijan in the east; controlling much of southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.
wn.com/Ottoman_Empire -
Paul Garson
Paul Garson (born March 7, 1946) is an American writer and photographer. He has contributed to many magazines and periodicals, and has published both fiction and nonfiction books as well as written two screenplays that have been produced. He served as a university instructor of composition and writing, as well as a martial arts instructor. His public relations and marketing projects included several for national and multinational companies.
Garson was born in Washington, D.C., and spent his formative years in West Palm Beach, Florida. He then attended undergraduate school at Tulane University followed by graduate degrees at Johns Hopkins University and at USC, where he also served as an instructor. Garson has traveled to 25 countries include Russia, Japan and Turkey. His martial arts training in traditional Japanese karate began in 1967, and continued as a student of Sensei Hidetaka Nishiyama at the National Karate Institute in Los Angeles, where he earned his YonDan (4th degree black belt). His martial arts training included instruction under Sensei Robert Bryner in Ryu-te and Aikido.
wn.com/Paul_Garson -
Paul von Hindenburg
Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( listen (help·info)), known universally as Paul von Hindenburg (German: [ˈpaʊl fɔn ˈhɪndənbʊɐ̯k] ( listen); 2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) was a Prussian-German field marshal, statesman, and politician, and served as the second President of Germany from 1925 to 1934.
Hindenburg enjoyed a long career in the Prussian Army, retiring in 1911. He was recalled at the outbreak of World War I, and first came to national attention, at the age of 66, as the victor at Tannenberg in 1914. As Germany's Chief of the General Staff from 1916, he and his deputy, Erich Ludendorff, rose in the German public's esteem until Hindenburg came to eclipse the Kaiser himself.[citation needed] Hindenburg retired again in 1919, but returned to public life one more time in 1925 to be elected as the second President of Germany.
Though 84 years old and in poor health, Hindenburg was persuaded to run for re-election in 1932, as he was considered the only candidate who could defeat Adolf Hitler. Hindenburg was re-elected in a runoff. Although he was opposing Hitler, the deteriorating political stability of the Weimar Republic let him play an important role in the Nazi Party's rise to power. He dissolved the parliament twice in 1932 and eventually appointed Hitler as Chancellor in January 1933. In February, he issued the Reichstag Fire Decree which suspended various civil liberties, and in March he signed the Enabling Act, in which the parliament gave Hitler's administration legislative powers. Hindenburg died the following year, after which Hitler declared the office of President vacant and, as "Führer und Reichskanzler", made himself head of state.
wn.com/Paul_von_Hindenburg -
Philippe Petain
Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (French pronunciation: [petɛ̃]; 24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951), generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain (Maréchal Pétain), was a French general who reached the distinction of Marshal of France, and was later Chief of State of Vichy France (Chef de l'État Français), from 1940 to 1944. Pétain, who was 84 years old in 1940, ranks as France's oldest head of state.
Because of his outstanding military leadership in World War I, particularly during the Battle of Verdun, he was viewed as a national hero in France. With the imminent French defeat in June 1940, Pétain was appointed Premier of France by President Lebrun at Bordeaux, and the Cabinet resolved to make peace with Germany. The entire government subsequently moved briefly to Clermont-Ferrand, then to the spa town of Vichy in central France. His government voted to transform the discredited French Third Republic into the French State, an authoritarian regime. As the war progressed, the government at Vichy collaborated with the Germans, who in 1942 finally occupied the whole of metropolitan France because of the threat from North Africa. Pétain's actions during World War II resulted in his conviction and death sentence for treason, which was commuted to life imprisonment by his former protégé Charles de Gaulle. In modern France he is remembered as an ambiguous figure, while pétainisme is a derogatory term for certain reactionary policies.
wn.com/Philippe_Petain -
Plínio Salgado
Plínio Salgado (Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈplĩnju sawˈɡadu]; January 22, 1895 – December 8, 1975) was a Brazilian politician, writer, journalist, and theologian. He founded and led the Brazilian Integralist Action, a far-right political party inspired on the Italian Fascist movement.
Initially a supporter of the dictatorship led by Getúlio Vargas, he was later persecuted and exiled in Portugal for promoting uprisings against the government. After his return, he launched the Party of Popular Representation, and was elected to represent Paraná in the Chamber of Deputies in 1958, being re-elected in 1962, this time to represent São Paulo. He was also a candidate in the 1955 presidential election, securing 8.28% of the votes. After the 1964 coup d'état, which led to the extinction of political parties, he joined the National Renewal Alliance Party, obtaining two terms in the Chamber of Deputies. He retired from politics in 1974, just a year before his death.
Born in the small conservative town of São Bento do Sapucaí in the São Paulo state, Plínio Salgado was the son of Colonel Francisco das Chagas, a local political leader, and Ana Francisca Rennó Cortez, a teacher. A very active child at school, he had special interest for mathematics and geometry. After the loss of his father, at the age of 16 – a fact that is said to have made him a bitter young man –, his interests shifted towards psychology and philosophy.
wn.com/Plínio_Salgado -
Poles
The Polish people, or Poles (Polish: Polacy [pɔˈlat͡sɨ]; singular: Polak), are a nation indigenous to Poland. They speak the Polish language, which belongs to the historical Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages of Central Europe. The Polish word for a Polish person is "Polak" (masculine) and "Polka" (feminine).
The preamble to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland defines the Polish nation as comprising all the citizens of Poland. Poland's inhabitants live in the following historic regions of the country: Wielkopolska, Małopolska, Mazovia, Pomerania, Warmia, Mazury, Podlasie, Kujawy and Silesia. A wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Europe (Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Belarus, Lithuania and Ukraine), the Americas (the United States, Brazil and Argentina) and Australia. Chicago, in the United States, has the world's largest urban Polish population after Warsaw.
Over a thousand years ago, the Polans of Giecz, Gniezno and Poznań — an influential tribe in Wielkopolska — succeeded in uniting Lechitic tribes under what became the Piast dynasty, thus giving rise to the Polish state.
wn.com/Poles -
Rainer Zitelmann
Rainer Zitelmann (born 1957 in Frankfurt) is a German historian, journalist and management consultant.
Zitelmann studied history and political sciences at the Darmstadt University of Applied Sciences and completed his doctorate in 1986 under Prof. Dr. Karl Otmar Freiherr von Aretin with the grade of "summa cum laude", the subject being the goals of Hitler's social, economic and interior policies. Zitelmann's doctoral dissertation, "Hitler: Selbstverständnis eines Revolutionärs" went through four editions in Germany, and was published in English under the title "Hitler: The Politics of Seduction" (London: London House, 2000).
Next, Zitelmann pursued a career in the conservative print media: Following his work as a research assistant at the Free University of Berlin, he became editorial director for the publishing houses of Ullstein and Propylaeen in 1992. Soon thereafter, he transferred to the German daily Die Welt as head of desk for contemporary thought. Later, Zitelmann transferred to the desk for contemporary history and finally to the real estate desk. In 2000, he became an independent consultant for real estate companies, and has devoted his publications exclusively to this field ever since.
wn.com/Rainer_Zitelmann -
Rashidun Caliphate
The Rashidun Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة الراشدية al-khilāfat ar-Rāshidīyah), (c. 632-661) comprising the first four caliphs in Islam's history, was founded after Muhammad's death in 632 (Year 10 A.H. in the Islamic calendar). At its height, the Caliphate extended from the Arabian Peninsula, to the Levant, Caucasus and North Africa in the west, to the Iranian highlands and Central Asia in the east. At its greatest extent it was one of the largest empires in history. It is also known as the Patriarchal Caliphate.
After Muhammad's death in 632, the Medinan Ansar debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the Muslims while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. Umar (a Quraish) and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr, with the Ansar and the Quraish soon following suit. Abu Bakr thus became the first Khalifa Rasul Allah (Successor of the Messenger of God), and embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First, though, he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes which had gone back on their oaths of allegiance to Islam and the Islamic community. As a Khalifa or Caliph he was not a monarch and never claimed such a title nor did his three successors do so.
wn.com/Rashidun_Caliphate -
Reinhard Heydrich
Reinhard Tristan Eugen Heydrich (help·info) (7 March 1904 – 4 June 1942) was a high-ranking German Nazi official during World War II, and one of the main architects of the Holocaust. He was SS-Obergruppenführer (General) and General der Polizei, chief of the Reich Main Security Office (including the Gestapo, and Kripo) and Stellvertretender Reichsprotektor (Deputy Reich-Protector) of Bohemia and Moravia. In August 1940 he was appointed and served as President of Interpol (the international law enforcement agency). Heydrich chaired the January 1942 Wannsee Conference, which laid out plans for the final solution to the Jewish Question—the deportation and extermination of all Jews in German-occupied territory.
Historians regard him as the darkest figure within the Nazi elite; Hitler christened him "the man with the iron heart". He was the founding head of the Sicherheitsdienst (SD), an intelligence organisation tasked with seeking out and neutralising resistance to the Nazi Party via arrests, deportations, and killings. He helped organize Kristallnacht, a series of co-ordinated attacks against Jews throughout Nazi Germany and parts of Austria on 9–10 November 1938. The attacks, which were carried out by SA stormtroopers and civilians, presaged the Holocaust. Upon his arrival in Prague, Heydrich sought to eliminate opposition to the Nazi occupation by suppressing Czech culture and deporting and executing members of the Czech resistance.
wn.com/Reinhard_Heydrich -
Richard C. Lukas
Richard C. Lukas (born 1937) is an American historian and author of numerous books and articles on Polish history and Polish-Jewish relations. He is recognized as a leading authority on Poland during World War II.
He served as a Research Consultant at the United States Air Force Historical Archives prior to receiving his Ph.D. from Florida State University in 1963. He taught at Tennessee Technological University, Wright State University, and the University of South Florida. He has also been a guest lecturer at academic institutions in the United States and Poland.
Lukas was a contributor to the Air Force Lineage Project that resulted in the publication of "Air Force Combat Units of World War II." His specialty included the combat operations of the 8th, 12th and 15th air forces. He later wrote a pioneering military-diplomatic study, "Eagles East," that won him international recognition.
His interest in United States-Polish wartime and postwar relations resulted in two books that filled major gaps in the historical literature on the subject in the 1970's and 1980's.
wn.com/Richard_C._Lukas -
Richard Grunberger
Richard Grunberger (7 March 1924 Vienna, Austria – 15 February 2005) was a British historian, who specialised in study of the Third Reich.
He was born in Austria to Jewish parents. After the 1938 Anschluss with Hitler's Germany, he was put on the first Kindertransport train to leave Vienna. He was initially housed in a refugee camp at Lowestoft in England. After this he lived with a Jewish family, who were West End tailors in London. Grunberger entered their tailoring business. His desire for education however led to his taking A levels at Birkbeck college. He gained an Exhibition scholarship in History at King's College London.
When he went to the Wiener Library in London, he expressed to a friend his frustration at the absence of a book that held together the masses of documentation surrounding Nazism and 20th Century Germany. A friend asked why he did not write one, and so he did. The product was A Social History of the Third Reich, first published in 1971 by Weidenfield & Nicholson. It has since become a significant text for studying the social history of Nazi Germany in schools and at undergraduate level.
wn.com/Richard_Grunberger -
Richard J. Evans
Richard John Evans (born 29 September 1947) is a British academic and historian, prominently known for his history of Germany.
Evans was born in London, of Welsh parentage, and is now Regius Professor of Modern History (Cambridge) at the University of Cambridge and President of Wolfson College. Evans applied for the distinguished Cambridge position, whereas his predecessors were chosen — marking a procedural change at Cambridge. Evans has also taught at the University of Stirling, University of East Anglia and Birkbeck College, London. Having been a Visiting Professor in History at Gresham College during 2008/09, he is now the Gresham Professor of Rhetoric.
He was educated at Forest School, Jesus College, Oxford (MA), and St Antony's College, Oxford (DPhil) and the University of East Anglia (LittD). In a 2004 interview, Evans stated that frequent visits to Wales during his childhood inspired both an interest in history and a sense of "otherness".
As an undergraduate, Evans was much influenced by the History Workshop school, which was in its founding phase at Oxford while he was studying there, and by the English Marxist historians. He was also influenced by E.H. Carr's What Is History?
wn.com/Richard_J._Evans -
Richard Overy
Richard Overy (born 23 December 1947) is a British historian who has published extensively on the history of World War II and the Third Reich. In 2007 as The Times editor of Complete History of the World he chose the 50 key dates of world history.
After being educated at Caius College, Cambridge and awarded a research fellowship at Churchill College, Overy taught history at Cambridge from 1972 to 1979, as a fellow of Queens' College and from 1976 as a university assistant lecturer. In 1980 he moved to King's College London, where he became professor of modern history in 1994. He was appointed to a professorship in Exeter University in 2004.
wn.com/Richard_Overy -
Robert N. Proctor
Robert Neel Proctor (born 1954) is an American historian of science and Professor of the History of Science at Stanford University. While a professor of the history of science at Pennsylvania State University in 1999, he became the first historian to testify against the tobacco industry.
At Pennsylvania State University, he and his wife, Londa Schiebinger, co-directed the Science, Medicine and Technology in Culture Program for nine years. The couple met at Harvard, where they earned their master's and doctoral degrees in 1977 and 1984, respectively.
He coined the term "agnotology" to describe the study of culturally induced ignorance or doubt, particularly the publication of inaccurate or misleading scientific data.
wn.com/Robert_N._Proctor -
Roger Moorhouse
Roger Moorhouse (born 1968) is a British historian and author. Born in Stockport, Cheshire, he was raised in Hertfordshire and attended Berkhamsted School. Inspired to return to education by the East European Revolutions of 1989, Moorhouse enrolled in the School of Slavonic and East European Studies of the University of London in 1990 to study history and politics. He graduated with an MA in 1994 and has since studied at the universities of Düsseldorf and Strathclyde.
Whilst a student, Moorhouse began working as a researcher for Professor Norman Davies. He collaborated with Professor Davies on many of the latter’s recent publications, including Europe: A History, The Isles: A History, and Rising ’44. This working relationship culminated in 2002 with the publication, in three languages, of a co-authored study of the history of the city of Wrocław (the former German Breslau) entitled Microcosm: Portrait of a Central European City.
2006 saw the publication of Killing Hitler, Moorhouse’s first solo book. An account of the numerous attempts on Hitler’s life, the book has been published in numerous other languages, including German, Spanish, Chinese, Italian and Japanese. In a CNN news report of 3 September 2011, Killing Hitler was shown on Saadi Gaddafi's desk after he had fled his office in the wake of the collapse of the Gaddafi regime in Libya. Reporter Nic Robertson suggested that Saadi Gaddafi had been reading the book prior to his flight.
wn.com/Roger_Moorhouse -
Roland Freisler
Roland Freisler (30 October 1893 – 3 February 1945) was a prominent and notorious Nazi lawyer and judge. He was State Secretary of the Reich Ministry of Justice and President of the People's Court (Volksgerichtshof), which was set up outside constitutional authority. This court handled political actions against Hitler's dictatorial regime by conducting a series of show trials.
In contrast to most of the Nazi leadership, not much beyond basic detail is known about Freisler. He was born in Celle, the son of an engineer, and saw active service during World War I. He was an officer cadet in 1914, and by 1915 he was a Lieutenant.[citation needed] He won the Iron Cross of both classes. In October 1915, after fighting and being wounded at the western front, 1914, he was captured by Russian troops.
While a prisoner of war in Russia, Freisler learned Russian. He is said to have developed an interest in Marxism after the Russian Revolution; the Bolsheviks made use of him as a commissar for the camp's food supplies. It is also said that after the prisoner camps were dissolved in 1918, Freisler became a convinced Communist, though this is not supported by any contemporaneous documents. However, historian H. W. Koch states that after the Bolshevik Revolution, the POW camps in Russia were handed over to German administration, and the title of commissar was merely functional, not political, and that "Freisler was never a Communist, though in the early days of his NS career [...] he belonged to the NSDAP's left wing."
wn.com/Roland_Freisler -
Romani people
The Romani are an ethnic group living mostly in Europe, who trace their origins to the Indian Subcontinent. Romani are widely known in the English-speaking world by the exonym Gypsies (or Gipsies).
They are known collectively in the Romani language as Romane or Rromane (depending on the dialect concerned) and also as Romany, Romanies, Romanis, Roma or Roms.
Romani are widely dispersed, with their largest concentrated populations in Europe, especially the Roma of Central and Eastern Europe and Anatolia, followed by the Kale of Iberia and Southern France.
The Americas are also home to large numbers of Romani. There are an estimated one million Roma in the United States; 800,000 in Brazil, to which Kale were deported by the government of Portugal during the colonial era; and in more recent migrations, Romani have also moved to other parts of the New World.
The Romani language is divided into several dialects, which add up to an estimated number of speakers larger than two million. The total number of Romani people is at least twice as large (several times as large according to high estimates). Many Romani are native speakers of the language current in their country of residence, or of mixed languages combining the two.
wn.com/Romani_people -
Rudolf Hess
Rudolf Walter Richard Hess, also spelled Heß (26 April 1894 – 17 August 1987), was a prominent Nazi politician who was Adolf Hitler's deputy in the Nazi Party during the 1930s and early 1940s. On the eve of war with the Soviet Union, he flew solo to Scotland in an attempt to negotiate peace with the United Kingdom, where he was arrested and became a prisoner of war. Hess was tried at Nuremberg and sentenced to life imprisonment, which he served at Spandau Prison, Berlin, where he died in 1987. After World War II Winston Churchill wrote of Hess, "He was a medical and not a criminal case, and should be so regarded."
On 27–28 September 2007, British news services published descriptions of disagreement between his Western and Soviet captors over his treatment and how the Soviet captors were steadfast in denying his release. In July 2011, the remains of Hess were exhumed from a grave in Bavaria after it became a focus of a pilgrimage for neo-Nazis.
Hess, the eldest of four children, was born in Alexandria, Egypt, to Fritz H. Hess, a prosperous German Lutheran importer/exporter from Bavaria, and Clara Hess (née Münch). The family lived in luxury on the Egyptian coast near Alexandria, and visited Germany often during the summers, allowing the Hess children to learn the German language and to absorb German culture. The family moved back to Germany in 1908, where Hess enrolled as a boarder at the Protestant School in Bad Godesberg. Hess showed aptitude in science and mathematics, and expressed interest in becoming an astronomer. However, his father wished him to continue the family business, Hess & Co., and in 1911 convinced Hess to study business for a year in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, at the Ecole Supérieure de Commerce.
wn.com/Rudolf_Hess -
Sadao Araki
Baron Sadao Araki (荒木 貞夫, Araki Sadao?, 26 May 1877 – 2 November 1966) was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army before World War II. A charismatic leader and one of the principal nationalist right-wing political theorists in the late Japanese Empire, he was regarded as the leader of the radical faction within the politicized Japanese Army and served as Minister of War under Prime Minister Inukai. He later served a Minister of Education during the Konoe and Hiranuma administrations.
Araki was born in Komae, Tokyo; his father was an ex-samurai retainer of the Hitotsubashi branch of the Tokugawa family. Araki graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in November 1897; and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in June of the following year.
Promoted to lieutenant in November 1900 and promoted to captain in June 1904, Araki served as company commander of the 1st Imperial Regiment during the Russo-Japanese War.
After the war, Araki returned to graduate from the Army Staff College at the head of his class. He served on the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff in April 1908, and served as a language officer stationed in Russia from November 1909 to May 1913, when he was made military attaché to Saint Petersburg during World War I. He was promoted to major in July 1918 and was assigned to the Kwantung Army.
wn.com/Sadao_Araki -
Somali people
Somalis (Somali: Soomaaliyeed, Arabic: الصوماليون) are an ethnic group located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali Peninsula. The overwhelming majority of Somalis speak the Somali language, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Ethnic Somalis number around 15-17 million and are principally concentrated in Somalia (more than 10 million), Ethiopia (4.6 million), Yemen (a little under 1 million), Kenya (900,000), Djibouti (464,600), and an unknown but large number live in parts of the Middle East, North America and Europe.
Samaale, the oldest common ancestor of several Somali clans, is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali. The name "Somali" is, in turn, held to be derived from the words soo and maal, which together mean "go and milk" — a reference to the ubiquitous pastoralism of the Somali people. Another plausible etymology proposes that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic for "wealthy" (dhawamaal), again referring to Somali riches in livestock.
wn.com/Somali_people -
Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict fought in Spain from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939. The war began after a pronunciamiento (declaration of opposition) by a group of generals under the leadership of José Sanjurjo against the elected government of the Second Spanish Republic, at the time under the leadership of President Manuel Azaña. The rebel coup was supported by a number of conservative groups including the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right, monarchists such as the religious conservative Carlists, and the Fascist Falange. The uprising was authoritarian and anti-separatist in inspiration; anti-Basque and anti-Catalan feeling marked the Nationalist zone.
Following the only partially successful coup, Spain was left militarily and politically divided. From that moment onwards, general Francisco Franco began a protracted war of attrition against the established government for the control of the country. The rebel forces received the support of Nazi Germany and the Kingdom of Italy, as well as neighbouring Portugal, while the Soviet Union and Mexico intervened in support of the Republican government or loyalist side.
wn.com/Spanish_Civil_War -
Teotihuacan
Coordinates: 19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.6925°N 98.8438°W / 19.6925; -98.8438
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica.
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC and continued to be built until about 250 AD. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps 125,000 or more, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the Mexican Highland around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
wn.com/Teotihuacan -
Timothy Snyder
Timothy D. Snyder (born August 18, 1969) is Housum Professor of History at Yale University. He specializes in the history of Central and Eastern Europe, as well as the Holocaust. He is also affiliated with the Institut für die Wissenschaften vom Menschen in Vienna and the College d'Europe in Natolin.
Snyder received his doctorate from the University of Oxford, where he was a Marshall Scholar, in 1997. He has held fellowships in Paris, Vienna, Warsaw, and as an Academy Scholar at Harvard University.
Snyder is the author of five books: Nationalism, Marxism, and Modern Central Europe: A Biography of Kazimierz Kelles-Krauz, The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999 , Sketches from a Secret War: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine (on Henryk Józewski), The Red Prince: The Secret Lives of A Habsburg Archduke (on Archduke Wilhelm of Austria), and Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. He is the co-editor of two further books, and helped Tony Judt to compose a history of the life of the mind in the twentieth century. He has written for the International Herald Tribune, The Nation, New York Review of Books, the Times Literary Supplement, The New Republic, Eurozine, Tygodnik Powszechny, the Chicago Tribune, the Christian Science Monitor, and other periodicals.
wn.com/Timothy_Snyder -
Ukrainians
Ukrainians (Ukrainian: Українці, Ukrayintsi, [ukrɑˈjinʲtsʲi]) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine, which is the sixth-largest nation in Europe. The Constitution of Ukraine applies the term 'Ukrainians' to all its citizens. According to some dictionary definitions, a descriptive name for the "inhabitants of Ukraine" is Ukrainian or Ukrainian people.Russians and Belarusians are considered the closest relatives of Ukrainians, while Rusyns are either considered another closely related group, or an ethnic subgroup of Ukrainians.
Ethnonym Ukrainians became widely accepted only in the 20th century, so modern Ukrainians identify their ancestry with differently named historical Slavic groups, who are often called Ukrainians too, in retrospect. The oldest recorded ethnonyms used for Ukrainian ancestors are Rusy, Rusyny, and Rusychi (from term Rus'). From the 9th to 12th centuries those names applied to the population of Kievan Rus', as the united state of Rusy is restrospectively called. Similar names were adopted by the proto-Russian and proto-Belarusian inhabitants of the northern principalities of Rus', reflecting the common origin of all those East Slavic peoples.
wn.com/Ukrainians -
Veit Harlan
Veit Harlan (22 September 1899 – 13 April 1964) was a German film director and actor.
Harlan was born in Berlin. After studying under Max Reinhardt, he first appeared on the stage in 1915 and, after World War I, worked in the Berlin stage. In 1922 he married Jewish actress and cabaret singer Dora Gerson; the couple divorced in 1924. Gerson later died at Auschwitz with her family. In 1929, he married Hilde Körber, having three children with her before divorcing her for political reasons related to the influence of National Socialism. Afterwards, he married the Swedish actress Kristina Söderbaum, for whom he wrote several tragic roles, further increasing her popularity.
David Thomson asserts that Harlan, having just started directing in 1935, was only able to attract Goebbels' attention because so much directorial talent had emigrated from Germany after the Nazi takeover. By 1937, Joseph Goebbels had appointed Harlan as one of his leading propaganda directors. His most notorious film was Jud Süß (1940), which was made for anti-Semitic propaganda purposes in Germany and Austria. In 1943 it received UFA's highest awards. Karsten Witte, the film critic, provided a fitting appellation for Harlan calling him "the baroque fascist". Harlan made the Reich's loudest, most colorful and expensive films.
wn.com/Veit_Harlan -
Vidkun Quisling
Vidkun Abraham Lauritz Jonssøn Quisling (Norwegian: [ˈʋɪdkʉn ˈkʋɪʃlɪŋ] (listen); 18 July 1887 – 24 October 1945) was a Norwegian politician. On 9 April 1940, with the German invasion of Norway in progress, he seized power in a Nazi-backed coup d'etat.
From 1942 to 1945 he served as Minister-President, working with the occupying forces. His government, known as the Quisling regime, was dominated by ministers from Nasjonal Samling, the party he had founded in 1933. The collaborationist government participated in Germany's Final Solution. Quisling was put on trial during the post-war legal purge in Norway and found guilty of charges including embezzlement, murder and high treason. He was executed by firing squad at Akershus Fortress, Oslo, on 24 October 1945. During World War II, quisling became a synonym for traitor.
The son of a Church of Norway pastor, Quisling blended Christian fundamentals, scientific developments and philosophy into a new theory he called Universism. Before going into politics, he proved himself in the military, joining the General Staff in 1911 and specialising in Russian affairs. He was posted to Russia in 1918, and worked with Fridtjof Nansen during the 1921 famine in the Ukraine, returning to Russia to work with Frederik Prytz in Moscow. When Prytz left in 1927, Quisling stayed on as the Norwegian diplomat responsible for managing British diplomatic affairs. For these services he was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) by King George V, though the honour was later rescinded. He returned to Norway in 1929, and served as Minister of Defence during the Agrarian governments (1931–33). Although Quisling achieved some popularity after his attacks on the political left, his party never polled well and was little more than peripheral at the time of his 1940 coup.
wn.com/Vidkun_Quisling -
Vihtori Kosola
Iisakki Vihtori Kosola (10 July 1884 – 14 December 1936) was the leader of the Finnish right-wing radical Lapua Movement.
Kosola was born in Ylihärmä, Southern Ostrobothnia. His family's farmhouse burnt down the next year, and the family moved to Lapua. His formative years were spent in farming and cattle-breeding.
Kosola was an active recruiter of Finnish Jäger troops to Germany from autumn 1915, and was incarcerated in 1916. He was imprisoned in Helsinki, then at the Shpalernaya prison in St. Petersburg among other Finnish activists. He was released after the Russian Revolution and eagerly took part in the Finnish Civil War against the Red Guards and the Russians. After the war Kosola led the Lapua White Guard.
In the 1920s he organized Vientirauha, a strikebreakers' organisation, in Southern Ostrobothnia. He made a speech at the first meeting of the anti-communist Lapua Movement as it was organized in 1929, and was chosen as its leader as the movement radicalized in the following year. He took part of the abortive Mäntsälä Rebellion of 1932 that ended with the dissolution and banning of the Lapua Movement and the brief imprisonment of Kosola.
wn.com/Vihtori_Kosola -
Viktor Lutze
Viktor Lutze (December 28, 1890–May 2, 1943) was the commander of the Sturmabteilung ("SA") succeeding Ernst Röhm as Stabschef.
Lutze was born in Bevergern, Westphalia, the son of a peasant craftsman. After a short career in the post office, he joined the German Army in 1912, serving with the 55th Infantry Regiment. He fought in the 369th Infantry Regiment and 15th Reserve Infantry Regiment during World War I. He became a company commander and was heavily wounded four times, including loss of his left eye. After the war, Lutze became a merchant and joined the police force.
Lutze joined the National Socialist German Workers Party (Nazi Party) in 1922, and the Prussian State Council. He became an associate of Franz Pfeffer von Salomon, the first leader of the SA. Together, they determined the structure of the organization.
He also worked with Albert Leo Schlageter in the resistance/sabotage of the Belgian and French occupation of the Ruhr in 1923. His organization of the Ruhr for the SA became a model for other regions after 1926. With the assumption of power by the NSDAP in March 1933, he was appointed police president of Hanover and later its provincial governor and state counselor. He rose through the ranks and by 1933 was a SA-Obergruppenführer.
wn.com/Viktor_Lutze -
Volksgerichtshof
The People's Court (German: Volksgerichtshof) was a Sondergericht, a special court, established in 1934 by German Chancellor Adolf Hitler, who had been dissatisfied with the outcome of the Reichstag Fire Trial (all but one of the accused were acquitted). The "People's Court" was set up outside the operations of the constitutional frame of law. The court had jurisdiction over a rather broad array of "political offenses," which included crimes like black marketeering, work slowdowns, defeatism and treason against the Third Reich. These crimes were viewed by the court as Wehrkraftzersetzung ("disintegration of defensive capability") and were accordingly punished severely. The death penalty was meted out in numerous cases in this court.
The Court handed down an enormous number of death sentences under Judge-President Roland Freisler, including those that followed the July 20 Plot to kill Hitler. Many of those found guilty by the Court died in the Plötzensee prison. The proceedings of the court were often even less than show trials in that some cases, such as that of Sophie Scholl and her brother Hans Scholl and fellow White Rose activists concluded in less than an hour, without evidence being presented or arguments made by either side. The president of the court often acted as prosecutor, denouncing defendants, then pronouncing his verdict and sentence without objection from defense counsel, who usually remained silent throughout. Unsurprisingly, it did not follow the laws and procedures of regular German trials, being easily characterized as a "kangaroo court". It almost always sided with the prosecution, to the point that being hauled before it was tantamount to a death sentence.
wn.com/Volksgerichtshof -
Wilhelm Ohnesorge
Karl Wilhelm Ohnesorge (8 June 1872 - 1 February 1962) was a German politician in the Third Reich who sat in Hitler's cabinet. From 1937 to 1945, he also acted as the minister and official of the Reichspost, the German postal service, having succeeded Paul Freiherr von Eltz-Rübenach as minister. Along with his ministerial duties, Ohnesorge also significantly delved into research relating to propagation and promotion of the Nazi Party through the radio, and the development of a proposed German atomic bomb.
Born in Gräfenhainichen, Saxony-Anhalt, Ohnesorge started working for the Imperial Post in 1890. He later went on to study Physics in Kiel and Berlin, before he became the head of the postal service in the Imperial Headquarters during World War I.
Ohnesorge first met Hitler sometime in 1920, and they became good friends. Shortly after this, he joined the Nazi Party (Party Membership Nr. 42), founding its first branch outside Bavaria, at Dortmund. By the year 1929, he had become the president of the Central Office of the Reichspost, Germany's central postal service. With the Nazi takeover in 1933 Ohnesorge was named State Secretary, and he de facto supervised the Reichspost, particularly engaging himself for the propagation of the Nazi Party and their goals through the Post. From 1937, he assumed the duties of Minister of the Reichspost, succeeding Paul Freiherr von Eltz-Rübenach.
wn.com/Wilhelm_Ohnesorge -
William L. Shirer
William Lawrence Shirer (February 23, 1904 – December 28, 1993) was an American journalist, war correspondent, and historian, who wrote The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, a history of Nazi Germany that has been read by many and cited in scholarly works for more than 50 years. Originally a foreign correspondent for the Chicago Tribune and the International News Service, Shirer was the first reporter hired by Edward R. Murrow for what would become a CBS radio team of journalists, and he became known for his broadcasts from Berlin, from the rise of the Nazi dictatorship through the first year of World War II (1940). With Murrow, he organized the first broadcast world news roundup, a format still followed by news broadcasts.
Shirer wrote more than a dozen books beside The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich, including Berlin Diary (published in 1941); The Collapse of the Third Republic (1969), which drew on his experience living and working in France from 1925 to 1933; and a three-volume autobiography, Twentieth Century Journey (1976 to 1990).
wn.com/William_L._Shirer -
Zoltán Böszörmény
Zoltán Böszörmény (5 January 1893-?) was a leading exponent of Fascism in Hungary before the Second World War.
The son of a bankrupt landowner, he initially worked a series of odd jobs, ranging from a labourer to a porter. He first flirted with politics in 1919 when he became involved in activity against Béla Kun, albeit on a very minor scale. Whilst studying at the University of Budapest he became leader of the state student movement and a supporter of Gyula Gömbös. Whilst at University he also became a poet, writing largely patriotic verses published by two agents who would later become involved in the organisation of his political movement.
He formed the National Socialist Party of Work in 1931, and a meeting with Adolf Hitler that same year convinced him further of the benefits of Nazism. The group followed Hitler's lead closely, adopting the brown shirt and swastika whilst publishing a newspaper National Socialist. As the Scythe Cross, Böszörmény's movement grew to have some 20,000 followers at its peak, although Gömbös, fearing the growing power of the movement, suppressed it. As lead of the movement Böszörmény insisted on the title vezér or 'great leader' in imitation of Hitler's Führer. A word-for-word translation of the Nazi Party's National Socialist Program served as the founding document for the Scythe Cross.
wn.com/Zoltán_Böszörmény -
Édouard Daladier
Édouard Daladier (French: [edwaʁ daladje]; 1884–1970) was a French Radical politician and the Prime Minister of France at the start of the Second World War.
Daladier was born in Carpentras, Vaucluse. Later, he would become known to many as "the bull of Vaucluse" because of his thick neck and large shoulders and determined look, although cynics also quipped that his horns were like those of a snail. During World War I, he rose from Private to Captain and Company Commander.
A government minister in various posts during the coalition governments between 1924 and 1928, he was instrumental in the Radical Party's break with the socialist SFIO in 1926, the first Cartel des gauches – "Left-wing Coalition"), and with the conservative Raymond Poincaré in November 1928.
Daladier became a leading member of the Radicals. He first became Prime Minister in 1933, and then again in 1934 for a few days when the Stavisky Affair led to the riots of 6 February 1934 instigated by the far right and the fall of the second Cartel des gauches.
wn.com/Édouard_Daladier
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
Nazi Germany 33-39 part 1 of 9
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:12
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
Germany 1933 - 1939. Film footage of the era without commentary. english subtitles where appropriate.
http://wn.com/Nazi_Germany_33-39_part_1_of_9
Germany 1933 - 1939. Film footage of the era without commentary. english subtitles where appropriate.
Sex slavery in Nazi Germany part 1 of 3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:58
- Updated: 03 Dec 2012
www.facebook.com www.ceepackaging.com twitter @ceepackaging www.facebook.com My channel on you tube : www.youtube.com is one of the most prolific from Poland. I have produced around 1900 original films. My big interest in life is travel and history but I have also placed films on other subjects Please feel free to ask questions in the public area or to comment on things you disagree with. Sometimes there are mistakes because I speak without preparation. If I see the mistakes myself, I make this clear in the text. Please also leave a star rating! There are a number of films here on the packaging industry. This is because I am the publisher of Central and Eastern European Packaging -- www.ceepackaging.com - the international platform for the packaging industry in this region focusing on the latest innovations, trends, design, branding, legislation and environmental issues with in-depth profiles of major industry achievers. Most people may think packaging pretty boring but it possibly effects your life more than you really imagine! Central and Eastern European Packaging examines the packaging industry throughout this region, but in particular in the largest regional economies which are Russia, Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, Ukraine and Austria. That is not to say that the other countries are forgotten, they are not, but obviously there is less going on. However the fact that there are so many travel related films here is not from holidays but from business trips attending ...
http://wn.com/Sex_slavery_in_Nazi_Germany_part_1_of_3
www.facebook.com www.ceepackaging.com twitter @ceepackaging www.facebook.com My channel on you tube : www.youtube.com is one of the most prolific from Poland. I have produced around 1900 original films. My big interest in life is travel and history but I have also placed films on other subjects Please feel free to ask questions in the public area or to comment on things you disagree with. Sometimes there are mistakes because I speak without preparation. If I see the mistakes myself, I make this clear in the text. Please also leave a star rating! There are a number of films here on the packaging industry. This is because I am the publisher of Central and Eastern European Packaging -- www.ceepackaging.com - the international platform for the packaging industry in this region focusing on the latest innovations, trends, design, branding, legislation and environmental issues with in-depth profiles of major industry achievers. Most people may think packaging pretty boring but it possibly effects your life more than you really imagine! Central and Eastern European Packaging examines the packaging industry throughout this region, but in particular in the largest regional economies which are Russia, Germany, Poland, Czech Republic, Ukraine and Austria. That is not to say that the other countries are forgotten, they are not, but obviously there is less going on. However the fact that there are so many travel related films here is not from holidays but from business trips attending ...
- published: 27 Aug 2011
- views: 19614
- author: alanheath3
nazi-germany 1939 in color
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:38
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
nazi-germany 1939 in color
http://wn.com/nazi-germany_1939_in_color
nazi-germany 1939 in color
- published: 18 Aug 2007
- views: 1375902
- author: puropelleyo
Nazi Germany in beautiful color pictures
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:05
- Updated: 08 Dec 2012
Just sharing that I have. Nazi Germany in nice high def pictures. Music: Claude Debussy - Clair De Lune
http://wn.com/Nazi_Germany_in_beautiful_color_pictures
Just sharing that I have. Nazi Germany in nice high def pictures. Music: Claude Debussy - Clair De Lune
- published: 01 Apr 2009
- views: 63351
- author: Valdemaras Drozd
Stephen Fry - The language in Nazi Germany
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:07
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
Stephen Fry talks about the power of words in Nazi Germany relating to the Jews. An extract from Stephen Fry's talk on his BBC series Planet Word. Full video podcast available here: itunes.apple.com
http://wn.com/Stephen_Fry_The_language_in_Nazi_Germany
Stephen Fry talks about the power of words in Nazi Germany relating to the Jews. An extract from Stephen Fry's talk on his BBC series Planet Word. Full video podcast available here: itunes.apple.com
- published: 17 Nov 2011
- views: 186118
- author: EdR8213
Women in Nazi Germany
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:37
- Updated: 29 Oct 2012
A video about the life of women in Nazi Germany. Women in Nazi Germany were to have a very specific role. This role was that they should be good mothers bringing up children at home while their husbands worked.
http://wn.com/Women_in_Nazi_Germany
A video about the life of women in Nazi Germany. Women in Nazi Germany were to have a very specific role. This role was that they should be good mothers bringing up children at home while their husbands worked.
- published: 26 May 2010
- views: 29615
- author: worcesterjonny
Nazi Punks - Germany
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 16:17
- Updated: 08 Dec 2012
Sep 1998 A report on the rising racial tensions in Germany. In a smoky den in Leipzig, Daniel is thrashing his drum kit. The crowd is a collection of beer swilling loons leaping about screaming adulation for Hitler. The hopes and excitement at the time of reunification have been replaced with disillusionment and insecurity among largely unemployed youth. It's made worst by frightening ignorance of the past. In a recent survey of 14-18 year olds over half knew nothing about the extermination of the Jews. To the tune of slow ballads about poor Germans who don't get anything from the state while a refugee drives his Mercedes to the welfare office, the nationalists march on. Produced by ABC Australia Distributed by Journeyman Pictures
http://wn.com/Nazi_Punks_Germany
Sep 1998 A report on the rising racial tensions in Germany. In a smoky den in Leipzig, Daniel is thrashing his drum kit. The crowd is a collection of beer swilling loons leaping about screaming adulation for Hitler. The hopes and excitement at the time of reunification have been replaced with disillusionment and insecurity among largely unemployed youth. It's made worst by frightening ignorance of the past. In a recent survey of 14-18 year olds over half knew nothing about the extermination of the Jews. To the tune of slow ballads about poor Germans who don't get anything from the state while a refugee drives his Mercedes to the welfare office, the nationalists march on. Produced by ABC Australia Distributed by Journeyman Pictures
- published: 08 Nov 2007
- views: 944621
- author: journeymanpictures
NAZI Death concentration camps Germany August 28 1945
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 59:16
- Updated: 05 Dec 2012
Nazi concentration/prison camps as found and liberated by the Allied powers. This is a video documentary by the Allied military and presented at the Nuremberg trial. This shows *graphic* video of what they found and how they dealt with their findings. Not for the young of heart.
http://wn.com/NAZI_Death_concentration_camps_Germany_August_28_1945
Nazi concentration/prison camps as found and liberated by the Allied powers. This is a video documentary by the Allied military and presented at the Nuremberg trial. This shows *graphic* video of what they found and how they dealt with their findings. Not for the young of heart.
- published: 28 Jan 2012
- views: 8024
- author: Lartia
Forgotten Stealth Fighter of Nazi Germany
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 44:59
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany had developed a stealth fighter jet that is amazingly similar to todays B-52 stealth bomber used by the united States.
http://wn.com/Forgotten_Stealth_Fighter_of_Nazi_Germany
Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany had developed a stealth fighter jet that is amazingly similar to todays B-52 stealth bomber used by the united States.
- published: 25 May 2012
- views: 11114
- author: brasstacksutah
Neo-Nazism: Spirit of Hitler Still Alive in Germany - CBN.com
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:19
- Updated: 07 Dec 2012
Though not a widespread phenomenon, the neo-Nazi movement continues to exist in small pockets across Germany... The Christian Broadcasting Network CBN www.cbn.com
http://wn.com/Neo-Nazism_Spirit_of_Hitler_Still_Alive_in_Germany_CBNcom
Though not a widespread phenomenon, the neo-Nazi movement continues to exist in small pockets across Germany... The Christian Broadcasting Network CBN www.cbn.com
- published: 30 Sep 2010
- views: 104246
- author: CBNonline
America is Becoming Nazi Germany of The 21st Century - Alex Jones Tv 1/3
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:02
- Updated: 03 Dec 2012
On this Monday edition of the Alex Jones Show, Alex talks about the outlawing of embedding YouTube videos, the criminalization of the gold trade, and the war clouds growing over Libya and Syria. Alex takes your calls and covers the latest news. www.infowars.com www.prisonplanet.tv www.infowars.net www.prisonplanet.com
http://wn.com/America_is_Becoming_Nazi_Germany_of_The_21st_Century_Alex_Jones_Tv_1_3
On this Monday edition of the Alex Jones Show, Alex talks about the outlawing of embedding YouTube videos, the criminalization of the gold trade, and the war clouds growing over Libya and Syria. Alex takes your calls and covers the latest news. www.infowars.com www.prisonplanet.tv www.infowars.net www.prisonplanet.com
- published: 20 Jun 2011
- views: 49446
- author: TheAlexJonesChannel
Auschwitz - Nazi German Concentration Camp
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:16
- Updated: 07 Dec 2012
While in Krakow, I took a trip to Auschwitz - the largest Nazi German concentration camp. --- Music by ANSANE
http://wn.com/Auschwitz_Nazi_German_Concentration_Camp
While in Krakow, I took a trip to Auschwitz - the largest Nazi German concentration camp. --- Music by ANSANE
- published: 23 Sep 2010
- views: 26892
- author: ResetLiveGrow
NAZI GERMANY'S FUHRER: ADOLF HITLER
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:33
- Updated: 28 Nov 2012
THIS VIDEO CONTAINS VERY RARE HISTORICAL COLOR FOOTAGE!!!!
http://wn.com/NAZI_GERMANY'S_FUHRER_ADOLF_HITLER
THIS VIDEO CONTAINS VERY RARE HISTORICAL COLOR FOOTAGE!!!!
- published: 11 Feb 2009
- views: 44864
- author: WaffenSS397
Women in Nazi Germany
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:53
- Updated: 05 Dec 2012
History Presentation: "Nazi Germany".
http://wn.com/Women_in_Nazi_Germany
History Presentation: "Nazi Germany".
- published: 18 Nov 2009
- views: 30691
- author: aguustiinita
Germany: Female Neo-Nazis | European Journal
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:50
- Updated: 06 Dec 2012
Right-wing terrorists are thought to be behind the murders of a number of immigrants and a policewoman. One of the suspects is a woman.Right-wing extremism is widely thought to be dominated by violent men. But increasing numbers of women are joining neo-Nazi organizations. It's estimated females now account for between 10 and 20 percent of the membership of such groups. Women are also taking on a different role -- no longer limited to spreading hatred through propaganda, they're actively perpetrating violence, too. We investigate the role of women in neo-Nazi groups.
http://wn.com/Germany_Female_Neo-Nazis_|_European_Journal
Right-wing terrorists are thought to be behind the murders of a number of immigrants and a policewoman. One of the suspects is a woman.Right-wing extremism is widely thought to be dominated by violent men. But increasing numbers of women are joining neo-Nazi organizations. It's estimated females now account for between 10 and 20 percent of the membership of such groups. Women are also taking on a different role -- no longer limited to spreading hatred through propaganda, they're actively perpetrating violence, too. We investigate the role of women in neo-Nazi groups.
- published: 24 Nov 2011
- views: 14321
- author: deutschewelleenglish
Walt Disney - Anti Nazi Cartoon - Good Quality
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:38
- Updated: 08 Dec 2012
This is a anti-nazi cartoon critizising the 3. Reich (Nazi Germany).
http://wn.com/Walt_Disney_Anti_Nazi_Cartoon_Good_Quality
This is a anti-nazi cartoon critizising the 3. Reich (Nazi Germany).
- published: 05 Jun 2008
- views: 313812
- author: Gloryifcate
SS forces in nazi germany march,hitler&himler; look
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:18
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
SS forces in nazi germany march,hitler&himler; look.himler was the head of nazi germany secret polse Geschtapo
http://wn.com/SS_forces_in_nazi_germany_march,hitler&himler;_look
SS forces in nazi germany march,hitler&himler; look.himler was the head of nazi germany secret polse Geschtapo
- published: 21 Dec 2007
- views: 222372
- author: nazanindabiri
Nazi Secret Weapons HD
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 45:49
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
The World First Guided Smart Bomb " Just prior to the end of WWII, the German military secretly undertook a massive push to design miracle weapons - colossal tanks, the world's first guided missiles and long-range bombers that could attack New York. Now, nearly 65 years later, a team of experts examine the original blueprints to determine if these so-called Wunderwaffen, or "wonder weapons," could have changed the outcome of the war. "
http://wn.com/Nazi_Secret_Weapons_HD
The World First Guided Smart Bomb " Just prior to the end of WWII, the German military secretly undertook a massive push to design miracle weapons - colossal tanks, the world's first guided missiles and long-range bombers that could attack New York. Now, nearly 65 years later, a team of experts examine the original blueprints to determine if these so-called Wunderwaffen, or "wonder weapons," could have changed the outcome of the war. "
- published: 02 Jan 2012
- views: 369128
- author: DarkFellowships
Occult Symbols of Nazi Germany
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:25
- Updated: 11 Sep 2012
The rituals and symbols of the occult are widespread throughout Germany
http://wn.com/Occult_Symbols_of_Nazi_Germany
The rituals and symbols of the occult are widespread throughout Germany
- published: 30 Apr 2007
- views: 250892
- author: PROCLAIMEROFTRUTH
Nazi German Anthem
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:19
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
Nazi German
http://wn.com/Nazi_German_Anthem
Nazi German
- published: 16 Jan 2008
- views: 3736148
- author: gliango
The Greater German Reich - Nazi Germany (Excision - Execute - X Rated)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:58
- Updated: 06 Dec 2012
Artist: Excision Song: Execute Album: X Rated Nazi Germany, also known as the Third Reich, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..."[4] Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer.[5] In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices.[6] Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged. Racism, especially antisemitism, was a main tenet of society in Nazi Germany. The ...
http://wn.com/The_Greater_German_Reich_Nazi_Germany_Excision_Execute_X_Rated
Artist: Excision Song: Execute Album: X Rated Nazi Germany, also known as the Third Reich, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became Chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..."[4] Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer.[5] In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices.[6] Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged. Racism, especially antisemitism, was a main tenet of society in Nazi Germany. The ...
- published: 26 Jul 2012
- views: 1733
- author: MIKEDGAF1503
What was life like for young people in Nazi Germany? part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:55
- Updated: 03 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/What_was_life_like_for_young_people_in_Nazi_Germany?_part_1
- published: 16 Jan 2011
- views: 61493
- author: mrgreen1066
Nazi Germany - A Creation of the Vatican and Jesuits
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 22:02
- Updated: 06 Dec 2012
www.spirituallysmart.com UK Newspaper mentions this video: Article Link: www.independent.co.uk Vatican launches YouTube channel - Europe, World - The Independent By Peter Popham in Rome Friday, 23 January 2009 Bolstered by a hearty endorsement from the Pope, the Vatican plunged into a new age today, launching its own dedicated YouTube channel, www.youtube.com/vaticanit. Initially available in Italian, English, German and Spanish, the ad-free site gives the Church an official presence in the fast-moving, anarchic world of new technology. Type "Vatican" into YouTube's search engine and the first video to appear is entitled "The Devil in the Vatican" and claims that the modern Church has gone over to the other side. The second argues that "Nazi Germany was a creation of the Vatican and the Jesuits". Now the Vatican has the means to fight back. "The Vatican Television Centre and Vatican Radio have been producing video news on the Pope's activities every day for over a year," said the papal spokesman Father Federico Lombardi. "Now they are ready to make this jump into the global arena." The Vatican's fusty facade has long concealed a tech-savvy interior: its solemn-looking web site, www.vatican.va , is a treasure trove, and was once nominated for a Webby award. Pope Benedict said the new technologies were "a gift to humanity". By communicating online, he said, we are responding to God, "who desires to make of all humanity one family. When we find ourselves drawn towards other ...
http://wn.com/Nazi_Germany_A_Creation_of_the_Vatican_and_Jesuits
www.spirituallysmart.com UK Newspaper mentions this video: Article Link: www.independent.co.uk Vatican launches YouTube channel - Europe, World - The Independent By Peter Popham in Rome Friday, 23 January 2009 Bolstered by a hearty endorsement from the Pope, the Vatican plunged into a new age today, launching its own dedicated YouTube channel, www.youtube.com/vaticanit. Initially available in Italian, English, German and Spanish, the ad-free site gives the Church an official presence in the fast-moving, anarchic world of new technology. Type "Vatican" into YouTube's search engine and the first video to appear is entitled "The Devil in the Vatican" and claims that the modern Church has gone over to the other side. The second argues that "Nazi Germany was a creation of the Vatican and the Jesuits". Now the Vatican has the means to fight back. "The Vatican Television Centre and Vatican Radio have been producing video news on the Pope's activities every day for over a year," said the papal spokesman Father Federico Lombardi. "Now they are ready to make this jump into the global arena." The Vatican's fusty facade has long concealed a tech-savvy interior: its solemn-looking web site, www.vatican.va , is a treasure trove, and was once nominated for a Webby award. Pope Benedict said the new technologies were "a gift to humanity". By communicating online, he said, we are responding to God, "who desires to make of all humanity one family. When we find ourselves drawn towards other ...
- published: 28 Jul 2008
- views: 132976
- author: tlthe5th
photo: AP / Khalil Hamra
09 Dec 2012
Syria's rebel leaders have agreed to come under a united command in a bid to integrate diverse fighting groups and streamline the route for arms essential to their struggle against President Bashar al-Assad. The new body, expected to be announced officially on Sunday, hopes to form the basis of a united rebel front ... "It also aims to get the situation under control once the regime falls." ... 378 Source.. Agencies. Share ... News ... Egypt....(size: 18.6Kb)
photo: AP / Vahid Salemi
07 Dec 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. The in- and out-fighting between present-day Saudi Arabia and Iran is a mirror image of what occurred to Prophet Muhammad's Islamic Movement right after his death ... Still, and due to prosperity and wealth, an influx of trade goods, religious toleration, an emphasis on learning, and increased food supplies, Islam was becoming a vast empire ... Recent U.S ... Dallas Darling (darling@wn.com)....(size: 7.5Kb)
photo: AP / Hassan Ammar
08 Dec 2012
Mohamed Morsi, the Egyptian president, is expected to press ahead with talks on ways to end Egypt's worst crisis since he took office even though the country's main opposition leaders have vowed to boycott negotiations. The capital Cairo and other cities have been rocked by violent protests since November 22, when Morsi issued a decree awarding himself sweeping powers that put him above the law ... 575 Source.. Al Jazeera and agencies ... ....(size: 19.5Kb)
Springfield News-Sun
09 Dec 2012
Exactly 71 years and one days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, weathered U.S ... But what really set off bidding was anything relating to Nazi Germany ... "It's German. In the U.S ... "Just look at the History Channel - look at all the programs about the Nazis," he continued. "We in the U.S. have a fascination for the Nazi era." ... collectors aren't Nazi sympathizers but simply want to preserve items "from all sides" of the war ... ___....(size: 4.6Kb)
Seattle Post
09 Dec 2012
AUBURN, Ind. (AP) — Exactly 71 years and one days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, weathered U.S ... But what really set off bidding was anything relating to Nazi Germany ... "It's German. In the U.S ... "Just look at the History Channel - look at all the programs about the Nazis," he continued ... have a fascination for the Nazi era." ... collectors aren't Nazi sympathizers but simply want to preserve items "from all sides" of the war ... ___....(size: 4.7Kb)
Stars and Stripes
09 Dec 2012
AUBURN, Ind. (AP) — Exactly 71 years and one days after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, weathered U.S ... But what really set off bidding was anything relating to Nazi Germany ... "Just look at the History Channel - look at all the programs about the Nazis," he continued ... have a fascination for the Nazi era." ... collectors aren't Nazi sympathizers but simply want to preserve items "from all sides" of the war ... ....(size: 5.4Kb)
The Examiner
09 Dec 2012
In Brister’s report, anyone who believes the government is destroying our freedoms is cast into the same camp as neo-Nazis and Islamist terrorists ... “This amorphous network, commonly referred to as the Christian Patriot Movement, is an eclectic blend of white supremacists, neo-Nazis, survivalists, militia members, and Christian Identity adherents.” ... In Nazi Germany, Hitler portrayed Jewish people as threats to Europe and Germany....(size: 10.6Kb)
IMDb
08 Dec 2012
... that shaped Germany. Only one problem; Third Reich propagandists used him to promote Nazi Germany’s superiority....(size: 0.6Kb)
San Francisco Chronicle
08 Dec 2012
The Patriarch ... Kennedy. By David Nasaw ... Nasaw's treatment of Kennedy's tenure as ambassador to Great Britain, which constitutes the core of the biography, provides detailed documentation of his response to the looming threat of Nazi Germany ... Having no doubt about the superiority of Germany's armed forces, he urged President Franklin Roosevelt to find a modus vivendi with Hitler while England and France were at war with him ... Joseph P....(size: 5.7Kb)
York Press
07 Dec 2012
APPARENTLY a law to shackle the press is illegal ... It is understandable, following such revelations, why these celebrities are backing press censorship ... Where did newspaper gagging and, ultimately, control of the broadcasting happen? Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler ... ....(size: 1.3Kb)
San Francisco Chronicle
07 Dec 2012
We recommend these recently reviewed titles.Dear Life. Stories. By Alice Munro. (Alfred A ... Far From the Tree ... Applebaum's passionate account pulls no punches in demonstrating the totality of Soviet domination over the territories it had conquered in its war with Nazi Germany.One for the Books ... ....(size: 1.4Kb)
Fox News
07 Dec 2012
7th December 1941. The results of the Pearl Harbour (Pearl Harbor) attack by the Japanese at Wheeler Field Barracks with artillery being pulled from the water. (Photo by Three Lions/Getty Images). The USS Arizona burns during the bombing of Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941 in Hawaii. (Photo courtesy of U.S. Navy/Newsmakers) ... 10th December 1941 ... On that day, December 7, 1941, Europe was fighting Nazi Germany and President Franklin D ... Walter R ... ....(size: 4.5Kb)
Richmond Times Dispatch
07 Dec 2012
On a sunny Sunday morning 71 years ago today, Japanese warplanes surprised the U.S. forces in Hawaii and brought the United States into World War II. “It was a terrible disaster,” said Pearl Harbor survivor Max Green of Highland Springs ... The Japanese sank four of the U.S ... World War II, which continued until 1945, pitted the U.S., Britain, the Soviet Union and other allies against Nazi Germany, fascist Italy and militarist Imperial Japan....(size: 4.8Kb)
Business Insider
07 Dec 2012
Syria Says News Of Its Chemical Weapons Preparation Is Totally Untrue. CONFIRMED. 36 Percent Of Fukushima Kids Have Abnormal Thyroid Growths And Doctors Are In The Dark. 'The Gates Of Hell' Are Opening Around Damascus As Rebels Close In On Assad. U.S ... Saddam Hussein in Iraq) ... By World War II Nazi Germany had developed deadlier gasses and then took air out of the equation by releasing nerve agents in gas chambers ... Tags ... ....(size: 5.3Kb)
The New York Times
07 Dec 2012
By SUSAN GUBAR. Before I travel to my mother’s funeral, I need to deliver the husks of a week’s-worth of blister packs to the Indiana University Simon Cancer Center ... Living With Cancer ... Given my mother’s flight from Hitler—alone with her baby son on a long ocean voyage in 1938—it seems miraculous that she will be buried in a Jewish cemetery, surrounded by those few relatives who also managed to escape an unmarked death in Nazi Germany ... ....(size: 5.2Kb)
Project Syndicate
07 Dec 2012
WASHINGTON, DC – Throughout history, mistreatment of minorities – whether ethnic, religious, linguistic, cultural, regional, ideological, sexual, or other – has fueled violence and devastated societies worldwide. Egregious cases in the last century include the Holocaust in Nazi Germany, the Khmer Rouge killing fields in Cambodia, and the genocide in Rwanda ... This negative trend shows no sign of waning ... ....(size: 5.3Kb)
| Greater German Reich Großdeutsches Reich |
|||||
|
|||||
|
|||||
| Motto Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer "One People, one Reich, one Leader" |
|||||
Anthem
|
|||||
|
|||||
| Capital | Berlin | ||||
| Language(s) | German | ||||
| Government | Nazi single-party state Totalitarian dictatorship |
||||
| President / Führer | |||||
| - 1933–1934 | Paul von Hindenburg | ||||
| - 1934–1945 | Adolf Hitler[ii] | ||||
| - 1945 | Karl Dönitz | ||||
| Chancellor | |||||
| - 1933–1945 | Adolf Hitler | ||||
| - 1945 | Joseph Goebbels | ||||
| Legislature | Reichstag[iii] | ||||
| - State council | Reichsrat[iii] | ||||
| Historical era | Interwar period / WWII | ||||
| - Machtergreifung | 30 January 1933 | ||||
| - Gleichschaltung | 27 February 1933 | ||||
| - Anschluss | 12 March 1938 | ||||
| - World War II | 1 September 1939 | ||||
| - Death of Adolf Hitler | 30 April 1945 | ||||
| - Surrender of Germany | 8 May 1945 | ||||
| Area | |||||
| - 1941 (Großdeutschland) [a] | 696,265 km2 (268,829 sq mi) | ||||
| Population | |||||
| - 1941 (Großdeutschland) est. | 90,030,775 | ||||
| Density | 129.3 /km2 (334.9 /sq mi) | ||||
| Currency | Reichsmark (ℛℳ) | ||||
| Today part of | |||||
|
|||||
.svg)
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..."[4] Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer.[5] In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices.[6] Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
Racism, especially antisemitism against jews, was a main tenet of society in Nazi Germany. The Gestapo (secret state police) and SS under Heinrich Himmler destroyed the liberal, socialist, and communist opposition and persecuted and murdered the Jews. It was believed that the Germanic peoples—who were also referred to as the Nordic race—were the purest representation of the Aryan race, and were therefore the master race. Education focused on racial biology, population policy, and physical fitness. Membership in the Hitler Youth organization became compulsory. The number of women enrolled in post-secondary education plummeted, and career opportunities were curtailed. Calling women's rights a "product of the Jewish intellect," the Nazis practiced what they called "emancipation from emancipation."[7] Entertainment and tourism were organized via the Strength Through Joy program. The government controlled artistic expression, promoting specific forms of art and discouraging or banning others. The Nazis mounted the infamous Entartete Kunst (Degenerate Art) exhibition in 1937.[8] Propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels made effective use of film, mass rallies, and Hitler's hypnotizing oratory to control public opinion.[9] The 1936 Summer Olympics showcased the Third Reich on the international stage.
Germany made increasingly aggressive demands, threatening war if they were not met. Britain and France responded with appeasement, hoping Hitler would finally be satisfied.[10] Austria was annexed in 1938, and the Sudetenland was taken via the Munich Agreement in 1938, with the rest of Czechoslovakia taken over in 1939. Hitler made a pact with Joseph Stalin and invaded Poland in September 1939, starting World War II. In alliance with Benito Mussolini's Italy, Germany conquered France and most of Europe by 1940, and threatened its remaining major foe: Great Britain. Reich Commissariats took brutal control of conquered areas, and a German administration termed the General Government was established in Poland. Concentration camps, established as early as 1933, were used to hold political prisoners and opponents of the regime. The number of camps quadrupled between 1939 and 1942 to 300+, as slave-laborers from across Europe, Jews, political prisoners, criminals, homosexuals, gypsies, the mentally ill and others were imprisoned. The system that began as an instrument of political oppression culminated in the mass genocide of Jews and other minorities in The Holocaust.
Following the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, the tide turned against the Third Reich in the major military defeats of the Battle of Stalingrad and the Battle of Kursk in 1943. The Soviet counter-attacks became the largest land battles in history. Large-scale systematic bombing of all major German cities, rail lines and oil plants escalated in 1944, shutting down the Luftwaffe (German Air Force). Germany was overrun in 1945 by the Soviets from the east and the Allies from the west. The victorious Allies initiated a policy of denazification and put the Nazi leadership on trial for war crimes at the Nuremberg Trials.
Contents
|
Name[link]
The official name of the state was the Deutsches Reich ("German Reich") from 1933 to 1943, and the Großdeutsches Reich ("Greater German Reich") from 1943 to 1945. The name Deutsches Reich is usually translated into English as "German Empire" or "German Reich".[11] The term "Reich" does not always connote an empire; the official name of Germany remained "Deutsches Reich" during the Weimar period.[12]
The most popular English terms are "Nazi Germany" and "Third Reich." The latter suggests a historical succession from the medieval Holy Roman Empire (962–1806) and the modern German Empire (1871–1918).[13] Historiographically, Germans today refer to the period as Zeit des Nationalsozialismus or the abbreviated NS-Zeit ("National Socialist period").
History[link]
See also: History of Germany
Background[link]
Further information: Adolf Hitler's rise to power
The Nazi movement arose among angry young veterans in the early 1920s; they rejected the Treaty of Versailles (1919), the Weimar republic, and democracy generally. They called for a revival of the Aryan race and blamed the Jews for Germany's troubles. Highly effective Nazi propaganda effectively used the "Stab-in-the-back legend" to explain the German military defeat in 1918—that is that Jews, Communists and other subversives in Berlin were to blame. The Nazi movement was small until the global Great Depression that began in 1929. It intensified the reaction against the modernity and liberalism of the Weimar Republic,[14]. Simultaneously on the left the Communist Party of Germany, controlled by Moscow, gained strength as the middle was squeezed. Many Germans decided the Nazi Party was capable of restoring order, quelling civil unrest, and restoring Germany's international reputation.[14]
The Nazis promised a strong authoritarian government, civic peace, radical economic policies (including full employment), increased Lebensraum ("living space") for Germanic peoples, formation of a national community based on race, and racial cleansing via the active suppression of Jews.[15] The Nazis promised national and cultural renewal based upon the Völkisch movement, traditionalism, proposed rearmament, repudiation of reparations, and reclamation of territory lost to the Treaty of Versailles. After the federal election of 1932, the Nazis were the largest party in the Reichstag, holding 230 seats.[16]
Nazi seizure of power[link]
Further information: Machtergreifung
File:Adolf Hitler cph 3a48970.jpg
Adolf Hitler, Chancellor of Germany, January 1933
On 30 January 1933, President Hindenburg, under pressure from Franz von Papen, appointed Hitler as Chancellor of Germany. This event is known as the Machtergreifung ("seizure of power"). By becoming the Vice Chancellor and keeping the Nazis a cabinet minority, von Papen expected to be able to control Hitler. Although the Nazis had won the greatest share of the popular vote in the two Reichstag general elections of 1932, they did not have a majority, so Hitler led a short-lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and the German National People's Party (DNVP).[17]
Within a few months, the new government installed a single party dictatorship in Germany with legal measures establishing a coordinated central government, (see Gleichschaltung). On the night of 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set afire; a Dutch communist was found guilty. The Nazis claimed that the arson was a signal for a communist uprising and thousands of communist party members were arrested, the party offices raided and all KPD publications banned. The Nazis imprisoned many in the Dachau concentration camp. The Reichstag Fire Decree (27 February 1933), rescinded most German civil liberties to suppress their opponents. The 'Fire Decree' was the second enactment that allowed the Nazi administration to restrict civil liberties. The first was a rule that forbade Germans from 'insulting the flag' and this was used consistently to repress any kind of opposition.[18]
In March 1933, with the Enabling Act, was passed by 444–94 (the remaining Social Democrats), the Reichstag changed the Weimar Constitution to allow Hitler's government to pass laws without parliamentary debate for a four-year period, even such deviating from other articles in the constitution (the Act, forming the legal basis for the regime, was subsequently renewed by Hitler's government in 1937 and 1941). Forthwith, throughout 1934, the Nazi Party ruthlessly eliminated all political opposition; the Enabling Act already had banned the Communists (KPD), the Social Democrats (SPD) were dissolved in June, and in the June–July period, the Nationalists (DNVP), the People's Party (DVP) and the German State Party (DStP) were likewise obliged to disband, their members urged to join the Nazi Party or else leave politics. Moreover, at the urging of Franz von Papen, the remaining Catholic Centre Party disbanded on 5 July 1933 after obtaining Nazi guarantees for Catholic religious education and youth groups. On 14 July 1933, Germany became a de facto single-party state, as the founding of new parties was banned. Further elections in late 1933, 1936 and 1938 were entirely Nazi-controlled and only saw the Nazis and a minor number of independent "guests" (such as Hugenberg) elected for the rubber-stamp legislature.
.svg)
The Nazi regime abolished the symbols of the Weimar Republic, including the black-red-gold tricolor flag, and adopted new and old imperial symbolism representing the dual nature of Germany’s third empire. The previous, imperial black-white-red tricolor was restored as one of Germany's two official national flags; the second was the swastika flag of the Nazi party, which became the sole national German flag in 1935. The Nazi anthem "Horst-Wessel-Lied" ("Horst Wessel Song") became a second national anthem.[19]
On 30 January 1934, Chancellor Hitler formally centralized government power to himself with the Act to Rebuild the Reich, by disbanding Länder (federal state) parliaments and transferring states’ powers and administration to the Berlin central government. The centralization began soon after the March 1933 Enabling Act promulgation, when state governments were replaced with Reich governors. Local government also was deposed; Reich governors appointed mayors of cities and towns with populaces of fewer than 100,000; the Interior Minister appointed the mayors of cities with populaces greater than 100,000; and, in the cases of Berlin and Hamburg (and Vienna in 1938), Hitler had personal discretion to appoint their mayors.
By spring of 1934, only the army remained independent of government control; traditionally, it was separate from the national government, a discrete entity. Ernst Röhm, leader of the Nazi paramilitary Sturmabteilung (SA, "Storm Detachment"), which had several million members, intended to assume command of the Reichswehr and absorb it into its ranks.[20] To complement the "nationalist revolution", Röhm favored a "second revolution", which would tear down industrialists, big business, the Junker aristorcracy, and Prussian control of the military.[21] Matters came to a head in June 1934 when President Hindenburg informed Hitler that if he didn't move to curb the SA then Hindenburg would dissolve the Government and declare martial law.[22]
At the risk of appearing to talk nonsense I tell you that the National Socialist movement will go on for 1,000 years! ... Don't forget how people laughed at me 15 years ago when I declared that one day I would govern Germany. They laugh now, just as foolishly, when I declare that I shall remain in power!
— Adolf Hitler to a British correspondent in Berlin, June 1934[23]
Convinced by Heinrich Himmler and Hermann Göring that a plot was afoot to depose him, Hitler ordered the Schutzstaffel (SS) and the Gestapo to assassinate his political enemies both in and outside the Nazi Party with the "Night of the Long Knives". The purges of Ernst Röhm, his SA cohort, the Strasserist, left-wing Nazis, and other political enemies lasted from 30 June to 2 July 1934, and resulted in up to 200 deaths.[24] While some Germans were shocked by the killing, others admired Hitler's decisive actions to restore order.[25]
Upon the death of Hindenburg, on 2 August 1934, the Nazi-controlled Reichstag consolidated the offices of Reichspräsident (Reich President) and Reichskanzler (Reich Chancellor), and reinstalled Hitler as Führer und Reichskanzler (Leader and Reich Chancellor). After the "Night of the Long Knives" and Hindenburg’s death, the Reichswehr was prepared to accept Hitler's leadership. As Hitler had announced plans to rearm and increase the size of the Reichswehr, the agreement of the generals was unsurprising. The assassination of Röhm and the SA leaders consolidated the Reichswehr as the sole armed force of the Reich, and the Führer’s promises of military expansion guaranteed him military loyalty. Hindenburg’s death facilitated changing the German soldiers’ oath of allegiance from the Reich of the Weimar Constitution to personal fealty to Adolf Hitler.[26]
In the event, the Nazis ended the official NSDAP–DNVP government alliance and began introducing Nazism and Nazi symbolism to public and private German life; textbooks were revised, or rewritten to promote a racial version of the Pan-German doctrine of Großdeutschland (Greater Germany) to be established by the Nazi Herrenvolk; teachers who opposed curricular Nazification were dismissed. Furthermore, to coerce popular obedience to the state, the Nazis established the Gestapo (secret state police) as independent of civil authority. The Gestapo controlled the German populace with some 100,000 spies and informers, and thereby were aware of anti-Nazi criticism and dissent.
The majority of the German people were relieved that the conflicts and street fighting had been ended and were deluged in a barrage of propaganda orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels and which promised peace and plenty for all in a united, Marxist-free country that would redress the wrongs done to Germany in the Versailles Treaty.[27] The first concentration camp for political prisoners was opened at Dachau near Munich in 1933 and "between 1933 and 1945, more than 3 million Germans had been in concentration camps, or prison, for political reasons".[28][29][30] "Tens of thousands of Germans were killed for one or another form of resistance. Between 1933 and 1945, Sondergerichte (Nazi "special courts") sentenced some 12,000 Germans to death, courts-martial ordered the execution of 25,000 German soldiers on charges of cowardice, while civil courts sentenced 40,000 Germans. Many of these Germans were part of the government, civil, or military service, a circumstance which enabled them to engage in subversion and conspiracy, while involved, marginally or significantly, in the government’s policies."[31]
Re-militarization of the Rhineland[link]
Main article: Remilitarization of the Rhineland
Germany pulled out of the League of Nations in 1933. Hitler began to systematically undermine and eradicate the provisions of the Versailles Treaty that were still valid in 1933. The disarmament clauses had been long since abandoned and Hitler achieved a minor victory when he withdrew Germany from the League of Nations on the grounds that disarmament was applied only to Germany. In January 1935 the Saarland voted to become part of Germany. The region had been placed under League of Nations supervision for 15 years and the decision was greeted as a great victory for the new Germany. In March 1935 Hitler announced that the Reichswehr would be increased to 550,000 men and that there would be a German Air Force.[32] When Britain agreed that the Germans would be allowed to build a naval fleet, the Treaty became little more than a piece of paper. The signees were ready in the name of peace, to negotiate away on a bilateral basis the terms that Germany had agreed to in 1919.
Hitler's next test of the resolve of the French and British governments' intention to uphold the Versailles Treaty came in March 1936. Mussolini, Hitler's forerunner as a dictator and at the time an object of admiration, invaded Ethiopia, leading to mild protests by the British and French governments. In the wake of this crisis, Hitler ordered the Reichswehr to march into the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland, with the proviso that they should withdraw if the French mobilised in response. The French government was in its usual state of internal bickering and Britain had no interest in, and no way of stopping the Reichswehr. The result was a huge victory for Hitler. He had tested the resolve of his opponents and they had been found wanting. Not that there was anything they could have done, for French military strategy was dictated by the existence of the Maginot Line, behind which their army was to remain, come what may, and British politicians regarded the Rhineland as Germany's own backyard. Hitler then held an election in which he received an overwhelming vote of support and his reputation as a vigorous and determined leader was growing fast.[33] The following year was relatively quiet on the foreign affairs front. The Spanish Civil War occupied the headlines in Europe, which was a useful trial ground for the growing Luftwaffe (German Air Force).
Anschluss with Austria[link]
Main article: Anschluss
In February 1938, Hitler called the Austrian Chancellor Kurt Schuschnigg to a meeting at the Berghof at which he harangued Schussnigg on the need for Germans to secure their frontiers. To forestall Hitler and to preserve Austria's independence, Schuschnigg scheduled a plebiscite on the issue for 13 March, but Hitler demanded that it be canceled. On 11 March, Hitler sent an ultimatum to Schuschnigg, demanding that he hand over all power to the Austrian Nazis or face an invasion. On 12 March the Wehrmacht entered Austria, to be greeted with enthusiasm by the Austrians.[34]
Occupation of Czechoslovakia[link]
Main article: Occupation of Czechoslovakia
Further information: Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
Hitler told the leader of the Sudeten German Party, Konrad Henlein, to make a number of unacceptable demands to the Czechoslovak government. Mussolini insisted that Hitler meet the British and French prime ministers to discuss the Czechoslovak crisis. Hitler demanded the immediate annexation of the German areas (called "Sudetenland"). Two more meetings followed, in the second of which, the infamous "Munich Agreement" was signed, forcing the Czechoslovak government to accept the annexation, but having no part in the negotiations.
The Munich Agreement has had a highly controversial reception among historians and political scientists. One interpretation sees it as a cowardly "Appeasement" – an unwise and unnecessarily capitulation to vehement threats. Other scholars argue that risking war at that stage was unwise because France and Britain had neither the weapons nor a coherent strategy to defeat Germany in 1938. Chamberlain was greeted as a hero when he landed in London bringing, he said, "peace for our time." The agreement lasted six months before Hitler seized the rest of Czech territory in March 1939.[35] Hitler's next move was to call for adjustments to the borders of Poland. In the House of Commons, Chamberlain warned that any further attempts by Hitler to change the status quo would lead to war. In effect, this declaration guaranteed help to Poland and made the outbreak of war inevitable. The Wehrmacht began to prepare for an invasion of Poland, while the German foreign office made attempts to keep Britain out of the conflict. On 23 May 1939, Hitler ordered his generals to prepare for the attack on Poland.[36] This has been described as a typical Hitler 'bluff' by Taylor[37] but the dynamics of mobilisation probably belie this position, for it takes several months to prepare an army for such an attack and the war began with the invasion of Poland on 1 September, just as Hitler had ordered. Hitler was still uncertain what Stalin would do when Poland was attacked. The Russian regime might be the 'anti-christ' (Kershaw) to the Nazis but it was a crucial element in the invasion of Poland. Britain and France had sent envoys to Moscow with the aim of tying Stalin into a pact. Molotov, Stalin's foreign minister, visited Berlin in July 1939 and elegant hints were dropped about the need for an agreement between Berlin and Moscow. But Stalin was in no hurry.
On 20 August, Hitler telegraphed Stalin with an offer of an agreement to be signed on 22 or 23 August. Ribbentrop, the german foreign minister, flew to Moscow and an agreement was signed between Russia and Germany that made the second world war inevitable. Hitler was delighted. He knew, he told his entourage, that Britain and France would do nothing. Their leaders were worms, he said, he had seen them at Munich. The compromise over Sudetenland still rankled.[38] The agreement signed in Moscow provided for peace for a period of ten years between the two countries. There was a secret protocol attached in which Poland was divided up 'in the event of a conflict' between Russia and Germany. Russia got the Baltic countries and Hitler could attack Poland.
World War II[link]
Outbreak of war[link]
The "Danzig crisis" peaked in early 1939, around the time that reports of controversy in the Free City of Danzig increased, the United Kingdom "guaranteed" to defend Poland's territorial integrity and the Poles rejected a series of offers by Nazi Germany regarding both the Free City of Danzig and the Polish Corridor. Then, the Germans broke off diplomatic relations. Hitler had learned that the Soviet Union was willing to sign a non-aggression pact with Germany and would support an attack on Poland. Germany invaded Poland on 1 September 1939 and two days later, the United Kingdom and France declared war on Germany. World War II was underway, but Poland fell quickly, as the Soviets attacked it on 17 September. The United Kingdom proceeded to bomb Wilhelmshaven, Cuxhaven,[39] Heligoland[40] and other areas. Still, aside from battles at sea, no other activity occurred. Thus, the war became known as "the Phoney War".
The year 1940 began with little more than the UK dropping propaganda leaflets over Prague and Vienna[41] but a German attack on the British High Seas fleet was followed by the British bombing the port city of Sylt.[42] After the Altmark Incident off the coast of Norway and the discovery of the United Kingdom's plans to encircle Germany, Hitler sent troops into Denmark and Norway. This safeguarded iron ore supplies from Sweden through coastal waters. Shortly thereafter, the British and French landed in Mid- and North Norway, but the Germans de facto defeated these forces in the ensuing Norwegian Campaign.
Conquest of Europe[link]
In May 1940, the Phoney War ended. Against the will of his advisors, Hitler ordered an attack on France through the Low Countries. The Battle of France ended with an overwhelming German victory. However, with the British refusing Hitler's offer of peace, the war continued. Germany and Britain continued to fight at sea and in the air. The British bombed Berlin, which sent Hitler into a rage. The German leader ordered attacks on British cities, and Britain was bombed heavily during The Blitz. This change in targeting priority interfered with the Luftwaffe's objective of achieving the air superiority over Britain necessary for an invasion and allowed British air defenses to rebuild their strength and continue the fight. The Germans lost the Battle of Britain in fall 1940, but then turned to planning the invasion of the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa, June 1941. Germany and its allies invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941. Hitler hoped that rapid success in the Soviet Union would bring Britain to the negotiating table.
Operation Barbarossa was supposed to begin earlier, however, failed Italian ventures in North Africa and the Balkans caused Hitler concern. In February 1941, the German Afrika Korps was sent to Libya to aid the Italians and hold the British Commonwealth forces from British-held Egypt. As the North African Campaign continued, the Afrika Korps regained lost Italian territory, pushed the British back across the desert and advanced into Egypt. In April, the Germans launched the invasion of Yugoslavia to aid friendly forces and restore control in the Balkans. This was followed by the Battle of Greece, again to bail out the Italians, and the Battle of Crete. Because of the diversions in North Africa and the Balkans, the Germans were not able to launch Barbarossa until late in June. Moreover, men and material were diverted to create the "fortified Europe" that Hitler wanted before Germany focused its attention on the East.
Nevertheless, Barbarossa began with great success. Only Hitler worried that the German Army and its allies were not advancing into the Soviet Union fast enough. By December 1941, the Germans and their allies were at the gates of Moscow; to the north, troops had reached Leningrad and surrounded the city.[43] Meanwhile, Germany and its allies controlled almost all of mainland Europe, with the exception of neutral Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, Sweden, and Turkey.
On 11 December 1941, four days after the Japanese bombed Pearl Harbor, Nazi Germany declared war on the United States. Not only was this a chance for Germany to strengthen its ties with Japan, but after months of anti-German hysteria in the American media and Lend-Lease aid to Britain, the leaking of Rainbow Five and the foreboding content of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's Pearl Harbor speech made it clear to Hitler that the US could not be kept neutral. Moreover, Germany's policy of appeasement, designed to keep the US out of the war, was a burden to Germany's war effort. Germany had refrained from attacking American convoys, even if they were bound for the United Kingdom or the Soviet Union. By contrast, after Germany declared war on the US, the German navy began unrestricted submarine warfare, using U-boats to attack ships without warning.
The goal of Germany's navy, the Kriegsmarine, was to cut off Britain's supply line. Under these circumstances, one of the most famous naval battles in history took place, with the German battleship Bismarck, Germany's largest and most powerful warship, attempting to break out into the Atlantic and raid supply ships heading for Britain. Bismarck was sunk – but not before sending Britain's largest warship, the battlecruiser HMS Hood, to the depths of the ocean. German U-boats were more successful than surface raiders like Bismarck. However, Germany failed to make submarine production a top priority early on and by the time it did, the British and their allies were developing the technology and strategies to neutralize it. Furthermore, in spite of the submarines' early success in 1941 and 1942, material shortages in Britain failed to fall to their World War I levels. The Allied victory in the Battle of the Atlantic was achieved at a huge cost: between 1939 and 1945, 3,500 Allied ships were sunk (gross tonnage 14.5 million) at a cost of 783 German U-boats.[44]
Persecution and extermination campaigns[link]
Main article: The Holocaust
The persecution of racial, ethnic, and social minorities and "undesirables" intensified in Germany and the occupied countries during World War II. From 1941, Jews were required to wear a yellow badge in public; most were kept in walled ghettos, where they remained isolated from the general populace. In January 1942, the Wannsee Conference, headed by Reinhard Heydrich (direct subordinate of Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler), redacted the plans for the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question" (Endlösung der Judenfrage). During the Nazi regime some six million Jews, and a sizeable number of Romani people, Jehovah's Witnesses, Poles and other Slavs, Soviet POWs, people with mental and/or physical disabilities, homosexuals, and members of the political and religious opposition were killed.[45] Dwarfs, or little people, were persecuted by the Nazis, as well.[46] Altogether, more than ten million people were put into forced labour. In 1978, the term "Holocaust" came into general use to describe this genocide in English. It is called the Shoah in Hebrew.
In addition to eliminating the Jews the Nazis also planned the ethnic cleansing of some 30–45 million Slavs (Poles, Russians, Ukrainians, etc.) who would have been ruthlessly moved or killed in order to make way for 10 million German settlers.[47] It was the Generalplan Ost (General Plan East) for the conquest, ethnic cleansing, and exploitation of the populaces of the captured territories. The food that went to Russians would be diverted to the German army and German civilians. The Russians would starve and their cities razed and turned into forests.[48] Nationalists of peoples who had lived under Soviet rule as well as anti-communists of all nationalities collaborated with the Nazi occupation. The populaces of Nazi-occupied Soviet Russia who racially qualified as of the Aryan race, or had no immediate Jewish ancestors, were not persecuted, and often were recruited into the Waffen-SS divisions.
Eventually, the Nazi regime meant to Germanize the racially acceptable Volk (ethnic groups) of occupied eastern Europe, with the rest to be exterminated.[49] Parts of the plan were implemented in Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany, with the classification of Poles on the Nazi Volksliste, according to their racial characteristics.[50] People classified as Germans who resisted were sent to concentration camps.[51] Those who were not classified as Germans were expelled.[52] Ethnic Germans from the Baltic states were encouraged to leave them, and were settled in Poland in the houses of the expelled Poles. These, and the Poles classified as Germans, were subjected to programs to Germanize them.[53] Children were also abducted from Eastern Europe for Germanization.[54]
Turning point[link]
In early 1942, the Red Army counter-attacked, and, by winter’s end, the Wehrmacht were no longer immediately outside Moscow. Yet the Germans and their allies held a strong line, and, in the summer, launched a major attack against the petroleum fields of the Caucasus in Southern Russia. For securing the flanks of this offensive, a line at the Volga had to be held, which led to the Battle of Stalingrad (17 July 1942 – 2 February 1943), wherein Germany and its allies were defeated. After winning a major tank battle at Kursk-Orel in July 1943, the Red Army progressed west, to Germany; henceforth, the Wehrmacht and its allies remained on the defensive.
In Libya, the Afrika Korps failed to break through the line at First Battle of El Alamein (1–27 July 1942), having suffered repercussions from the Battle of Stalingrad. Beginning in 1942, Allied bombing of Germany increased, severely damaging, among others, the cities of Hamburg, Cologne and Dresden, killing thousands of civilians, and causing hardship for the survivors.[55] Contemporary estimates of Nazi German military dead is 5.5 million.[56]
In November 1942, the Wehrmacht and the Italian Army retreated to Tunisia, where they fought the Americans and the British in the Tunisia Campaign (17 November 1942 – 13 May 1943). The Allies invaded Sicily and Italy next, but met fierce resistance, particularly at Anzio (22 January 1944 – 5 June 1944) and Cassino (17 January 1944 – 18 May 1944), and the campaign continued from mid-1943 to nearly the end of the war. In June 1944, American, British and Canadian forces established the western front with the D-Day (6 June 1944) landings in Normandy, France. After the successful Operation Bagration (22 June – 19 August 1944), the Red Army was in Poland; and in East Prussia, West Prussia, and Silesia the German populaces fled en masse, fearing Communist persecution, atrocity, and death. In spring of 1945, the Red Army was at Berlin; US and UK forces had conquered most of west Germany (and would go on to meet up with the Red Army at Torgau on the Elbe on 26 April 1945).
Collapse[link]
During the Battle of Berlin (16 April 1945 – 2 May 1945), Hitler and key staff members lived in the armoured, underground Führerbunker while above ground the Red Army fought remnant forces made up of the German army, Hitler Youth, and Waffen-SS for control of the ruined capital city of Nazi Germany. In the Führerbunker, Hitler became psychologically isolated and detached. At the situation conference of 22 April, Hitler suffered a total nervous collapse when he was informed that the instructions he had issued the previous day for SS-General Felix Steiner's Army Detachment Steiner to move to the rescue of Berlin had not materialised.[57] Hitler openly declared for the first time the war was lost and blamed the generals. Hitler announced he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself.[58] On 23 April, as Berlin became more isolated, Hermann Göring sent Hitler an ultimatum, threatening to assume command of Nazi Germany if he received no reply—which he would interpret as Hitler being incapacitated. Upon receiving the ultimatum, the Führer ordered Göring's immediate arrest, and despatched an aeroplane delivering the reply to Göring in Bavaria. By 25 April the Red Army encirclement of Berlin was complete and secure radio communications with defending units had been lost; the command staff in the bunker complex were depending on telephone lines for passing orders and on public radio for news and information.[59] Despite the losses of armies and lands, the Führer neither relinquished power, nor surrendered. On 28 April, a BBC report stated that Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler had offered surrender to the western Allies.[60] Hitler ordered Himmler's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein (Himmler's SS representative at Hitler's HQ in Berlin) shot.[61]
On 30 April 1945, after intense street-to-street combat in Berlin, when Soviet troops were within a block or two of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler and Eva Braun committed suicide in his Führerbunker.[62] Two days later, on 2 May 1945, German General Helmuth Weidling unconditionally surrendered Berlin to Soviet General Vasily Chuikov.[63]
Hitler was succeeded by Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz as Reich President and Goebbels as Reich Chancellor. No one was to replace Hitler as the Führer, a position Hitler abolished in his will. However, Goebbels committed suicide outside the Reich Chancellery a day after assuming office. The caretaker government Dönitz established near the Danish border unsuccessfully sought a separate peace with the Western Allies. On 4–8 May 1945 most of the remaining German armed forces throughout Europe surrendered unconditionally (German Instrument of Surrender, 1945). This was the end of World War II in Europe.
Aftermath[link]
Further information: Effects of World War II and Consequences of Nazism
Casualties[link]
The war was the largest and most destructive in human history, with 60 million dead across the world,[64] including approximately 6 million Jews who perished during the Holocaust,[65] 3 million Soviet prisoners of war and at least 3 million civilian non-Jewish victims of Nazi crimes.[66][67] The Soviet Union lost around 27 million people during the war,[68] about half of all World War II casualties.[69] One in four Soviets were killed or wounded.[70] The postwar Soviet population was 45 to 50 million smaller than it would have been if pre-war demographic growth had continued.[71] Towards the end of the war, Europe had more than 40 million refugees,[72] the European economy had collapsed, and 70% of the European industrial infrastructure was destroyed.[73]
War crimes[link]
Further information: Nuremberg Trials
The United Nations organized trials of Nazi leaders for war crimes and crimes against humanity. At the Nuremberg Trials, the first, major trial was the Trial of the Major War Criminals Before the International Military Tribunal (IMT), of 24 key Nazi officials—including Hermann Göring, Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Rudolf Hess, Albert Speer, Karl Dönitz, Hans Frank, and Julius Streicher. Most defendants were found guilty, 12 were sentenced to execution.[74] The victorious Allies outlawed the Nazi Party, its subsidiary organizations, and most of its symbols and emblems especially the swastika throughout Germany and Austria; this prohibition remains in force.
Allied occupation[link]
Main article: Allied occupation of Germany
With the creation of the Allied Control Council on 5 July 1945, the four Allied powers "assume[d] supreme authority with respect to Germany" (Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany, U.S. Department of State, Treaties and Other International Acts Series, No. 1520).
The Allies' Potsdam Conference in August 1945 created arrangements for the Allied occupation and denazification of the country, as well as war reparations involving the removal of war-related factories. All German annexations in Europe after 1937, and Germany's eastern border was shifted westwards to the Oder-Neisse line. France took temporary control of a large part of Germany's remaining Saar region. The Allies each had its zone, which lasted until 1949; Berlin was also divided four ways, and remained under Allied control until 1990.[75]
Geography[link]
Pre-war territorial changes[link]
The German national borders in 1933 were those mapped out by the victors in World War I, at the Treaty of Versailles (1919). To the north, Germany was bounded by the North Sea, Denmark, and the Baltic Sea; to the east, it was divided into two and bordered Lithuania, the Free City of Danzig, Poland, and Czechoslovakia; to the south, it bordered Austria and Switzerland, and to the west, it touched France, Luxembourg, Belgium, the Netherlands, and the Saarland. These borders changed after Germany regained control of the Saarland, transformed itself into Greater Germany by annexing Austria in the Anschluss (1938), and also gained control of the Sudetenland, the remainder of Bohemia and Moravia, and the Memel Territory before the war. Germany expanded further by seizing even more land during World War II, which began in September 1939.
In the years leading to war, in addition to the Weimar Republic proper, the Reich came to include areas with ethnic German populations, such as Austria, the Czechoslovak Sudetenland, and the Lithuanian territory of Memel (the Klaipėda Region). Regions conquered after the war's start include Eupen-Malmedy, Alsace-Lorraine, Danzig, and territories of Poland (Second Polish Republic).
Administrative divisions[link]
Main article: Administrative divisions of Nazi Germany
To consolidate Adolf Hitler’s control of Germany, in 1935, the Nazi régime de facto replaced the administration of the Länder (constituent states) with gaus (regional districts) headed by governors answerable to the central Reich government in Berlin. The reorganization politically weakened Prussia, which had historically dominated German politics. Moreover, despite having centralised and assumed the Gau governments, some Nazis still retained leadership title to the different Länder; Hermann Göring was and remained the Reichsstatthalter (Reich state governor) and Minister President of Prussia until 1945, and Ludwig Siebert remained as Minister President of Bavaria.
Wartime expansion[link]
Further information: Territorial changes of Germany
From 1939 to 1945, the Third Reich ruled the ethnically-Czech parts of Czechoslovakia as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, with its own currency; Czech Silesia was incorporated into the province of Silesia; and Luxembourg was a wartime annexation in 1940. Central Poland and Polish Galicia were governed by the German-administered General Government. Eventually, the Polish people were to be removed, and Poland proper then re-populated with 5 million Germans. By late 1943, Nazi Germany had conquered South Tyrol and Istria, which had been parts of Austria-Hungary before 1919, and seized Trieste after the (erstwhile Axis Ally) Italian Fascist government capitulated to the Allies. Two puppet-districts were set up in their place, the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral and the Operational Zone of the Alpine Foothills.
Occupied territories[link]
Further information: Reichskommissariat
Beyond the territories incorporated into Germany were the Reichskommissariate (Reich Commissariats), quasi-colonial regimes established in a number of occupied countries and regions that were ruled by Nazi civilian administrators (Reichskommissars). Although "outside" of the Reich in a legal sense these were intended for eventual incorporation into it, most notably as sources for future Lebensraum. Nazi-occupied Soviet Russia included the Reichskommissariat Ostland (encompassing the Baltic states, eastern parts of Poland, and western parts of Belarus) and a Reichskommissariat Ukraine. More such districts, the Reichskommissariat Moskowien for much of Western Russia, the Reichskommissariat Kaukasus for the Caucasus, and the Reichskommissariat Turkestan for Central Asia were also proposed in the event that they were brought under German rule.
In Northern and Western Europe, the Germans established a Reichskommissariat Norwegen (Norway), and a Reichskommissariat Niederlande (the Netherlands). In June 1944 a Franco–Belgian Reichskommissariat, derived from the previous Military Administration in Belgium and Northern France was also established to "facilitate" the area's intended annexation into Germany. This subsequently happened in December 1944, when it was split into three new Reichsgaue of the Greater German Reich: Flanders, Wallonia, and Brussels. This meant little in reality however as the majority of Belgium had already been liberated by the Allied forces at this point, although the Wehrmacht did make some small gains in retaking Wallonia during the Ardennes offensive.
Hitler and other leading Nazi politicians believed that the non-German Germanic peoples of Europe, such as the Scandinavians, the Dutch, and the Flemish, were part of the "Aryan master race". Hitler stated that he wanted to undo the "unnatural division" of the Nordic race into many different countries ("Kleinstaatengerümpel"). This was expanded on by Nazi ideologists, who made the analogy that since the union with Austria had transformed the German Reich into a Greater German Reich (Grossdeutsches Reich), so too would its union with the rest of historically Germanic Europe create a Greater Germanic Reich (Grossgermanisches Reich). The United Kingdom however was expected to be accorded a somewhat higher status, as partners in the Nazis' New Order rather than subjects. Hitler professed an admiration for the British Empire and its people as proof of Aryan superiority in Zweites Buch.
Post-war changes[link]
Main article: Territorial changes of Germany after World War II
The de facto borders of the Reich changed long before its vanquishment in May 1945; as the Red Army progressed westwards (colonist German populaces fled to Germany proper) and as the Western Allies advanced eastwards from France. At war’s end, a small strip of land, from Austria to Bohemia and Moravia (and other isolated regions) was the only area not occupied by the Allies. Upon its defeat, some historians have proposed that the Reich was in debellation. France, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States, established occupation zones. The prewar German lands east of the Oder-Neisse line and Stettin, and environs (nearly 25 per cent of pre-war German territory) were under Polish and Soviet administration, sundered for Polish and Soviet annexation; the Allies expelled the German inhabitants. In 1947, the Allied Control Council disestablished Prussia with Law No. 46 (20 May 1947); per the Potsdam Conference (6 July – 2 August 1945), the Prussian lands east of the Oder-Neisse Line were divided and administered by Poland and the Kaliningrad Oblast, pending the final peace treaty Later, by signing the Treaty of Warsaw (1970) and the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany (1990), Germany renounced claims to territories lost during World War II (1939–45).[citation needed]
Politics[link]
Further information: Adolf Hitler
The Nazi state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("Leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Nazi propaganda centered on Hitler and created what historians call the "Hitler Myth" – that Hitler was all-wise and that any mistakes or failures by others would be corrected when brought to his attention. In reality, Hitler had a narrow range of interests, and decision-making was diffused among overlapping, feuding power centers; on some issues he was passive, simply assenting to pressures from whoever had his ear. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his basic policies, but they had considerable autonomy on a daily basis.[76] Through staffing of most government positions with Nazi Party members, by 1935 the German national government and the Nazi Party had become virtually one and the same. By 1938, through the policy of Gleichschaltung, local and state governments lost all legislative power and answered administratively to Nazi Party leaders, known as Gauleiters, who governed Gaue and Reichsgaue.
Government structure[link]
Nazi Germany was made up of various competing power structures, all trying to gain favor with the Führer, Adolf Hitler. Thus many existing laws were stricken and replaced with interpretations of what Hitler wanted. Any high party/government official could take one of Hitler's comments and turn it into a new law, of which Hitler would casually either approve or disapprove. This became known as "working towards the Führer", as the government was not a coordinated, co-operating body, but a collection of individuals each trying to gain more power and influence through the Führer. This often made government very convoluted and divided, especially with Hitler's vague policy of creating similar posts with overlapping powers and authority. The process allowed the more unscrupulous and ambitious Nazis to get away with implementing the more radical and extreme elements of Hitler's ideology, such as anti-Semitism, and in doing so win political favor. Protected by Goebbels' extremely effective propaganda machine, which portrayed the government as a dedicated, dutiful, and efficient outfit, the dog-eat-dog competition and chaotic legislation was allowed to escalate. Historical opinion is divided between "intentionalists", who believe that Hitler created this system as the only means of ensuring both the total loyalty and dedication of his supporters and the impossibility of a conspiracy; and "structuralists", who believe that the system evolved by itself and was a limitation on Hitler's supposedly totalitarian power.
- Executive Cabinets
- National authorities
- Chancellery of the Führer (Philip Bouhler)
- Office of the Party Chancellery (Martin Bormann)
- Office of the Presidential Chancellery (Otto Meißner)
- Office of the Reich Chancellery (Hans Lammers)
- Privy Cabinet Council (Konstantin von Neurath)
- Reich Ministries
- Reich Foreign Ministry (Joachim von Ribbentrop)
- Reich Interior Ministry (Wilhelm Frick, Heinrich Himmler)
- Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda (Joseph Goebbels)
- Reich Ministry of Aviation (Hermann Göring)
- Reich Ministry of Finance (Lutz Schwerin von Krosigk)
- Reich Ministry of Justice (Franz Gürtner, Otto Thierack)
- Reich Economics Ministry (Alfred Hugenberg, Kurt Schmitt, Hjalmar Schacht, Hermann Göring, Walther Funk)
- Reich Ministry for Nutrition and Agriculture (Richard Walther Darré, Herbert Backe)
- Reich Labour Ministry (Franz Seldte)
- Reich Ministry for Science, Education, and Public Instruction (Bernhard Rust)
- Reich Ministry for Ecclesiastical Affairs (Hanns Kerrl)
- Reich Transportation Ministry (Julius Dorpmüller)
- Reich Postal Ministry (Wilhelm Ohnesorge)
- Reich Ministry for Weapons, Munitions, and Armament (Fritz Todt, Albert Speer)
- Reich Ministry for the Occupied Eastern Territories (Alfred Rosenberg)
- Reich Ministers without Portfolio (Konstantin von Neurath, Hans Frank, Hjalmar Schacht, Arthur Seyss-Inquart)
- Reich offices
- Office of the Four-Year Plan (Hermann Göring)
- Office of the Inspector for Highways
- Office of the President of the Reich Bank
- Reich Main Security Office (Reinhard Heydrich)
- Office of the Reich Master Forester (Hermann Göring)
- Reich Youth Office
- Reich Treasury Office
- General Inspector of the Reich Capital
- Office of the Councilor for the Capital of the Movement (Munich, Bavaria)
- NSDAP offices
State ideology[link]
Further information: Nazism
National Socialism had some of the key ideological elements of fascism which originally developed in Italy under Benito Mussolini; however, the Nazis never officially declared themselves fascists. Both ideologies involved the political use of militarism, nationalism, anti-communism and paramilitary forces, and both intended to create a dictatorial state.[citation needed] The Nazis, however, were far more racially oriented than the fascists in Italy, Portugal, and Spain. The Nazis were also intent on creating a completely totalitarian state, unlike Italian fascists who while promoting a totalitarian state, allowed a larger degree of private liberties for their citizens. These differences allowed the Italian monarchy to continue to exist and have some official powers. However the Nazis copied much of their symbolism from the Fascists in Italy, such as copying the Roman salute as the Nazi salute, use of mass rallies, both made use of uniformed paramilitaries devoted to the party (the SA in Germany and the Blackshirts in Italy), both Hitler and Mussolini were called the "Leader" (Führer in German, Duce in Italian), both were anti-Communist, both wanted an ideologically driven state, and both advocated a middle-way between capitalism and communism, commonly known as corporatism. The party itself rejected the fascist label, claiming National Socialism was an ideology unique to Germany.
The totalitarian nature of the Nazi party was one of its principal tenets. The Nazis contended that all the great achievements in the past of the German nation and its people were associated with the ideals of National Socialism, even before the ideology officially existed. Propaganda accredited the consolidation of Nazi ideals and successes of the regime to the regime's Führer ("Leader"), Adolf Hitler, who was portrayed as the genius behind the Nazi party's success and Germany's saviour.
The "German problem", as it is often referred to in English scholarship, focuses on the issue of administration of Germanic regions in Northern and Central Europe, an important theme throughout German history.[77] The "logic" of keeping Germany small worked in the favor of its principal economic rivals, and had been a driving force in the recreation of a Polish state.[citation needed] The goal was to create numerous counterweights in order to "balance out Germany's power".
The Nazis endorsed the concept of Großdeutschland, or Greater Germany, and believed that the incorporation of the Germanic people into one nation was a vital step towards their national success.[citation needed] It was the Nazis' passionate support of the Volk concept of Greater Germany that led to Germany's expansion, that gave legitimacy and the support needed for the Third Reich to proceed to conquer long-lost territories with overwhelmingly non-German population like former Prussian gains in Poland that it lost to Russia in the 19th century, or to acquire territories with German population like parts of Austria. The German concept of Lebensraum or more specifically its need for an expanding German population was also claimed by the Nazi regime for territorial expansion.
Two important issues were administration of the Polish corridor and Danzig's incorporation into the Reich. As a further extension of racial policy, the Lebensraum program pertained to similar interests; the Nazis determined that Eastern Europe would be settled with ethnic Germans, and the Slavic population who met the Nazi racial standard would be absorbed into the Reich. Those not fitting the racial standard were to be used as cheap labour force or deported eastward.[78]
Racialism and racism were important aspects of society within the Third Reich. The Nazis combined anti-Semitism with anti-Communist ideology, regarding the leftist-internationalist movement—as well as international market capitalism—as the work of "Conspiratorial Jewry". They referred to this so-called movement with terminology such as the "Jewish-Bolshevistic revolution of subhumans".[79] This platform manifested itself in the displacement, internment, and systematic extermination of an estimated 11 million to 12 million people in the midst of World War II, roughly half of them being Jews targeted in what is historically remembered as the Holocaust (Shoah), 3 million ethnic Poles that died as a result of warfare, genocide, reprisals, forced labor or famine,[80] and another 100,000–1,000,000 being Roma, who were murdered in the Porajmos. Other victims of Nazi persecution included communists, various political opponents, social outcasts, homosexuals, freethinkers, religious dissidents such as Jehovah's Witnesses, Christadelphians, the Confessing Church and Freemasons.[81]
Law[link]
Most of the judicial structures and legal codes of the Weimar Republic remained in use during and after the Third Reich, but significant changes within the judicial codes occurred, as well as significant changes in court rulings. The Nazi party was the only legal political party in Germany and all other political parties were banned. Most human rights of the constitution of the Weimar Republic were disabled by several Reichsgesetze ("Reich's laws"). Several minorities such as the Jews, opposition politicians and prisoners of war were deprived of most of their rights and responsibilities. The Plan to pass a Volksstrafgesetzbuch ("people's code of criminal justice") arose soon after 1933, but didn't come into reality until the end of World War II.
As a new type of court, the Volksgerichtshof ("people's court") was established in 1934, only dealing with cases of political importance. From 1934 – September 1944, a total of 5,375 death sentences were spoken by the court. Not included in this numbers are the death sentences from 20 July 1944 – April 1945, which are estimated at 2,000. Its most prominent jurist was Roland Freisler, who headed the court from August 1942 – February 1945.
Foreign policy[link]
Foreign relations between Germany and the rest of Europe were riddled with political maneuvers and opportunistic decisions. Fearing a second world war, Britain and France sought a policy of appeasement towards Germany, and refused aggressive foreign policies to satisfy the newly empowered Nazis. Hitler's aims upon coming to power was threefold; destroy Versailles, re-unite lost German territories under the decrees of Versailles, and Lebensraum. It is said that Hitler wanted Britain as an ally with wars with the USSR, and eventually the USA. Hitler used the Appeasement policies of Britain and France to his opportunistic advantage when he announced in March 1935 that he would conscript men into his army and create the Luftwaffe; both a direct violation of Versailles. His foreign policies were designed to test the nerve of Britain and France so he could see what else he was able to get away with. His other concern was Italy, whom under Mussolini had become a similarly fascist country, but had so much internal civil disruption Hitler wanted a more stable and powerful ally.
The Axis[link]
See also: German-Japanese relations
Although Germany's relations with Italy improved with creation of the Rome-Berlin Axis, tensions remained high because the Nazis wanted Austria to be incorporated into Germany. Italy was opposed to this, as were France and Britain. In 1938, an Austrian-led Nazi coup took place in Austria and Germany sent in its troops, annexing the country. Italy and Britain no longer had common interests and, as Germany had stopped supporting the German speaking population under Italy's control in South Tyrol, Italy began to gravitate towards Germany.
Munich Agreement[link]
Germany's annexation of the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia in September 1938 came about during talks with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, in which Hitler, backed by Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, demanded that the German territories be ceded. Chamberlain and Hitler came to an agreement when Hitler signed a piece of paper which said that with the annexation of the Sudetenland, Germany would proceed with no further territorial aims. Chamberlain took this to be a success in that it avoided a potential war with Germany. However, the Nazis helped to promote Slovakian dissention and declaring that the country was no more, seized control of the Czech part.
Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact[link]
For quite some time, Germany had engaged in informal negotiations with Poland regarding the issue of territorial revision, but after the Munich Agreement and the reacquisition of Memel, the Nazis became increasingly vocal. Poland refused to allow the annexation of the Free City of Danzig.
Germany and the Soviet Union began talks over planning an invasion of Poland. In August 1939, the Molotov Pact was signed and Germany and the Soviet Union agreed to divide Poland along a mutually agreed set boundary. The invasion was put into effect on 1 September 1939. Last-minute Polish-German diplomatic proceedings failed, and Germany invaded Poland as scheduled. Germany alleged that Polish operatives had attacked German positions, but the result was the outbreak of World War II in Europe, as Allied forces refused to accept Germany's claims on Poland and blamed Germany for the conflict.
Wartime[link]
From 1939–1940, the so-called "Phoney War" occurred, as German forces made no further advances but instead, both the Axis and Allies engaged in a propaganda campaign. However in early 1940, Germany began to concern that the British intended to stop trade between Sweden and Germany by bringing Norway into an alliance against Germany, with Norway in Allied hands, the Allies would be dangerously close to German territory. In response, Germany invaded Denmark and Norway ending the Phoney War (leapfrogging the British invasion troops bound towards Norway by just 24 hours). After sweeping through the Low Countries and occupying northern France, Germany allowed French nationalist and war hero Philippe Petain to form a fascist regime in southern France known as the "French State" but more commonly referred to as Vichy France named after its capital in Vichy.
On 23 October 1940 Hitler and Francisco Franco, the dictator of Spain, met in Hendaye to discuss Spain entering the war. Franco asked too much from Hitler. Even though Spain would remain neutral during World War II Spain and Nazi Germany would remain allies during the war. Spain would send volunteer soldiers to fight for Germany but only against the Soviet Union. Spain was subsequently isolated following the war until re-aligning towards economic liberalism and a pro-Western foreign policy in the 1950s.[citation needed]
In 1941, Germany's invasion of Yugoslavia resulted in that state's splintering. In spite of Hitler's earlier view of inferiority of all Slavs, he supported Mussolini's agenda of creating a fascist puppet state of Croatia, called the Independent State of Croatia. Croatia was led by the extreme nationalist Ante Pavelić a long-time Croatian exile in Rome, whose Ustashe movement formed a government in modern-day Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Ustashe were allowed to persecute Serbs, while Germany contributed to that goal in German-occupied Serbia.
From 1941 to the end of the war, Germany engaged in war with the Soviet Union in its attempt to create the Nazi colonial goal of Lebensraum for German citizens. The German occupation authorities set up occupation and colonial authorities called Reichskommissariats such as Reichskommissariat Ostland and Reichskommissariat Ukraine. The Slavic populations were to be destroyed along with Jews there to make way for German colonists.
As the fortunes of war changed, Germany was forced to occupy Italy when Mussolini was thrown out as Prime Minister by Italy's king in 1943. German forces rescued Mussolini and instructed him to establish a fascist regime in Italy called the Italian Social Republic. This was the last major foreign policy delivered. The remainder of the war saw the decline of German power and desperate attempts by Nazi officials such as Heinrich Himmler to negotiate a peace with the western Allies against the wishes of Hitler.
Military and paramilitary[link]
Wehrmacht[link]
The military of the Third Reich – the Wehrmacht – was the name of the unified armed forces of Germany from 1935–1945 with Heer (army), Kriegsmarine (navy), Luftwaffe (air force) and a military organization Waffen-SS (military branch of the SS, which was, de facto, a fourth branch of the Wehrmacht).[82]
The German Army furthered concepts pioneered during World War I, combining Ground and Air Force assets into combined arms teams. Coupled with traditional war fighting methods such as encirclements and the "battle of annihilation", the German military managed many lightning quick victories in the first year of World War II, prompting foreign journalists to create a new word for what they witnessed: Blitzkrieg. The total number of soldiers who served in the Wehrmacht during its existence from 1935–1945 is believed to approach 18.2 million. Officially, roughly 5.3 million German soldiers died in the course of the war.[83]
The SA and SS[link]
To secure their ability to create a totalitarian state, the Nazi party's paramilitary force, the Sturmabteilung (SA) or "Storm Detachment" used acts of violence against leftists, communists, democrats, Jews and other opposition or minority groups. The SA "storm troopers" violently clashed with the Communist Party of Germany (German Kommunistische Partei Deutschlands – KPD) which created a climate of lawlessness and fear. In the cities, people were anxious over punishment or even death, if they displayed opposition to the Nazis. Given the frustrations of the people (after World War I and during the Great Depression) it was easy for the SA to attract large numbers of alienated (and unemployed) youth and working class people for the party.
Economy[link]
Main article: Economy of Nazi Germany
See also: Forced labour under German rule during World War II, Extermination through labor, Hunger Plan, and Economics_of_fascism#Political_economy_of_Nazi_Germany
Reich economics[link]
When the Nazis assumed German government, their most pressing economic matter was a national unemployment rate of approximately 30 per cent;[84] at the start, Third Reich economic policies were the brainchildren of the economist Dr. Hjalmar Schacht, President of the Reichsbank (1933) and Minister of Economics (1934), who helped Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler implement Nazi redevelopment, reindustrialization, and rearmament of Germany; formerly, he had been Weimar Republic currency commissioner and Reichsbank president. [84] As Economics Minister, Schacht was one of few ministers who took advantage of the administrative freedom allowed by the removal of the Reichsmark from the gold standard—to maintain low interest rates, and high government deficits; the extensive national public works such as the Autobahns, reducing the unemployment, were deficit-funded policy.[84] The consequence of Economics Minister Schacht’s administration was the extremely rapid unemployment-rate decline, the greatest of any country during the Great Depression[84]. Eventually, this Keynesian economic policy was supplemented by the increased production demands of warfare, inflating military budgets, and increasing government spending; the Reichswehr (100,000 in the army) expanded to millions, and was renamed Wehrmacht in 1935.[84][85]
While the strict state intervention into the economy, and the massive rearmament policy, almost led to full employment during the 1930s (statistics didn't include non-citizens or women), real wages in Germany dropped by roughly 25% between 1933 and 1938.[84] Trade unions were abolished, as well as collective bargaining and the right to strike.[84] The right to quit also disappeared: Labour books were introduced in 1935, and required the consent of the previous employer in order to be hired for another job.[84]
Nazi control of business retained a diminished investment profit-incentive, controlled with economic regulation concording a company’s functioning with the Reich’s national production requirements. Government financing eventually dominated private investment; in the 1933–34 biennium, the proportion of private securities issued diminished from more than 50 per cent of the total, to approximately 10 per cent in the 1935–38 quadrennium. Heavy profit taxes limited self-financing companies, and the largest companies (usually government contractors) mostly were exempted from paying taxes on profits—in practice. Peter Temin writes that government control allowed “only the shell of private ownership” in the Third Reich economy.[86] By contrast, Christoph Buchheim and Jonas Scherner counter that despite state control, business had much production and investment planning freedom — while the economy was still to a larger degree politically controlled it "does not necessarily mean that private property of enterprises was not of any significance [...] For despite extensive regulatory activity by an interventionist public administration, firms preserved a good deal of their autonomy even under the Nazi regime".[87]
In 1937, Hermann Göring replaced Schacht as Minister of Economics, and introduced the Four Year Plan that would establish German self-sufficiency for war—within four years—by curtailing foreign importations; fixing wages and prices (violators merited concentration-camp internment); stock dividends were restricted to six per cent on book capital, et cetera. Strategic goals were to be achieved regardless of cost (as in Soviet economics): thus the rapid construction of synthetic-rubber factories, steel mills, automatic textile mills, et cetera. [84] The Four-Year Plan is discussed in the German-expansion Hossbach Memorandum (5 November 1937) meeting-summary of Hitler and his military and foreign policy leaders planning aggressive war. Nevertheless, when Nazi Germany started World War II, in September 1939, the Four Year Plan’s expiry was not until 1940; to control the Reich economy, Economics Minister Göring had established the Office of the Four Year Plan.
Science and technology[link]
![[icon]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121210021808/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} |
This section requires expansion. |
Transportation and infrastructure[link]
|
This section requires expansion. |
Wartime economy and forced labor[link]
In keeping with the political syncretism of fascism, the Nazi war economy was a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices; historian Richard Overy reports: "The German economy fell between two stools. It was not enough of a command economy to do what the Soviet system could do; yet it was not capitalist enough to rely, as America did, on the recruitment of private enterprise."[88]
In 1942, after the death of Fritz Todt, Hitler named his favourite architect, Albert Speer, in charge of the domestic economy.[89] Speer established a war economy in Nazi Germany, which reduced civilian consumptions and made the war economy more efficient.[90]
By 1944, the war was consuming 75% of German GDP, compared to 60% in the Soviet Union, 55% in Britain, and 45% in the U.S.[91]
The highest high priority went to the manufacture of warplanes, which had been poorly coordinated and relied too heavily on skilled workers, who were in short supply. Speer produced a dramatic rise in production after 1942. His methods included streamlined organization, the use of single-purpose machines operated by unskilled workers, and the rationalization of production methods, and better coordination between the many different forms that made tens of thousands of components. Factories were relocated away from rail yards which were bombing targets. The system finally caught up with British production by 1944, but by then it was far too late and gasoline supplies meant the new warplanes had little flying time.[92][93]
The economy now relied heavily upon the large-scale employment of forced labourers. To help operate the factories and farms, Germany took in some 12 million people, from some 20 European countries; approximately 75 per cent were Eastern European.[94] They worked long hours, typically in munitions factories; many were assigned to clearing rubble after bombing raids. They received poor air raid protection, and many were casualties of Allied bombing. The very bad living conditions produced high rates of sickness, injury and death, as well as sabotage and criminality.[95]
Women played an increasingly large role. Hagemann reports that in 1944 over a half million served as auxiliaries in the German armed forces, especially in anti-aircraft units of the Luftwaffe; a half million worked in civil aerial defense; and 400,000 were volunteer nurses in hospitals. Large numbers replaced drafted men in the wartime economy, especially on farms and in small family-owned shops.[96]
Very heavy strategic bombing by the U.S. and Britain focused on the German transportation system, especially rail yards,[97] canals, and refineries making synthetic oil and gasoline. The Luftwaffe tried to defend those targets but in turn was itself destroyed. Oil, diesel and gasoline supplies dried up by late 1944, and the railways were so disrupted that the economy went into a death spiral.[98] Overy argues that the bombing created not only major social dislocation but a defensive response that strained the German war economy and forced it to divert up to one-fourth of its manpower and industry into anti-aircraft resources. Overy concludes the bombing campaign probably shortened the war.[99]
Demographics[link]
Ethnic groups[link]
|
This section requires expansion. |
Language[link]
|
This section requires expansion. |
Religions[link]
Main article: Religion in Nazi Germany
The German census of May 1939 indicates that 54 percent of Germans considered themselves Protestant and 40 percent considered themselves Catholic, with only 3.5 percent claiming to be neo-pagan "believers in God," and 1.5 percent unbelievers. This census came more than six years into the Nazi era.[100]
Education[link]
Further information: University education in Nazi Germany
Education under the Nazi regime focused on racial biology, population policy, culture, geography and especially physical fitness.[101] Military education (Wehrerziehung) became the central component of physical education in order to prepare the Germans mentally, spiritually and physically for warfare.[102] science textbooks presented natural selection in terms meant to underline the concept of racial purity.[103]
Anti-Semitic policy led to the expulsion in 1933 all of Jewish teachers, professors and officials from the education system. Likewise, politically undesirable teachers, such as socialists, were expelled as part of the “Law for the Restoration of the Civil Service” (Gesetz zur Wiederherstellung des Berufbeamtentums). Most teachers were required to belong to the National Socialist Teachers' Association (Nationalsozialistischer Lehrerbund , NSLB).[104] All university professors were required to be a member in good standing of the National Socialist Association of University Lecturers.[105]
The teaching methods promoted under National Socialism were experiential and active in their orientation. This was largely an extension of the anti-intellectual attitude of the Nazi leadership, however, and not primarily an attempt to experiment with new didactic methods. As Henrich Hansen, the head of the NS-Teachers' Association, put it:
- "The youth of Germany will no longer be 'objectively' posed with the choice between an upbringing that is materialistic or idealistic, ethnic [Völkish] or international, religious or godless, rather it will be consciously formed according to principles that have shown themselves to be true: the principles of the national socialist worldview.[106]
In seeking a way to make education less abstract, less intellectual and less distant from children, educators called for a much-expanded role for film. Reichsfilmintendant and Head of the Film Section in the Propaganda Ministry Fritz Hippler wrote that film affects people “primarily on the optical and emotional, that is to say, non-intellectual” level.[107] Film also appealed to the Nazi leadership as a medium through which they could speak directly to children. Dr. Bernhard Rust saw film as an essential tool, saying "The National Socialist State definitely and deliberately makes the film the transmitter of its ideology."[108]
Health[link]
According to the research of Robert N. Proctor for his book The Nazi War on Cancer,[109][110] Nazi Germany had arguably the most powerful anti-tobacco movement in the world. Anti-tobacco research received a strong backing from the government, and German scientists proved that cigarette smoke could cause cancer. German pioneering research on experimental epidemiology led to the 1939 paper by Franz H. Müller, and the 1943 paper by Eberhard Schairer and Erich Schöniger which convincingly demonstrated that tobacco smoking was a main culprit in lung cancer. The government urged German doctors to counsel patients against tobacco use.
German research on the dangers of tobacco was silenced after the war, and the dangers of tobacco had to be rediscovered by American and English scientists in the early 1950s, with a medical consensus arising in the early 1960s. German scientists also proved that asbestos was a health hazard, and in 1943—as the first nation in the world to offer such a benefit—Germany recognized the diseases caused by asbestos, e.g., lung cancer, as occupational illnesses eligible for compensation. The German asbestos-cancer research was later used by American lawyers doing battle against the Johns-Manville Corporation.
As part of the general public-health campaign in Nazi Germany, water supplies were cleaned up, lead and mercury were removed from consumer products, and women were urged to undergo regular screenings for breast cancer.[110][111]
The Nazi health care system also held as a central idea the concept of Eugenics. Certain people were deemed 'genetically inferior' and were targeted for elimination from the gene pool through sterilization (Hereditary Health Courts) or wholesale murder (Action T4). Medical information professionals used new processes and technology, like punch card systems, and cost analysis, to aid in the process and calculate the 'benefit' to society of these killings.[112]
Society[link]
Social welfare[link]
Recent research by academics such as Götz Aly has emphasized the role of the extensive Nazi social welfare programs that focused on providing employment for German citizens and insuring a minimal living standard for German citizens. Heavily focused on was the idea of a national German community or Volksgemeinschaft.[113]
To aid the fostering of a feeling of community, the German people's labour and entertainment experiences—from festivals, to vacation trips and traveling cinemas—were all made a part of the "Strength Through Joy" (Kraft durch Freude, KdF) program. Also crucial to the building of loyalty and comradeship was the implementation of the National Labour Service and the Hitler Youth Organization, with compulsory membership. In addition to this, a number of architectural projects were undertaken. KdF created the KdF-wagen, later known as the Volkswagen ("People's Car"), which was designed to be an automobile that every German citizen would be able to afford. With the outbreak of World War II the car was converted into a military vehicle and civilian production was stopped. Another national project undertaken was the construction of the Autobahn, which made it the first freeway system in the world.
The Winter Relief campaigns not only collected charity for the unfortunate, but acted as a ritual to generate public feeling.[114] As part of the centralization of Nazi Germany, posters urged people to donate rather to give directly to beggars.[115]
Racial policy[link]
Main article: Racial policy of Nazi Germany
Further information: The Holocaust and Nazism and race
File:Kristallnacht example of physical damage.jpg
The aftermath of Kristallnacht: Jewish shops vandalized
From the very earliest speeches and writings of Hitler, it was clear that the Jewish community in Germany were an object of hatred.[117] Nazi ideology laid down strict rules about who was or was not of pure "Aryan" blood, actions were set into motion to purify the Aryan race—which was said to be identical with the Nordic race, followed by lesser sub-races of the Aryan race to represent an ideal and pure—master race. On 1 April 1933, Hitler declared a national boycott of Jewish places of business.[118] Many Jewish families prepared to leave, but many others hoped that as they were German citizens, their livelihoods and property would be safe.
In 1935 the Nuremberg Laws were enacted, depriving Jews of their German citizenship. Marriage between Jews and Aryans was forbidden. Further rights were lost over the next few years. Jews were excluded from many professions and from shopping at many stores. Many towns posted signs forbidding the entry of Jews.[119]
In November 1938, a young Jewish male in Paris requested an interview with the German ambassador and was shown in to a meeting with a legation secretary, whom he shot in protest against the treatment meted out to his family in Germany. By coincidence, both men were from Frankfurt and knew each other slightly. The attempt was used by the Nazi Party to stir up hatred against the Jewish communities in Germany. The SA was given the task of attacking synagogues and Jewish property throughout Germany. During Kristallnacht, the Night of Broken Glass,[120] at least ninety-one German Jews were killed and Jewish property throughout was destroyed. This phase of exclusion made it very clear that the Jews in Germany were to be targeted in the future. To further illustrate, the Jewish communities were fined one billion marks and told that they would not receive compensation for their losses.
The effects of Nazi social policy in Germany was divided between those considered to be "Aryan" and those considered "non-Aryan", Jewish, or part of other minority groups. For "Aryan" Germans, a number of social policies put through by the regime to benefit them were advanced for the time, including state opposition to the use of tobacco, an end to official stigmatization toward Aryan children who were born from parents outside of marriage, as well as giving financial assistance to Aryan German families who bore children.[121]
The Nazi Party pursued its racial and social policies through persecution and killing of those considered social undesirables or "enemies of the Reich". Especially targeted were minority groups such as Jews, Romani (also known as Gypsies), Jehovah's Witnesses,[122] people with mental or physical disabilities and homosexuals.
In the 1930s, plans to isolate and eventually eliminate Jews completely in Germany began with the construction of ghettos, concentration camps, and labour camps which began with the 1933 construction of the Dachau concentration camp, which Heinrich Himmler officially described as "the first concentration camp for political prisoners."[123]
In the years following the Nazi rise to power, many Jews were encouraged to leave the country and did so. By the time the Nuremberg Laws were passed in 1935, Jews were stripped of their German citizenship and denied government employment. Most Jews employed by Germans lost their jobs at this time, which were being taken by unemployed Germans. Notably, the government attempted to send 17,000 German Jews of Polish descent back to Poland, a decision which led to the assassination of Ernst vom Rath by Herschel Grynszpan, a German Jew living in France. This provided the pretext for a pogrom the Nazi Party incited against the Jews on 9 November 1938, which specifically targeted Jewish businesses. The event was called Kristallnacht (Night of Broken Glass, literally "Crystal Night"); the euphemism was used because the numerous broken windows made the streets look as if covered with crystals. By September 1939, more than 200,000 Jews had left Germany, with the government seizing any property they left behind.
The Nazis also undertook programs targeting "weak" or "unfit" people, such as the T-4 Euthanasia Program, killing tens of thousands of disabled and sick Germans in an effort to "maintain the purity of the German Master race" (German: Herrenvolk) as described by Nazi propagandists. The techniques of mass killing developed in these efforts would later be used in the Holocaust. Under a law passed in 1933, the Nazi regime carried out the compulsory sterilization of over 400,000 individuals labeled as having hereditary defects, ranging from mental illness to alcoholism.
Another component of the Nazi programme of creating racial purity was the Lebensborn, or "Fountain of Life" programme founded in 1935. The programme was aimed at encouraging German soldiers—mainly SS—to reproduce. This included offering SS families support services (including the adoption of racially pure children into suitable SS families) and accommodating racially valuable women, pregnant with mainly SS men's children, in care homes in Germany and throughout Occupied Europe. Lebensborn also expanded to encompass the placing of racially pure children forcibly seized from occupied countries—such as Poland—with German families.[citation needed]
In 1941 it was decided to destroy the Polish nation completely and the German leadership decided that in 10 to 20 years the Polish state under German occupation was to be fully cleared of any ethnic Poles and settled by German colonists.[124] The Nazis considered Jews, Romani people, Poles along with other Slavic people like the Russians, Ukrainians, Czechs and anyone else who was not an "Aryan" according to the contemporary Nazi race terminology to be Untermenschen ("subhumans"). The Nazis rationalized that the (Aryan) Germans had a biological right to displace, eliminate and enslave inferiors.[125][126] After the war, under the "Big Plan", Generalplan Ost foresaw the deportation of 45 million non-Germanizable people from Eastern Europe to West Siberia,[127] and about 14 millions were to remain, but were to be treated as slaves.[128][129] In their place, Germans would be settled in an extended lebensraum of the 1000-Year Empire.[130]
Herbert Backe was one of the orchestrators of the Hunger Plan – the plan to starve tens of millions of Slavs in order to ensure steady food supplies for the German people and troops.[131] In the longer term,[132] the Nazis wanted to exterminate some 30–45 million Slavs.[133] According to Michael Dorland, "As Yale historian Timothy Snyder reminds us, had the Nazis succeeded in their war on Russia, the implementation of two further dimensions of the Holocaust, the Hunger Plan and Generalplan Ost, would have led to the elimination through starvation of an additional 80 million people in Belarus, northern Russia and the USSR."[134]
At the outset of World War II, the German authority in the General Government in occupied Poland ordered that all Jews face compulsory labour and that those who were physically incapable such as women and children were to be confined to ghettos.[135]
To the Nazis, a number of ideas appeared on how to answer the "Jewish Question". One method was a mass forced deportation of Jews. Adolf Eichmann suggested that Jews be forced to emigrate to Palestine.[135] Franz Rademacher made the proposal that Jews be deported to Madagascar; this proposal was supported by Himmler and was discussed by Hitler and Italian dictator Benito Mussolini but was later dismissed as impractical in 1942.[135] The idea of continuing deportations to occupied Poland was rejected by the governor, Hans Frank, of the General Government of occupied Poland as Frank refused to accept any more deportations of Jews to the territory which already had large numbers of Jews.[135] In 1942, at the Wannsee Conference, Nazi officials decided to eliminate the Jews altogether, as discussed the "Final Solution of the Jewish Question". Concentration camps like Auschwitz were converted and used gas chambers to kill as many Jews as possible. By 1945, a number of concentration camps had been liberated by Allied forces and they found the survivors to be severely malnourished. The Allies also found evidence that the Nazis were profiteering from the mass murder of Jews not only by confiscating their property and personal valuables but also by extracting gold fillings from the bodies of some Jews held in concentration camps.
Role of women and family[link]
Further information: Women in the Third Reich
Women in the Third Reich were a cornerstone of Nazi social policy. The Nazis opposed the feminist movement, claiming that it had a left-wing agenda (comparable to Communism) and was bad for both women and men. The Nazi regime advocated a patriarchal society in which German women would recognize the "world is her husband, her family, her children, and her home."[136] Hitler claimed that women taking vital jobs away from men during the Great Depression was economically bad for families in that women were paid only 66 percent of what men earned.[136] Simultaneously with calling for women to leave work outside the home, the regime called for women to be actively supportive of the state regarding women's affairs. In 1933, Hitler appointed Gertrud Scholtz-Klink as the leader of the National Socialist Women's League, which instructed women that their primary role in society was to bear children and that women should be subservient to men, once saying "the mission of woman is to minister in the home and in her profession to the needs of life from the first to last moment of man's existence.".[136] The expectation even applied to Aryan women married to Jewish men—a necessary ingredient in the 1943 Rosenstrasse protest in which 1800 German women (joined by 4200 relatives) obliged the Nazi state to release their Jewish husbands. This position was so strongly held as to make it extremely difficult to recruit women for war jobs during World War II.[137]
The Nazi regime discouraged women from seeking higher education in secondary schools, universities and colleges. The number of women allowed to enroll in universities dropped drastically under the Nazi regime, which shrank from approximately 128,000 women being enrolled in 1933 to 51,000 in 1938. Female enrollment in secondary schools dropped from 437,000 in 1926 to 205,000 in 1937. However with the requirement of men to be enlisted into the German armed forces during the war, women made up half of the enrollment in the education system by 1944.[138]
On the other hand, the women were expected to be strong, healthy, and vital; a photograph subtitled "Future Mothers" showed teenage girls dressed for sport and bearing javelins.[139] A sturdy peasant woman, who worked the land and bore strong children, was an ideal, contributing to praise for athletic women tanned by outdoor work.[140]
Organizations were made for the indoctrination of Nazi values to German women. Such organizations included the Jungmädel ("Young Girls") section of the Hitler Youth for girls from the age 10 to 14, the Bund Deutscher Mädel (BDM, "German Girls' League") for young women from 14 to 18, and the NS-Frauenschaft, a woman's organization.
The NS-Frauenschaft put out the NS-Frauen-Warte, the only approved women's magazine in Nazi Germany.[141] Despite its propaganda aspects, it was predominantly a woman's magazine,[142] even including sewing patterns.[143]
The BDM's activities encompassed physical education, including running, the long jump, somersaulting, tightrope walking, rout-marching, and swimming.[144] Das deutsche Mädel was less adventure-oriented than the boy's Der Pimpf,[145] but far more emphasis was laid on strong and active German women than in NS-Frauen-Warte.[142] Also, before entering any occupation or advanced studies, the girls, like the boys in Hitler Youth, had to complete a year of land service.[146]
Despite the somewhat official restrictions, some women forged highly visible, as well as officially praised, achievements, such as the aviatrix Hanna Reitsch and film director Leni Riefenstahl.
On the issue of sexual affairs regarding women, Biddiscombe argues the Nazis differed greatly from the restrictive stances on women's role in society. The Nazi regime promoted a liberal code of conduct as regards sexual matters, and were sympathetic to women bearing children out of wedlock.[121] The collapse of 19th century morals in Germany accelerated during the Third Reich, partly due to the Nazis, and greatly due to the effects of the war. Promiscuity increased greatly as the war progressed, with unmarried soldiers often involved intimately with several women simultaneously. Married women were often involved in multiple affairs simultaneously, with soldiers, civilians or slave labourers. "Some farm wives in Württemberg had already begun using sex as a commodity, employing carnal favours as a means of getting a full day's work from foreign labourers."[121] Nevertheless, publicly, Nazi propaganda opposed adultery and upheld the sanctity of marriage.[147] Several films shot in this era altered their source material so that the woman, rather than the man, would suffer death for sexual transgressions, reflecting whose fault it was held to be.[148] When attempts were made to destigmatize illegitimate births, Lebensborn homes were presented the public as for married women.[149] Overtly anti-marriage statements, such as Himmler's statements regarding the care of the illegitimate children of dead soldiers, were greeted with protests.[150] Ilsa McKee noted that the lectures of Hitler Youth and the BDM on the need to produce more children produced several illegitimate children, which neither the mothers nor the possible fathers regarded as problematic.[151]
Marriage or sexual relations between a person considered “Aryan” and one that was not were classified as Rassenschande and were forbidden and under penalty (Aryans found guilty could face incarceration in a concentration camp, while non-Aryans could face the death penalty). Pamphlets enjoined all German women to avoid sexual intercourse with all foreign workers brought to Germany as a danger to their blood.[152]
Abortion was heavily penalized in Nazi Germany unless on the grounds of "racial health": from 1943 abortionists faced the death penalty.[153] Display of contraceptives was not allowed, and Hitler himself described contraception as "violation of nature, as degradation of womanhood, motherhood and love."[154]
Environmentalism[link]
In 1935, the regime enacted the "Reich Nature Protection Act". While not a purely Nazi piece of legislation, as parts of its influences pre-dated the Nazi rise to power, it nevertheless reflected Nazi ideology. The concept of the Dauerwald (best translated as the "perpetual forest") which included concepts such as forest management and protection was promoted and efforts were also made to curb air pollution.[155][156]
In practice, the enacted laws and policies met resistance from various ministries that sought to undermine them, and from the priority that the war-effort took to environmental protection.
Animal protection policy[link]
Main article: Animal welfare in Nazi Germany
The Nazis had elements which were supportive of animal rights, zoos and wildlife,[157] and took several measures to ensure their protection.[158] In 1933 the government enacted a stringent animal-protection law.[159][160] Many NSDAP leaders, including Hitler and Göring, were supporters of animal protection. Several Nazis were environmentalists (notably Rudolf Hess), and species protection and animal welfare were significant issues in the regime.[161] Himmler made efforts to ban the hunting of animals.[162] Göring was an animal lover and conservationist.[163] The current animal welfare laws in Germany are adapted from laws introduced by the National Socialist regime.[164]
Although enacting various laws for animal protection, there was a lack of enforcement. According to Pfugers Archiv für die Gesamte Physiologie (Pfugers Archive for the Total Physiology), a science journal at that time, there were many animal experiments during the Nazi regime.[165] The Nazi regime disbanded several unofficial organizations advocating environmentalism and animal protection, such as the Friends of Nature.[166]
Culture[link]
Main articles: Art of the Third Reich and List of authors banned during the Third Reich
The regime sought to restore traditional values in German culture. The art and culture that came to define the Weimar Republic years was repressed. The visual arts were strictly monitored and traditional, focusing on exemplifying Germanic themes, racial purity, militarism, heroism, power, strength, and obedience. Modern abstract art and avant-garde art was removed from museums and put on special display as "degenerate art", where it was to be ridiculed. In one notable example, on 31 March 1937, huge crowds stood in line to view a special display of "degenerate art" in Munich. Art forms considered to be degenerate included Dada, Cubism, Expressionism, Fauvism, Impressionism, New Objectivity, and Surrealism. Literature written by Jewish, other non-Aryans, homosexual or authors opposed to the Nazis was destroyed by the regime. The most infamous destruction of literature was the book burnings by German students in 1933.
Despite the official attempt to forge a pure Germanic culture, one major area of the arts, architecture, under Hitler's personal guidance, was neoclassical, a style based on architecture of ancient Rome.[167] This style stood out in stark contrast and opposition to newer, more liberal, and more popular architecture styles of the time such as Art Deco. Various Roman buildings were examined by state architect Albert Speer for architectural designs for state buildings. Speer constructed huge and imposing structures such as in the Nazi party rally grounds in Nuremberg and the new Reich Chancellery building in Berlin. One design that was pursued, but never built, was a gigantic version of the Pantheon in Rome, called the Volkshalle to be the semi-religious centre of Nazism in a renamed Berlin called Germania, which was to be the "world capital" (Welthauptstadt). Also to be constructed was a Triumphal arch, several times larger than that found in Paris, which was also based upon a classical styling. Many of the designs for Germania were impractical to construct because of their size and the marshy soil underneath Berlin; later the materials that were to be used for construction were diverted to the war effort.
Cinema and media[link]
Main articles: Cinema of Germany, List of German films 1933-1945, Nazism and cinema, Panorama (German wartime newsreel), and Propagandaministerium
The majority of German films of the period were intended principally as works of entertainment. The import of foreign films was legally restricted after 1936, and the German industry, which was effectively nationalised in 1937, had to make up for the missing foreign films (above all American productions). Entertainment also became increasingly important in the later years of World War II when the cinema provided a distraction from Allied bombing and a string of German defeats. In both 1943 and 1944 cinema admissions in Germany exceeded a billion,[168] and the biggest box office hits of the war years were Die große Liebe (1942) and Wunschkonzert (1941), which both combine elements of the musical, wartime romance and patriotic propaganda, Frauen sind doch bessere Diplomaten (1941), a comic musical which was one of the earliest German films in colour, and Wiener Blut (1942), the adaptation of a Johann Strauß comic operetta. The importance of the cinema as a tool of the state, both for its propaganda value and its ability to keep the populace entertained, can be seen in the filming history of Veit Harlan's Kolberg (1945), the most expensive film of the era, for the shooting of which tens of thousands of soldiers were diverted from their military positions to appear as extras.[169]
Despite the emigration of many film-makers and the political restrictions, the German film industry was not without technical and aesthetic innovations, the introduction of Agfacolor film production being a notable example. Technical and aesthetic achievement could also be turned to the specific ends of the Greater German Reich, most spectacularly in the work of Leni Riefenstahl. Riefenstahl's Triumph of the Will (1935), documenting the Nuremberg Rally (1934), and Olympia (1938), documenting the 1936 Summer Olympics, pioneered techniques of camera movement and editing that have influenced many later films. Both films, particularly Triumph of the Will, remain highly controversial, as their aesthetic merit is inseparable from their propagandizing of Nationalsocialism ideals.[169] Irreplacable artists deemed fitting the National socialist ideals such as Marika Rokk and Johannes Heesters where placed on the Gottbegnadeten list by Goebbels during the war.[170]
Sports[link]
Sports played a central role in the Nazi goal of building strong young athletes to create the "perfect" race and help build Germany into a sports power. The political symbolism of masses of virile near-naked bodies occupying public spaces fit easily into the propaganda system, as typified by the 1938 film about the 1936 Berlin Olympics, "Olympia".[171]
Established in 1934, the "Nationalsozialistischer Reichsbund für Leibesübungen" (known by the acronyms NSRL or NSRBL) was the umbrella organization for sports during the Third Reich. Two major displays of Nazi German art and culture were at the 1936 Summer Olympics and at the German pavilion at the 1937 International Exposition in Paris. The 1936 Olympics was meant to display to the world the Aryan superiority of Germany to other nations. German athletes were carefully chosen not only for strength but for Aryan appearance.[172]
Legacy[link]
Starting with the Nuremberg Trials of 1945–46,[173] in which top Nazi leaders were tried for war crimes (and executed or given long prison terms), Hitler, Nazism, and (by the 1960s) the Holocaust became symbols of evil in the modern world.[174] For the 21st century, Newman and Erber (2002) reported, "The Nazis have become one of the most widely recognized images of modern evil. Throughout most of the world today, the concept of evil can readily be evoked by displaying almost any cue reminiscent of Nazism, such as the swastika, the name of any of the principal Nazis, or their garb or affectations...."[175] There is a high level of historical interest in the popular media as well as in academic world. Evans says it, "exerts an almost universal appeal because its murderous racism stands as a warning to the whole of humanity."[176]
The end of Nazi Germany also saw the rise in unpopularity of related aggressive manifestations of nationalism in Germany such as Pan-Germanism and the Völkisch movement which had previously been significant political ideas there, and in other parts of Europe, before World War II. Those that remain are largely fringe movements. Hitler, Nazism, and the Holocaust are used as symbols of evil in the modern world. Newman and Erber (2002) wrote, "The Nazis have become one of the most widely recognized images of modern evil. Throughout most of the world today, the concept of evil can readily be evoked by displaying almost any cue reminiscent of Nazism ... "[177]
See also[link]
- Collaboration with the Axis Powers during World War II
- German resistance
- Glossary of German military terms
- Glossary of Nazi Germany
- List of Nazi Party leaders and officials
- Nazi architecture
- Nazi rule over the Danube River
- Nazi songs
- Orders, decorations, and medals of Nazi Germany
- Sino-German cooperation (1911–1941)
- Vergangenheitsbewältigung
Notes[link]
- ^ In 1939, before Germany acquired control of the last two regions which had been in its control before the Versailles Treaty—Alsace-Lorraine, Danzig, and the part of West Prussia colloquially known as the "Polish Corridor"—its area was 633,786 square kilometres (244,706 sq mi). See Statistisches Jahrbuch 2006.
References[link]
- ^ Gesetz über das Staatsoberhaupt des Deutschen Reichs, 1 August 1934:
"§ 1 The office of the Reichspräsident is merged with that of the Reichskanzler. Therefore the previous rights of the Reichspräsident pass over to the Führer and Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler. He names his deputy." - ^ Neil J. Kressel (2002). Mass Hate: The Global Rise Of Genocide And Terror. Basic Books. p. 121. http://books.google.com/books?id=UfSI6mU2fDIC&pg=PA121.
- ^ Anthony McElligott; Tim Kirk; Ian Kershaw (2003). Working Towards the Führer: Essays in Honour of Sir Ian Kershaw. Manchester U.P.. p. 6. http://books.google.com/books?id=iIWj44s-02AC&pg=PA6.
- ^ Robert O. Paxton; Julie Hessler (2011). Europe in the Twentieth Century. Cengage. p. 286. http://books.google.com/books?id=M5wTncOaHEQC&pg=PA286.
- ^ Guntram H. Herb (2008). Nations and Nationalism: A Global Historical Overview. ABC-CLIO. p. 454. http://books.google.com/books?id=2UoQ-ueHjdEC&pg=PA454.
- ^ Stephen J. Lee (1996). Weimar and Nazi Germany. Heinemann. p. 56. http://books.google.com/books?id=eRDg5_Ay_PcC&pg=PA56.
- ^ Peter Watson (2002). Modern Mind: An Intellectual History of the 20th Century. HarperCollins. p. 328. http://books.google.com/books?id=JVdMSavwwHoC&pg=PA328.
- ^ Richard Holmes (2009). World War II: The Definitive Visual History. Penguin. p. 42. http://books.google.com/books?id=H_ginDMhCsMC&pg=PA42.
- ^ van Wie, Paul D. (1999). Image, History and Politics: The Coinage of Modern Europe. University Press of America "location = Lanham, Md. p. 37. ISBN 978-0-7618-1221-0.
- ^ "Reich" is sometimes also translated as "Realm." See Harper's magazine, Volume 63. Pp. 593.
- ^ Evans, Richard J. (2005). The Coming of the Third Reich. New York: Penguin. pp. 6–7. ISBN 978-0-14-303469-8.
- ^ a b Goldhagen 1996, p. 87.
- ^ Goldhagen 1996, pp. 202–203.
- ^ Kolb 2005, p. 224–225.
- ^ Ian Kershaw (2000). Hitler, 1889-1936: Hubris. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-32035-0.
- ^ Tipton, Frank, A History of Modern Germany, since 1815, Continuum Press New York, 2003
- ^ Cuomo, Glenn R. (1995). National Socialist Cultural Policy. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. p. 231. ISBN 978-0-312-09094-4.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 306.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 205.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 219.
- ^ "Germany: Second Revolution?". Time magazine. 2 July 1934. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,754321,00.html. Retrieved 2011-10-17.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 309–312.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 314.
- ^ Read, Anthony (2003). "The Devils Disciples", W. W. Norton & Co. ISBN 0-393-04800-4
- ^ Ian Kershaw (2001). The "Hitler Myth": Image and Reality in the Third Reich. 50-59. Oxford University Press. http://books.google.com/books?id=W4sUi6omc3cC.
- ^ Henry Maitles NEVER AGAIN!: A review of David Goldhagen, Hitlers Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust, further referenced to Almond, G. The German Resistance Movement, Current History 10 (1946), pp. 409–527.
- ^ Clay, David (1994). Contending with Hitler: Varieties of German Resistance in the Third Reich, p. 122. ISBN 0-521-41459-8
- ^ Mitchell Otis C. (1988). Hitler's Nazi State: The Years of Dictatorial Rule, 1934–1945 , p. 217.
- ^ Hoffmann, Peter (1977, 1996). The History of the German Resistance, 1933–1945 p. xiii.
- ^ Kitchen 2006, p. 271.
- ^ Kitchen 2006, p. 272.
- ^ Evans 2005, pp. 646–652.
- ^ Jeffrey Record, Specter of Munich: Reconsidering the Lessons of Appeasing Hitler (2008)
- ^ D.G. Williamson The Third Reich, Longman, London, England 1982, 51
- ^ A.J.P. Taylor The Origins of the Second World War Heineman, London 1961
- ^ Kershaw Hitler 1936–1945 Allen Lane, London 2000, 205
- ^ Maurer, Karl-Wilhelm (2008) (in German). Die Hessisch-thüringische 251. Infanterie-division. Norderstedt: Books on Demand GmbH. p. 14. ISBN 978-3-8370-3111-9. http://books.google.de/books?id=OL3AvYS68TwC&pg=PA14.
- ^ "NDR Online – Kultur – Geschichte- Chronik Helgolands 1914–1952". http://www1.ndr.de/kultur/geschichte/helgolandchronik2.html. Retrieved 2010-08-22. [dead link]
- ^ "British Military Aviation in 1940 – Part 1". Rafmuseum.org.uk. http://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/milestones-of-flight/british_military/1940.cfm. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ "In The Air: Raid on Sylt". Time magazine. 1 April 1940. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885838,00.html. Retrieved 2012-03-14.
- ^ "Siege of Leningrad (Soviet history)". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ "Introduction" U-Boat Operations of the Second World War—Vol 1 by Wynn, Kenneth, 1998 p. 1
- ^ Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. pp. 45–52. ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0.
- ^ http://thehumanmarvels.com/894/the-ovitz-family-nazi-experiments/dwarfism "The Ovitz Family"
- ^ Stone, Dan (2010). Histories of the Holocaust. Oxford University Press. p. 212. ISBN 978-0-19-161420-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=dl4lTmykH-QC&pg=PA212.
- ^ Timothy Snyder (2010). Bloodlands: Europe between Hitler and Stalin. Basic Books. pp. 162–63. ISBN 978-0-465-00239-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=n856VkLmF34C&pg=PA162.
- ^ Gumkowski, Janusz; Leszczyński, Kazimierz (1961). Warsaw: Polonia Pub. House. OCLC 456349. online
- ^ Richard Overy, The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, p543 ISBN 0-393-02030-4
- ^ "''Nazi Conspiracy & Aggression Volume I Chapter XIII Germanization & Spoliation''". Fundamentalbass.home.mindspring.com. http://fundamentalbass.home.mindspring.com/c9052.htm. Retrieved 2011-06-13.
- ^ Richard C. Lukas, Forgotten Holocaust p18 ISBN 0-7818-0528-7
- ^ Nicholas 2006, pp. 207-9, 215.
- ^ Lebensraum, Aryanization, Germanization and Judenrein, Judenfrei: concepts in the holocaust or shoah
- ^ "Germany's forgotten victims". Guardian.co.uk. 22 October 2003.
- ^ Schrijvers, Peter (2001). The Crash of Ruin: American Combat Soldiers in Europe during World War II. NYU Press. pp. 83–86. ISBN 0-8147-9807-1. http://books.google.com/?id=VjpxBM1_OYIC&pg=PA84&lpg=PA84&dq=dead+german+soldiers+during+wwii.
- ^ Erickson, John (1983). The Road to Berlin: Stalin's War with Germany: Volume 2. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. p. 586. ISBN 0-297-77238-4.
- ^ Beevor 2002, p. 275.
- ^ Erickson (1983) p. 590.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 943–946.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 946.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 954–955.
- ^ Beevor 2003, p. 386.
- ^ "World War II: Combatants and Casualties (1937–1945)". http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob62.html. Retrieved 2007-04-20. [dead link]
- ^ "The Holocaust". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
- ^ Auerbach, Hellmuth (1992). "Opfer der nationalsozialistischen Gewaltherrschaft". In Benz, Wolfgang. Legenden, Lügen, Vorurteile. Ein Wörterbuch zur Zeitgeschichte. Dtv. p. 116. ISBN 3-423-04666-X.
- ^ Pohl, Dieter (2003). Verfolgung und Massenmord in der NS-Zeit 1939–1945. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. p. 153. ISBN 3-534-15158-5.
- ^ Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Soviet Union. Geoffrey A. Hosking (2006). Harvard University Press. p.242. ISBN 0-674-02178-9
- ^ "Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead". BBC News. 9 May 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4530565.stm. Retrieved 10 April 2010.
- ^ The World's Wasted Wealth 2: Save Our Wealth, Save Our Environment. J. W. Smith (1994). p.204. ISBN 0-9624423-2-1
- ^ Geoffrey A. Hosking (2006). Rulers and victims: the Russians in the Soviet Union. Harvard University Press. p.242. ISBN 0-674-02178-9
- ^ "Refugees: Save Us! Save Us!". Time magazine. 9 July 1979. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920455-2,00.html. Retrieved 2012-03-14.
- ^ "Who benefits from global violence and war: uncovering a destructive system". Marc Pilisuk, Jennifer Achord Rountree (2008). Greenwood Publishing Group. p.136. ISBN 0-275-99435-X
- ^ Robert E. Conot, Justice at Nuremberg (1993)
- ^ William I. Hitchcock, The Struggle for Europe: The Turbulent History of a Divided Continent 1945 to the Present (2004) pp 13–39
- ^ Kershaw, Ian. The "Hitler Myth": Image and Reality in the Third Reich (2001) p. 253.
- ^ Bischof, Günter, "The Historical Roots of a Special Relationship: Austro-German Relations Between Hegemony and Equality". In Unequal Partners, ed. Harald von Riekhoff and Hanspeter Neuhold. San Francisco: Westview Press, 1993
- ^ "Hitler's Plan". Dac.neu.edu. http://www.dac.neu.edu/holocaust/Hitlers_Plans.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ "ess.uwe.ac.uk". ess.uwe.ac.uk. http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/ssnur1.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ The Russian Academy of Science Rossiiskaia Akademiia nauk. Liudskie poteri SSSR v period vtoroi mirovoi voiny:sbornik statei. Sankt-Peterburg 1995 ISBN 5-86789-023-6(figure of 13.7 million includes 2.0 million deaths in the annexed territories which are also included with Poland's war dead)
- ^ Katz. "Jews and Freemasons in Europe". In Israel Gutman. The Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. p. vol. 2, p. 531. ISBN 978-0-02-897166-7. OCLC 20594356.
- ^ Bender, Roger James; Taylor, Hugh Page (1971). Uniforms, Organization, and History of the Waffen-SS, Volume 2. R. J. Bender Publishing. p. 23.
- ^ Overmans, Rüdiger (2000) [1999] (in German). Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Beiträge zur Militärgeschichte. Bd. 46: R. Oldenbourg. ISBN 978-3-486-56531-7.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i DeLong 1997.
- ^ Haskew, Michael, The Wehrmacht 2011, p. 13
- ^ Temin, Peter (November 1991). Economic History Review, New Series 44 (4): 573–593.
- ^ Christoph Buchheim (27Jun2006). "The Role of Private Property in the Nazi Economy: The Case of Industry". The Journal of Economic History: 390–416.
- ^ Overy 1995, p. 205.
- ^ Albert Speer (1970). Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs. Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4395-0212-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=oeiNPwAACAAJ.
- ^ Bernhard R. Kroener, et al. (2003). Germany and the Second World War: Volume V/II: Organization and Mobilization in the German Sphere of Power: Wartime Administration, Economy, and Manpower Resources 1942-1944/5. Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820873-0. http://books.google.com/books?id=rAlNsmScl3AC.
- ^ Richard J. Evans (2008). The Third Reich at war. Penguin. p. 333. ISBN 978-1-59420-206-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=0XZHSyTLyIMC.
- ^ Hans-Joachim Braun, "Aero-Engine Production in the Third Reich," History of Technology, 1992, Vol. 14, pp 1-15
- ^ Jonathan Zeitlin, "Flexibility and Mass Production at War: Aircraft Manufacture in Britain, the United States, and Germany, 1939-1945," Technology and Culture (1955) 36#1 pp 46-79 in JSTOR
- ^ John C. Beyer; Stephen A. Schneider. "Forced Labour under Third Reich – Part 1" (PDF). Nathan Associates Inc.. http://www.nathaninc.com/nathan2/files/ccLibraryFiles/FILENAME/000000000072/Forced%20Labour%20Under%20the%20Third%20Reich%2C%20Part%20One.pdf. and John C. Beyer; Stephen A. Schneider. "Forced Labour under Third Reich – Part 2" (PDF). Nathan Associates Inc.. http://www.nathaninc.com/nathan2/files/ccLibraryFiles/FILENAME/000000000073/Forced%20Labour%20Under%20the%20Third%20Reich%2C%20Part%20Two.pdf.
- ^ Panikos Panayi, "Exploitation, Criminality, Resistance. The Everyday Life of Foreign Workers and Prisoners of War in the German Town of Osnabrck, 1939-49," Journal of Contemporary History (2005) 40#3 pp 483-502 in JSTOR
- ^ Karen Hagemann, "Mobilizing Women for War: The History, Historiography, and Memory of German Women's War Service in the Two World Wars," Journal of Military History, (Oct 2011) 75#4 pp 1055-1094,
- ^ Richard G. Davis, "German Rail Yards and Cities: U.S. Bombing Policy 1944-1945," Air Power History, (Summer 1995) 42#2 pp46-63
- ^ Alfred C. Mierzejewski (1988). The Collapse of the German War Economy, 1944-1945: Allied Air Power and the German National Railway. U of North Carolina press. ISBN 978-0-8078-1792-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=8KdksC1hDkAC.
- ^ Richard Overy (1997). Why the Allies Won. W. W. Norton. pp. 128–30. ISBN 978-0-393-31619-3. http://www.amazon.com/Why-Allies-Won-Richard-Overy/dp/039331619X/.
- ^ Johnson, Eric (2000). Nazi Terror: The Gestapo, Jews, and Ordinary Germans. New York: Basic Books, p. 10.
- ^ Pine 2011, pp. 13–40.
- ^ Farago, Ladislas (1972) [1942]. German Psychological Warfare. International propaganda and communications. New York: Arno Press. p. 65. ISBN 978-0-405-04747-3.
- ^ Bowen, James (1981) [1972]. A History of Western Education. 3. p. 480.
- ^ Pine 2011, pp. 14–15, 27.
- ^ Mehdi Khan Nakosteen, The History and Philosophy of Education (1965) p 386
- ^ Henrich Hansen, Die Presse des NS-Lehrerbundes.” Frankfurt am Main: Diesterweg, 1937. Pp 1.
- ^ Mary-Elizabeth O'Brien, Nazi Cinema as Enchantment: The Politics of Entertainment in the Third Reich (2006) p 8
- ^ David Stewart Hull, Film in the Third Reich: A Study of the German Cinema, 1933–1945 (1969) p 51
- ^ Nazi Medicine and Public Health Policy Robert N. Proctor, Dimensions: A Journal of Holocaust Studies.
- ^ a b Proctor, Robert N (1999). The Nazi War on Cancer. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. p. 42. ISBN 0-691-07051-2. http://books.google.com/?id=Um7CfMZeAm0C&lpg=PP1&dq=%22The%20Nazi%20war%20on%20cancer%22&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Proctor, Robert N. (1996). "Nazi Medicine and Public Health Policy". Dimensions: A Journal of Holocaust Studies 10 (2). http://www.adl.org/Braun/dim_14_1_nazi_med.asp. Retrieved 2 December 2011.
- ^ The Nazi Census, Götz Aly and Karl Heinz Roth, Temple University Press, 2004
- ^ Grunberger 1971, p. 18.
- ^ Grunberger 1971, p. 79.
- ^ Claudia Koonz, The Nazi Conscience, p 71 ISBN 0-674-01172-4
- ^ Goldhagen 1996, p. 290.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 81.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 203.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 233.
- ^ Kitchen 2006, p. 273.
- ^ a b c Biddiscombe, Perry (2001). "Dangerous Liaisons: The Anti-Fraternization Movement in the US Occupation Zones of Germany and Austria, 1945–1948". Journal of Social History 34 (3): 611–647. DOI:10.1353/jsh.2001.0002.
- ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum"ushmm.org". http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005394. Retrieved 2007-08-15.
- ^ "Ein Konzentrationslager für politische Gefangene". Münchner Neueste Nachrichten. 1933-03-21. http://www.mazal.org/archive/DACHPHO/Dach02.htm. Retrieved 2009-09-16. Translation: "The Munich Chief of Police, Himmler, has issued the following press announcement: On Wednesday the first concentration camp is to be opened in Dachau with an accommodation for 5000 persons. All Communists and—where necessary—Reichsbanner and Social Democratic functionaries who endanger state security are to be concentrated here, as in the long run it is not possible to keep individual functionaries in the state prisons without overburdening these prisons, and on the other hand these people cannot be released because attempts have shown that they persist in their efforts to agitate and organize as soon as they are released."
- ^ Berghahn, Volker R. (1999). "Germans and Poles 1871–1945". Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identities and Cultural Differences (Rodopi).
- ^ Hitler's Plans for Eastern Europe. Selections from: "Poland under Nazi Occupation", by Janusz Gumkowkski and Kazimierz Leszczynski
- ^ Heinrich Himmler Speech before SS Group Leaders Posen, Poland 1943. Hanover College Department of History
- ^ Hans-Walter Schmuhl. The Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics, 1927–1945: crossing boundaries. Volume 259 of Boston studies in the philosophy of science. Coutts MyiLibrary. SpringerLink Humanities, Social Science & LawAuthor. Springer, 2008. ISBN 1-4020-6599-X, 9781402065996, p. 348-349
- ^ Robert Gellately. Revieved works: Vom Generalplan Ost zum Generalsiedlungsplan by Czeslaw Madajczyk. Der "Generalplan Ost." Hauptlinien der nationalsozialistischen Planungs- und Vernichtungspolitik by Mechtild Rössler; Sabine Schleiermacher. Central European History, Vol. 29, No. 2 (1996), pp. 270–274
- ^ Roger Chickering, Stig Förster, Bernd Greiner, German Historical Institute (Washington, D.C.) (2005). A world at total war: global conflict and the politics of destruction, 1937–1945. Cambridge University Press. p.65. ISBN 0-521-83432-5
- ^ Joseph Poprzeczny, Odilo Globocnik, Hitler's Man in the East, McFarland, 2004, ISBN 0-7864-1625-4, Google Print, p.186
- ^ Tooze, Adam, The Wages of Destruction, Viking, 2007, pp. 476–85, 538–49, ISBN 0-670-03826-1
- ^ William J. Duiker (2009). Contemporary World History. Cengage Learning. p.132. ISBN 0-495-57271-3
- ^ Dan Stone (2010). Histories of the Holocaust. Oxford University Press. p.212. ISBN 0-19-956680-1.
- ^ Michael Dorland (2009). Cadaverland: inventing a pathology of catastrophe for Holocaust survival : the limits of medical knowledge and memory in France. UPNE. p.6. ISBN 1-58465-784-7
- ^ a b c d Kershaw 2000, p. 111.
- ^ a b c "spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk". http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/GERwomen.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-15.
- ^ William L. O'Neill, A Democracy At War: America's Fight At Home and Abroad in World War II, p 99-100 ISBN 0-02-923678-9
- ^ Bruce F. Pauley, Hitler, Stalin, and Mussolini: Totalitarianism in the Twentieth Century (2003) p 119-37
- ^ Richard Overy, The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia, p248 ISBN 0-393-02030-4
- ^ Rupp 1978, pp. 45–46.
- ^ "NS-Frauenwarte: Paper of the National Socialist Women's League"
- ^ a b Rupp 1978, p. 45.
- ^ "May 1937 – Frauen Warte"
- ^ Grunberger 1971, p. 278.
- ^ "Material from "Das deutsche Mädel"
- ^ Arvo L. Vercamer "HJ-Landdienst"
- ^ Cinzia Romani, Tainted Goddesses: Female Film Stars of the Third Reich p20 ISBN 0-9627613-1-1
- ^ Grunberger 1971, p. 382.
- ^ Grunberger 1971, p. 246.
- ^ Himmler’s Response to Complaints regarding his "Procreation Decree" of 28 October 1939 (30 January 1940)
- ^ George Lachmann Mosse, Nazi culture: intellectual, cultural and social life in the Third Reich p 277 ISBN 978-0-299-19304-1
- ^ Rupp 1978, pp. 124–125.
- ^ Potts, Malcolm; Diggory, Peter; Peel, John (1977). Abortion. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 382. ISBN 0-521-29150-X. OCLC 2645117. http://books.google.com/books?id=T205AAAAIAAJ&lpg=PA382&pg=PA382#v=onepage&q=germany%20abortion%20death%20penalty&f=false.
- ^ "History of Contraception". Glowm.com. http://www.glowm.com/index.html?p=glowm.cml/section_view&articleid=375#r88. Retrieved 2009-09-16.
- ^ JONATHAN OLSEN "How Green Were the Nazis? Nature, Environment, and Nation in the Third Reich (review)" Technology and Culture – Volume 48, Number 1, January 2007, pp. 207–208
- ^ Review of Franz-Josef Brueggemeier, Marc Cioc, and Thomas Zeller, eds, "How Green Were the Nazis?: Nature, Environment, and Nation in the Third Reich" Wilko Graf von Hardenberg, H-Environment, H-Net Reviews, October, 2006.
- ^ Thomas R. DeGregori (2002). Bountiful Harvest: Technology, Food Safety, and the Environment. Cato Institute. pp. p153. ISBN 1-930865-31-7.
- ^ Arnold Arluke, Clinton Sanders (1996). Regarding Animals. Temple University Press. pp. p132. ISBN 1-56639-441-4.
- ^ Hartmut M. Hanauske-Abel, Not a slippery slope or sudden subversion: German medicine and National Socialism in 1933, BMJ 1996; pp. 1453–1463 (7 December)
- ^ "kaltio.fi". http://www.kaltio.fi/index.php?494. Retrieved 2007-08-15.
- ^ Robert Proctor (1999). The Nazi War on Cancer. Princeton University Press. pp. p5. ISBN 0-691-07051-2.
- ^ Kitchen 2006, p. 278.
- ^ Seymour Rossel (1992). The Holocaust: The World and the Jews, 1933–1945. Behrman House, Inc. pp. p79. ISBN 0-87441-526-8.
- ^ Bruce Braun, Noel Castree (1998). Remaking Reality: Nature at the Millenium. Routledge. pp. p92. ISBN 0-415-14493-0. [sic]
- ^ C. Ray Greek, Jean Swingle Greek (2002). Sacred Cows and Golden Geese: The Human Cost of Experiments on Animals. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. p90. ISBN 0-8264-1402-8.
- ^ Boria Sax (2000). Animals in the Third Reich: Pets, Scapegoats, and the Holocaust. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. p41. ISBN 0-8264-1289-0.
- ^ Scobie, Alexander. Hitler's State Architecture: The Impact of Classical Antiquity. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-271-00691-9. Pp. 92.
- ^ Kinobesuche in Deutschland 1925 bis 2004 Spitzenorganisation der Filmwirtschaft e. V
- ^ a b Cinema of Germany#1933-1945 Film industry in the Third Reich
- ^ "Nederlanderse-entertainer-sin-Duitsland" (in Dutch). Die Welt. 17 April 2010. http://www.movienewz.nl/rudicarrell/?sub=extern&waid=36728. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
- ^ Nadine Rossol, "Performing the Nation: Sports, Spectacles, and Aesthetics in Germany, 1926–1936," Central European History Dec 2010, Vol. 43 Issue 4, pp 616–638
- ^ Anton Rippon, Hitler's Olympics: The Story of the 1936 Nazi Games (2006)
- ^ Alan S. Rosenbaum, Prosecuting Nazi War Criminals (1993).
- ^ Colin Flint, "To Explain or Understand Evil: Comparing Hermeneutic and Rational Choice Approaches to the Analysis of Nazism," Social Science Quarterly June 1998, Vol. 79 Issue 2, pp 466–474,
- ^ Leonard S. Newman and Ralph Erber, Understanding Genocide: The Social Psychology of the Holocaust (2002) p. 244
- ^ Richard J. Evans, Cosmopolitan Islanders: British Historians and the European Continent (2009) p. 56
- ^ Newman, Leonard S. and Erber, Ralph. Understanding Genocide: The Social Psychology of the Holocaust (2002) p. 244.
Bibliography[link]
- Beevor, Antony (2002). Berlin: The Downfall 1945. London: Viking-Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-670-03041-5.
- Beevor, Antony (2003) [2002] (paperback). Berlin: The Downfall 1945. New York: Viking-Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-200280-3.
- DeLong, J. Bradford (February 1997). "Slouching Towards Utopia?: The Economic History of the Twentieth Century. XV. Nazis and Soviets". econ161.berkeley.edu. University of California at Berkeley. http://econ161.berkeley.edu/TCEH/Slouch_Purge15.html. Retrieved March 17, 2012.
- Evans, Richard J. (2005). The Third Reich in Power. New York: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-303790-3.
- Goldhagen, Daniel (1996). Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York: Knopf. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-679-44695-8.
- Grunberger, Richard (1971). The 12-Year Reich: A Social History of Nazi Germany 1933–1945. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston. ISBN 978-0-03-076435-6.
- Kershaw, Ian (2000). The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation (4th ed.). London: Arnold. ISBN 978-0-340-76028-4.
- Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6.
- Kitchen, Martin (2006). A History of Modern Germany, 1800–2000. Malden, MA: Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4051-0040-3.
- Kolb, Eberhard (2005) [1984]. The Weimar Republic. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34441-8.
- Nicholas, Lynn H. (2006). Cruel World: The Children of Europe in the Nazi Web. New York: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-679-77663-5.
- Overy, Richard (1995). Why The Allies Won. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-03925-2.
- Pine, Lisa (2011) [2010]. Education in Nazi Germany. Oxford; New York: Berg. ISBN 978-1-84520-265-1.
- Rupp, Leila J. (1978). Mobilizing Women for War: German and American Propaganda, 1939–1945. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-04649-5. OCLC 3379930.
- Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-62420-0.
- "Statistisches Jahrbuch für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland" (in German). Statistisches Bundesamt. 2006. p. 34. Archived from the original on 26 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070926002255/http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Publikationen/Querschnittsveroeffentlichungen/StatistischesJahrbuch/Downloads/Jahrbuch2006Inland,property=file.pdf. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
Further reading[link]
See also: List of books by or about Adolf Hitler
Surveys and reference works
- Karl Dietrich Bracher. The German Dictatorship; The Origins, Structure, and Effects of National Socialism; New York, Praeger 1970.
- Michael Burleigh. The Third Reich: A New History, 2002. ISBN 0-8090-9326-X. Standard scholarly history, 1918–1945.
- Richard J. Evans. The Coming of the Third Reich. ISBN 0-14-100975-6, standard scholarly history; The Third Reich in Power 2005 ISBN 1-59420-074-2; The Third Reich at war 1939–1945 (2009)
- Christian Leitz, ed. The Third Reich: The Essential Readings. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers, 1999. ISBN 0-631-20700-7.
- Mommsen, Hans. The Third Reich between Vision and Reality: New Perspectives on German History, 1918–1945 (2001) online edition
- Overy, Richard. The Dictators: Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Russia (2004)
- Roderick, Stacke. Hitler's Germany: Origins, Interpretations, Legacies (1999)
- Scheck, Raffael. “Lecture Notes, Germany and Europe, 1871–1945” (2008) full text online, a brief textbook by a leading scholar
- William L. Shirer. The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. ISBN 0-671-72868-7
- Zentner, Christian and Bedürftig, Friedemann, eds. The Encyclopedia of the Third Reich. 2 vol. Macmillan, 1991. 1120 pp.
Economics
- Overy, R. J. The Nazi Economic Recovery 1932–1938 (1996)
- Adam Tooze. The Wages of Destruction: The Making and the Breaking of the Nazi Economy. New York: Viking, 2006. ISBN 978-0-670-03826-8.
- Henry Ashby Turner. German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler. New York: Oxford University Press, 1985. ISBN 0-19-503492-9.
- Alfred Sohn-Rethel. Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism. London, CSE Bks, 1978. ISBN 0-906336-00-7
Hitler
- Bullock, Alan. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny, (1962) online edition
- Geary, Dick. Hitler and Nazism, (2000) 97 pages
- Kershaw, Ian. Hitler, 1889–1936: Hubris. vol. 1. 1999. 700 pp. ; vol 2: Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis. 2000. 832 pp.; the leading scholarly biography.
- Kershaw, Ian. The "Hitler Myth": Image and Reality in the Third Reich. (1987). 297 pp.
- Nicholls, David. Adolf Hitler: A Biographical Companion. ABC-CLIO, 2000. 344 pp.
Holocaust, ideology and racism
- Gisela Bock "Racism and Sexism in Nazi Germany: Motherhood, Compulsory Sterilization, and the State" from When Biology Became Destiny: Women in Weimar and Nazi Germany edited by Renate Bridenthal, Atina Grossmann, and Marion Kaplan, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1984.
- Friedlander, Saul. Nazi Germany and the Jews: Volume 1: The Years of Persecution 1933–1939 (1998); The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews, 1939–1945 (2007), the standard history
- Gilbert, Martin. The Routledge Atlas of the Holocaust (2002)
- Heinz Höhne. The Order of the Death's Head: The Story of Hitler's SS. Translated by Richard Barry. London: Penguin Books, 1971.
- Claudia Koonz. The Nazi Conscience. Cambridge, Mass.: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2003.
- Niewyk, Donald, and Francis Nicosia. The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. (2000) online edition
- Detlev Peukert. Inside Nazi Germany: Conformity, Opposition and Racism in Everyday Life. London: Batsford, 1987. ISBN 0-7134-5217-X.
- Florian Ruhs: Foreign Workers in the Second World War. The Ordeal of Slovenians in Germany., in: aventinus nova Nr. 32 [29.05.2011].
Leadership
- Martin Broszat. The Hitler State: The Foundation and Development Of The Internal Structure Of The Third Reich. Translated by John W. Hiden. London: Longman, 1981. ISBN 0-582-49200-9.
- Guido Knopp. Hitler's Henchmen. 1998. Sutton Publishing, 2005. ISBN 0-7509-3781-5.
- Frank McDonough, Hitler and the Rise of The Nazi Party, Pearson Longman, 2003.
- Anthony Read. The Devils Disciples: The Devil's Disciples: Hitler's Inner Circle. W. W. Norton & Co., 2003. ISBN 0-393-04800-4.
- Ronald Smelser and Rainer Zitelmann, The Nazi Elite New York University Press, 1993, ISBN 0-8147-7950-6.
Local and regional
- William Sheridan Allen. The Nazi Seizure of Power : the Experience Of A Single German Town, 1922–1945 New York: F. Watts, 1984. ISBN 0-531-09935-0.
- Paul Garson. Album of the Damned: Snapshots from the Third Reich 2008 ISBN 978-0-89733-576-8, Academy Chicago Publishers
Military and foreign policy
- Sir John Wheeler-Bennett. The Nemesis of Power: The German Army in Politics 1918–1945, Palgrave Macmillan: London: 1953, 1964, 2005 ISBN 1-4039-1812-0.
- Andreas Hillgruber Germany and the two World Wars, Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press, 1981 ISBN 0-674-35321-8.
- David Irving. Hitler's War. London: Focal Point Publications. ISBN 1-872197-10-8.
- Norman Rich. Hitler's War Aims: Ideology, the Nazi State, and the Course of Expansion. vol. 1. 1972. 352 pp.; vol. 2: Hitler's War Aims: The Establishment of the New Order. 1974. 548 pp.; definitive analysis of Nazi German war aims in World War II.
Resistance
- Hamerow, Theodore S. On the Road to the Wolf's Lair: German Resistance to Hitler (1997) 454 pages
- R. P. Heller. The Flame of Freedom: The German Struggle against Hitler. (1994) focus on Army online edition
- Roger Moorhouse. Killing Hitler. London: Jonathan Cape, 2006. ISBN 0-224-07121-1.
- Thomsett, Michael C. The German Opposition to Hitler: The Resistance, the Underground, and Assassination Plots, 1938–1945 (2nd ed 2007) 278 pages
Society and culture
- Cosner, Shaaron and Cosner, Victoria. Women under the Third Reich: A Biographical Dictionary. Greenwood, 1998. 203 pp.
- Richard Grunberger. A Social History of the Third Reich 1974 ISBN 0-14-013675-4.
- Claudia Koonz. Mothers In The Fatherland: Women, the Family, and Nazi Politics. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987. ISBN 0-312-54933-4.
- Eric Michaud, The Cult of Art in Nazi Germany, translated by Janet Lloyd, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-8047-4327-4.
- Rempel, Gerhard. Hitler's Children: The Hitler Youth and the SS, (1989) online edition
- David Schoenbaum Hitler’s Social Revolution; Class and Status in Nazi Germany, 1933–1939, Garden City, N.Y. Doubleday, 1966.
- Stibbe, Matthew. Women in the Third Reich, 2003, 208 pp.
External links[link]
| Find more about Germany on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
 |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
 |
Images and media from Commons |
 |
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
 |
News stories from Wikinews |
 |
Quotations from Wikiquote |
 |
Source texts from Wikisource |
 |
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Germany at the Open Directory Project
- The Third Reich
- Third Reich in Ruins (Photos)
- Lebendiges Museum Online (German)
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: National Socialism |
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
Coordinates: 52°31′N 13°24′E / 52.517°N 13.4°E / 52.517; 13.4
http://wn.com/Nazi_Germany
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Deutsches Reich 1933 bis 1945
http://es.wn.com/Alemania nazi
http://ru.wn.com/Третий рейх
http://cs.wn.com/Nacistické Německo
http://pt.wn.com/Alemanha Nazi
http://pl.wn.com/III Rzesza
http://it.wn.com/Germania nazista
http://id.wn.com/Jerman Nazi
http://nl.wn.com/Nazi-Duitsland
http://fr.wn.com/Troisième Reich
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is about the country. For other uses of terms redirecting here, see Germany (disambiguation) and Deutschland (disambiguation).
| Federal Republic of Germany
Bundesrepublik Deutschland
|
||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
||||||
Anthem:
 The third stanza of Das Lied der Deutschen The Song of the Germans |
||||||
![Location of Germany (dark green)– in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the European Union (green) — [Legend]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121210021808/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EU-Germany.svg) Location of Germany (dark green)
– in Europe (green & dark grey) |
||||||
| Capital (and largest city) |
Berlin 52°31′N 13°23′E / 52.517°N 13.383°E / 52.517; 13.383 |
|||||
| Official language(s) | German[1] | |||||
| Ethnic groups | Germans 91.5%, Turks 2.4%, other 6.1% (made up largely of Greek, Italian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian, Spanish)[1] | |||||
| Demonym | German | |||||
| Government | Federal parliamentary constitutional republic | |||||
| - | President | Joachim Gauck | ||||
| - | Chancellor | Angela Merkel | ||||
| - | President of the Bundestag | Norbert Lammert | ||||
| - | President of the Bundesrat | Horst Seehofer | ||||
| Legislature | ||||||
| - | Upper house | Bundesrat | ||||
| - | Lower house | Bundestag | ||||
| Formation | ||||||
| - | Holy Roman Empire | 2 February 962 | ||||
| - | Unification | 18 January 1871 | ||||
| - | Federal Republic | 23 May 1949 | ||||
| - | Reunification | 3 October 1990 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 357,021 km2 (63rd) 137,847 sq mi |
||||
| - | Water (%) | 2.416 | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2010 estimate | 81,799,600[2] (16th) | ||||
| - | Density | 229/km2 (55th) 593/sq mi |
||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2011 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $3.099 trillion[3] (5th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $37,896[3] (18th) | ||||
| GDP (nominal) | 2011 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $3.577 trillion[3] (4th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $43,741[3] | ||||
| Gini (2006) | 27 (low) | |||||
| HDI (2011) |  0.905[4] (very high) (9th) |
|||||
| Currency | Euro (€)[2](2002 – present) Swiss franc (de facto in Büsingen) ( EUR, CHF) |
|||||
| Time zone | CET (UTC+1) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | CEST (UTC+2) | ||||
| Drives on the | right | |||||
| ISO 3166 code | DE | |||||
| Internet TLD | .de [3] | |||||
| Calling code | 49 | |||||
| 1 | ^ Danish, Low German, Sorbian, Romany and Frisian are officially recognised by the ECRML. | |||||
| 2 | ^ Before 2002: Deutsche Mark (DEM). | |||||
| 3 | ^ Also .eu, shared with European Union member states. | |||||
Germany (i/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)),[5] is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire.[6] During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since.[7] Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
Germany was a founding member of the European Community in 1957, which became the EU in 1993. It is part of the Schengen Area and since 1999 a member of the eurozone. Germany is a Great Power and member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, the OECD and the Council of Europe, and took a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 2011–2012 term.
It has the world's fourth largest economy by nominal GDP and the fifth largest by purchasing power parity. It is the second largest exporter and third largest importer of goods. The country has developed a very high standard of living and a comprehensive system of social security. Germany has been the home of many influential scientists and inventors, and is known for its cultural and political history.
Contents |
Etymology[link]
Main article: Names of Germany
The English word Germany derives from the Latin Germania, which came into use after Julius Caesar adopted it for the peoples east of the Rhine.[8] The German term Deutschland (originally diutisciu land, "the German lands") is derived from deutsch, descended from Old High German diutisc "popular" (i. e., belonging to the diot or diota "people"; originally used to distinguish the language of the common people from Latin and its Romance descendants). This in turn descends from Proto-Germanic *þiudiskaz "popular" (see also the Latinised form Theodiscus), derived from *þeudō, descended from Proto-Indo-European *tewtéh₂- "people".[9]
History[link]
Main article: History of Germany
Germanic tribes and Frankish Empire[link]
Main articles: Germania and Migration Period
The Germanic tribes are thought to date from the Nordic Bronze Age or the Pre-Roman Iron Age. From southern Scandinavia and north Germany, they expanded south, east and west from the 1st century BC, coming into contact with the Celtic tribes of Gaul as well as Iranian, Baltic, and Slavic tribes in Eastern Europe.[10] Under Augustus, the Roman General Publius Quinctilius Varus began to invade Germania (an area extending roughly from the Rhine to the Ural Mountains). In AD 9, three Roman legions led by Varus were defeated by the Cheruscan leader Arminius. By AD 100, when Tacitus wrote Germania, Germanic tribes had settled along the Rhine and the Danube (the Limes Germanicus), occupying most of the area of modern Germany; Austria, southern Bavaria and the western Rhineland, however, were Roman provinces.[11]
In the 3rd century a number of large West Germanic tribes emerged: Alemanni, Franks, Chatti, Saxons, Frisii, Sicambri, and Thuringii. Around 260, the Germanic peoples broke into Roman-controlled lands.[12] After the invasion of the Huns in 375, and with the decline of Rome from 395, Germanic tribes moved further south-west. Simultaneously several large tribes formed in what is now Germany and displaced the smaller Germanic tribes. Large areas (known since the Merovingian period as Austrasia) were occupied by the Franks, and Northern Germany was ruled by the Saxons and Slavs.[11]
Holy Roman Empire[link]
Main article: Holy Roman Empire
On 25 December 800, Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire, which was divided in 843.[13] The Holy Roman Empire resulted from the eastern portion of this division. Its territory stretched from the Eider River in the north to the Mediterranean coast in the south.[13] Under the reign of the Ottonian emperors (919–1024), several major duchies were consolidated, and the German king was crowned Holy Roman Emperor of these regions in 962. The Holy Roman Empire absorbed northern Italy and Burgundy under the reign of the Salian emperors (1024–1125), although the emperors lost power through the Investiture Controversy.
Under the Hohenstaufen emperors (1138–1254), the German princes increased their influence further south and east into territories inhabited by Slavs, preceding German settlement in these areas and further east (Ostsiedlung). Northern German towns grew prosperous as members of the Hanseatic League.[14] Starting with the Great Famine in 1315, then the Black Death of 1348–50, the population of Germany plummeted.[15] The edict of the Golden Bull in 1356 provided the basic constitution of the empire and codified the election of the emperor by seven prince-electors who ruled some of the most powerful principalities and archbishoprics.[16]
Martin Luther publicised The Ninety-Five Theses in 1517, challenging the Roman Catholic Church and initiating the Protestant Reformation. A separate Lutheran church became the official religion in many German states after 1530. Religious conflict led to the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), which devastated German lands.[17] The population of the German states was reduced by about 30%.[18] The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended religious warfare among the German states, but the empire was de facto divided into numerous independent principalities. From 1740 onwards, dualism between the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy and the Kingdom of Prussia dominated German history. In 1806, the Imperium was overrun and dissolved as a result of the Napoleonic Wars.[19]
German Confederation and Empire[link]
Following the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna convened in 1814 and founded the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund), a loose league of 39 sovereign states. Disagreement with restoration politics partly led to the rise of liberal movements, followed by new measures of repression by Austrian statesman Metternich. The Zollverein, a tariff union, furthered economic unity in the German states.[20] National and liberal ideals of the French Revolution gained increasing support among many, especially young, Germans. In the light of a series of revolutionary movements in Europe, which established a republic in France, intellectuals and commoners started the Revolutions of 1848 in the German states. King Frederick William IV of Prussia was offered the title of Emperor, but with a loss of power; he rejected the crown and the proposed constitution, leading to a temporary setback for the movement.[21]
Conflict between King William I of Prussia and the increasingly liberal parliament erupted over military reforms in 1862, and the king appointed Otto von Bismarck the new Minister President of Prussia. Bismarck successfully waged war on Denmark in 1864. Prussian victory in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 enabled him to create the North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund) and to exclude Austria, formerly the leading German state, from the federation's affairs. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, the German Empire was proclaimed 1871 in Versailles, uniting all scattered parts of Germany except Austria (Kleindeutschland, or "Lesser Germany"). With almost two thirds of its territory and population, Prussia was the dominating constituent of the new state; the Hohenzollern King of Prussia ruled as its concurrent Emperor, and Berlin became its capital.[21] In the Gründerzeit period following the unification of Germany, Bismarck's foreign policy as Chancellor of Germany under Emperor William I secured Germany's position as a great nation by forging alliances, isolating France by diplomatic means, and avoiding war. Under Wilhelm II, however, Germany, like other European powers, took an imperialistic course leading to friction with neighbouring countries. As a result of the Berlin Conference in 1884 Germany claimed several colonies including German East Africa, German South-West Africa, Togo, and Cameroon.[22] Most alliances in which Germany had previously been involved were not renewed, and new alliances excluded the country.[23]
The assassination of Austria's crown prince on 28 June 1914 triggered World War I. Germany, as part of the Central Powers, suffered defeat against the Allies in one of the bloodiest conflicts of all time. An estimated two million German soldiers died in World War I.[24] The German Revolution broke out in November 1918, and Emperor Wilhelm II and all German ruling princes abdicated. An armistice ended the war on 11 November, and Germany was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919. The treaty was perceived in Germany as a humiliating continuation of the war, and is often cited as an influence in the rise of Nazism.[25]
Weimar Republic and Nazi Regime[link]
Main articles: Weimar Republic and Nazi Germany
1: office formally vacant from August 1934; Hitler styled himself "Führer und Reichskanzler"[26]
At the beginning of the German Revolution in November 1918, Germany was declared a republic. However, the struggle for power continued, with radical-left communists seizing power in Bavaria. The revolution came to an end on 11 August 1919, when the democratic Weimar Constitution was signed by President Friedrich Ebert.[27] Suffering from the Great Depression of 1929, the harsh peace conditions dictated by the Treaty of Versailles, and a long succession of unstable governments, Germans increasingly lacked identification with the government. This was exacerbated by a widespread right-wing Dolchstoßlegende, or stab-in-the-back legend, which argued that Germany had lost World War I because of those who wanted to overthrow the government. The Weimar government was accused of betraying Germany by signing the Versailles Treaty. By 1932, the German Communist Party and the Nazi Party controlled the majority of parliament, fuelled by discontent with the Weimar government. After a series of unsuccessful cabinets, President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Adolf Hitler as Chancellor of Germany on 30 January 1933.[28] On 27 February 1933 the Reichstag building went up in flames, and a consequent emergency decree abrogated basic citizens' rights. An enabling act passed in parliament gave Hitler unrestricted legislative power. Only the Social Democratic Party voted against it, while Communist MPs had already been imprisoned.[29][30] Using his powers to crush any actual or potential resistance, Hitler established a centralised totalitarian state within months. Industry was revitalised with a focus on military rearmament.[31]
In 1935, Germany reacquired control of the Saar and in 1936 military control of the Rhineland, both of which had been lost in the Treaty of Versailles.[32] In 1938, Austria was annexed, and in 1939, Czechoslovakia was brought under German control. The invasion of Poland was prepared through the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact and Operation Himmler. On 1 September 1939 the German Wehrmacht launched a blitzkrieg on Poland, which was swiftly occupied by Germany and by the Soviet Red Army. The UK and France declared war on Germany, marking the beginning of World War II.[33] As the war progressed, Germany and its allies quickly gained control of most of continental Europe and North Africa, though plans to force the United Kingdom to an armistice or surrender failed. On 22 June 1941, Germany broke the Molotov–Ribbentrop pact and invaded the Soviet Union. Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor led Germany to declare war on the United States. The Battle of Stalingrad forced the German army to retreat on the Eastern front.[33] In September 1943, Germany's ally Italy surrendered, and German troops were forced to defend an additional front in Italy. D-Day opened a Western front, as Allied forces advanced towards German territory. On 8 May 1945, the German armed forces surrendered after the Red Army occupied Berlin.[34]
In what later became known as The Holocaust, the Third Reich regime had enacted policies directly subjugating many dissidents and minorities. Millions of people were murdered by the Nazis during the Holocaust, including approximately six million Jews, and a sizeable number of Romani people, Jehovah's Witnesses, Poles and other Slavs, Soviet POWs, people with mental and/or physical disabilities, homosexuals, and members of the political and religious opposition.[35] World War II was responsible for more than 40 million dead in Europe.[36] The Nuremberg trials of Nazi war criminals were held after World War II.[37] The war casualties for Germany are estimated at 5.3 million German soldiers[38] millions of German civilians;[39][40][41][42][43] and losing the war resulted in large territorial losses; the expulsion of about 15 million Germans from the eastern areas of Germany and other countries; mass rape of German women;[44] and the destruction of multiple major cities.
East and West Germany[link]
Main article: History of Germany (1945–1990)
After the surrender of Germany, the remaining German territory and Berlin were partitioned by the Allies into four military occupation zones. The western sectors, controlled by France, the United Kingdom, and the United States, were merged on 23 May 1949 to form the Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland); on 7 October 1949, the Soviet Zone became the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik, or DDR). They were informally known as "West Germany" and "East Germany". East Germany selected East Berlin as its capital, while West Germany chose Bonn as a provisional capital, to emphasise its stance that the two-state solution was an artificial and temporary status quo.[45]
West Germany, established as a federal parliamentary republic with a "social market economy", was allied with the United States, the UK and France. The country enjoyed prolonged economic growth beginning in the early 1950s (Wirtschaftswunder). West Germany joined NATO in 1955 and was a founding member of the European Economic Community in 1957. East Germany was an Eastern bloc state under political and military control by the USSR via the latter's occupation forces and the Warsaw Pact. Though East Germany claimed to be a democracy, political power was exercised solely by leading members (Politbüro) of the communist-controlled Socialist Unity Party of Germany (SED), supported by the Stasi, an immense secret service,[46] and a variety of sub-organisations controlling every aspect of society. A Soviet-style command economy was set up; the GDR later became a Comecon state.[47] While East German propaganda was based on the benefits of the GDR's social programmes and the alleged constant threat of a West German invasion, many of her citizens looked to the West for freedom and prosperity.[48] The Berlin Wall, built in 1961 to stop East Germans from escaping to West Germany, became a symbol of the Cold War.[21]
Tensions between East and West Germany were reduced in the early 1970s by Chancellor Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik. In summer 1989, Hungary decided to dismantle the Iron Curtain and open the borders, causing the emigration of thousands of East Germans to West Germany via Hungary. This had devastating effects on the GDR, where regular mass demonstrations received increasing support. The East German authorities unexpectedly eased the border restrictions, allowing East German citizens to travel to the West; originally intended to help retain East Germany as a state, the opening of the border actually led to an acceleration of the Wende reform process. This culminated in the Two Plus Four Treaty a year later on 12 September 1990, under which the four occupying powers renounced their rights under the Instrument of Surrender, and Germany regained full sovereignty. This permitted German reunification on 3 October 1990, with the accession of the five re-established states of the former GDR (new states or "neue Länder").[21]
Berlin Republic and the EU[link]
Main article: History of Germany since 1990
Based on the Berlin/Bonn Act, adopted on 10 March 1994, Berlin once again became the capital of the reunified Germany, while Bonn obtained the unique status of a Bundesstadt (federal city) retaining some federal ministries.[49] The relocation of the government was completed in 1999.[50] Since reunification, Germany has taken a more active role in the European Union and NATO. Germany sent a peacekeeping force to secure stability in the Balkans and sent a force of German troops to Afghanistan as part of a NATO effort to provide security in that country after the ousting of the Taliban.[51] These deployments were controversial since, after the war, Germany was bound by domestic law only to deploy troops for defence roles.[52] In 2005, Angela Merkel became the first female Chancellor of Germany as the leader of a grand coalition.[21]
Geography[link]
Main article: Geography of Germany
Germany is in Western and Central Europe, bordering Denmark in the north, Poland and the Czech Republic in the east, Austria and Switzerland in the south, France and Luxembourg in the south-west, and Belgium and the Netherlands in the north-west. It lies mostly between latitudes 47° and 55° N (the tip of Sylt is just north of 55°), and longitudes 5° and 16° E. The territory covers 357,021 km2 (137,847 sq mi), consisting of 349,223 km2 (134,836 sq mi) of land and 7,798 km2 (3,011 sq mi) of water. It is the seventh largest country by area in Europe and the 62nd largest in the world.[1]
Elevation ranges from the mountains of the Alps (highest point: the Zugspitze at 2,962 metres / 9,718 feet) in the south to the shores of the North Sea (Nordsee) in the north-west and the Baltic Sea (Ostsee) in the north-east. The forested uplands of central Germany and the lowlands of northern Germany (lowest point: Wilstermarsch at 3.54 metres / 11.6 feet below sea level) are traversed by such major rivers as the Rhine, Danube and Elbe. Glaciers are found in the Alpine region, but are experiencing deglaciation. Significant natural resources are iron ore, coal, potash, timber, lignite, uranium, copper, natural gas, salt, nickel, arable land and water.[1]
Climate[link]
Most of Germany has a temperate seasonal climate in which humid westerly winds predominate. The climate is moderated by the North Atlantic Drift, the northern extension of the Gulf Stream. This warmer water affects the areas bordering the North Sea; consequently in the north-west and the north the climate is oceanic. Rainfall occurs year-round, especially in the summer. Winters are mild and summers tend to be cool, though temperatures can exceed 30 °C (86 °F).[53]
The east has a more continental climate; winters can be very cold and summers very warm, and long dry periods are frequent. Central and southern Germany are transition regions which vary from moderately oceanic to continental. In addition to the maritime and continental climates that predominate over most of the country, the Alpine regions in the extreme south and, to a lesser degree, some areas of the Central German Uplands have a mountain climate, characterised by lower temperatures and greater precipitation.[53]
Biodiversity[link]
The territory of Germany can be subdivided into two ecoregions: European-Mediterranean montane mixed forests and Northeast-Atlantic shelf marine.[54] As of 2008[update] the majority of Germany is covered by either arable land (34%) or forest and woodland (30.1%); only 13.4% of the area consists of permanent pastures, 11.8% is covered by settlements and streets.[55]
Plants and animals are those generally common to middle Europe. Beeches, oaks, and other deciduous trees constitute one third of the forests; conifers are increasing as a result of reforestation. Spruce and fir trees predominate in the upper mountains, while pine and larch are found in sandy soil. There are many species of ferns, flowers, fungi, and mosses. Wild animals include deer, wild boar, mouflon, fox, badger, hare, and small numbers of beavers.[56]
The national parks in Germany include the Wadden Sea National Parks, the Jasmund National Park, the Vorpommern Lagoon Area National Park, the Müritz National Park, the Lower Oder Valley National Park, the Harz National Park, the Saxon Switzerland National Park and the Bavarian Forest National Park. More than 400 registered zoos and animal parks operate in Germany, which is believed to be the largest number in any country.[57] The Zoologische Garten Berlin is the oldest zoo in Germany and presents the most comprehensive collection of species in the world.[58]
Politics[link]
Main article: Politics of Germany
See also: Judiciary of Germany and Law enforcement in Germany
Germany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitutional document known as the Grundgesetz (Basic Law). Amendments generally require a two-thirds majority of both chambers of parliament; the fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law are valid in perpetuity.[59]
The president is the head of state and invested primarily with representative responsibilities and powers. He is elected by the Bundesversammlung (federal convention), an institution consisting of the members of the Bundestag and an equal number of state delegates. The second-highest official in the German order of precedence is the Bundestagspräsident (President of the Bundestag), who is elected by the Bundestag and responsible for overseeing the daily sessions of the body. The third-highest official and the head of government is the Chancellor, who is appointed by the Bundespräsident after being elected by the Bundestag.[21]
The chancellor, currently Angela Merkel, is the head of government and exercises executive power, similar to the role of a Prime Minister in other parliamentary democracies. Federal legislative power is vested in the parliament consisting of the Bundestag (Federal Diet) and Bundesrat (Federal Council), which together form the legislative body. The Bundestag is elected through direct elections, by proportional representation (mixed-member).[1] The members of the Bundesrat represent the governments of the sixteen federated states and are members of the state cabinets.[21]
Since 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany with all chancellors hitherto being member of either party. However, the smaller liberal Free Democratic Party (which has had members in the Bundestag since 1949) and the Alliance '90/The Greens (which has controlled seats in parliament since 1983) have also played important roles.[60]
Germany has a civil law system based on Roman law with some references to Germanic law. The Bundesverfassungsgericht (Federal Constitutional Court) is the German Supreme Court responsible for constitutional matters, with power of judicial review.[21][61] Germany's supreme court system, called Oberste Gerichtshöfe des Bundes, is specialised: for civil and criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the inquisitorial Federal Court of Justice, and for other affairs the courts are the Federal Labour Court, the Federal Social Court, the Federal Finance Court and the Federal Administrative Court. The Völkerstrafgesetzbuch regulates the consequences of crimes against humanity, genocide and war crimes, and gives German courts universal jurisdiction in some circumstances.[62] Criminal and private laws are codified on the national level in the Strafgesetzbuch and the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch respectively. The German penal system is aimed towards rehabilitation of the criminal and the protection of the general public.[63] Except for petty crimes, which are tried before a single professional judge, and serious political crimes, all charges are tried before mixed tribunals on which lay judges (Schöffen) sit side by side with professional judges.[64][65]
Constituent states[link]
Main article: States of Germany
Germany comprises sixteen states that are collectively referred to as Länder.[66] Each state has its own state constitution[67] and is largely autonomous in regard to its internal organisation. Due to differences in size and population the subdivision of these states varies, especially between city states (Stadtstaaten) and states with larger territories (Flächenländer). For regional administrative purposes five states, namely Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, North Rhine-Westphalia and Saxony, consist of a total of 22 Government Districts (Regierungsbezirke). As of 2009[update] Germany is divided into 403 districts (Kreise) on municipal level, these consist of 301 rural districts and 102 urban districts.[68]
.svg){kind=small}
.svg){kind=small}
.svg){kind=small}
|
Foreign relations[link]
Main article: Foreign relations of Germany
Germany has a network of 229 diplomatic missions abroad and maintains relations with more than 190 countries.[69] As of 2011[update] it is the largest contributor to the budget of the European Union (providing 20%)[70] and the third largest contributor to the UN (providing 8%).[71] Germany is a member of NATO, the Organisation of Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), the G8, the G20, the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). It has played a leading role in the European Union since its inception and has maintained a strong alliance with France since the end of World War II. Germany seeks to advance the creation of a more unified European political, defence, and security apparatus.[72][73]
The development policy of the Federal Republic of Germany is an independent area of German foreign policy. It is formulated by the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) and carried out by the implementing organisations. The German government sees development policy as a joint responsibility of the international community.[74] It is the world's third biggest aid donor after the United States and France.[75][76]
During the Cold War, Germany's partition by the Iron Curtain made it a symbol of East-West tensions and a political battleground in Europe. However, Willy Brandt's Ostpolitik was a key factor in the détente of the 1970s.[77] In 1999, Chancellor Gerhard Schröder's government defined a new basis for German foreign policy by taking part in the NATO decisions surrounding the Kosovo War and by sending German troops into combat for the first time since World War II.[78] The governments of Germany and the United States are close political allies.[21] The 1948 Marshall Plan and strong cultural ties have crafted a strong bond between the two countries, although Schröder's vocal opposition to the Iraq War suggested the end of Atlanticism and a relative cooling of German-American relations.[79] The two countries are also economically interdependent: 8.8% of German exports are U.S.-bound and 6.6% of German imports originate from the U.S.[80]
Military[link]
Main article: Bundeswehr
Germany's military, the Bundeswehr, is organized in Heer (Army), Marine (Navy), Luftwaffe (Air Force), Bundeswehr Joint Medical Service and Streitkräftebasis (Joint Support Service) branches. As of 2011[update], military spending was an estimated 1.3% of the country's GDP, that is low in a ranking of all countries; in absolute terms, German military expenditure is the ninth-highest in the world.[81] In peacetime, the Bundeswehr is commanded by the Minister of Defence. If Germany went to war, which according to the constitution is allowed only for defensive purposes, the Chancellor would become commander in chief of the Bundeswehr.[82]
As of March 2012[update] the Bundeswehr employs 183,000 professional soldiers and 17,000 volunteers.[83] The German government plans to reduce the number of soldiers to 170,000 professionals and up to 15,000 short-time volunteers (voluntary military service).[84] Reservists are available to the Armed Forces and participate in defence exercises and deployments abroad, a new reserve concept of their future strength and functions was announced 2011.[84] As of April 2011[update], the German military had about 6,900 troops stationed in foreign countries as part of international peacekeeping forces, including about 4,900 Bundeswehr troops in the NATO-led ISAF force in Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, 1,150 German soldiers in Kosovo, and 300 troops with UNIFIL in Lebanon.[85]
Until 2011, military service was compulsory for men at age 18, and conscripts served six-month tours of duty; conscientious objectors could instead opt for an equal length of Zivildienst (civilian service), or a six-year commitment to (voluntary) emergency services like a fire department or the Red Cross. On 1 July 2011 conscription was officially suspended and replaced with a voluntary service.[86][87] Since 2001 women may serve in all functions of service without restriction, but they are not subject to conscription. There are presently some 17,500 women on active duty and a number of female reservists.[88]
Economy[link]
Main article: Economy of Germany
Germany has a social market economy with a highly qualified labour force, a large capital stock, a low level of corruption,[90] and a high level of innovation.[91] It has the largest national economy in Europe, the fourth largest by nominal GDP in the world,[92] and the fifth largest by PPP[92] in 2009. The service sector contributes approximately 71% of the total GDP, industry 28%, and agriculture 0.9%.[1] The official average national unemployment rate in March 2012 was 7.2%.[93] However, the official average national unemployment rate also includes people with a part-time job that are looking for a full-time job.[94] The unofficial average national unemployment rate in 2011 was 5.7%.[1]
Germany is an advocate of closer European economic and political integration. Its commercial policies are increasingly determined by agreements among European Union (EU) members and by EU legislation. Germany introduced the common European currency, the euro, on 1 January 2002.[95][96] Its monetary policy is set by the European Central Bank. Two decades after German reunification, standards of living and per capita incomes remain significantly higher in the states of the former West Germany than in the former East.[97] The modernisation and integration of the eastern German economy is a long-term process scheduled to last until the year 2019, with annual transfers from west to east amounting to roughly $80 billion.[98] In January 2009 the German government approved a €50 billion economic stimulus plan to protect several sectors from a downturn and a subsequent rise in unemployment rates.[99]
Of the world's 500 largest stock-market-listed companies measured by revenue in 2010, the Fortune Global 500, 37 are headquartered in Germany. 30 Germany-based companies are included in the DAX, the German stock market index. Well-known global brands are Mercedes-Benz, BMW, SAP, Siemens, Volkswagen, Adidas, Audi, Allianz, Porsche, Bayer, Bosch, and Nivea.[100] Germany is recognised for its specialised small and medium enterprises. Around 1,000 of these companies are global market leaders in their segment and are labelled hidden champions.[101]
The list includes the largest companies by turnover in 2009. Unranked are the largest bank and the largest insurance company in 2007:
| Rank[102] | Name | Headquarters | Revenue (Mil. €) |
Profit (Mil. €) |
Employees (World) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Volkswagen AG | Wolfsburg | 108,897 | 4,120 | 329,305 |
| 2 | Daimler AG | Stuttgart | 99,399 | 3,985 | 272,382 |
| 3 | Siemens AG | Munich/Berlin | 72,488 | 3,806 | 398,200 |
| 4 | E.ON AG | Düsseldorf | 68,731 | 7,204 | 87,815 |
| 5 | Metro AG | Düsseldorf | 64,337 | 825 | 242,378 |
| 6 | Deutsche Post AG | Bonn | 63,512 | 1,389 | 475,100 |
| 7 | Deutsche Telekom AG | Bonn | 62,516 | 569 | 241,426 |
| 8 | BASF SE | Ludwigshafen | 57,951 | 4,065 | 95,175 |
| 9 | BMW AG | Munich | 56,018 | 3,126 | 107,539 |
| 10 | ThyssenKrupp AG | Essen/Duisburg | 51,723 | 2,102 | 191,350 |
Infrastructure[link]
Main articles: Transport in Germany and Energy in Germany
With its central position in Europe, Germany is a transport hub. This is reflected in its dense and modern transport networks. The motorway (Autobahn) network ranks as the third largest worldwide in length.[103] Germany has established a polycentric network of high-speed trains. The InterCityExpress or ICE network of the Deutsche Bahn serves major German cities as well as destinations in neighbouring countries with speeds up to 300 kph (186 mph).[104] The largest German airports are Frankfurt Airport and Munich Airport, both hubs of Lufthansa, while Air Berlin has hubs at Berlin Tegel and Düsseldorf. Other major airports include Berlin Schönefeld, Hamburg, Cologne/Bonn and Leipzig/Halle. Both airports in Berlin will be consolidated at a site adjacent to Berlin Schönefeld, which will become Berlin Brandenburg Airport in 2013.[105][106]
As of 2008[update], Germany was the world's sixth largest consumer of energy,[107] and 60% of its primary energy was imported.[108] Government policy promotes energy conservation and renewable energy. Energy efficiency has been improving since the early 1970s; the government aims to meet the country's electricity demands using only renewable sources by 2050.[109] In 2010, energy sources were: oil (33.7%); coal, including lignite (22.9%); natural gas (21.8%); nuclear (10.8%); hydro-electric and wind power (1.5%); and other renewable sources (7.9%).[110] In 2000, the government and the nuclear power industry agreed to phase out all nuclear power plants by 2021.[111] Germany is committed to the Kyoto protocol and several other treaties promoting biodiversity, low emission standards, recycling, and the use of renewable energy, and supports sustainable development at a global level.[112] The German government has initiated wide-ranging emission reduction activities and the country's overall emissions are falling.[113] Nevertheless the country's greenhouse gas emissions were the highest in the EU as of 2010[update].[114]
Science and technology[link]
Main articles: Science and technology in Germany and List of German inventors and discoverers
Germany's achievements in the sciences have been significant, and research and development efforts form an integral part of the economy.[115] The Nobel Prize has been awarded to 103 German laureates.[116] For most of the 20th century, German laureates had more awards than those of any other nation, especially in the sciences (physics, chemistry, and physiology or medicine).[117][118]
The work of Albert Einstein and Max Planck was crucial to the foundation of modern physics, which Werner Heisenberg and Max Born developed further.[119] They were preceded by such key physicists as Hermann von Helmholtz, Joseph von Fraunhofer and Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit, among others. Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays and was the first winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1901.[120] Otto Hahn was a pioneer in the fields of radioactivity and radiochemistry[121], while Ferdinand Cohn and Robert Koch were founders of microbiology. Numerous mathematicians were born in Germany, including Carl Friedrich Gauss, David Hilbert, Bernhard Riemann, Gottfried Leibniz, Karl Weierstrass, Hermann Weyl and Felix Klein. Research institutions in Germany include the Max Planck Society, the Helmholtz Association and the Fraunhofer Society. The Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize is granted to ten scientists and academics every year. With a maximum of €2.5 million per award it is one of highest endowed research prizes in the world.[122]
Germany has been the home of many famous inventors and engineers, such as Johannes Gutenberg, credited with the invention of movable type printing in Europe; Hans Geiger, the creator of the Geiger counter; and Konrad Zuse, who built the first fully automatic digital computer.[123] German inventors, engineers and industrialists such as Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin, Otto Lilienthal, Gottlieb Daimler, Rudolf Diesel, Hugo Junkers and Karl Benz helped shape modern automotive and air transportation technology.[124] Aerospace engineer Wernher von Braun developed the first space rocket and later on was a prominent member of NASA and developed the Saturn V Moon rocket, which paved the way for the success of the US Apollo program. Heinrich Rudolf Hertz's work in the domain of electromagnetic radiation was pivotal to the development of modern telecommunication.[125]
Germany is also one of the leading countries in developing and using green technologies. Companies specializing in green technology have an estimated turnover of 200€ billion. Especially the expertise in engineering, science and research of Germany is eminently respectable. The lead markets of Germany's green technology industry are power generation, sustainable mobility, material efficiency, energy efficiency, waste management and recycling, sustainable water management.[126]
Demographics[link]
File:Population Pyramid of Germany in 2012.png
Population pyramid of Germany in 2012 from International Futures
With its estimated population of 81.8 million in January 2010,[2] Germany is the most populous country in the European Union and ranks as the 16th most populous country in the world.[127] Its population density stands at 229.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. The overall life expectancy in Germany at birth is 79.9 years. The fertility rate of 1.4 children per mother, or 7.9 births per 1000 inhabitants in 2009, is one of the lowest in the world.[128] Since the 1970s, Germany's death rate has continuously exceeded its birth rate.[129] The Federal Statistical Office of Germany forecast that the population will shrink to between 65 and 70 million by 2060 (depending on the level of net migration).[130]
German nationals make up 91% of the population of Germany. As of 2010[update], about seven million foreign citizens were registered in Germany, and 19% of the country's residents were of foreign or partially foreign descent (including persons descending or partially descending from ethnic German repatriates), 96% of whom lived in West Germany or Berlin.[131] The United Nations Population Fund lists Germany as host to the third-highest number of international migrants worldwide, about 5% or 10 million of all 191 million migrants.[132] As a consequence of restrictions to Germany's formerly rather unrestricted laws on asylum and immigration, the number of immigrants seeking asylum or claiming German ethnicity (mostly from the former Soviet Union) has been declining steadily since 2000.[133] In 2009, 20% of the population had immigrant roots, the highest since 1945.[134] As of 2008[update], the largest national group was from Turkey (2.5 million), followed by Italy (776,000) and Poland (687,000).[135] About 3 million "Aussiedler"—ethnic Germans, mainly from Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union—have resettled in Germany since 1987.[136]
Germany has a number of large cities. The largest conurbation is the Rhine-Ruhr region (11.7 million as of 2008[update]), including Düsseldorf (the capital of North Rhine-Westphalia), Cologne, Dortmund, Essen, Duisburg, and Bochum.[137]
|
Largest cities or towns of Germany List of statistical offices in Germany 24 December 2010 |
|||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | City name | State | Pop. | Rank | City name | State | Pop. | ||
 Berlin |
1 | Berlin | Berlin | 3,471,756 | 11 | Dresden | Saxony | 523,058 |  Munich |
| 2 | Hamburg | Hamburg | 1,786,448 | 12 | Leipzig | Saxony | 522,883 | ||
| 3 | Munich | Bavaria | 1,353,186 | 13 | Hannover | Lower Saxony | 522,686 | ||
| 4 | Cologne | North Rhine-Westphalia | 1,007,119 | 14 | Nuremberg | Bavaria | 505,664 | ||
| 5 | Frankfurt | Hesse | 688,664 | 15 | Duisburg | North Rhine-Westphalia | 489,599 | ||
| 6 | Stuttgart | Baden-Württemberg | 606,588 | 16 | Bochum | North Rhine-Westphalia | 374,737 | ||
| 7 | Düsseldorf | North Rhine-Westphalia | 598,786 | 17 | Wuppertal | North Rhine-Westphalia | 349,721 | ||
| 8 | Dortmund | North Rhine-Westphalia | 580,444 | 18 | Bonn | North Rhine-Westphalia | 324,899 | ||
| 9 | Essen | North Rhine-Westphalia | 574,635 | 19 | Bielefeld | North Rhine-Westphalia | 323,270 | ||
| 10 | Bremen | Bremen (state) | 547,340 | 20 | Mannheim | Baden-Württemberg | 313,174 | ||
Religion[link]
Main article: Religion in Germany
Christianity is the largest religion in Germany, with around 51.5 million adherents (62.8%) in 2008,[138] of which 30.0% are Catholics and 29.9% are Protestants, belonging to the Evangelical Church in Germany (EKD); the remainder consists of small denominations (each less than 0.5% of the German population).[139] Protestantism is concentrated in the north and east and Roman Catholicism is concentrated in the south and west;[7] 1.6% of the country's overall population declare themselves Orthodox Christians.[138]
The second largest religion is Islam with an estimated 3.8 to 4.3 million adherents (4.6% to 5.2%),[140] followed by Buddhism with 250,000 and Judaism with around 200,000 adherents (0.3%); Hinduism has some 90,000 adherents (0.1%). All other religious communities in Germany have fewer than 50,000 adherents.[141] Of the roughly 4 million Muslims, most are Sunnis and Alevites from Turkey, but there are a small number of Shi'ites and other denominations.[140] German Muslims, a large portion of whom are of Turkish origin, lack full official state recognition of their religious community.[7] Germany has Europe's third largest Jewish population (after France and the United Kingdom).[142] Approximately 50% of the Buddhists in Germany are Asian immigrants.[143]
Germans with no stated religious adherence make up 34.1% of the population, especially in the former East Germany and major metropolitan areas.[139] German reunification in 1990 greatly increased the country’s non-religious population, a legacy of the state atheism of the previously Soviet-controlled East. Christian church membership has decreased in recent decades, particularly among Protestants.[7]
Languages[link]
Main article: Languages of Germany
German is the official and predominant spoken language in Germany.[144] It is one of 23 official languages in the European Union, and one of the three working languages of the European Commission. Recognised native minority languages in Germany are Danish, Low German, Sorbian, Romany, and Frisian; they are officially protected by the ECRML. The most used immigrant languages are Turkish, Kurdish, Polish, the Balkan languages, and Russian; 67% of German citizens claim to be able to communicate in at least one foreign language and 27% in at least two languages other than their own.[144]
Standard German is a West Germanic language and is closely related to and classified alongside English, Low German, Dutch, and the Frisian languages. To a lesser extent, it is also related to the East (extinct) and North Germanic languages. Most German vocabulary is derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family.[145] Significant minorities of words are derived from Latin and Greek, with a smaller amount from French and most recently English (known as Denglisch). German is written using the Latin alphabet. German dialects, traditional local varieties traced back to the Germanic tribes, are distinguished from varieties of standard German by their lexicon, phonology, and syntax.[146]
Education[link]
Main article: Education in Germany
Over 99% of Germans age 15 and above are estimated to be able to read and write.[1] However, a growing number of inhabitants are functionally illiterate.[147] Responsibility for educational oversight in Germany lies primarily with the individual federated states. Since the 1960s, a reform movement attempted to unify secondary education in a Gesamtschule (comprehensive school); several West German states later simplified their school system to two or three tiers. A system of apprenticeship called Duale Ausbildung ("dual education") allows pupils in vocational training to learn in a company as well as in a state-run vocational school.[148]
Optional kindergarten education is provided for all children between three and six years old, after which school attendance is compulsory for at least nine years. Primary education usually lasts for four years and public schools are not stratified at this stage.[148] In contrast, secondary education includes three traditional types of schools focused on different levels of academic ability: the Gymnasium enrols the most gifted children and prepares students for university studies; the Realschule for intermediate students lasts six years; the Hauptschule prepares pupils for vocational education.[149]
The general entrance requirement for university is Abitur, a qualification normally based on continuous assessment during the last few years at school and final examinations; however there are a number of exceptions, and precise requirements vary, depending on the state, the university and the subject. Germany's universities are recognised internationally; in the Academic Ranking of World Universities (ARWU) for 2008, six of the top 100 universities in the world are in Germany, and 18 of the top 200.[150] Nearly all German universities are public institutions, charging tuition fees of €50–500 per semester for each student.[151]
Health[link]
Main article: Health in Germany
Germany has the world's oldest universal health care system, dating back to Otto von Bismarck's Social legislation in 1883.[152] Currently the population is covered by a fairly comprehensive health insurance plan provided by statute. Certain groups of people (lifetime officials, self-employed persons, employees with high income) can opt out of the plan and switch to a private insurance contract. Previously, these groups could also choose to do without insurance, but this option was dropped in 2009.[153] According to the World Health Organization, Germany's health care system was 77% government-funded and 23% privately funded as of 2005[update].[154] In 2005, Germany spent 11% of its GDP on health care. Germany ranked 20th in the world in life expectancy with 77 years for men and 82 years for women, and it had a very low infant mortality rate (4 per 1,000 live births).[154]
As of 2010[update], the principal cause of death was cardiovascular disease, at 41%, followed by malignant tumours, at 26%.[155] As of 2008[update], about 82,000 Germans had been infected with HIV/AIDS and 26,000 had died from the disease (cumulatively, since 1982).[156] According to a 2005 survey, 27% of German adults are smokers.[156]
Culture[link]
Main article: Culture of Germany
From its roots, culture in Germany has been shaped by major intellectual and popular currents in Europe, both religious and secular. Historically Germany has been called Das Land der Dichter und Denker (the land of poets and thinkers).[157] The federated states are in charge of the cultural institutions. There are 240 subsidised theatres, hundreds of symphonic orchestras, thousands of museums and over 25,000 libraries spread in Germany. These cultural opportunities are enjoyed by many: there are over 91 million German museum visits every year; annually, 20 million go to theatres and operas; 3.6 million per year listen to the symphonic orchestras.[158] The UNESCO inscribed 33 properties in Germany on the World Heritage List.[159]
Germany has established a high level of gender equality,[160] promotes disability rights, and is legally and socially tolerant towards homosexuals. Gays and lesbians can legally adopt their partner's biological children, and civil unions have been permitted since 2001.[161] Germany has also changed its attitude towards immigrants; since the mid-1990s, the government and the majority of Germans have begun to acknowledge that controlled immigration should be allowed based on qualification standards.[162] Germany has been named the world's second most valued nation among 50 countries in 2010.[163] A global opinion poll for the BBC revealed that Germany is recognised for having the most positive influence in the world in 2011.[164]
Arts[link]
| J.S.Bach Toccata und Fuge |
L.v. Beethoven Symphonie 5 c-moll |
R. Wagner Die Walküre |
|---|---|---|
|
|
|
|
Numerous German painters have enjoyed international prestige through their work in diverse artistic styles. Hans Holbein the Younger, Matthias Grünewald, and Albrecht Dürer were important artists of the Renaissance, Caspar David Friedrich of Romanticism, and Max Ernst of Surrealism. Architectural contributions from Germany include the Carolingian and Ottonian styles, which were precursors of Romanesque. The region later became the site of Gothic, Renaissance and Baroque art. Germany was particularly important in the early modern movement, especially through the Bauhaus movement founded by Walter Gropius. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe became one of the world's most renowned architects in the second half of the 20th century. He conceived of the glass façade skyscraper.[165]
German music includes works by some of the world's most well-known classical music composers, including Ludwig van Beethoven, Johann Sebastian Bach, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Johannes Brahms, Richard Wagner and Richard Strauss. Germany is the largest music market in Europe, and third largest in the world.[166]
Literature and philosophy[link]
Main articles: German literature and German philosophy
German literature can be traced back to the Middle Ages and the works of writers such as Walther von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von Eschenbach. Well-known German authors include Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Theodor Fontane. The collections of folk tales published by the Brothers Grimm popularised German folklore on an international level. Influential authors of the 20th century include Gerhart Hauptmann, Thomas Mann, Hermann Hesse, Heinrich Böll and Günter Grass.[167] German-speaking book publishers produce some 700 million books every year, with about 80,000 titles, nearly 60,000 of them new. Germany comes third in quantity of books published, after the English-speaking book market and the People's Republic of China.[168] The Frankfurt Book Fair is the most important in the world for international deals and trading, with a tradition spanning over 500 years.[169]
German philosophy is historically significant. Gottfried Leibniz's contributions to rationalism; the establishment of classical German idealism by Immanuel Kant, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling; Arthur Schopenhauer's composition of metaphysical pessimism; the formulation of communist theory by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels; Friedrich Nietzsche's development of perspectivism; Gottlob Frege's contributions to the dawn of analytic philosophy; Martin Heidegger's works on Being; and the development of the Frankfurt school by Max Horkheimer, Theodor Adorno, Herbert Marcuse and Jürgen Habermas have been particularly influential. In the 21st century Germany has contributed to the development of contemporary analytic philosophy in continental Europe, along with France, Austria, Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries.[170]
Media[link]
German cinema dates back to the earliest years of the medium with the work of Max Skladanowsky, which was particularly influential with German expressionists such as Robert Wiene and Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau. Director Fritz Lang's Metropolis (1927) is referred to as the first modern science-fiction film. In 1930 the Austrian-American Josef von Sternberg directed The Blue Angel, the first major German sound film.[171] During the 1970s and 1980s, New German Cinema directors such as Volker Schlöndorff, Werner Herzog, Wim Wenders, and Rainer Werner Fassbinder put West German cinema on the international stage.[172] The annual European Film Awards ceremony is held every other year in Berlin, home of the European Film Academy (EFA); the Berlin Film Festival, held annually since 1951, is one of the world's foremost film festivals.[173]
More recently, films such as Good Bye, Lenin! (2003), Gegen die Wand (Head-On) (2004), Der Untergang (Downfall) (2004), and The Baader Meinhof Complex (2008) have had international success. The Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film went to the German production Die Blechtrommel (The Tin Drum) in 1979, to Nowhere in Africa in 2002, and to Das Leben der Anderen (The Lives of Others) in 2007.[174] Germany's television market is the largest in Europe, with some 34 million TV households. Around 90% of German households have cable or satellite TV, with a variety of free-to-view public and commercial channels.[175]
Cuisine[link]
Main article: German cuisine
German cuisine varies from region to region. The southern regions of Bavaria and Swabia, for instance, share a culinary culture with Switzerland and Austria. In all regions, meat is often eaten in sausage form.[176] Organic food has gained a market share of ca. 2%, and is expected to increase further.[177] Although wine is becoming more popular in many parts of Germany, the national alcoholic drink is beer. German beer consumption per person is declining, but at 121.4 litres in 2009 it is still among the highest in the world.[178] The Michelin guide has awarded nine restaurants in Germany three stars, the highest designation, while 15 more received two stars.[179] German restaurants have become the world's second-most decorated after France.[180]
Sports[link]
Main article: Sport in Germany
Twenty-seven million Germans are members of a sports club and an additional twelve million pursue sports individually.[181] Association football is the most popular sport. With more than 6.3 million official members, the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund) is the largest sports organisation of its kind worldwide.[181] The Bundesliga attracts the second highest average attendance of any professional sports league in the world.
The German national football team won the FIFA World Cup in 1954, 1974 and 1990 and the UEFA European Football Championship in 1972, 1980 and 1996. Germany hosted the FIFA World Cup in 1974 and 2006 and the UEFA European Football Championship in 1988. Among the most well-known footballers are Franz Beckenbauer, Gerd Müller, Jürgen Klinsmann, Lothar Matthäus, and Oliver Kahn. Other popular spectator sports include handball, volleyball, basketball, ice hockey, and tennis.[181]
Germany is one of the leading motor sports countries in the world. Constructors like BMW and Mercedes are prominent manufacturers in motor sport. Additionally, Porsche has won the 24 Hours of Le Mans, an annual endurance race held in France, 16 times, and Audi has won it 9 times. Formula One driver Michael Schumacher has set many motor sport records during his career, having won more Formula One World Drivers' Championships and more Formula One races than any other driver; he is one of the highest paid sportsmen in history.[182]
Historically, German sportsmen have been successful contenders in the Olympic Games, ranking third in an all-time Olympic Games medal count, combining East and West German medals. In the 2008 Summer Olympics, Germany finished fifth in the medal count,[183] while in the 2006 Winter Olympics they finished first.[184] Germany has hosted the Summer Olympic Games twice, in Berlin in 1936 and in Munich in 1972. The Winter Olympic Games took place in Germany once in 1936 in the twin towns of Garmisch and Partenkirchen.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ a b c d e f g "World Factbook". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gm.html. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ a b Key Figures on Europe. Belgium: European Union. 2011. p. 37. DOI:10.2785/623. ISBN 978-92-79-18441-3. http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-EI-11-001/EN/KS-EI-11-001-EN.PDF.
- ^ a b c d "Germany". International Monetary Fund. April 2012. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=35&pr.y=6&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=134&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=. Retrieved 18-April-2012.
- ^ "Human development index". United Nations Development Programme. 2011. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ Mangold, Max, ed. (1995) (in German). Duden, Aussprachewörterbuch (6th ed.). Dudenverlag. pp. 271, 53f. ISBN 978-3-411-20916-3.
- ^ The Latin name Sacrum Imperium (Holy Empire) is documented as far back as 1157. The Latin name Sacrum Romanum Imperium (Holy Roman Empire) was first documented in 1254. The full name "Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation" (Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation) dates back to the 15th century.
Zippelius, Reinhold (2006) [1994] (in German). Kleine deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte: vom frühen Mittelalter bis zur Gegenwart [Brief German Constitutional History: from the Early Middle Ages to the Present] (7 ed.). Munich: Beck. p. 25. ISBN 978-3-406-47638-9. - ^ a b c d "Germany". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. http://berkleycenter.georgetown.edu/resources/countries/germany. Retrieved 2011-12-15.
- ^ Schulze, Hagen (1998). Germany: A New History. Harvard University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-674-80688-3.
- ^ Lloyd, Albert L.; Lühr, Rosemarie; Springer, Otto (1998) (in German). Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Althochdeutschen, Band II. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 699–704. ISBN 3-525-20768-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=iKfYGNwwNVIC&pg=PA523. (for diutisc) Lloyd, Albert L.; Lühr, Rosemarie; Springer, Otto (1998) (in German). Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Althochdeutschen, Band II. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 685–686. ISBN 3-525-20768-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=iKfYGNwwNVIC&pg=PA516. (for diot)
- ^ Claster, Jill N. (1982). Medieval Experience: 300–1400. New York University Press. p. 35. ISBN 0-8147-1381-5.
- ^ a b Fulbrook 1991, pp. 9–13.
- ^ Bowman, Alan K.; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (2005). The crisis of empire, A.D. 193–337. The Cambridge Ancient History. 12. Cambridge University Press. p. 442. ISBN 0-521-30199-8.
- ^ a b Fulbrook 1991, p. 11.
- ^ Fulbrook 1991, pp. 13–24.
- ^ Nelson, Lynn Harry. The Great Famine (1315–1317) and the Black Death (1346–1351). University of Kansas. http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/black_death.html. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ Fulbrook 1991, p. 27.
- ^ Philpott, Daniel (January 2000). "The Religious Roots of Modern International Relations". World Politics 52 (2): 206–245.
- ^ Macfarlane, Alan (1997). The savage wars of peace: England, Japan and the Malthusian trap. Blackwell. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-631-18117-0.
- ^ Fulbrook 1991, p. 97.
- ^ Henderson, W. O. (January 1934). "The Zollverein". History 19 (73): 1–19. DOI:10.1111/j.1468-229X.1934.tb01791.x.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "Germany". U.S. Department of State. 10 November 2010. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3997.htm. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ Black, John, ed. (2005). 100 maps. Sterling Publishing. p. 202. ISBN 978-1-4027-2885-3.
- ^ Fulbrook 1991, pp. 135, 149.
- ^ Crossland, David (22 January 2008). "Last German World War I Veteran Believed to Have Died". Spiegel Online. http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,530319,00.html. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
- ^ Lee, Stephen J. (2003). Europe, 1890–1945. Routledge. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-415-25455-7.
- ^ Thamer, Hans-Ulrich (2003). "Beginn der nationalsozialistischen Herrschaft (Teil 2)" (in German). Nationalsozialismus I. Bonn: Federal Agency for Civic Education. http://www.bpb.de/geschichte/nationalsozialismus/dossier-nationalsozialismus/39548/gleichschaltung. Retrieved 5 April 2012. "President von Hindenburg died on August 2nd, 1934. The day before, the cabinet had approved a submission making Hitler his successor. The office of the president was to be dissolved and united with that of the chancellor under the name "Führer und Reichskanzler". However, this was in breach of the Enabling Act. (shortened & paraphrased)"
- ^ Fulbrook 1991, pp. 156–160.
- ^ Fulbrook 1991, pp. 155–158, 172–177.
- ^ "Das Ermächtigungsgesetz 1933" (in German). Deutsches Historisches Museum. http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/nazi/innenpolitik/ermaechtigungsgesetz/index.html. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
- ^ Stackelberg, Roderick (1999). Hitler's Germany: Origins, interpretations, legacies. Routledge. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-415-20115-5.
- ^ "Industrie und Wirtschaft" (in German). Deutsches Historisches Museum. http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/nazi/wirtschaft/index.html. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
- ^ Fulbrook 1991, pp. 188–189.
- ^ a b Fulbrook 1991, pp. 190–195.
- ^ Steinberg, Heinz Günter (1991) (in German). Die Bevölkerungsentwicklung in Deutschland im Zweiten Weltkrieg: mit einem Überblick über die Entwicklung von 1945 bis 1990. Kulturstiftung der dt. Vertriebenen. ISBN 978-3-88557-089-9.
- ^ Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. Columbia University Press. pp. 45–52. ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0.
- ^ "Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead". BBC News. 9 May 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4530565.stm. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
- ^ Overy, Richard (17 February 2011). "Nuremberg: Nazis on Trial". BBC History. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuremberg_article_01.shtml. Retrieved 25 March 2011.
- ^ Rűdiger Overmans. Deutsche militärische Verluste im Zweiten Weltkrieg. Oldenbourg 2000. ISBN 3-486-56531-1
- ^ Das Deutsche Reich und der Zweite Weltkrieg, Bd. 9/1, ISBN 3-421-06236-6. Page 460 (This study was prepared by the German Armed Forces Military History Research Office, an agency of the German government)
- ^ Peter Antill; Peter Dennis (10 October 2005). Berlin 1945: end of the Thousand Year Reich. Osprey Publishing. p. 85. ISBN 978-1-84176-915-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=vAzgsCDUky0C. Retrieved 24 June 2011.
- ^ Bonn : Kulturstiftung der Deutschen Vertriebenen, Vertreibung und Vertreibungsverbrechen, 1945–1948 : Bericht des Bundesarchivs vom 28. Mai 1974 : Archivalien und ausgewählte Erlebnisberichte / [Redaktion, Silke Spieler]. Bonn :1989 ISBN 3-88557-067-X. (This is a study of German expulsion casualties due to "war crimes" prepared by the German government Archives)
- ^ Germany reports. With an introd. by Konrad Adenauer. Germany (West). Presse- und Informationsamt. Wiesbaden, Distribution: F. Steiner, 1961] Page 32
- ^ Robert N. Proctor, Racial Hygiene: Medicine under the Nazis, Harvard 1988,
- ^ Beevor, Antony (2003) [2002]. Berlin: The downfall 1945. Penguin. pp. 31–32, 409–412. ISBN 978-0-14-028696-0.
- ^ Wise, Michael Z. (1998). Capital dilemma: Germany's search for a new architecture of democracy. Princeton Architectural Press. p. 23. ISBN 978-1-56898-134-5.
- ^ maw/dpa (11 March 2008). "New Study Finds More Stasi Spooks". Spiegel Online – english site (www.spiegel.de/international). Der Spiegel. http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/0,1518,540771,00.html. Retrieved 30 October 2011. "189,000 people were informers for the Stasi – the former Communist secret police – when East Germany collapsed in 1989 – 15,000 more than previous studies had suggested. [...] about one in 20 members of the former East German Communist party, the SED, was a secret police informant."
- ^ Colchester, Nico (1 January 2001). "D-mark day dawns". Financial Times (London). http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/504285c4-68b6-11da-bd30-0000779e2340,dwp_uuid=6f876a3c-e19f-11da-bf4c-0000779e2340.html. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ Protzman, Ferdinand (22 August 1989). "Westward Tide of East Germans Is a Popular No-Confidence Vote". www.nytimes.com (The New York Times). http://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/22/world/westward-tide-of-east-germans-is-a-popular-no-confidence-vote.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm. Retrieved 30 October 2011. "Behind the mass flight, Western experts say, is widespread and deepening disillusionment with the Honecker leadership's policies, particularly the refusal to consider the type of economic and political changes taking place elsewhere in Eastern Europe."
- ^ "Gesetz zur Umsetzung des Beschlusses des Deutschen Bundestages vom 20. Juni 1991 zur Vollendung der Einheit Deutschlands" (in German). Bundesministerium der Justiz. 26 April 1994. http://bundesrecht.juris.de/berlin_bonng/index.html. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
- ^ "Brennpunkt: Hauptstadt-Umzug" (in German). Focus (Munich). 12 April 1999. http://www.focus.de/panorama/boulevard/brennpunkt-hauptstadt-umzug_aid_175751.html. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ Dempsey, Judy (31 October 2006). "Germany is planning a Bosnia withdrawal". International Herald Tribune (Paris). http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/31/world/europe/31iht-germany.3343963.html. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
- ^ Merz, Sebastian (November 2007). "Still on the way to Afghanistan? Germany and its forces in the Hindu Kush" (PDF). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. pp. 2, 3. http://www.sipri.org/research/conflict/publications/merz. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ a b "Climate in Germany". GermanCulture. http://www.germanculture.com.ua/library/facts/bl_climate.htm. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ "Terrestrial Ecoregions". WWF. http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/ecoregion_list/. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ Strohm, Kathrin (May 2010). "Arable farming in Germany". Agri benchmark. http://www.agribenchmark.org/fileadmin/freefiles/ccc_2010/Poster_Germany.pdf. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
- ^ Bekker, Henk (2005). Adventure Guide Germany. Hunter. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-58843-503-3.
- ^ "Zoo Facts". Zoos and Aquariums of America. http://www.americanzoos.info/Zoofacts.html. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ "Der Zoologische Garten Berlin" (in German). Zoo Berlin. http://www.zoo-berlin.de/zoo/unternehmen/historie.html. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ "Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany". Deutscher Bundestag. Btg-bestellservice. October 2010. https://www.btg-bestellservice.de/pdf/80201000.pdf. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
- ^ "Christian Democratic Union/Christian Social Union". U.S. Library of Congress. http://countrystudies.us/germany/159.htm. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ "Federal Constitutional Court". Bundesverfassungsgericht. http://www.bundesverfassungsgericht.de/en/index.html. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ "Völkerstrafgesetz Teil 1 Allgemeine Regelungen" (in German). Bundesministerium der Justiz. http://bundesrecht.juris.de/vstgb/BJNR225410002.html#BJNR225410002BJNG000200000. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
- ^ "§ 2 Strafvollzugsgesetz" (in German). Bundesministerium der Justiz. http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/stvollzg/__2.html. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ Jehle, Jörg-Martin; German Federal Ministry of Justice (2009). Criminal Justice in Germany. Forum-Verlag. p. 23. ISBN 978-3-936999-51-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=-V-ng-8jOoQC&pg=PA23.
- ^ Casper, Gerhard; Zeisel, Hans (January 1972). "Lay Judges in the German Criminal Courts". Journal of Legal Studies 1 (1): 141. JSTOR 724014.
- ^ The individual denomination is either Land [state], Freistaat [free state] or Freie (und) Hansestadt [free (and) Hanseatic city].
"The Federal States". www.bundesrat.de. Bundesrat of Germany. http://www.bundesrat.de/nn_11006/EN/organisation-en/laender-en/laender-en-node.html?__nnn=true. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
"Amtliche Bezeichnung der Bundesländer [Official denomination of federated states]" (in German) (PDF; download file "Englisch"). www.auswaertiges-amt.de. Federal Foreign Office. http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/DE/Infoservice/Terminologie/Bundeslaender/Uebersicht_node.html. Retrieved 22 October 2011. - ^ "Example for state constitution: "Constitution of the Land of North Rhine-Westphalia"". Landtag (state assembly) of North Rhine-Westphalia. http://www.landtag.nrw.de/portal/WWW/GB_I/I.7/Europa/Wissenswertes/English_information/North_Rhine_Westphalia_Constitution_revised.jsp. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
- ^ "Kreisfreie Städte und Landkreise nach Fläche und Bevölkerung 31.12.2010" (in German) (XLS). Statistisches Bundesamt Deutschland. October 2011. https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/LaenderRegionen/Regionales/Gemeindeverzeichnis/Administrativ/Aktuell/04Kreise.xls;jsessionid=611904454C9287BBBD47BE5D6103CAC1.cae2?__blob=publicationFile. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ "German Missions Abroad". German Federal Foreign Office. http://www.auswaertiges-amt.de/EN/AAmt/Auslandsvertretungen/Uebersicht_node.html. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ "The EU budget 2011 in figures". European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/budget/figures/2011/2011_en.cfm. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
- ^ "United Nations regular budget for the year 2011". UN Committee on Contributions. http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=ST/ADM/SER.B/824. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
- ^ "Declaration by the Franco-German Defence and Security Council". French Embassy UK. 13 May 2004. http://www.ambafrance-uk.org/Declaration-by-the-Franco-German,4519.html. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ Freed, John C. (4 April 2008). "The leader of Europe? Answers an ocean apart". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/04/world/europe/04iht-poll.4.11666423.html. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Aims of German development policy". Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. 10 April 2008. http://www.bmz.de/en/index.html. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ "Net Official Development Assistance 2009". OECD. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/17/9/44981892.pdf. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ "Speech by Chancellor Angela Merkel to the United Nations General Assembly". Die Bundesregierung. 21 September 2010. http://www.bundesregierung.de/nn_6566/Content/EN/Reden/2010/2010-09-21-merkel-mdg-gipfel.html. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
- ^ Harrison, Hope (2004). "American détente and German ostpolitik, 1969–1972". Bulletin Supplement (German Historical Institute) 1. http://www.ghi-dc.org/files/publications/bu_supp/supp1/supp-01_005.pdf. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ "Germany's New Face Abroad". Deutsche Welle. 14 October 2005. http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1741310,00.html. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ "Ready for a Bush hug?". The Economist. 6 July 2006. http://www.economist.com/node/7141311?story_id=7141311. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ "U.S.-German Economic Relations Factsheet". U.S. Embassy in Berlin. May 2006. http://germany.usembassy.gov/germany/img/assets/9336/econ_factsheet_may2006.pdf. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ "The 15 countries with the highest military expenditure in 2011". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. September 2011. http://www.sipri.org/research/armaments/milex/resultoutput/milex_15/the-15-countries-with-the-highest-military-expenditure-in-2011-table/view. Retrieved 7 April 2012.
- ^ "Grundgesetz für die Bundesrepublik Deutschland, Artikel 65a,87,115b" (in German). Bundesministerium der Justiz. http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bundesrecht/gg/gesamt.pdf. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ "Die Stärke der Streitkräfte" (in German). Bundeswehr. 23 March 2012. http://www.bundeswehr.de/portal/a/bwde/!ut/p/c4/DcmxDYAwDATAWVgg7unYAugc8kSWI4OMIesTXXm002D8SeWQy7jRStshc-4p94L0hENCnXEGUvXXSuMKG8FwBd26TD9uIZiT/. Retrieved 20 April 2012.
- ^ a b "Ausblick: Die Bundeswehr der Zukunft" (in German). Bundeswehr. http://www.bundeswehr.de/portal/a/bwde/!ut/p/c4/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP3I5EyrpHK9pPKUVL3ikqLUzJLsosTUtJJUvbzU0vTU4pLEnJLSvHRUuYKcxDygoH5BtqMiAMTJdF8!/. Retrieved 5 June 2011.
- ^ "Einsatzzahlen – Die Stärke der deutschen Einsatzkontingente" (in German). Bundeswehr. http://www.bundeswehr.de/portal/a/bwde/einsaetze/einsatzzahlen?yw_contentURL=/C1256EF4002AED30/W264VFT2439INFODE/content.jsp. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
- ^ Connolly, Kate (22 November 2010). "Germany to abolish compulsory military service". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/nov/22/germany-abolish-compulsory-military-service. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
- ^ Pidd, Helen (16 March 2011). "Marching orders for conscription in Germany, but what will take its place?". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/mar/16/conscription-germany-army. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
- ^ "Frauen in der Bundeswehr" (in German). Bundeswehr. http://www.bundeswehr.de/portal/a/bwde/!ut/p/c4/FcwxEoUgDAXAE0l6O0_x1YZ5QMSMEp2In-urs_3STC_FXzKqHIqdRpqi9KG50BK7qxpL3Qy8VHbZbk07MqtbDDerF_WJzYdGv286DbmAJj26iLgynaUMD6qutPs!/. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
- ^ Norris, Floyd (20 February 2010). "A Shift in the Export Powerhouses". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/02/20/business/economy/20charts.html. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ "CPI 2009 table". Transparency International. http://archive.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2009/cpi_2009_table. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
- ^ "The Innovation Imperative in Manufacturing: How the United States Can Restore Its Edge". Boston Consulting Group. March 2009. http://www.bcg.com/documents/file15445.pdf. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ a b "Gross domestic product (2009)". The World Bank: World Development Indicators database. World Bank. 27 September 2010. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP.pdf. Retrieved 1 January 2011.
Field listing – GDP (official exchange rate), CIA World Factbook - ^ "The Labour Market in March 2012: Spring Recovery Leads to Decrease in Unemployment". http://www.arbeitsagentur.de/nn_426140/EN/zentraler-Content/Presse/Presse-12-011-EN-676600.html.
- ^ "Business statistics". http://www.bundesbank.de/statistik/statistik_konjunktur.en.php.
- ^ Andrews, Edmund L. (1 January 2002). "Germans Say Goodbye to the Mark, a Symbol of Strength and Unity". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/01/world/germans-say-goodbye-to-the-mark-a-symbol-of-strength-and-unity.html. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
- ^ Taylor Martin, Susan (28 December 1998). "On Jan. 1, out of many arises one Euro". St. Petersburg Times: p. National, 1.A.
- ^ Berg, S.; Winter, S.; Wassermann, A. (5 September 2005). "The Price of a Failed Reunification". Spiegel Online. http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,373639,00.html. Retrieved 28 November 2006.
- ^ Kulish, Nicholas (19 June 2009). "In East Germany, a Decline as Stark as a Wall". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/19/world/europe/19germany.html. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ "Germany agrees on 50-billion-euro stimulus plan". France 24. 6 January 2009. http://www.france24.com/en/20090106-germany-agrees-new-50-billion-euro-stimulus-plan. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ "The 100 Top Brands 2010". Interbrand. http://www.interbrand.com/en/best-global-brands/best-global-brands-2008/best-global-brands-2010.aspx. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Gavin, Mike (23 September 2010). "Germany Has 1,000 Market-Leading Companies, Manager-Magazin Says". Businessweek (New York). http://www.businessweek.com/news/2010-09-23/germany-has-1-000-market-leading-companies-manager-magazin-says.html. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ "Global 500: Countries – Germany". Forbes. 26 July 2010. http://money.cnn.com/magazines/fortune/global500/2010/countries/Germany.html. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ "Autobahn-Temporegelung" (in German) (Press release). ADAC. June 2010. http://www.presse.adac.de/standpunkte/Verkehr/Autobahn_Temporegelung.asp?active1=tcm:11-18784-4. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ "Geschäftsbericht 2006" (in German). Deutsche Bahn. Archived from the original on 2007-08-09. http://web.archive.org/web/20070809140315/http://www.db.de/site/bahn/de/unternehmen/investor__relations/finanzberichte/geschaeftsbericht/geschaeftsbericht__2006.html. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ "Airports in Germany". Air Broker Center International. http://www.aircraft-charter-world.com/airports/europe/germany.htm. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ "BER will open on 17 March 2013". Berlin Brandenburg Airport. http://preview.berlin-airport.de/en/company/about-us/news/2012/2012-05-17-BER-will-open-on-17-march-2013/index.php. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
- ^ "Overview/Data: Germany". U.S. Energy Information Administration. 30 June 2010. http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=GM. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
- ^ "Energy imports, net (% of energy use)". The World Bank Group. http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.IMP.CONS.ZS. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
- ^ Reuters Berlin (7 July 2010). "* Environment * Renewable energy Germany targets switch to 100% renewables for its electricity by 2050". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2010/jul/07/germany-renewable-energy-electricity. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
- ^ "Primärenergieverbrauch nach Energieträgern" (in German). Bundesministerium für Wirtschaft und Technologie. December 2010. http://www.bmwi.de/BMWi/Redaktion/Binaer/Energiedaten/energiegewinnung-und-energieverbrauch2-primaerenergieverbrauch.xls. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
- ^ "Germany split over green energy". BBC News. 25 February 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4295389.stm. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ "Deutschland erfüllte 2008 seine Klimaschutzverpflichtung nach dem Kyoto-Protokoll" (in German) (Press release). Umweltbundesamt. 1 February 2010. http://www.kst.portalu.de/dokumente/Aktuelles/Inventar-Bericht_Treibhausgas_2008.pdf. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ "Germany greenest country in the world". The Times of India (New Delhi). 21 June 2008. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2008-06-21/pollution/27752791_1_energy-security-global-energy-germany. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
- ^ "Record High 2010 Global Carbon Dioxide Emissions from Fossil-Fuel Combustion and Cement Manufacture Posted on CDIAC Site". Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center. http://cdiac.ornl.gov/trends/emis/prelim_2009_2010_estimates.html. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
- ^ "Federal Report on Research and Innovation 2010" (PDF). Federal Ministry of Education and Research. June 2010. http://www.bmbf.de/pub/bufi_2010_en.pdf. Retrieved 15 May 2012.
- ^ "Nobel Prize". Nobelprize.org. http://nobelprize.org/. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ "Swedish academy awards". ScienceNews. http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/63944/title/Swedish_academy_awards. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
- ^ National Science Nobel Prize shares 1901–2009 by citizenship at the time of the award and by country of birth. From Schmidhuber, J. (2010). "Evolution of National Nobel Prize Shares in the 20th century". http://www.idsia.ch/~juergen/nobelshare.html. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Roberts, J. M. (2002). The New Penguin History of the World. Allen Lane. p. 1014. ISBN 978-0-7139-9611-1.
- ^ "The First Nobel Prize". Deutsche Welle. 8 September 2010. http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,5984670,00.html. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ "Otto Hahn". FamousScientists.org. http://www.famousscientists.org/otto-hahn. Retrieved 2011-12-15.
- ^ "Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz Prize". DFG. Archived from the original on 2008-06-21. http://web.archive.org/web/20080621091621/http://www.dfg.de/en/research_funding/scientific_prizes/gw_leibniz_prize.html. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Bianchi, Luigi. "The Great Electromechanical Computers". York University. http://www.yorku.ca/lbianchi/sts3700b/lecture17a.html. Retrieved 17 April 2011.
- ^ "The Zeppelin". U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission. http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Lighter_than_air/zeppelin/LTA8.htm. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ "Historical figures in telecommunications". International Telecommunication Union. 14 January 2004. http://www.itu.int/aboutitu/HistoricalFigures.html. Retrieved 27 March 2011.
- ^ Roland Berger Strategy Consultants: Green Growth, Green Profit – How Green Transformation Boosts Business Palgrave Macmillan, New York 2010, ISBN 978-0-230-28543-9
- ^ "Country Comparison :: Population". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2119rank.html?countryName=Lebanon&countryCode=le®ionCode=me&rank=126. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
- ^ Destatis. "Durchschnittliche Kinderzahl 2008 in den neuen Ländern angestiegen" (in German). Archived from the original on 29 December 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20101229095132/http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Presse/pm/2010/01/PD10__034__12641,templateId=renderPrint.psml. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Demographic Transition Model". Barcelona Field Studies Centre. 27 September 2009. http://geographyfieldwork.com/DemographicTransition.htm. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Im Jahr 2060 wird jeder Siebente 80 Jahre oder älter sein" (in German) (Press release). Destatis. 18 November 2009. https://www.destatis.de/DE/PresseService/Presse/Pressemitteilungen/2009/11/PD09_435_12411.html;jsessionid=7247D871DEB96E4AE313EE55A45CEFC1.cae1. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
Details on the methodology, detailed tables, etc. are provided at "Bevölkerungsentwicklung in Deutschland bis 2060" (in German). Statistisches Bundesamt. 18 November 2009. Archived from the original on 29 December 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20101229190016/http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Presse/abisz/Bevoelkerungsvorausberechnung,templateId=renderPrint.psml. Retrieved 15 February 2011. - ^ (in German) (PDF) Bevölkerung und Erwerbstätigkeit:Bevölkerung mit Migrationshintergrund – Ergebnisse des Mikrozensus 2010 [Population and employment: Population with migrant background – Results of the 2010 microcensus]. Fachserie 1 Reihe 2.2. Statistisches Bundesamt. 14 July 2010. pp. 6–8. Artikelnummer: 2010220107004. https://www.destatis.de/DE/Publikationen/Thematisch/Bevoelkerung/MigrationIntegration/Migrationshintergrund2010220107004.pdf?__blob=publicationFile. Retrieved 7 March 2012.
The Federal Statistical Office defines persons with a migrant background as all persons who migrated to the present area of the Federal Republic of Germany after 1949, plus all foreign nationals born in Germany and all persons born in Germany as German nationals with at least one parent who migrated to Germany or was born in Germany as a foreign national. - ^ "International Migration 2006". UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs. http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/2006Migration_Chart/Migration2006.pdf. Retrieved 18 March 2011.
- ^ "Germany". Focus-Migration. http://www.focus-migration.de/Germany.1509.0.html?&L=1. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "20% of Germans have immigrant roots". Burlington Free Press: p. 4A. 15 July 2010.
- ^ "Bevölkerung nach Migrationshintergrund" (in German). German Federal Statistical Office. Archived from the original on 29 December 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20101229095012/http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/DE/Content/Statistiken/Bevoelkerung/MigrationIntegration/Migrationshintergrund/Tabellen/Content100/MigrationshintergrundStaatsangehoerigkeit,templateId=renderPrint.psml. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Fewer Ethnic Germans Immigrating to Ancestral Homeland". Migration Information Source. February 2004. http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?ID=201. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Regionales Monitoring 2010 - Daten und Karten zu den Europäischen Metropolregionen in Deutschland" (in German). Bundesamt für Bauwesen und Raumordnung. 2010. p. 10. http://www.deutsche-metropolregionen.org/fileadmin/ikm/01_monitoring/IKM_Monitoring2010.pdf. Retrieved 11 April 2012.
- ^ a b "EKD-Statistik: Christen in Deutschland 2007" (in German). Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland. http://www.ekd.de/statistik/mitglieder.html. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ a b "Konfessionen in Deutschland" (in German). Fowid. 9 September 2009. http://fowid.de/fileadmin/datenarchiv/Religionszugehoerigkeit_Bevoelkerung__1950-2008.pdf. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ a b "Chapter 2: Wie viele Muslime leben in Deutschland?" (in German) (PDF). Muslimisches Leben in Deutschland. Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge. June 2009. pp. 80, 97. ISBN 978-3-9812115-1-1. http://www.bmi.bund.de/cae/servlet/contentblob/566008/publicationFile/31710/vollversion_studie_muslim_leben_deutschland_.pdf;jsessionid=6B8CD26E2AC179111AF4F75650B84B1A. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Religionen in Deutschland: Mitgliederzahlen" (in German). Religionswissenschaftlicher Medien- und Informationsdienst. 31 October 2009. http://www.remid.de/remid_info_zahlen.htm. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ Blake, Mariah (10 November 2006). "In Nazi cradle, Germany marks Jewish renaissance". Christian Science Monitor. http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/1110/p25s02-woeu.html. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ Schnabel, U. (15 March 2007). "Buddhismus Eine Religion ohne Gott" (in German). Die Zeit (Hamburg). http://www.zeit.de/2007/12/Buddhismus. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ a b European Commission (2006). "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Survey)". Europa (web portal). http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
European Commission (2006). "Special Eurobarometer 243: Europeans and their Languages (Executive Summary)". Europa (web portal). http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_sum_en.pdf. Retrieved 28 March 2011. - ^ European Commission (2004). "Many tongues, one family. Languages in the European Union". Europa (web portal). http://ec.europa.eu/publications/booklets/move/45/en.pdf. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Sprechen Sie Deutsch?". The Economist. 18 March 2010. http://www.economist.com/node/15731354. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ Grotlüschen, Anke; Riekmann, Wibke (2011). "leo.- Level One Survey. Presseheft" (in German). University of Hamburg. http://www.vhs-sachsen.de/uploads/media/Executive_Summary_leo_v8_Journalismusfassung.pdf. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- ^ a b "Country profile: Germany". Library of Congress. April 2008. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Germany.pdf. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "The Educational System in Germany". Cuesta College. 31 August 2002. http://academic.cuesta.edu/intlang/german/education.html. Retrieved 16 May 2011.
- ^ "Top 100 World Universities". Academic Ranking of World Universities. Archived from the original on 2008-08-22. http://web.archive.org/web/20080822124509/http://www.arwu.org/rank2008/ARWU2008_A(EN).htm. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Tuition Fees at university in Germany". StudyinEurope.eu. 2009. http://www.studyineurope.eu/study-in-germany/admission/tuition-fees. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ Health Care Systems in Transition: Germany. European Observatory on Health Care Systems. 2000. p. 8. AMS 5012667 (DEU). http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0010/80776/E68952.pdf. Retrieved 15 April 2011.
- ^ "Die Gesundheitsreform 2007: Was hat sich geändert?". Krankenkassen.de. http://www.krankenkassen.de/gesetzliche-krankenkassen/gesundheitsreform/Gesundheitsreform-zentrale-Punkte-Fragen/. Retrieved 16 April 2012.
- ^ a b "Core Health Indicators". World Health Organization. http://apps.who.int/whosis/database/core/core_select.cfm. Retrieved 6 June 2011.
- ^ "2010: Herz-/Kreislauferkrankungen verursachen 41 % aller Todesfälle" (in German). Destatis.de. https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesellschaftStaat/Gesundheit/Todesursachen/Aktuell.html;jsessionid=B6BD78C7EDB6FE6693DE58EA7B23D148.cae1. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ a b "Country Profile Germany" (PDF). Library of Congress Federal Research Division. April 2008. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Germany.pdf. Retrieved 7 May 2011.
This article may incorporate text from this source, which is in the public domain. - ^ Wasser, Jeremy (6 April 2006). "Spätzle Westerns". Spiegel Online International. http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,410135,00.html. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Unbelievable Multitude". Deutsche Welle. http://www.dw-world.de/dw/0,,8009,00.html. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "World Heritage Sites in Germany". UNESCO. http://www.worldheritagesite.org/countries/germany.html. Retrieved 3 October 2010.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2010 Table 4 Gender Inequality Index". United Nations Development Programme. pp. 156–160. http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Tables_reprint.pdf. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
- ^ "Germany extends gay rights". News24. 29 October 2004. http://www.news24.com/World/News/Germany-extends-gay-rights-20041029. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ Heckmann, Friedrich (2003). The Integration of Immigrants in European Societies: national differences and trends of convergence. Lucius & Lucius. pp. 51 ff. ISBN 978-3-8282-0181-1.
- ^ "2010 Anholt-GfK Roper Nation Brands Index" (Press release). GfK. 12 October 2010. http://www.gfk.com/group/press_information/press_releases/006688/index.en.html. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Views of US Continue to Improve in 2011 BBC Country Rating Poll". Worldpublicopinion.org. 7 March 2011. http://www.worldpublicopinion.org/pipa/articles/views_on_countriesregions_bt/680.php?nid=&id=&pnt=680&lb=#ger. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ A Dictionary of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. Oxford University Press. 2006. p. 880. ISBN 0-19-860678-8.
- ^ (2011-04-13). "Bundesverband Musikindustrie: Deutschland drittgrößter Musikmarkt weltweit". Musikindustrie.de. http://www.musikindustrie.de/politik_einzelansicht0/back/110/news/jahrespressekonferenz-des-bvmi/. Retrieved 2012-02-28.
- ^ Espmark, Kjell (3 December 1999). "The Nobel Prize in Literature". Nobelprize.org. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/articles/espmark/index.html. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Land of ideas". Land-der-ideen.matrix.de. http://land-der-ideen.matrix.de/CDA/facts_printing,4563,0,,en.html. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ Weidhaas, Peter; Gossage, Carolyn; Wright, Wendy A. (2007). A History of the Frankfurt Book Fair. Dundurn Press Ltd.. pp. 11 ff. ISBN 978-1-55002-744-0.
- ^ Searle, John (1987). "Introduction". The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy. Wiley-Blackwell.
- ^ Bordwell, David; Thompson, Kristin (2003) [1994]. "The Introduction of Sound". Film History: An Introduction (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 204. ISBN 978-0-07-115141-2.
- ^ "Rainer Werner Fassbinder". Fassbinder Foundation. http://www.fassbinderfoundation.de/node.php/en/home. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "2006 FIAPF accredited Festivals Directory". International Federation of Film Producers Associations. http://www.fiapf.org/pdf/2006accreditedFestivalsDirectory.pdf. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Awards:Das Leben der Anderen". IMDb. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0405094/awards. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Country profile: Germany". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1047864.stm. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ "Guide to German Hams and Sausages". German Foods North America. http://www.germanfoods.org/consumer/facts/guidetoham.cfm. Retrieved 17 May 2012.
- ^ "Germany Country Profiles for Organic Agriculture". Food and Agriculture Organization. http://www.fao.org/organicag/display/work/display_2.asp?country=DEU&lang=en&disp=summaries. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
- ^ Schneibel, Gerhard (23 April 2010). "Brewers not worried by beer consumption drop". Deutsche Welle (Bonn). http://www.dw.de/dw/article/0,,5489225,00.html. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ "Schnitzel Outcooks Spaghetti in Michelin Guide". Deutsche Welle (Bonn). 15 November 2007. http://www.dw.de/dw/article/0,,2914502_page_0,00.html. Retrieved 6 April 2012.
- ^ "German cuisine beats Italy, Spain in gourmet stars". Reuters. 28 March 2011. http://in.reuters.com/article/2007/11/14/us-germany-food-idINL1447732320071114. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ a b c "Germany Info: Culture & Life: Sports". Germany Embassy in Washington, D.C. http://www.germany.info/relaunch/culture/life/sports.html. Retrieved 28 March 2011.
- ^ Ornstein, David (23 October 2006). "What we will miss about Michael Schumacher". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/sport/2006/oct/23/formulaone.sport. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ "Beijing 2008 Medal Table". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/medallists-results?athletename=&category=343488&games=1333952&sport=&event=&mengender=false&womengender=false&mixedgender=false&teamclassification=false&individualclassification=false&continent=&country=&goldmedal=true&silvermedal=true&bronzemedal=true&worldrecord=false&olympicrecord=false&targetresults=true. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- ^ "Turin 2006 Medal Table". International Olympic Committee. http://www.olympic.org/medallists-results?athletename=&category=343486&games=1334152&sport=&event=&mengender=false&womengender=false&mixedgender=false&teamclassification=false&individualclassification=false&continent=&country=&goldmedal=true&silvermedal=true&bronzemedal=true&worldrecord=false&olympicrecord=false&targetresults=true&sortorder=medal&sortorder=country. Retrieved 19 March 2011.
- Work cited
Fulbrook, Mary (1991). A Concise History of Germany. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-36836-0.
External links[link]
Listen to this article (2 parts) · (info)
This audio file was created from a revision of the "Germany" article dated 2008-06-24, and does not reflect subsequent edits to the article. (Audio help)
| Find more about Germany on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
|
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
|
Images and media from Commons |
|
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
|
News stories from Wikinews |
|
Quotations from Wikiquote |
|
Source texts from Wikisource |
|
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- deutschland.de – Official Germany portal (non-profit)
- Wikimedia Atlas of Germany
- Deutsche Welle – Germany's international broadcaster
- Germany at UCB Libraries GovPubs
- Germany at the Open Directory Project
- Facts about Germany – by the German Federal Foreign Office
- Destatis.de – Federal Statistical Office Germany
Geographic data related to Germany at OpenStreetMap- Key Development Forecasts for Germany from International Futures
- Government
- Official site of the Government
- Official site of the Federal Presidents
- Official site of German Chancellor
- Tourism
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
.svg)
http://wn.com/Germany
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Deutschland
http://es.wn.com/Alemania
http://ru.wn.com/Германия
http://cs.wn.com/Německo
http://pt.wn.com/Alemanha
http://pl.wn.com/Niemcy
http://hi.wn.com/जर्मनी
http://it.wn.com/Germania
http://id.wn.com/Jerman
http://nl.wn.com/Duitsland
http://fr.wn.com/Allemagne
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other people named Stephen Fry, see Stephen Fry (disambiguation).
| Stephen Fry | |
|---|---|
 Fry in Happy Birthday to GNU (2008) |
|
| Born | Stephen John Fry (1957-08-24) 24 August 1957 (age 54) Hampstead, London, England |
| Nationality | British |
| Alma mater | Queens' College, Cambridge |
| Occupation | Actor, comedian, author, journalist, broadcaster, film director |
| Years active | 1981–present |
| Influenced by | Oscar Wilde, P. G. Wodehouse, Evelyn Waugh, Hugh Laurie, Emma Thompson, Douglas Adams, Rowan Atkinson, Christopher Hitchens |
| Title |
President of Mind (2011–present)[1] |
| Religion | None (atheist) |
| Partner | Daniel Cohen (1995–2010) |
| Parents | Alan John Fry Marianne Eve Fry (née Newman) |
| Signature |  |
| Website | |
| www.stephenfry.com | |
Stephen John Fry (born 24 August 1957) is an English[4][5] actor, screenwriter, author, playwright, journalist, poet, comedian, television presenter, film director, and a director of Norwich City Football Club.[6]
After a troubled childhood and adolescence, during which he was expelled from a number of schools and eventually spent three months in prison for credit card fraud, he was able to secure a place at Queens' College, Cambridge, where he studied English Literature.
He first came to public attention in the 1981 Cambridge Footlights Revue presentation "The Cellar Tapes", which also included Hugh Laurie, Emma Thompson and Tony Slattery. With Hugh Laurie, as the comedy double act Fry and Laurie, he co-wrote and co-starred in A Bit of Fry & Laurie, and took the role of Jeeves (with Laurie playing Wooster) in Jeeves and Wooster.
As an actor, Fry played the lead in the film Wilde, was Melchett in the BBC television series Blackadder, starred as the title character Peter Kingdom in the ITV series Kingdom, has a recurring guest role as Dr. Gordon Wyatt on the Fox crime series Bones and appeared as rogue TV host Gordon Deitrich in the dystopian thriller V For Vendetta. He has also written and presented several documentary series including the 2008 television series Stephen Fry in America, which saw him travelling across all 50 US states. Since 2003 he has been the host of the quiz show QI.
As well as his work in television, Fry has contributed columns and articles for newspapers and magazines, and has written four novels and two volumes of autobiography, Moab Is My Washpot and The Fry Chronicles. He also appears frequently on BBC Radio 4, starring in the comedy series Absolute Power, being a frequent guest on panel games such as Just a Minute, and acting as chairman for I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue, where he was one of a trio of hosts who succeeded the late Humphrey Lyttelton. Fry is also known in the UK for his audiobook recordings, particularly as reader for all seven Harry Potter novels.
Contents |
Early life[link]
Fry was born in Hampstead, London, on 24 August 1957, the son of Marianne Eve Fry (née Newman) and Alan John Fry, who was an English physicist and inventor.[7][8] His maternal grandparents, Martin and Rosa Neumann,[8] were Hungarian Jewish immigrants from Šurany, which is now in Slovakia.[8][9][10] His mother's aunt and cousins died in Auschwitz.[8] Fry grew up in the village of Booton near Reepham, Norfolk, having moved from Chesham, Buckinghamshire at an early age.[11]
Fry briefly attended Cawston Primary School, Cawston, Norfolk[12] before going on to Stouts Hill Preparatory School at the age of seven, and then to Uppingham School, Rutland, where he joined Fircroft house and was described as a "near-asthmatic genius".[13] He was expelled from Uppingham when he was 15, and subsequently from the Paston School.
At 17, after leaving Norfolk College of Arts and Technology, Fry absconded with a credit card stolen from a family friend, was arrested in Swindon, and as a result spent three months in Pucklechurch Prison on remand.[14]
Following his release he resumed his education at City College Norwich, promising administrators that he would study rigorously to sit the Cambridge entrance exams. He scored well enough to gain a scholarship to Queens' College, Cambridge. At Cambridge, Fry joined the Cambridge Footlights, appeared on University Challenge, and gained a degree in English literature.[15] It was at the Footlights that Fry met his future comedy collaborator Hugh Laurie.
Career[link]
Further information: Works of Stephen Fry
Television[link]
Comedy[link]
Fry's career in television began with the 1982 broadcasting of The Cellar Tapes, the 1981 Cambridge Footlights Revue which was written by Fry, Hugh Laurie, Emma Thompson and Tony Slattery. The revue caught the attention of Granada Television, who, keen to replicate the success of the BBC's Not the Nine O'Clock News, hired Fry, Laurie and Thompson to star alongside Ben Elton in There's Nothing to Worry About!. A second series, re-titled Alfresco, was broadcast in 1983 and a third in 1984; it established Fry and Laurie's reputation as a comedy double act. In 1983, the BBC offered them their own show, which became The Crystal Cube, a mixture of science fiction and mockumentary that was axed after the first episode. Undeterred, Fry and Laurie appeared in an episode of The Young Ones in 1984, and Fry in Ben Elton's 1985 series, Happy Families. In 1986 and 1987 Fry and Laurie also performed sketches on the LWT/Channel 4 show Saturday Live.
Forgiving Fry and Laurie for The Crystal Cube, the BBC commissioned a sketch show in 1986 that was to become A Bit of Fry & Laurie. The programme ran for 26 episodes spanning four series between 1986 and 1995, and was very successful. During this time Fry starred in Blackadder II as Lord Melchett, made a guest appearance in Blackadder the Third as the Duke of Wellington, then returned to a starring role in Blackadder Goes Forth as General Melchett. In the 1988 television special Blackadder's Christmas Carol he played the roles of Lord Melchett and Lord Frondo.
Between 1990 and 1993, Fry starred as Jeeves (alongside Hugh Laurie's Bertie Wooster) in Jeeves and Wooster, 23 hour-long adaptations of P.G. Wodehouse's novels and short stories.
Towards the end of 2003, Fry starred alongside John Bird in the television adaptation of Absolute Power, previously a radio series on BBC Radio 4.
In 2010 Fry took part in a Christmas series of Short Films called 'Little Crackers'. Fry's short is based on a story from his childhood at school.[16] He appeared as the Christian God in 2011's Holy Flying Circus.
Drama[link]
Fry has appeared in a number of BBC adaptations of plays and books, including a 1992 adaptation of the Simon Gray play The Common Pursuit (Fry had previously appeared in the West End stage production); a 1998 Malcolm Bradbury adaptation of the Mark Tavener novel, In the Red, with Fry taking the part of the Controller of BBC Radio 2; and in 2000 Fry took the role of Professor Bellgrove in the BBC serial Gormenghast which were adapted from the first two novels of Mervyn Peake's Gormenghast series. In 2011, Fry portrayed Professor Mildeye in the BBC adaption of Mary Norton's 1952 novel The Borrowers.
Fry narrates the English language version of the Spanish children's animated series Pocoyo.[17]
From 2007 to 2009, Fry played the lead role in (and was executive producer for) the legal drama Kingdom, which ran for three series on ITV1.[18] He has also taken up a recurring guest role as psychiatrist Dr. Gordon Wyatt in the popular American drama Bones.
In 2010, having learned some Irish for the role,[19] he filmed a cameo role in Ros na Rún, an Irish language soap opera broadcast in Ireland, Scotland and the United States.[20][21][22]
Documentaries and other factual programmes[link]
Fry made his first foray into documentary-making with the Emmy Award-winning The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive in 2006; also in 2006, he appeared in the genealogy series Who Do You Think You Are?, tracing his maternal family tree to investigate his Jewish ancestry.[23] Fry narrated The Story of Light Entertainment, which was shown from July–September 2006.[24][25] In 2007 he presented a documentary on the subject of HIV and AIDS, HIV and Me.[26]
On 7 May 2008, Fry gave a speech as part of a series of BBC lectures on the future of public service broadcasting in the United Kingdom,[27] which he later recorded for a podcast.[28]
His six-part travel series Stephen Fry in America began on BBC One in October 2008 and saw him travel to each of the 50 US states;[29] in the same year he narrated the nature documentaries Spectacled Bears: Shadow of the Forest for the BBC Natural World series.[30]
In the 2009 television series Last Chance to See, Fry and zoologist Mark Carwardine sought out endangered species, some of which had been featured in Douglas Adams' and Carwardine's 1990 book and radio series of the same name[31] Also in 2009, Fry briefly hosted CBBC series Horrible Histories, an educational TV show for school children.
In August 2011 Stephen Fry's 100 Greatest Gadgets was shown on Channel 4 as one of the 100 Greatest strand.[32] His choice for the greatest gadget was the cigarette lighter which he described as "fire with a flick of the fingers".[32]
In September 2011 Fry's Planet Word, a five-part documentary about language, aired on BBC HD and BBC Two.[33][34]
[edit] QI
In 2003, Fry began hosting QI (Quite Interesting), a British comedy panel game television quiz show. QI was created and co-produced by John Lloyd, and features permanent panellist Alan Davies. QI has the highest viewing figures for any show on BBC Four and UKTV G2 (now Dave).[35][36] In 2006, Fry won the Rose d'Or award for "Best Game Show Host" for his work on the series.[37]
Film[link]
Having made his film debut in the 1985 film The Good Father, Fry had a brief appearance in A Fish Called Wanda (in which he is knocked out by Kevin Kline, who is posing as an airport security man) and then appeared in the lead role for Kenneth Branagh's Peter's Friends in 1992. In the 1994 romantic comedy film I.Q., he played the role of James Moreland.[38] Portraying Oscar Wilde (of whom he had been a fan since the age of 13) in the 1997 film Wilde, he fulfilled to critical acclaim a role that he has said he was "born to play". It also earned him a nomination for Best Actor – Drama in the 1998 Golden Globe Award. A year later, Fry starred in David Yates' small independent film The Tichborne Claimant, and in 2001 he played the detective in Robert Altman's period costume drama, Gosford Park. In the same year he also appeared in the Dutch film The Discovery of Heaven, directed by Jeroen Krabbé and based on the novel by Harry Mulisch.
In 2003, Fry made his directorial debut with Bright Young Things, adapted by himself from Evelyn Waugh's Vile Bodies. In 2001, he began hosting the BAFTA Film Awards, a role from which he stepped down in 2006.[39] Later that same year, he wrote the English libretto and dialogue for Kenneth Branagh's film adaptation of The Magic Flute.
Fry continues to make regular film appearances, notably in treatments of literary cult classics. He portrayed Maurice Woodruff in The Life and Death of Peter Sellers, served as narrator in the 2005 film version of The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy, and in 2005 he appeared in both A Cock and Bull Story, based on Tristram Shandy, and as a non-conforming TV Presenter who challenges the fascist state in V for Vendetta.[40][41] In 2006, he played the role of gadget-master Smithers in Stormbreaker, and in 2007 he appeared as himself hosting a quiz in St Trinian's. In 2007, Fry wrote a script for a remake of The Dam Busters for director Peter Jackson.[42]
Fry was offered a role in Valkyrie but was unable to participate.[43] Fry starred in the Tim Burton version of Alice in Wonderland, as the voice of The Cheshire Cat.[44] He played Mycroft Holmes in the sequel to Sherlock Holmes directed by Guy Ritchie.[45] In 2010, Fry provided the voice of Socrates the Lion in the environmental animated film Animals United. He will portray the Master of Lake-town in the 2012 film adaptation of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Hobbit.[46]
Feature filmography[link]
- 1985: The Good Father – Creighton
- 1988: A Fish Called Wanda – Hutchison
- 1992: Peter's Friends – Peter
- 1994: I.Q. – James Moreland
- 1997: Wilde – Oscar Wilde
- 1998: The Tichborne Claimant – Hawkins
- 1999: Whatever Happened to Harold Smith? – Dr.Peter Robinson
- 2001: Gosford Park – Inspector Thompson
- 2001: The Discovery of Heaven – Onno
- 2002: Thunderpants – Sir Antony Silk (Judge)
- 2003: Bright Young Things – Director
- 2004: The Life and Death of Peter Sellers – Maurice Woodruff
- 2005: V for Vendetta – Deitrich
- 2005: The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy – The Narrator (Voice)
- 2006: The Magic Flute – Writer
- 2006: Stormbreaker – Smithers
- 2007: St. Trinian's – Himself
- 2007: Eichmann – Minister Tormer
- 2009: House of Boys – Dr Marsh
- 2010: Alice in Wonderland – Cheshire Cat (Voice)
- 2010: Animals United – Socrates the Lion (Voice)
- 2011: Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows – Mycroft Holmes
- 2012: The Hobbit: There and Back Again – Master of Lake-town
Radio[link]
Fry came to the attention of radio listeners with the 1986 creation of his alter-ego, Donald Trefusis, whose "wireless essays" were broadcast on the BBC Radio 4 programme Loose Ends. In the 1980s he starred as David Lander in four series of the BBC Radio 4 show Delve Special, written by Tony Sarchet, which became the six part Channel 4 series This is David Lander in 1988. In 1988, Fry wrote and presented a six-part comedy series entitled Saturday Night Fry; frequent radio appearances have ensued (notably on panel games Just a Minute and I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue). In 2000, he began starring as Charles Prentiss in the Radio 4 comedy Absolute Power, reprising the role for three further series on radio and two on television. In 2002, Fry voiced Winnie-the-Pooh and was one of the narrators of A.A. Milne's Winnie-the-Pooh and The House at Pooh Corner. He presented a 20-part, two-hour series, The Incomplete and Utter History of Classical Music, a "witty guide" to the genre over the past 1,000 years, on Classic FM.
In 2007, he hosted Current Puns, an exploration of wordplay, and Radio 4: This Is Your Life, to celebrate the radio station's 40th anniversary. He also interviewed Tony Blair as part of a series of podcasts released by 10 Downing Street.[47]
In February 2008, Fry began presenting podcasts entitled Stephen Fry's Podgrams, in which he recounts his life and recent experiences.[28] In July 2008, he appeared as himself in I Love Stephen Fry, an Afternoon Play for Radio 4 written by former Fry and Laurie script editor Jon Canter.[48]
Since August 2008 he has presented Fry's English Delight, a series on BBC Radio 4 about the English language.[49] As of 2011, it has been running for four series and 15 episodes.
In the summer 2009 series of I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue, Fry was one of a trio of hosts replacing Humphrey Lyttelton (the others being Jack Dee and Rob Brydon).[50]
In 2012 he appeared as a guest panellist in the BBC Radio 4 comedy panel show Wordaholics.[51]
Theatre[link]
Fry wrote the play Latin! or Tobacco and Boys for the 1980 Edinburgh Festival, where it won the Fringe First prize.[52] It had a revival in 2009 at London's Cock Tavern Theatre, directed by Adam Spreadbury-Maher.[53] The Cellar Tapes, the Footlights Revue of 1981, won the Perrier Comedy Award. In 1984, Fry adapted the hugely successful 1930s musical Me and My Girl for the West End, where it ran for eight years. He was also cast in a lead role in Simon Gray's 1995 play, Cell Mates, which he left three days into the West End run, pleading stage fright. He later recalled the incident as a hypomanic episode in his documentary about bipolar disorder, The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive. In 2007, Fry wrote a Christmas pantomime, Cinderella, which ran at London's Old Vic Theatre.[54]
Fry is a long-standing fan of the anarchic 1960s British musical comedy group, the Bonzo Dog Band and, particularly, of its eccentric front man, the late Vivian Stanshall. Fry helped to fund an ill-fated 1988 London re-staging of Stanshall's acclaimed Stinkfoot, a Comic Opera, written by Vivian and Ki Longfellow-Stanshall for the Bristol-based Old Profanity Showboat. Fry performed several of Stanshall's numbers as part of the Bonzos' 2006 reunion concert at the London Astoria. He also appears as a shiny New Millennium Bonzo on their post-reunion album, Pour l'Amour des Chiens, on which he recites a recipe for "Salmon Proust", plays a butler in "Hawkeye the Gnu", and voices ads for the fictitious "Fiasco" stores.
Following three one-man shows in Australia, Fry announced a "sort of stand-up" performance at The Royal Albert Hall in London for September 2010.[55]
Audio books[link]
Stephen Fry has been the reader for the British versions of all of J.K.Rowling's Harry Potter series of audio books. He discussed this project in an interview with J.K. Rowling in 2005.[56] Fry has also been the reader for Douglas Adams's The Hitchhiker's Guide To The Galaxy film tie-in edition. He has also made recordings of his own books, such as The Stars' Tennis Balls and Moab Is My Washpot; and works by Roald Dahl, Michael Bond, A. A. Milne, and Anthony Buckeridge.
Video games[link]
Fry's distinctive voice has been featured in a number of video games, including an appearance as Reaver, a primary antagonist in Lionhead Studios games Fable II and Fable III, and as the narrator in LittleBigPlanet and its sequel on PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable.[57][58] He also served as narrator on the first four Harry Potter games (Philosopher's Stone, Chamber of Secrets, Prisoner of Azkaban and the Goblet of Fire).
Advertisements[link]
Fry has lent himself and his voice to many advertisements, starting with an appearance as "Count Ivan Skavinsky Skavar" in a 1982 advert for Whitbread Best Bitter. Fry has said in his memoirs that after receiving his payment for this work – £25,000 – he has never subsequently experienced "what one could call serious money troubles".[59] He has since appeared in adverts for products and companies such as Marks and Spencer, Twinings, Kenco, Vauxhall, Honda, Direct Line, Calpol, Heineken, Alliance & Leicester, After Eights, Trebor, Panama cigars and Orange Mobile.
Literature[link]
Since the publication of his first novel, The Liar (1991), Fry has written three further novels, several non-fiction works and two volumes of autobiography. Making History (1997) is partly set in an alternative universe where Adolf Hitler's father is made infertile and his replacement proves a rather more effective Führer. The book won the Sidewise Award for Alternate History. The Hippopotamus (1994) is about Edward (Ted/Tedward) Wallace and his stay at his old friend Lord Logan's country manor in Norfolk. The Stars' Tennis Balls (2000) is a modern retelling of The Count of Monte Cristo. Fry's book, The Ode Less Travelled: Unlocking the Poet Within, is a guide to writing poetry.
When writing a book review for Tatler, Fry wrote under a nom de plume, Williver Hendry, editor of A Most Peculiar Friendship: The Correspondence of Lord Alfred Douglas and Jack Dempsey, a field close to Fry's heart as an Oscar Wilde enthusiast. Once a columnist in The Listener and The Daily Telegraph, he now writes a weekly technology column in the Saturday edition of The Guardian. His blog attracted more than 300,000 visitors in its first two weeks.[29]
In May 2009, Fry unveiled The Dongle of Donald Trefusis, an audiobook series following Donald Trefusis (a fictional character from Fry's novel The Liar and from the BBC Radio 4 series Loose Ends), set over 12 episodes.[60] After its release, it reached No. 1 on the UK Album Chart list.
Fry's use of the word "luvvie" (spelled "lovie" by Fry) in The Guardian on 2 April 1988 is given by the Oxford English Dictionary as the earliest recorded use of the word as a humorous synonym for "actor".[61]
Football[link]
In August 2010, Fry joined the Board of Directors at Norwich City Football Club. A lifelong fan of "the Canaries" and a regular visitor to Carrow Road, he said on being appointed "Truly this is one of the most exciting days of my life and I am as proud and pleased as I could be."[6]
Twitter[link]
In October 2008, Fry began posting to the social networking site Twitter,[62] which he regularly updates.[63] On 16 May 2009, he celebrated the 500,000-follower mark: "Bless my soul 500k followers. And I love you all. Well, all except that silly one. And that's not you."[64]
Fry wields a considerable amount of influence through his use of Twitter.[65][66] He is frequently asked to promote various charities and causes, often inadvertently causing their websites to crash because of the volume of traffic generated by his large number of followers; as Fry notes on his website: "Four thousand hits a second all diving down the pipeline at the same time for minutes on end."[67] Fry uses his influence to recommend underexposed musicians and authors (who often see large increases in web hits and sales)[68][69] and to raise awareness of contemporary issues in the world of media and politics, notably the dropping of an injunction against The Guardian[70][71] and the lambasting of Daily Mail columnist Jan Moir over her article on the death of Boyzone member Stephen Gately.[72][73]
In October 2009 Fry again sparked debate amongst users when he announced his intention to leave the social networking site after criticism from another user on Twitter. He retracted the intention the next day.[74] In October 2010, Fry left Twitter for a few days following press criticism of a quote taken from an interview he had given, with a farewell message of "Bye bye". After returning, Fry explained that he had left Twitter to "avoid being sympathised with or told about an article I would otherwise never have got wind of".[75] In some quarters the general methods Fry uses on Twitter have been criticised.[76]
In November 2009 Fry's Twitter account reached one million followers. He commemorated the million followers milestone with a humorous video blog in which a 'Step Hen Fry' clone speaks from the year 2034 where MySpace, Facebook and Twitter have combined to form 'Twit on MyFace'.[77] In November 2010 Fry welcomed his two millionth follower with a blog entry detailing his opinions and experiences of Twitter.[78] On 11 March 2012, Fry noted his passing of the four million follower mark with a tweet: "Lordy I've breasted the 4 million followers tape. Love you all. Yes even YOU. But let's dedicate today to Douglas Adams's diamond jubilee"[79]
Acclaim[link]
In 1995, Fry was presented with an honorary doctorate from the University of Dundee, which named their main Students' Association bar after his novel The Liar. Fry is a patron of its Lip Theatre Company.[80] He also served two consecutive terms – 1992 to 1995 and 1995 to 1998 – as the student-elected Rector of the University of Dundee. Such was his popularity, he was unopposed when he sought re-election to office in 1995, and by the time he completed his second term in office he had won the widespread admiration of the University's staff and students.[81][82] He was awarded the AoC Gold Award in 2004, and was entered into their hall of fame.[83] Fry was also awarded an honorary degree from Anglia Ruskin University in 2005.[84][85] He was made honorary president of the Cambridge University Quiz Society and honorary fellow of his alma mater Queens' College, Cambridge. On 13 July 2010, he was made an honorary fellow of Cardiff University[86] and on 28 January 2011 he was awarded an honorary doctorate at the University of Sussex for his work campaigning for people suffering from mental health problems, bipolar disorder and HIV.[87]
He is a Patron of the Norwich Playhouse theatre and a Vice President of The Noël Coward Society.[88] Fry was the last person to be named Pipe Smoker of the Year before the award was discontinued.[89]
In December 2006 he was ranked sixth for the BBC's Top Living Icon Award,[90] was featured on The Culture Show, and was voted Most Intelligent Man on Television by readers of Radio Times. The Independent on Sunday Pink List named Fry the second most influential gay person in Britain in May 2007; he had taken the twenty-third position on the list the previous year.[91] Later the same month he was announced as the 2007 Mind Champion of the Year[1] in recognition of the success of his documentary The Secret Life of a Manic Depressive in raising awareness of bipolar disorder. Fry was also nominated in "Best Entertainment Performance" for QI and "Best Factual Series" for Secret Life of the Manic Depressive at the 2007 British Academy Television Awards.[92] That same year, Broadcast magazine listed Fry at number four in its "Hot 100" list of influential on-screen performers, describing him as a polymath and a "national treasure".[93] He was also granted a lifetime achievement award at the British Comedy Awards on 5 December 2007[94] and the Special Recognition Award at the National Television Awards on 20 January 2010.[95]
BBC Four dedicated two nights of programming to Fry on 17 and 18 August 2007, in celebration of his 50th birthday. The first night, comprising programs featuring Fry, began with a sixty-minute documentary entitled Stephen Fry: 50 Not Out. The second night was composed of programs selected by Fry, as well as a 60-minute interview with Mark Lawson and a half-hour special, Stephen Fry: Guilty.[96] The weekend programming proved such a ratings hit for BBC Four that it was repeated on BBC Two on 16 and 17 September 2007.
In 2011, he was the subject of Molly Lewis's song An Open Letter to Stephen Fry, in which the singer jokingly offers herself as a surrogate mother for his child.[97] In February 2011, Fry was awarded the Outstanding Lifetime Achievement Award in Cultural Humanism by the Humanist Chaplaincy at Harvard University, the Harvard Secular Society and the American Humanist Association.[98]
Views on religion[link]
Fry has repeatedly expressed opposition to organised religion and has identified himself as an atheist and humanist, while declaring some sympathy for the ancient Greek belief in capricious gods. In his first autobiography he wrote, "I knew I couldn't believe in God, because I was fundamentally Hellenic in my outlook."[99] He has accepted that religion can have positive effects, "Sometimes belief means credulity, sometimes an expression of faith and hope which even the most sceptical atheist such as myself cannot but find inspiring."[100]
In 2009, The Guardian published a letter from Fry addressing his younger self, explaining how his future is soon to unfold, reflecting on the positive progression towards gay acceptance and openness around him, and yet not everywhere, while warning on how "the cruel, hypocritical and loveless hand of religion and absolutism has fallen on the world once more".[101] Later that year, he and Christopher Hitchens participated in an "Intelligence Squared" debate in which they argued against Ann Widdecombe and Archbishop John Onaiyekan, who supported the view that the Catholic Church was a force for good. Fry and Hitchens argued that the church did more harm than good. Fry attacked the Catholic Church's teachings on sexuality and denounced its wealth.[102]
In 2010 he was made a Distinguished Supporter of the British Humanist Association, stating: "it is essential to nail one’s colours to the mast as a humanist."[103] Later that year, Fry, along with 54 other public figures, signed an open letter published in The Guardian, stating their opposition to Pope Benedict XVI's visit to the United Kingdom being a state visit.[104]
On 22 February 2011, Fry was presented with the Lifetime Achievement Award in Cultural Humanism by the Humanist Chaplaincy at Harvard University, joining a list of previous honorees including novelist Salman Rushdie, screenwriter Joss Whedon, and Mythbusters Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman.[105]
Personal life[link]
Fry struggled to keep his homosexuality secret during his teenage years at public school, and has claimed not to have engaged in sexual activity for 16 years from 1979 until 1995.[106][107] When asked when he first acknowledged his sexuality, Fry quipped: "I suppose it all began when I came out of the womb. I looked back up at my mother and thought to myself, 'That's the last time I'm going up one of those.'"[108] Fry was in a 14-year relationship with Daniel Cohen, which ended in 2010.[109][110][111] Fry has stated that he is 90% homosexual, but has been attracted to women on occasion.[112]
Fry has a home in London and another in Hollywood.[113] He also has a home near King's Lynn, Norfolk. When in London, Fry drives a dark green TX4 London cab.
Fry was an active supporter of the Labour Party for many years, and appeared in a party political broadcast on its behalf with Hugh Laurie and Michelle Collins in November 1993. Despite this, he did not vote in the 2005 General Election because of the stance of both the Labour and Conservative parties with regard to the Iraq War. Despite his praise of the Blair/Brown government's work on social reform, Fry has been critical of the Labour Party's "Third Way" concept. Fry appeared in literature to support changing the British electoral system from first-past-the-post to alternative vote for electing Members of Parliament to the House of Commons in the Alternative Vote referendum in 2011.[114]
He is on cordial terms with Prince Charles (despite a mild parody Fry performed in his role of King Charles I in the comedy programme Blackadder: The Cavalier Years), through his work with the Prince's Trust. He attended the Prince of Wales' and Camilla Parker Bowles' wedding in 2005.
Fry is a friend of British comedian and actor (and Blackadder co-star) Rowan Atkinson and was best man at Atkinson's wedding to Sunetra Sastry at the Russian Tea Room in New York City. Fry was a friend of British actor John Mills.[115]
His best friend is Hugh Laurie,[116] whom he met while both were at Cambridge and with whom he has collaborated many times over the years. He was best man at Laurie's wedding and is godfather to all three of his children.[117]
A fan of cricket, Fry has claimed to be related to former England cricketer C.B. Fry,[118] and was interviewed for the Ashes Fever DVD, reporting on England's victory over Australia in the 2005 Ashes series. Regarding football, he is a supporter of Norwich City, and is a regular visitor to Carrow Road.
He has been described as "deeply dippy for all things digital", claims to have bought the third Macintosh computer sold in the UK (his friend Douglas Adams bought the first two) and jokes that he has never encountered a smartphone that he has not bought.[119] He counts Wikipedia among his favourite websites "because I like to find out that I died, and that I'm currently in a ballet in China, and all the other very accurate and important things that Wikipedia brings us all."[120]
Fry has a long-standing interest in Internet production, including having his own website since 1997. His current site, The New Adventures of Mr Stephen Fry, has existed since 2002 and has attracted many visitors following his first blog in September 2007, which comprised a 6,500 word "blessay" on smartphones. In February 2008, Fry launched his private podcast series, Stephen Fry's Podgrams, and a forum, including discussions on depression and activities in which Fry is involved. The website content is created by Stephen Fry and produced by Andrew Sampson. Fry is also a supporter of GNU and the Free Software Foundation.[121] For the 25th anniversary of the GNU operating system, Fry appeared in a video explaining some of the philosophy behind GNU by likening it to the sharing found in science.[122]
On 30 April 2008, Fry signed an open letter, published in The Guardian newspaper by some well known Jewish personalities, stating their opposition to celebrating the 60th anniversary of the founding of the State of Israel.[123] Furthermore, he is a signatory member of the British Jews for Justice for Palestinians organisation, which campaigns for Palestinian rights.[124]
Fry was among over 100 signatories to a statement published by Sense About Science on 4 June 2009, condemning British libel laws and their use to "severely curtail the right to free speech on a matter of public interest."[125]
Poland controversy[link]
See also: Anti-Polish sentiment and Polish death camp controversy
On 6 October 2009, Fry was interviewed by Jon Snow on Channel 4 News[126] as a signatory of a letter to British Conservative Party leader David Cameron expressing concern about the party's relationship with Poland's opposition national conservative Law and Justice party in the European Parliament.[127] During the interview, he stated:
There has been a history, let's face it, in Poland of a right-wing Catholicism which has been deeply disturbing for those of us who know a little history, and remember which side of the border Auschwitz was on and know the stories, and know much of the anti-semitic, and homophobic and nationalistic elements in countries like Poland.
The remark prompted a complaint from the Polish Embassy in London, an editorial in The Economist and criticism from British Jewish historian David Cesarani.[128][129][130][131] Fry has since posted an apology in a six-page post on his personal blog, in which he stated:
I offer no excuse. I seemed to imply that the Polish people had been responsible for the most infamous of all the death factories of the Third Reich. I didn't even really at the time notice the import of what I had said, so gave myself no opportunity instantly to retract the statement. It was a rubbishy, cheap and offensive remark that I have been regretting ever since. I take this opportunity to apologise now. I said a stupid, thoughtless and fatuous thing. It detracted from and devalued my argument, such as it was, and it outraged and offended a large group of people for no very good reason. I am sorry in all directions, and all the more sorry because it is no one's fault but my own, which always makes it so much worse.[132]
Health[link]
Fry has been diagnosed with bipolar disorder,[133] specifically stating he suffers from Cyclothymia, referring to it as "bipolar lite".[134][135] He suffered a nervous breakdown in 1995 while appearing in a West End play called Cell Mates and subsequently walked out of the production, prompting its early closure and incurring the displeasure of co-star Rik Mayall and playwright Simon Gray. Mayall's comedy partner, Adrian Edmondson, made light of the subject in his and Mayall's second Bottom live show. After walking out of the production, Fry went missing for several days while contemplating suicide. He abandoned the idea and left the United Kingdom by ferry, eventually resurfacing in Belgium.[136]
Fry has spoken publicly about his experience with bipolar disorder, which was also depicted in the documentary Stephen Fry: The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive.[137][138] In the programme, he interviewed other sufferers of the illness including Carrie Fisher, Richard Dreyfuss and Tony Slattery. Also featured were chef Rick Stein, whose father committed suicide, Robbie Williams, who talks of his experience with major depression, and comedienne and former mental health nurse Jo Brand. He is also involved with the mental health charity Stand to Reason.[139]
In 2009, Fry lent his support to a campaign led by the human rights organisation Reprieve to prevent the execution of heroin trafficker Akmal Shaikh, a British citizen originally from Pakistan. Some of Shaikh's supporters have said he suffered from undiagnosed bipolar disorder. Despite calls for clemency, Shaikh was executed in the People's Republic of China for drug trafficking.[140]
In January 2008, he broke his arm while filming Last Chance to See in Brazil.[141] He later explained in a podcast how the accident happened: while climbing aboard a boat, he slipped between it and the dock, and, while stopping himself from falling into the water, his body weight caused his right humerus to snap. The damage was more severe than first thought: the resulting vulnerability to his radial nerve – he was at risk of losing the use of his arm – was not diagnosed until he saw a consultant in the UK.[142]
As the host of QI, Fry has stated that he is allergic to both champagne[143] and bumble bee stings.[144]
Appearing on Top Gear in 2009, Fry had lost a significant amount of weight, prompting host Jeremy Clarkson to ask jokingly, "Where's the rest of you?" Fry explained that he had shed a total of 6 stone (84 lb; 38 kg), attributing the weight loss to doing a lot of walking while listening to downloaded Audiobooks.[145]
Fry is between 6 feet 4 inches (1.93 m) and 6 feet 5 inches (1.96 m) in height.[146][147]
Business[link]
In 2008, Fry formed SamFry Ltd, with long-term collaborator Andrew Sampson, to produce and fund new material, as well as manage his official website.[148]
Bibliography[link]
- Fry, Stephen; Laurie, Hugh (1990). A Bit of Fry and Laurie. Mandarin. ISBN 978-0-7493-0705-9.
- Fry, Stephen (1991). The Liar. Soho. ISBN 978-0-939149-82-7.
- Fry, Stephen (1994). The Hippopotamus. Soho Press. ISBN 978-1-56947-054-1.
- Fry, Stephen (1997). Making History. Arrow. ISBN 978-0-09-946481-5.
- Fry, Stephen (1997). Moab Is My Washpot: An Autobiography. Soho Press. ISBN 978-1-56947-202-6.
- Fry, Stephen (2000). The Stars' Tennis Balls. Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-180151-9.
- Fry, Stephen (2003). Revenge: A Novel (reprint ed.). Random House. ISBN 978-0-8129-6819-4.
- Fry, Stephen (2005). The Ode Less Travelled: Unlocking the Poet Within. Hutchinson. ISBN 978-0-09-179661-7.
- Lloyd, John; Fry, Stephen; Mitchinson, John (2006). The Book of General Ignorance. Faber and Faber. ISBN 978-0-571-23368-7.
- Carwardine, Mark; Fry, Stephen (2009). Last Chance to See. HarperCollins Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-0-00-729072-7.
- Fry, Stephen (2010). The Fry Chronicles: An Autobiography. Michael Joseph. ISBN 0-7181-5483-5.
References[link]
- ^ a b "Stephen Fry announced as president of Mind". Mind. http://www.mind.org.uk/news/5260_stephen_fry_announced_as_new_president_of_mind. Retrieved 29 July 2011.
- ^ QI XL Series I episode 7
- ^ UK Brigade of Kentucky Colonels
- ^ Utley, Tom (24 February 2006). "Stephen Fry is too English to be an example of anything". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3623250/Stephen-Fry-is-too-English-to-be-an-example-of-anything.html. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
- ^ "Stephen Fry and IODA Partner for The Dongle of Donald Trefusis" (PDF) (Press release). stephenfry.com. 27 May 2009. http://www.stephenfry.com/dongle/press/PressRelease_StephenFry_DongleOfDonaldTrefusis.pdf. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
- ^ a b "Stephen Fry joins Norwich City board". BBC News. 13 August 2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-norfolk-10968940.
- ^ "Stephen Fry Biography (1957–)". Filmreference.com. http://www.filmreference.com/film/71/Stephen-Fry.html. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ a b c d ""Who Do You Think You Are?", Series Two: Celebrity Gallery". http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/familyhistory/get_started/wdytya_s2_celeb_gallery_03.shtml.
- ^ Hamilton, Alan (28 January 2005). "Candles light heart of darkness". The Times (London). http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article507549.ece. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ Smith, David (5 June 2005). "I saw hate in a graveyard – Stephen Fry". The Observer (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2005/jun/05/religion.hayfestival2005. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
- ^ "Its photo still moves Stephen Fry to tears - now the star's former family home could be yours for £995,000". Daily Mail. Retrieved 24 May 2012
- ^ "Cawston Parish in Norfolk". Cawstonparish.info. http://www.cawstonparish.info/Web%20Sites%20&%20Books%20About%20Cawston.htm. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ Fry and Laurie Reunited, 2010 (GOLD)
- ^ Fry, Stephen (1997). Moab Is My Washpot — An Autobiography. London: Hutchinson. pp. 305–335. ISBN 0-09-180161-3.
- ^ "University Challenge page at UK Game Shows". http://www.ukgameshows.com/ukgs/University_Challenge.
- ^ "Stephen Fry – Little Crackers". Sky1.sky.com. http://sky1.sky.com/Little-Crackers-Stephen-Fry-About. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
- ^ "Pocoyo". CITV. http://www.citv.co.uk/page.asp?partid=68. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ "ITV axes Stephen Fry's 'Kingdom'". Digital Spy. 9 October 2009. http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/tv/news/a181343/itv-axes-stephen-frys-kingdom.html. Retrieved 11 November 2009.
- ^ "Stephen Fry Learns Irish for ‘Ros na Rún’". IFTN.
- ^ Taylor, Charlie and Boland, Rosita. "Stephen Fry to cameo in TG4 soap". The Irish Times. 17 November 2010.
- ^ "Stephen Fry set for Ros na Run cameo". Irish Independent. 17 November 2010.
- ^ "'Full Irish' Fry takes soap role". BBC News. 17 November 2010.
- ^ "Who Do You Think You Are? - Past Stories - Stephen Fry". BBC. http://www.bbc.co.uk/whodoyouthinkyouare/past-stories/stephen-fry.shtml. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ "BBC Two - History of Light Entertainment (20:00)". bbc.co.uk. 12 May 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0093t86. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ "IMDb". http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0836927/combined. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
- ^ Walton, James (3 October 2007). "Last night on television: Stephen Fry: HIV and Me (BBC2) – Great British Journeys (BBC2)". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/3668295/Last-night-on-television-Stephen-Fry-HIV-and-Me-BBC2-Great-British-Journeys-BBC2.html. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
- ^ "BBC — The future role of public service broadcasting — Stephen Fry". Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080517101235/http://www.bbc.co.uk/thefuture/video_fry.shtml. Retrieved 19 June 2008.
- ^ a b "Stephen Fry's Podgrams". http://www.stephenfry.com/podcasts/. [dead link]
- ^ a b Fry, Stephen (21 October 2007). "I Give Up". stephenfry.com. http://www.stephenfry.com/2007/10/21/i-give-up/. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
- ^ "IMDB: The Natural World". http://www.imdb.com/title/tt1229305. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
- ^ "Last Chance to See". BBC Press Office. http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/proginfo/tv/2009/wk36/last_chance_feature.shtml. Retrieved 11 November 2009.
- ^ a b "Stephen Fry's 100 Greatest Gadgets". Channel 4. http://www.channel4.com/programmes/stephen-frys-100-greatest-gadgets. Retrieved 2 January 2012.
- ^ Walton, James (25 September 2011). "Stephen Fry's Planet Word, BBC Two, review". The Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8787668/Stephen-Frys-Planet-Word-BBC-Two-review.html. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
- ^ "Stephen Fry shares his love of language in Fry’s Planet Word". Radio Times. 25 September 2011. http://www.radiotimes.com/news/2011-09-25/stephen-fry-shares-his-love-of-language-in-frys-planet-word. Retrieved 12 October 2011.
- ^ QI.com Audience figures. Retrieved 21 June 2007.
- ^ Armstrong, Stephen (17 December 2007). "Have you got your daily male?". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2007/dec/17/digitaltvradio. Retrieved 17 December 2007.
- ^ "IMDB: Stephen Fry – Awards". Imdb.com. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000410/awards. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0110099/
- ^ "Fry quits as host of film Baftas". BBC News. 6 October 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/5413838.stm. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ Interview with The Wachowski brothers about V For Vendetta, in which they discuss the performances that stand out in the film. They pointed out that it was Fry's "normalcy" in the face of the insanity of the censorship of BTV that makes his character truly powerful and adds a "wholly unexpected dimension to the film". http://www.liquida.com/wachowski-brothers-interview/
- ^ Stephen Fry at the Internet Movie Database
- ^ Adam Dawtrey (28 September 2007). "script writer for Dambusters film". Variety. http://www.variety.com/article/VR1117973025.html?categoryid=2523&cs=1. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ "Friday Night with Jonathan Ross: Series 16: Episode 1". BBC iPlayer. 23 January 2009. http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b00fm6wz/Friday_Night_with_Jonathan_Ross_Series_16_Episode_1/. Retrieved 24 January 2009.
- ^ Mitchell, Lizzie (10 September 2009). "Tim Burton's Alice in Wonderland". The List (magazine). http://www.list.co.uk/article/20826-tim-burtons-alice-in-wonderland/. Retrieved 3 October 2009.
- ^ "BBC News – Stephen Fry to play Sherlock Holmes' brother on film". BBC. 25 December 2009. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-11417860. Retrieved 28 September 2010.
- ^ Jackson, Peter (19 May 2011). "Hobbit Casting News". Facebook. http://www.facebook.com/notes/peter-jackson/hobbit-casting-news/10150257180211558. Retrieved 19 May 2011.
- ^ "Stephen Fry interviews Tony Blair". 1 March 2007. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100406114112/number10.gov.uk/page12045. Retrieved 23 May 2012.
- ^ Radio Times 28 June – 4 July 2008: Fry's a Dream Date
- ^ "BBC Radio 4 – Program Guide for Fry's English Delight". BBC. 8 September 2008. http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/arts/frys_english.shtml. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ Satchell, Graham (15 June 2009). "Life after Humph". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/8097368.stm. Retrieved 6 January 2010.
- ^ "Radio 4 Programmes - Wordaholics, Episode 1". BBC. 20 February 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b01c7lk6. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
- ^ "Reviews for Latin!". http://www.thinknoevil.com/latin_review.htm.
- ^ "Review of Latin!". Notesfromtheunderground.co.uk. http://www.notesfromtheunderground.co.uk/fryandley.html. Retrieved 11 November 2009. [dead link]
- ^ "Old Vic Theatre — Cinderella". http://www.oldvictheatre.com/whatson.php?id=37.
- ^ Brown, Mark (13 August 2010). "Stephen Fry takes on stand-up comedy". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2010/aug/12/stephen-fry-stand-up-show.
- ^ "Living with Harry Potter", BBC Radio 4, 10 December 2005
- ^ "LittleBigPlanet 2 for PS3 Officially Announced for Winter 2010! – PlayStation Blog". Blog.us.playstation.com. 10 May 2010. http://blog.us.playstation.com/2010/05/10/littlebigplanet-2-for-ps3-officially-announced-for-winter-2010/#comment-401630. Retrieved 14 June 2010.
- ^ "Stephen Fry Lending British Charm to Little Big Planet PSP: News from 1UP.com". 1UP.com. 21 April 2009. http://www.1up.com/do/newsStory?cId=3173855. Retrieved 21 April 2008.
- ^ Fry 2010, pp. 234–237.
- ^ "The New Adventures of Mr Stephen Fry – The Dongle of Donald Trefusis – Episode 3 now available". Stephenfry.com. http://www.stephenfry.com/dongle/. Retrieved 25 July 2009.
- ^ "Luvvie, n". Oxford English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. 1 March 2008. http://dictionary.oed.com/cgi/entry/00298007. Retrieved 25 August 2010. (requires subscription)
- ^ "Fry's first Twitter post". Twitter. 9 October 2008. https://twitter.com/stephenfry/status/952627960. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ "Stephen Fry's Twitter Stream". Twitter. https://twitter.com/stephenfry. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ Fry, Stephen. "stephenfry" Twitter 16 May 2009 (Retrieved 18 May 2009)
- ^ "A portrait of the decade". BBC News. 14 December 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/8406898.stm. Retrieved 24 May 2010.
- ^ Hornby, Gill (16 October 2009). "Don't laugh – Stephen Fry is giving the orders now". London: Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/columnists/gill-hornby/6349700/Dont-laugh---Stephen-Fry-is-giving-the-orders-now.html. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Stephen Fry: (26 August 2009). "Servers With A Smile « The New Adventures of Stephen Fry". Stephenfry.com. http://www.stephenfry.com/2009/08/26/servers-with-a-smile/#more-1197. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Published: 7:00 am BST 11 September 2009 (11 September 2009). "Stephen Fry's Twitter posts on David Eagleman novel sparks 6000% sales spike". London: Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/twitter/6170777/Stephen-Frys-Twitter-posts-on-David-Eagleman-novel-sparks-6000-sales-spike.html. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "UK | Wales | North West Wales | Fry's Twitter lift for singer, 16". BBC News. 14 October 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/north_east/8306827.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Alan Rusbridger (13 May 2009). "The Trafigura fiasco tears up the textbook". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/libertycentral/2009/oct/14/trafigura-fiasco-tears-up-textbook. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Jacobson, Seth (13 October 2009). "Twitter claims another scalp as Trafigura backs down | Business | News & Comment". The First Post. http://www.thefirstpost.co.uk/54667,news-comment,business,twitter-claims-another-scalp-as-trafigura-backs-down. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "UK | Anger over Mail column on Gately". BBC News. 16 October 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8311499.stm. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Showbiz – News – Twitter outrage over Gately smear". Digital Spy. http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/showbiz/news/a182344/twitter-outrage-over-gately-smear.html. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ "Fry ends row with Twitter critic". BBC News. 1 November 2009. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/8336425.stm. Retrieved 6 January 2010.
- ^ Fry, Stephen. "Silliness". The New Adventures of Stephen Fry. http://www.stephenfry.com/2010/11/04/silliness/4/. Retrieved 5 November 2010.
- ^ Yiannopoulos, Milo (16 November 2010). "My 'Twitter row' with Stephen Fry". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/8137164/My-Twitter-row-with-Stephen-Fry.html. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
- ^ "Twillionth". http://www.stephenfry.com/2009/11/14/twillionth/.
- ^ Fry, Stephen. "Two Million Reasons To Be Cheerful". The New Adventures of Stephen Fry. http://www.stephenfry.com/2010/11/30/two-million-reasons-to-be-cheerful/. Retrieved 3 December 2010.
- ^ Fry, Stephen. "stephenfry" Twitter 11 March 2012 (Retrieved 28 March 2012)
- ^ "Lip Theatre: History". Dusa.dundee.ac.uk. http://www.dusa.dundee.ac.uk/lip/history/history.htm. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ Baxter, Kenneth, Rolfe, Mervyn and Swinfen, David (2007). A Dundee Celebration. Dundee: University of Dundee. pp. 32–33.
- ^ "Rectorial Elections". Archives, Records and Artefacts at the University of Dundee. http://www.archives-records-artefacts.com/2010/02/rectorial-elections.html. Retrieved 23 August 2011.
- ^ "Hall of Fame 2004". http://www.aoc.co.uk/en/aoc_beacon_gold_and_other_awards/aoc_beacon_gold_awards/aoc_gold_awards/hall-of-fame/hall-of-fame-2004.cfm.
- ^ "Anglia Ruskin University's Honorary Graduate Site". Anglia.ac.uk. http://www.anglia.ac.uk/ruskin/en/home/microsites/honorary/fry.html. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ "England | Cambridgeshire | Fry talks of Cambridge 'elitism'". BBC News. 22 November 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cambridgeshire/4459724.stm. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ "Honouring excellence". Cardiff University. 10 July 2010. http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/news/articles/honouring-excellence.html. Retrieved 15 July 2010.
- ^ "Stephen Fry made honorary doctor at University of Sussex". BBC News. 28 January 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-sussex-12307469. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ "Welcome to the Noël Coward Society". Noelcoward.net. http://www.noelcoward.net/html/committee2007.html. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ Thompson, Jonathan (18 January 2004). "Annual pipe-smoker award is extinguished". London: The Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-families/health-news/annual-pipesmoker-award-is-extinguished-573577.html. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
- ^ "Living Icons". BBC. 11 December 2006. http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2006/12_december/01/icons.shtml. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ "Independent on Sunday Pink List 2007". The Independent (London). 6 May 2007. http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article2516664.ece. Retrieved 4 February 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Television Nominations 2007 British Academy of Film and Television Arts
- ^ "Hot 100: Talent" (free registration required). Broadcast. 18 December 2007. http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/people/2007/12/hot_100_talent.html. Retrieved 22 December 2007.
- ^ Hemley, Matthew (6 December 2007). "Gavin and Stacey sweeps British Comedy Awards". The Stage. http://www.thestage.co.uk/news/newsstory.php/19070/gavin-and-stacey-sweeps-british-comedy-awards. Retrieved 16 December 2007.
- ^ Williams, Lisa (21 January 2010). "Delight for Stephen Fry at TV awards". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/news/stephen-frys-tv-delight-1874511.html?action=Popup&ino=1. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
- ^ "BBC Four Stephen Fry Night". BBC. 8 September 2007. http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/features/stephen-fry.shtml. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
- ^ "An Open Letter to Stephen Fry". Mollylewis.bandcamp.com. 11 February 2011. http://mollylewis.bandcamp.com/track/an-open-letter-to-stephen-fry-2. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
- ^ "Harvard Humanist Chaplaincy at Harvard University Presents Stephen Fry". Harvardhumanist.org. http://harvardhumanist.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=148:hch-presents-stephen-fry&catid=6:latest-news&Itemid=38. Retrieved 22 October 2011.
- ^ "Fry, Stephen (2004 (1997)). Moab is my washpot. Arrow books. p. 382. ISBN 978-0-09-945704-6.
- ^ Stephen Fry, Spectator Lecture at the Royal Geographical Society, reprinted as 'Would I live in America? In a heartbeat', The Spectator, 9 May 2009, Pg. 28.
- ^ Stephen Fry (30 April 2009). "'The Guardian': Stephen Fry's letter to himself: Dearest absurd child". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2009/apr/30/stephen-fry-letter-gay-rights. Retrieved 10 May 2009.
- ^ Ed West (23 October 2009). "Atheist duo convince crowd that the Church is not a force for good". The Catholic Herald (London). http://archive.catholicherald.co.uk/article/23rd-october-2009/1/atheist-duo-convince-crowd-that-the-church-is-not-. Retrieved 18 February 2012.
- ^ "Stephen Fry: "it is essential to nail one’s colours to the mast as a humanist."". British Humanist Association. 10 February 2010. http://www.humanism.org.uk/news/view/447.
- ^ "Letters: Harsh judgments on the pope and religion". The Guardian (London). 15 September 2010. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/sep/15/harsh-judgments-on-pope-religion. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
- ^ "Letters: HCH Presents Stephen Fry". Humanist Chaplaincy at Harvard (Cambridge, MA). http://harvardhumanist.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=148:hch-presents-stephen-fry&catid=6:latest-news&Itemid=38. Retrieved 27 January 2011.
- ^ "The Adventures of Mr Stephen Fry". http://www.stephenfry.com/moab/one-mans-journey/. Retrieved 11 May 2008.
- ^ The Sunday Herald (28 September 2003). "Borne to be Wilde". The Sunday Herald. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4156/is_20030928/ai_n12584983. Retrieved 11 May 2008.
- ^ Levine, Nick (19 September 2007). "Ten Things You Never Knew About Stephen Fry". Digital Spy. http://www.digitalspy.com/showbiz/a75964/ten-things-you-never-knew-about-stephen-fry.html. Retrieved 23 March 2009.
- ^ "Stephen Fry dumps long-term partner for young actor as love life becomes Quite Interesting" Daily Mail 14 July 2010. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
- ^ "Stephen Fry: A restless soul". The Independent (London). 20 September 2004. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/stephen-fry-a-restless-soul-546925.html. Retrieved 16 September 2008.
- ^ "Stephen Fry has new toyboy boyfriend – mirror.co.uk". Daily Mirror. http://www.mirror.co.uk/celebs/news/2010/07/15/qi-host-fry-has-a-new-young-guy-115875-22413956/. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
- ^ Hastings, Chris (18 September 2010). "The two women in my 10 per cent – by '90 per cent gay' Stephen Fry". Daily Mail (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/tvshowbiz/article-1313262/The-women-10-cent--90-cent-gay-Stephen-Fry.html.
- ^ "Craig Ferguson 2/23/10B Late Late show Stephen Fry PT3". Youtube. 21 June 2010. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l_cmQ-O5Cd0#t=1m53s. Retrieved 11 October 2010.
- ^ "Benjamin Zephaniah 'airbrushed from Yes to AV leaflets'". BBC News. 3 April 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-12950712.
- ^ "Entertainment | Film | Acting legend Sir John Mills dies". BBC News. 24 April 2005. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/film/4476875.stm. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ The Fry Chronicles (2010)
- ^ Smith, David (23 April 2005). "Doctor Hugh". The Observer (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/media/2005/apr/24/comment.broadcasting. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
- ^ "Series A, Episode 8". QI. episode 8. season A. 30 October 2003.
- ^ "Dork talk". The Guardian (London). 9 November 2007. http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/series/dorktalk. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ "Videojug: Interview with Stephen Fry". Videojug.com. 31 May 2007. http://www.videojug.com/interview/stephen-fry-the-internet. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ "Patronage of GNU Project". Gnu.org. http://www.gnu.org/thankgnus/2008supporters.html#TOCpatrons. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ "Freedom Fry – "Happy birthday to GNU"". Gnu.org. 20 October 2008. http://www.gnu.org/fry/happy-birthday-to-gnu.html. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ Close (30 April 2008). "The Guardian: We're not celebrating Israel's anniversary". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/apr/30/israelandthepalestinians. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ "'Signatories'". jfjfp.com. http://jfjfp.com/?page_id=9. Retrieved 8 November 2009.
- ^ "The law has no place in scientific disputes". Sense About Science. 7 October 2009. http://www.senseaboutscience.org.uk/index.php/site/project/334. Retrieved 12 October 2009.
- ^ "Fry's fears over Tories' anti-gay links". Channel 4. http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/politics/domestic_politics/fryaposs+fears+over+toriesapos+antigay+links/3374297. Retrieved 9 October 2009.
- ^ Charter, David (16 July 2009). "Right-wing Polish MEP Michal Kaminski becomes Tories controversial EU leader". London: Times Newspapers Ltd.. http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/europe/article6715542.ece. Retrieved 9 October 2009.
- ^ "Europe.view: Unoccupied Britain". The Economist. 15 October 2009. http://www.economist.com/world/europe/displayStory.cfm?story_id=14635055. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ David Ceserani (13 October 2009). "Stephen Fry's Auschwitz blunder". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2009/oct/12/stephen-fry-auschwitz-poland. Retrieved 17 October 2009.
- ^ Day, Matthew (8 October 2009). "Stephen Fry provokes Polish fury over Auschwitz remark". London: Telegraph Media Group. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/6274395/Stephen-Fry-provokes-Polish-fury-over-Auschwitz-remark.html. Retrieved 9 October 2009.
- ^ "Complaints: Fry 'slandered' Poland over Auschwitz". Channel 4. http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/politics/domestic_politics/complaints+fry+aposslanderedapos+poland+over+auschwitz/3377697. Retrieved 9 October 2009.
- ^ "Poles, Politeness and Politics in the age of Twitter". http://www.stephenfry.com/2009/10/19/poles-politeness-and-politics-in-the-age-of-twitter/. Retrieved 19 October 2009.
- ^ "Stephen Fry: My battle with mental illness" The Independent 17 September 2006 Retrieved 23 May 2010
- ^ "Craig Ferguson 2/23/10B Late Late show Stephen Fry PT1". The Late Late Show via Youtube. 23 February 2010. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LZb5YbtvYhw. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
- ^ "Cyclothymic upswings are dangerously expensive. Feels like there's a Tigger version of me bouncing inside and eager to burst out.". Stephen Fry via Twitter. 15 March 2009. http://twitter.com/#!/stephenfry/status/1332661172. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
- ^ "Comedian Fry reveals suicide bid". BBC News. 21 July 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/5202066.stm. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ "Cardiff University: Genetic research into mood disorders". Cardiff.ac.uk. 16 October 2008. http://www.cardiff.ac.uk/for/prospective/inter/news/stevenfry.html. Retrieved 4 February 2009. [dead link]
- ^ Stephen Fry: The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive, BBC. Retrieved 11 November 2009.
- ^ "Reception with Stephen Fry". Standtoreason.org. http://www.standtoreason.org.uk/news?id=23. Retrieved 7 June 2011.
- ^ "Stephen Fry begs China to spare life of mentally ill Briton facing death by firing squad". Daily Mail (London). 12 October 2009. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1219618/Stephen-Fry-begs-China-spare-life-mentally-ill-Briton-facing-death-firing-squad.html. Retrieved 26 December 2009.
- ^ "Fry breaks arm filming in Brazil". BBC. 18 January 2008. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7196783.stm. Retrieved 18 January 2008.
- ^ "Stephen Fry's Podgrams: Episode 1, Broken Arm". Stephenfry.com. Archived from the original on 22 August 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080822173101/http://stephenfry.com/podcasts/. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
- ^ QI Series C/3, Episode 10
- ^ QI Series C/3, Episode 7
- ^ Top Gear, 28 June 2009, BBC Two [1]
- ^ QI Season 7, Episode 10
- ^ QI Season 4 ep. 11 of 13
- ^ "About". Stephenfry.com. http://www.stephenfry.com/misc/about-us/. Retrieved 4 February 2009.
External links[link]
Quotations related to Stephen Fry at Wikiquote
Media related to Stephen Fry at Wikimedia Commons- Official website
- Stephen Fry at the Open Directory Project
- Stephen Fry at the Internet Movie Database
- Five Minutes With: Stephen Fry, interview with Matthew Stadlen for the BBC
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Fry, Stephen John |
| Alternative names | Fry, Stephen |
| Short description | English comedian |
| Date of birth | 24 August 1957 |
| Place of birth | Hampstead, London, England |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Stephen_Fry
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Stephen Fry
http://cs.wn.com/Stephen Fry
http://id.wn.com/Stephen Fry
http://es.wn.com/Stephen Fry
http://ru.wn.com/Фрай, Стивен
http://nl.wn.com/Stephen Fry
http://pt.wn.com/Stephen Fry
http://pl.wn.com/Stephen Fry
http://fr.wn.com/Stephen Fry
http://de.wn.com/Stephen Fry
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Fry
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Hitler" redirects here. For other uses, see Hitler (disambiguation).
| Adolf Hitler | |
|---|---|
|
|
| Hitler in 1937 | |
| Führer of Germany | |
| In office 2 August 1934 – 30 April 1945 |
|
| Preceded by | Paul von Hindenburg (as President) |
| Succeeded by | Karl Dönitz (as President) |
| Chancellor of Germany | |
| In office 30 January 1933 – 30 April 1945 |
|
| President | Paul von Hindenburg |
| Deputy |
|
| Preceded by | Kurt von Schleicher |
| Succeeded by | Joseph Goebbels |
| Reichsstatthalter of Prussia | |
| In office 30 January 1933 – 30 January 1935 |
|
| Prime Minister | |
| Preceded by | Office created |
| Succeeded by | Office abolished |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1889-04-20)20 April 1889 Braunau am Inn, Austria–Hungary |
| Died | 30 April 1945(1945-04-30) (aged 56) Berlin, Germany |
| Nationality |
|
| Political party | National Socialist German Workers' Party (1921–1945) |
| Other political affiliations |
German Workers' Party (1920–1921) |
| Spouse(s) | Eva Braun (29–30 April 1945) |
| Occupation | Politician, soldier, artist, writer |
| Religion | See Adolf Hitler's religious views |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  German Empire |
| Service/branch |  Reichsheer |
| Years of service | 1914–1918 |
| Rank | Gefreiter |
| Unit | 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment |
| Battles/wars | World War I |
| Awards |
|
Adolf Hitler (German: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ] ( listen); 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is commonly associated with the rise of fascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust.
A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup d'état, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anticommunism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. After his appointment as chancellor in 1933, he transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. His aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe.
Hitler's foreign and domestic policies had the goal of seizing Lebensraum ("living space") for the Germanic people. He directed the rearmament of Germany and the invasion of Poland by the Wehrmacht in September 1939, leading to the outbreak of World War II in Europe. Under Hitler's rule, in 1941 German forces and their European allies occupied most of Europe and North Africa. These gains were gradually reversed, and in 1945 the Allied armies defeated the German army. Hitler's supremacist and racially motivated policies resulted in the systematic murder of eleven million people, including nearly six million Jews.
In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time mistress, Eva Braun. On 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two committed suicide to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned.
Contents |
Early years[link]
Ancestry[link]
Hitler's father, Alois Hitler (1837–1903), was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. Alois's birth certificate did not name the father, so the child bore his mother's surname. In 1842 Johann Georg Hiedler married Anna. After she died in 1847 and he in 1856, Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedler's brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler.[2] It was not until 1876 that Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest before three witnesses.[3] While awaiting trial at Nuremberg in 1945, Nazi official Hans Frank suggested the existence of letters claiming that Alois' mother was employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz and that the family's 19-year-old son, Leopold Frankenberger, had fathered Alois.[4] However, no Frankenberger, Jewish or otherwise, was registered in Graz during that period.[5] Historians doubt the claim that Alois' father was Jewish.[6][7]
At age 39, Alois assumed the surname "Hitler", also spelled as "Hiedler", "Hüttler", or "Huettler". The origin of the name is either "one who lives in a hut" (Standard German Hütte), "shepherd" (Standard German hüten "to guard", English "heed"), or is from the Slavic words Hidlar and Hidlarcek.[8]
Childhood[link]
Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 at the Gasthof zum Pommer, an inn in Ranshofen,[9] a village annexed in 1938 to the municipality of Braunau am Inn, Austria-Hungary. He was the fourth of six children to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl (1860–1907). Adolf's older siblings – Gustav, Ida, and Otto – died in infancy.[10] When Hitler was three, the family moved to Passau, Germany.[11] There he acquired the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect, rather than Austrian German, which marked his speech all of his life.[12][13][14] In 1894 the family relocated to Leonding (near Linz), and in June 1895, Alois retired to a small landholding at Hafeld, near Lambach, where he tried his hand at farming and beekeeping. Adolf attended school in nearby Fischlham. Hitler became fixated on warfare after finding a picture book about the Franco-Prussian War among his father's belongings.[15][16]
The move to Hafeld coincided with the onset of intense father-son conflicts caused by Adolf's refusal to conform to the strict discipline of his school.[17] Alois Hitler's farming efforts at Hafeld ended in failure, and in 1897 the family moved to Lambach. Hitler attended a Catholic school in an 11th-century Benedictine cloister, the pulpit of which bore a stylized swastika symbol on the coat of arms of Theodorich von Hagen, a former abbot.[18] The eight-year-old Hitler took singing lessons, sang in the church choir, and even entertained thoughts of becoming a priest.[19] In 1898 the family returned permanently to Leonding. The death of his younger brother, Edmund, from measles on 2 February 1900 deeply affected Hitler. He changed from being confident and outgoing and an excellent student, to a morose, detached, and sullen boy who constantly fought with his father and teachers.[20]
Alois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps.[21] Hitler later dramatised an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a customs office, depicting it as an event that gave rise to an unforgiving antagonism between father and son, who were both strong-willed.[22][23][24] Ignoring his son's desire to attend a classical high school and become an artist, in September 1900 Alois sent Adolf to the Realschule in Linz.[25] (This was the same high school that Adolf Eichmann would attend some 17 years later.)[26] Hitler rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kampf revealed that he did poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw "what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream."[27]
Hitler became obsessed with German nationalism from a young age.[28] He expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically-variegated empire.[29][30] Hitler and his friends used the German greeting "Heil", and sang the German anthem "Deutschland Über Alles" instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem.[31]
After Alois' sudden death on 3 January 1903, Hitler's performance at school deteriorated. His mother allowed him to quit in autumn 1905.[32] He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904; his behaviour and performance showed some slight and gradual improvement.[33] In the autumn of 1905, after passing a repeat and the final exam, Hitler left the school without showing any ambitions for further schooling or clear plans for a career.[34]
Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich[link]
File:The Courtyard of the Old Residency in Munich - Adolf Hitler.jpg
The Alter Hof in Munich. Watercolour by Adolf Hitler, 1914
From 1905, Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna, financed by orphan's benefits and support from his mother. He worked as a casual labourer and eventually as a painter, selling watercolours. The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna rejected him twice, in 1907 and 1908, because of his "unfitness for painting". The director recommended that Hitler study architecture,[35] but he lacked the academic credentials.[36] On 21 December 1907, his mother died aged 47. After the Academy's second rejection, Hitler ran out of money. In 1909 he lived in a homeless shelter, and by 1910, he had settled into a house for poor working men on Meldemannstraße.[37] At the time Hitler lived there, Vienna was a hotbed of religious prejudice and 19th-century racism.[38] Fears of being overrun by immigrants from the East were widespread, and the populist mayor, Karl Lueger, exploited the rhetoric of virulent antisemitism for political effect. Georg Schönerer's pan-Germanic antisemitism had a strong following and base in the Mariahilf district, where Hitler lived.[39] Hitler read local newspapers, such as the Deutsches Volksblatt, that fanned prejudice and played on Christian fears of being swamped by an influx of eastern Jews.[40] Hostile to what he saw as Catholic "Germanophobia", he developed an admiration for Martin Luther.[41]
The origin and first expression of Hitler's antisemitism have been difficult to locate.[42] Hitler states in Mein Kampf that he first became an antisemite in Vienna.[43] His close friend, August Kubizek, claimed that Hitler was a "confirmed antisemite" before he left Linz.[44] Kubizek's account has been challenged by historian Brigitte Hamann, who writes that Kubizek is the only person to have said that the young Hitler was an antisemite.[45] Hamann also notes that no antisemitic remark has been documented from Hitler during this period.[46] Historian Ian Kershaw suggests that if Hitler had made such remarks, they may have gone unnoticed because of the prevailing antisemitism in Vienna at that time.[47] Several sources provide strong evidence that Hitler had Jewish friends in his hostel and in other places in Vienna.[48][49] Historian Richard J. Evans states that "historians now generally agree that his notorious, murderous anti-Semitism emerged well after Germany’s defeat [in World War I], as a product of the paranoid 'stab-in-the-back' explanation for the catastrophe".[50]
Hitler received the final part of his father's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich.[51] Historians believe he left Vienna to evade conscription into the Austrian army.[52] Hitler later claimed that he did not wish to serve the Habsburg Empire because of the mixture of "races" in its army.[51] After he was deemed unfit for service—he failed his physical exam in Salzburg on 5 February 1914—he returned to Munich.[53]
World War I[link]
Main article: Military career of Adolf Hitler
At the outbreak of World War I, Hitler applied to serve in the German army. He was accepted in August 1914, likely as the result of a clerical oversight—he was still an Austrian citizen.[54] Posted to the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 (1st Company of the List Regiment),[55][54] he served as a dispatch runner on the Western Front in France and Belgium,[56] spending nearly half his time well behind the front lines.[57][58] He was present at the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of Arras, and the Battle of Passchendaele, and was wounded at the Somme.[59]
He was decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross, Second Class, in 1914.[59] Recommended by Hugo Gutmann, he received the Iron Cross, First Class, on 4 August 1918,[60] a decoration rarely awarded to one of Hitler's rank (Gefreiter). Hitler's post at regimental headquarters, providing frequent interactions with senior officers, may have helped him receive this decoration.[61] Though his rewarded actions may have been courageous, they were probably not highly exceptional.[62] He also received the Black Wound Badge on 18 May 1918.[63]
During his service at the headquarters, Hitler pursued his artwork, drawing cartoons and instructions for an army newspaper. During the Battle of the Somme in October 1916, he was wounded either in the groin area[64] or the left thigh by a shell that had exploded in the dispatch runners' dugout.[65] Hitler spent almost two months in the Red Cross hospital at Beelitz, returning to his regiment on 5 March 1917.[66] On 15 October 1918, he was temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk.[67] While there, Hitler learnt of Germany's defeat,[68] and—by his own account—on receiving this news, he suffered a second bout of blindness.[69]
Hitler became embittered over the collapse of the war effort, and his ideological development began to firmly take shape.[70] He described the war as "the greatest of all experiences", and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery.[71] The experience reinforced his passionate German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918.[72] Like other German nationalists, he believed in the Dolchstoßlegende (Stab-in-the-back legend), which claimed that the German army, "undefeated in the field," had been "stabbed in the back" on the home front by civilian leaders and Marxists, later dubbed the "November criminals".[73]
The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany must relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the Rhineland. The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied heavy reparations on the country. Many Germans perceived the treaty—especially Article 231, which declared Germany responsible for the war—as a humiliation.[74] The Versailles Treaty and the economic, social, and political conditions in Germany after the war were later exploited by Hitler for political gains.[75]
Entry into politics[link]
Main article: Adolf Hitler's political views
After World War I Hitler returned to Munich.[76] Having no formal education and career plans or prospects, he tried to remain in the army for as long as possible.[77] In July 1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklärungskommando (reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr, to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers' Party (DAP). While monitoring the activities of the DAP, Hitler became attracted to the founder Anton Drexler's antisemitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Marxist ideas.[78] Drexler favoured a strong active government, a "non-Jewish" version of socialism, and solidarity among all members of society. Impressed with Hitler's oratory skills, Drexler invited him to join the DAP. Hitler accepted on 12 September 1919,[79] becoming the party's 55th member.[80]
At the DAP, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of its early founders and a member of the occult Thule Society.[81] Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and introducing him to a wide range of people in Munich society.[82] To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party – NSDAP).[83] Hitler designed the party's banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background.[84]
Hitler was discharged from the army in March 1920 and began working full time for the NSDAP. In February 1921—already highly effective at speaking to large audiences—he spoke to a crowd of over 6,000 in Munich.[85] To publicise the meeting, two truckloads of party supporters drove around town waving swastika flags and throwing leaflets. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy, polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, and especially against Marxists and Jews.[86] At the time, the NSDAP was centred in Munich, a major hotbed of anti-government German nationalists determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic.[87]
In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of the its executive committee, some of whom considered Hitler to be too overbearing, wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP).[88] Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July 1921 and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that his resignation would mean the end of the party.[89] Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich.[90] The committee agreed; he rejoined the party as member 3,680. He still faced some opposition within the NSDAP: Hermann Esser and his allies printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party.[90][a] In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself, to thunderous applause. His strategy proved successful: at a general membership meeting, he was granted absolute powers as party chairman, with only one nay vote cast.[91]
Hitler's vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting regular audiences. He became adept at using populist themes targeted at his audience, including the use of scapegoats who could be blamed for the economic hardships of his listeners.[92][93][94] Historians have noted the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly ... Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal. The word shows up again and again; Hitler is said to have mesmerized the nation, captured them in a trance from which they could not break loose."[95] Historian Hugh Trevor-Roper described "the fascination of those eyes, which had bewitched so many seemingly sober men."[96] He used his personal magnetism and an understanding of crowd psychology to his advantage while engaged in public speaking.[97][98] Alfons Heck, a former member of the Hitler Youth, describes the reaction to a speech by Hitler: "We erupted into a frenzy of nationalistic pride that bordered on hysteria. For minutes on end, we shouted at the top of our lungs, with tears streaming down our faces: Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil! From that moment on, I belonged to Adolf Hitler body and soul".[99] Although his oratory skills and personal traits were generally received well by large crowds and at official events, some who had met Hitler privately noted that his appearance and demeanour failed to make a lasting impression on them.[100][101]
Early followers included Rudolf Hess, former air force pilot Hermann Göring, and army captain Ernst Röhm. The latter became head of the Nazis' paramilitary organisation, the Sturmabteilung (SA, "Stormtroopers"), which protected meetings and frequently attacked political opponents. A critical influence on his thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung,[102] a conspiratorial group formed of White Russian exiles and early National Socialists. The group, financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists like Henry Ford, introduced him to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy, linking international finance with Bolshevism.[103]
Beer Hall Putsch[link]
Main article: Beer Hall Putsch
Hitler enlisted the help of World War I General Erich Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the "Beer Hall Putsch" (also known as the "Hitler Putsch" or "Munich Putsch"). The Nazi Party had used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies. Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini's "March on Rome" (1922) by staging his own coup in Bavaria, to be followed by challenging the government in Berlin. Hitler and Ludendorff sought the support of Staatskommissar (state commissioner) Gustav von Kahr, Bavaria's de facto ruler. However, Kahr, along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser (Seißer) and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow, wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler.[104]
Hitler wanted to seize a critical moment for successful popular agitation and support.[105] On 8 November 1923 he and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3,000 people that had been organised by Kahr in the Bürgerbräukeller, a large beer hall in Munich. Hitler interrupted Kahr's speech and announced that the national revolution had begun, declaring the formation of a new government with Ludendorff.[106] Retiring to a backroom, Hitler, with handgun drawn, demanded and got the support of Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow.[106] Hitler's forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters; however, Kahr and his consorts quickly withdrew their support and neither the army nor the state police joined forces with him.[107] The next day, Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government, but police dispersed them.[108] Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup.[109]
Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl, and by some accounts contemplated suicide.[110] He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason.[111] His trial began in February 1924 before the special People's Court in Munich,[112] and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP. On 1 April Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison.[113] He received friendly treatment from the guards; he was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades. The Bavarian Supreme Court issued a pardon and he was released from jail on 20 December 1924, against the state prosecutor's objections.[114] Including time on remand, Hitler had served just over one year in prison.[115]
While at Landsberg, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy, Rudolf Hess.[115] The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and an exposition of his ideology. Mein Kampf was influenced by The Passing of the Great Race by Madison Grant, which Hitler called "my Bible".[116] The book laid out Hitler's plans for transforming German society into one based on race. Some passages implied genocide.[117] Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. One million copies were sold in 1933, Hitler's first year in office. [118]
Rebuilding the NSDAP[link]
File:Hitler 1928.jpg
Hitler (left), standing behind Hermann Göring at a Nazi rally in Nuremberg (c. 1928)
At the time of Hitler's release from prison, politics in Germany had become less combative, and the economy had improved. This limited Hitler's opportunities for political agitation. As a result of the failed Beer Hall Putsch, the NSDAP and its affiliated organisations were banned in Bavaria. In a meeting with Prime Minister of Bavaria Heinrich Held on 4 January 1925, Hitler agreed to respect the authority of the state: he would only seek political power through the democratic process. The meeting paved the way for the ban on the NSDAP to be lifted.[119] However, Hitler was barred from public speaking, [120] a ban that remained in place until 1927.[121] To advance his political ambitions in spite of the ban, Hitler appointed Gregor Strasser, Otto Strasser, and Joseph Goebbels to organise and grow the NSDAP in northern Germany. A superb organiser, Gregor Strasser steered a more independent political course, emphasising the socialist element of the party's programme.[122]
Hitler ruled the NSDAP autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip ("Leader principle"). Rank in the party was not determined by elections—positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank, who demanded unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader.[123]
The stock market in the United States crashed on 24 October 1929. The impact in Germany was dire: millions were thrown out of work and several major banks collapsed. Hitler and the NSDAP prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party. They promised to repudiate the Versailles Treaty, strengthen the economy, and provide jobs.[124]
Rise to power[link]
Main article: Adolf Hitler's rise to power
| Date | Total votes |
Votes, percentage |
Reichstag seats |
Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 01924-05-01May 1, 1924May 1924 | &100000000019183000000001,918,300 | &100000000000000065000006.5 | &1000000000000003200000032 | Hitler in prison |
| 01924-12-01December 1, 1924December 1924 | &10000000000907300000000907,300 | &100000000000000030000003.0 | &1000000000000001400000014 | Hitler released from prison |
| 01928-05-01May 1, 1928May 1928 | &10000000000810100000000810,100 | &100000000000000026000002.6 | &1000000000000001200000012 | |
| 01930-09-01September 1, 1930September 1930 | &100000000064096000000006,409,600 | &1000000000000001830000018.3 | &10000000000000107000000107 | After the financial crisis |
| 01932-07-01July 1, 1932July 1932 | &1000000001374500000000013,745,000 | &1000000000000003729999937.3 | &10000000000000230000000230 | After Hitler was candidate for presidency |
| 01932-11-01November 1, 1932November 1932 | &1000000001173700000000011,737,000 | &1000000000000003310000033.1 | &10000000000000196000000196 | |
| 01933-03-01March 1, 1933March 1933 | &1000000001727718000000017,277,180 | &1000000000000004389999943.9 | &10000000000000288000000288 | During Hitler's term as chancellor of Germany |
Brüning administration[link]
The Great Depression in Germany provided a political opportunity for Hitler. Germans were ambivalent to the parliamentary republic, which faced strong challenges from right- and left-wing extremists. The moderate political parties were increasingly unable to stem the tide of extremism, and the German referendum of 1929 had helped to elevate Nazi ideology.[126] The elections of September 1930 resulted in the break-up of a grand coalition and its replacement with a minority cabinet. Its leader, chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Centre Party, governed through emergency decrees from the president, Paul von Hindenburg. Governance by decree would become the new norm and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government.[127] The NSDAP rose from obscurity to win 18.3% of the vote and 107 parliamentary seats in the 1930 election, becoming the second-largest party in parliament.[128]
Hitler made a prominent appearance at the trial of two Reichswehr officers, Lieutenants Richard Scheringer and Hans Ludin, in the autumn of 1930. Both were charged with membership in the NSDAP, at that time illegal for Reichswehr personnel.[129] The prosecution argued that the NSDAP was an extremist party, prompting defence lawyer Hans Frank to call on Hitler to testify in court.[130] On 25 September 1930 Hitler testified that his party would pursue political power solely through democratic elections,[131] a testimony that won him many supporters in the officer corps.[132]
Brüning's austerity measures brought little economic improvement and were extremely unpopular.[133] Hitler exploited this by targeting his political messages specifically at people who had been affected by the inflation of the 1920s and the Depression, such as farmers, war veterans, and the middle class.[134]
Hitler had formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925, but at the time did not acquire German citizenship. For almost seven years Hitler was stateless, unable to run for public office, and faced the risk of deportation.[135] On 25 February 1932 the interior minister of Brunswick, who was a member of the NSDAP, appointed Hitler as administrator for the state's delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin, making Hitler a citizen of Brunswick,[136] and thus of Germany.[137]
In 1932 Hitler ran against von Hindenburg in the presidential elections. The viability of his candidacy was underscored by a 27 January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in Düsseldorf, which won him support from many of Germany's most powerful industrialists.[138] However, Hindenburg had support from various nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, and republican parties, and some social democrats. Hitler used the campaign slogan "Hitler über Deutschland" ("Hitler over Germany"), a reference to both his political ambitions and to his campaigning by aircraft.[139] Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering more than 35% of the vote in the final election. Although he lost to Hindenburg, this election established Hitler as a strong force in German politics.[140]
Appointment as chancellor[link]
The absence of an effective government prompted two influential politicians, Franz von Papen and Alfred Hugenberg, along with several other industrialists and businessmen, to write a letter to von Hindenburg. The signers urged Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as leader of a government "independent from parliamentary parties", which could turn into a movement that would "enrapture millions of people".[141][142]
Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after two further parliamentary elections—in July and November 1932—had not resulted in the formation of a majority government. Hitler was to head a short-lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and Hugenberg's party, the German National People's Party (DNVP). On 30 January 1933 the new cabinet was sworn in during a brief and simple ceremony in Hindenburg's office. The NSDAP held three of the eleven posts: Hitler was named chancellor, Hermann Göring was named minister without portfolio, and Wilhelm Frick was appointed minister of the interior.[143]
Reichstag fire and March elections[link]
As chancellor, Hitler worked against attempts by the NSDAP's opponents to build a majority government. Because of the political stalemate, he asked President Hindenburg to again dissolve the Reichstag, and elections were scheduled for early March. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire. Göring blamed a communist plot, because Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe was found in incriminating circumstances inside the burning building.[144] At Hitler's urging, Hindenburg responded with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February, which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. Activities of the German Communist Party were suppressed, and some 4,000 communist party members were arrested.[145] Researchers, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock, are of the opinion that the NSDAP itself was responsible for starting the fire.[146][147]
In addition to political campaigning, the NSDAP engaged in paramilitary violence and the spread of anti-communist propaganda in the days preceding the election. On election day, 6 March 1933, the NSDAP's share of the vote increased to 43.9%, and the party acquired the largest number of seats in parliament. However, Hitler's party failed to secure an absolute majority, necessitating another coalition with the DNVP.[148]
Day of Potsdam and the Enabling Act[link]
On 21 March 1933 the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam. This "Day of Potsdam" was held to demonstrate unity between the Nazi movement and the old Prussian elite and military. Hitler appeared in a morning coat and humbly greeted President von Hindenburg.[149][150]
To achieve full political control despite not having an absolute majority in parliament, Hitler's government brought the Ermächtigungsgesetz (Enabling Act) to a vote in the newly elected Reichstag. The act gave Hitler's cabinet full legislative powers for a period of four years and (with certain exceptions) allowed deviations from the constitution.[151] The bill required a two-thirds majority to pass. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to keep several Social Democratic deputies from attending; the Communists had already been banned.[152]
On 23 March, the Reichstag assembled at the Kroll Opera House under turbulent circumstances. Ranks of SA men served as guards inside the building, while large groups outside opposing the proposed legislation shouted slogans and threats toward the arriving members of parliament.[153] The position of the Centre Party, the third largest party in the Reichstag, turned out to be decisive. After Hitler verbally promised party leader Ludwig Kaas that President von Hindenburg would retain his power of veto, Kaas announced the Centre Party would support the Enabling Act. Ultimately, the Enabling Act passed by a vote of 441–84, with all parties except the Social Democrats voting in favour. The Enabling Act, along with the Reichstag Fire Decree, transformed Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship.[154]
Removal of remaining limits[link]
At the risk of appearing to talk nonsense I tell you that the National Socialist movement will go on for 1,000 years! ... Don't forget how people laughed at me 15 years ago when I declared that one day I would govern Germany. They laugh now, just as foolishly, when I declare that I shall remain in power!
— Adolf Hitler to a British correspondent in Berlin, June 1934[155]
Having achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government, Hitler and his political allies embarked on a systematic suppression of the remaining political opposition. The Social Democratic Party was banned and all its assets seized.[156] While many trade union delegates were in Berlin for May Day activities, SA stormtroopers demolished trade union offices around the country. On 2 May 1933 all trade unions were forced to dissolve and their leaders were arrested; some were sent to concentration camps.[157] The German Labour Front was formed to represent all workers, administrators, and company owners together as one group. This new labour organisation reflected the concept of national socialism in the spirit of Hitler's "Volksgemeinschaft" (German racial community).[158]
By the end of June, the other parties had been intimidated into disbanding. With the help of the SA, Hitler pressured his nominal coalition partner, Hugenberg, into resigning. On 14 July 1933 Hitler's Nazi Party was declared the only legal political party in Germany.[158][156] The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused much anxiety among military, industrial, and political leaders. Hitler responded by purging the entire SA leadership in what became known as the Night of the Long Knives, which took place from 30 June to 2 July 1934.[159] Hitler targeted Ernst Röhm and other political adversaries (such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher). Röhm and other SA leaders, along with a number of Hitler's political enemies, were rounded up, arrested, and shot.[160] While the international community and some Germans were shocked by the murders, many in Germany saw Hitler as restoring order.[161]
On 2 August 1934 President von Hindenburg died. The previous day, the cabinet had enacted a law to take effect upon Hindenburg's death which abolished the office of president and combined its powers with those of the chancellor. Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government, and was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor).[162] This law actually violated the Enabling Act. While the Enabling Act allowed Hitler to deviate from the constitution, it explicitly barred him from passing any law that tampered with the presidency. In 1932, the constitution had been amended to make the president of the High Court of Justice, not the chancellor, acting president pending new elections.[163] With this law, Hitler removed the last legal remedy by which he could be removed from office.
As head of state, Hitler became Supreme Commander of the armed forces. The traditional loyalty oath of soldiers and sailors was altered to affirm loyalty to Hitler personally, rather than to the office of supreme commander.[164] On 19 August, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by a plebiscite with support of 90% of the electorate.[165]
In early 1938 Hitler forced his War Minister, Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, to resign when a police dossier was discovered showing that Blomberg's new wife had a record for prostitution.[166][167] Hitler removed army commander Colonel-General Werner von Fritsch after the Schutzstaffel (SS) produced allegations that he had taken part in a homosexual relationship.[168] Both men had already fallen into disfavour when they objected to his demand that they have the Wehrmacht ready to go to war as early as 1938.[169] Hitler used this incident, known as the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, to consolidate his hold over the military. He assumed Blomberg's title of Commander-in-Chief, thus taking personal command of the armed forces. He replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (High Command of the Armed Forces, or OKW), headed by General Wilhelm Keitel. On the same day, sixteen generals were stripped of their commands and 44 more were transferred; all were suspected of not being sufficiently pro-Nazi.[170] By early February 1938, twelve other generals had been removed.[171]
Having consolidated his political powers, Hitler suppressed or eliminated his opposition by a process termed Gleichschaltung ("bringing into line"). He attempted to gain additional public support by vowing to reverse the effects of the Depression and the Versailles Treaty.
Third Reich[link]
Main article: Nazi Germany
Economy and culture[link]
In 1935 Hitler appointed Hjalmar Schacht as Plenipotentiary for War Economy, in charge of preparing the economy for war. Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills, printing money, and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State, including Jews.[172] Unemployment fell substantially, from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936.[173] Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. Wages were slightly reduced in the pre–World War II years over those of the Weimar Republic, while the cost of living increased by 25%.[174]
Hitler's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale. Albert Speer, instrumental in implementing Hitler's classicist reinterpretation of German culture, was placed in charge of the proposed architectural renovations of Berlin.[175] In 1936 Hitler opened the summer Olympic games in Berlin.
Rearmament and new alliances[link]
In a meeting with German military leaders on 3 February 1933, Hitler spoke of "conquest for Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation" as his ultimate foreign policy objectives.[176] In March, Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow, secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office), issued a major statement of German foreign policy aims: Anschluss with Austria, the restoration of Germany's national borders of 1914, rejection of military restrictions under the Treaty of Versailles, the return of the former German colonies in Africa, and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe. Hitler found Bülow's goals to be too modest.[177] In his speeches of this period, he stressed the peaceful goals of his policies and willingness to work within international agreements.[178] At the first meeting of his Cabinet in 1933, Hitler prioritised military spending over unemployment relief.[179]
File:Hitlermusso2 edit.jpg
On 25 October 1936 an Axis was declared between Italy and Germany.
Germany withdrew from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference in October 1933.[180] In March 1935 Hitler announced an expansion of the Wehrmacht to 600,000 members—six times the number permitted by the Versailles Treaty—including development of an Air Force (Luftwaffe) and increasing the size of the Navy (Kriegsmarine). Britain, France, Italy, and the League of Nations condemned these plans as violations of the Treaty.[181] The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 18 June 1935 allowed German tonnage to increase to 35% of that of the British navy. Hitler called the signing of the AGNA "the happiest day of his life", as he believed the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo-German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf.[182] France and Italy were not consulted before the signing, directly undermining the League of Nations and putting the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance.[183]
Germany reoccupied the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in March 1936, in violation the Versailles Treaty. Hitler sent troops to Spain to support General Franco after receiving an appeal for help in July 1936. At the same time, Hitler continued his efforts to create an Anglo-German alliance.[184] In response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament efforts, Hitler issued a memorandum ordering Göring to carry out a Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within the next four years.[185] The "Four-Year Plan Memorandum" of August 1936 envisaged an all-out struggle between "Judeo-Bolshevism" and German national socialism, which in Hitler's view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs.[186]
Count Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Benito Mussolini's government, declared an axis between Germany and Italy, and on 25 November, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Britain, China, Italy, and Poland were also invited to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, but only Italy signed in 1937. Hitler abandoned his dream of an Anglo-German alliance, blaming "inadequate" British leadership.[187] At a secret meeting in the Reich Chancellery with his foreign ministers and military chiefs that November, Hitler stated his intention of acquiring Lebensraum ("living space") for the German people. He ordered preparations for war in the east, to begin as early as 1938 and no later than 1943. He stated that the conference minutes, recorded as the Hossbach Memorandum, were to be regarded as his "political testament" in the event of his death.[188] He felt the German economic crisis had reached a point that a severe decline in living standards in Germany could only be stopped by a policy of military aggression—seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia.[189][190] Hitler urged quick action, before Britain and France obtained a permanent lead in the arms race.[189] In early 1938, in the wake of the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Hitler asserted control of the military-foreign policy apparatus, dismissing Neurath as Foreign Minister and appointing himself Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht (supreme commander of the armed forces).[185] From early 1938 onwards, Hitler was carrying out a foreign policy ultimately aimed at war.[191]
The Holocaust[link]
Main article: The Holocaust
If the international Jewish financiers outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will not be the bolshevisation of the earth, and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe![192]
— Adolf Hitler addressing the German Reichstag, 30 January 1939
A main Nazi concept was the notion of racial hygiene. On 15 September 1935, Hitler presented two laws—known as the Nuremberg Laws—to the Reichstag. The laws banned marriage between non-Jewish and Jewish Germans, and forbade the employment of non-Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households. The laws deprived so-called "non-Aryans" of the benefits of German citizenship.[193] Hitler's early eugenic policies targeted children with physical and developmental disabilities in a programme dubbed Action Brandt, and later authorized a euthanasia programme for adults with serious mental and physical handicaps, now usually referred to as Action T4.[194]
Hitler's idea of Lebensraum, espoused briefly in Mein Kampf, focused on acquiring new territory for German settlement in Eastern Europe.[195] The Generalplan Ost ("General Plan for the East") called for the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to be deported to West Siberia, used as slave labour, or murdered;[196] the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or "Germanised" settlers.[197] The original plan called for this process to begin after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when that failed to happen, Hitler moved the plans forward.[196][198] By January 1942 the decision had been taken to kill the Jews and other deportees considered undesirable.[199]
The Holocaust (the "Endlösung der jüdischen Frage" or "Final Solution of the Jewish Question") was organised and executed by Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich. The records of the Wannsee Conference—held on 20 January 1942 and led by Heydrich, with fifteen senior Nazi officials participating—provide the clearest evidence of systematic planning for the Holocaust. On 22 February Hitler was recorded saying to his associates, "we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews".[200] Approximately thirty Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps were used for this purpose.[201] By summer 1942 Auschwitz concentration camp was rapidly expanded to accept large numbers of deportees for killing or enslavement.[202]
Although no specific order from Hitler authorising the mass killings has surfaced,[203] he approved the Einsatzgruppen—killing squads that followed the German army through Poland, the Baltic, and the Soviet Union[204]—and he was well informed about their activities.[205] During interrogations by Soviet intelligence officers, the records of which were declassified over fifty years later, Hitler's valet, Heinz Linge, and his adjutant, Otto Günsche, stated that Hitler had a direct interest in the development of gas chambers.[206]
Between 1939 and 1945, the SS, assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries, were responsible for the deaths of eleven to fourteen million people, including about six million Jews, representing two-thirds of the Jewish population in Europe,[207][208] and between 500,000 and 1,500,000 Roma.[209] Deaths took place in concentration and extermination camps, ghettos, and through mass executions. Many victims of the Holocaust were gassed to death, whereas others died of starvation or disease while working as slave labourers.[210]
Hitler's policies also resulted in the killings of Poles[211] and Soviet prisoners of war, communists and other political opponents, homosexuals, the physically and mentally disabled,[212][213] Jehovah's Witnesses, Adventists, and trade unionists. Hitler never appeared to have visited the concentration camps and did not speak publicly about the killings.[214]
World War II[link]
Early diplomatic successes[link]
Alliance with Japan[link]
Main article: Germany–Japan relations
In February 1938, on the advice of his newly appointed Foreign Minister, the strongly pro-Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler ended the Sino-German alliance with the Republic of China to instead enter into an alliance with the more modern and powerful Japan. Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese-occupied state in Manchuria, and renounced German claims to their former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan.[215] Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to China and recalled all German officers working with the Chinese Army.[215] In retaliation, Chinese General Chiang Kai-shek cancelled all Sino-German economic agreements, depriving the Germans of many Chinese raw materials, though they did continue to ship tungsten, a key metal in armaments production, through to 1939.[216]
Austria and Czechoslovakia[link]
On 12 March 1938 Hitler declared unification of Austria with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss.[217][218] Hitler then turned his attention to the ethnic German population of the Sudetenland district of Czechoslovakia.[219]
On 28–29 March 1938 Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten Heimfront (Home Front), the largest of the ethnic German parties of the Sudetenland. The men agreed that Henlein would demand increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans from the Czechoslovakian government, thus providing a pretext for German military action against Czechoslovakia. In April 1938 Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that "whatever the Czech government might offer, he would always raise still higher demands ... he wanted to sabotage an understanding by all means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia quickly".[220] In private, Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant; his real intention was a war of conquest against Czechoslovakia.[221]
In April 1938 Hitler ordered the OKW to prepare for Fall Grün ("Case Green"), the code name for an invasion of Czechoslovakia.[222] As a result of intense French and British diplomatic pressure, on 5 September 1938 Czechoslovakian President Edvard Beneš unveiled the "Fourth Plan" for constitutional reorganisation of his country, which agreed to most of Henlein's demands for Sudeten autonomy.[223] Henlein's Heimfront responded to Beneš' offer with a series of violent clashes with the Czechoslovakian police that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts.[224][225]
Germany was dependent on imported oil; a confrontation with Britain over the Czechoslovakian dispute could curtail Germany's oil supplies. Hitler called off Fall Grün, originally planned for 1 October 1938.[226] On 29 September 1938 Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Édouard Daladier, and Benito Mussolini attended a one-day conference in Munich that led to the Munich Agreement, which handed over the Sudetenland districts to Germany.[227][228]
Chamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference, calling the outcome "peace for our time", while Hitler was angered about the missed opportunity for war in 1938;[229][230] he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9 October 1938 in Saarbrücken.[231] In Hitler's view, the British-brokered peace, although favourable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany.[232][233] As a result of the summit, Hitler was selected Time magazine's Man of the Year for 1938.[234]
In late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts.[235] In his "Export or die" speech of 30 January 1939, he called for an economic offensive to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high-grade iron needed for military weapons.[235]
On 15 March 1939, in violation of the Munich accord and possibly as a result of the deepening economic crisis requiring additional assets,[236] Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to invade Prague, and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.[237]
Start of World War II[link]
In private discussions in 1939, Hitler described Britain as the main enemy to be defeated. In his view, Poland's obliteration as a sovereign nation was a necessary prelude to that goal. The eastern flank would be secured and land would be added to Germany's Lebensraum.[238] Hitler wanted Poland to become either a German satellite state or be otherwise neutralised to secure the Reich's eastern flank, and to prevent a possible British blockade.[239] Initially, Hitler favoured the idea of a satellite state; this was rejected by the Polish government. Therefore, Hitler decided to invade Poland; he made this the main German foreign policy goal of 1939.[240] Hitler was offended by the British "guarantee" of Polish independence issued on 31 March 1939, and told his associates that "I shall brew them a devil's drink".[241] In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship Tirpitz on 1 April 1939, Hitler threatened to denounce the Anglo-German Naval Agreement if the British persisted with their guarantee of Polish independence, which he perceived as an "encirclement" policy.[241] On 3 April 1939 Hitler ordered the military to prepare for Fall Weiss ("Case White"), the plan for an invasion of Poland on 25 August 1939.[240] In a speech before the Reichstag on 28 April he renounced both the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact. In August Hitler told his generals that his original plan for 1939 was to "... establish an acceptable relationship with Poland in order to fight against the West". Since Poland refused to become a German satellite, Hitler stated his only option was the invasion of Poland.[242] Historians such as William Carr, Gerhard Weinberg, and Ian Kershaw have argued that one reason for Hitler's rush to war was his morbid and obsessive fear of an early death, and hence his feeling that he did not have long to accomplish his work.[243][244][245]
Hitler was concerned that a military attack against Poland could result in a premature war with Britain.[239][246] However, Hitler's foreign minister—and former Ambassador to London—Joachim von Ribbentrop assured him that neither Britain nor France would honour their commitments to Poland, and that a German–Polish war would only be a limited regional war.[247][248] Ribbentrop claimed that in December 1938 the French foreign minister, Georges Bonnet, had stated that France considered Eastern Europe as Germany's exclusive sphere of influence;[249] Ribbentrop showed Hitler diplomatic cables that supported his analysis.[250] The German Ambassador in London, Herbert von Dirksen, supported Ribbentrop's analysis with a dispatch in August 1939, reporting that Chamberlain knew "the social structure of Britain, even the conception of the British Empire, would not survive the chaos of even a victorious war", and so would back down.[248] Accordingly, on 21 August 1939 Hitler ordered a military mobilisation against Poland.[251]
Hitler's plans for a military campaign in Poland in late August or early September required tacit Soviet support.[252] The non-aggression pact (the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) between Germany and the Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin,[253] included secret protocols with an agreement to partition Poland between the two countries. In response to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact—and contrary to the prediction of Ribbentrop that the newly-formed pact would sever Anglo-Polish ties—Britain and Poland signed the Anglo-Polish alliance on 25 August 1939. This, along with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honour the Pact of Steel, caused Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25 August to 1 September.[254] In the days before the start of the war, Hitler tried to manoeuvre the British into neutrality by offering a non-aggression guarantee to the British Empire on 25 August and by having Ribbentrop present a last-minute peace plan with an impossibly short time limit in an effort to then blame the war on British and Polish inaction.[255][256]
As a pretext for a military aggression against Poland, Hitler claimed the Free City of Danzig and the right to extraterritorial roads across the Polish Corridor, which Germany had ceded under the Versailles Treaty.[257] Despite his concerns over a possible British intervention, Hitler was ultimately not deterred from his aim of invading Poland,[258] and on 1 September 1939 Germany invaded western Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September. This surprised Hitler, prompting him to turn to Ribbentrop and angrily ask "Now what?"[259] France and Britain did not act on their declarations immediately, and on 17 September, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland.[260]
Poland never will rise again in the form of the Versailles treaty. That is guaranteed not only by Germany, but also ... Russia.
The fall of Poland was followed by what contemporary journalists dubbed the "Phoney War" or Sitzkrieg ("sitting war"). Hitler instructed the two newly-appointed Gauleiters of north-western Poland, Albert Forster of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia and Arthur Greiser of Reichsgau Wartheland, to "Germanise" their areas, and promised them "There would be no questions asked" about how this was accomplished.[262] To Himmler's chagrin, Forster had local Poles sign forms stating that they had German blood, and required no further documentation.[263] On the other hand, Greiser carried out a brutal ethnic cleansing campaign on the Polish population in his purview.[262] Greiser complained to Hitler that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as "racial" Germans and thus, in Greiser's view, endangering German "racial purity". Hitler told Himmler and Greiser to take up their difficulties with Forster, and not to involve him.[262] Hitler's handling of the Forster–Greiser dispute has been advanced as an example of Kershaw's theory of "working towards the Führer": Hitler issued vague instructions and expected his subordinates to work out policies on their own.
Another dispute broke out between different factions. One side, represented by Himmler and Greiser, championed carrying out ethnic cleansing in Poland, and another side, represented by Göring and Hans Frank, Governor-General of the General Government territory of occupied Poland, called for turning Poland into the "granary" of the Reich.[264] At a conference held at Göring's Karinhall estate on 12 February 1940, the dispute was initially settled in favour of the Göring–Frank view of economic exploitation, which ended the economically disruptive mass expulsions.[264] On 15 May 1940, however, Himmler presented Hitler with a memo entitled "Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East", which called for expulsion of the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and reducing the remainder of the Polish population to a "leaderless class of labourers".[264] Hitler called Himmler's memo "good and correct";[264] and, ignoring Göring and Frank, implemented the Himmler–Greiser policy in Poland.
File:Adolf Hitler in Paris 1940.jpg
Hitler visits Paris with architect Albert Speer (left) and sculptor Arno Breker (right), 23 June 1940
Hitler began a military build-up on Germany's western border, and in April 1940, German forces invaded Denmark and Norway. On 9 April Hitler proclaimed the birth of the "Greater Germanic Reich" to his associates; this was his vision of a united empire of the Germanic nations of Europe, where the Dutch, Flemish, Scandinavians, and other peoples would join into a single, racially-pure polity under German leadership.[265] In May 1940, Hitler's forces attacked France, and conquered Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium. These victories prompted Mussolini to have Italy join forces with Hitler on 10 June 1940. France surrendered on 22 June 1940.[266]
Britain, whose forces were forced to leave France by sea from Dunkirk,[267] continued to fight alongside other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic. Hitler made peace overtures to the British, now led by Winston Churchill, and when these were rejected he ordered bombing raids on the United Kingdom. Hitler's prelude to a planned invasion of the UK was a series of aerial attacks in the Battle of Britain on Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations in South-East England. However, the German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force.[268]
On 27 September 1940 the Tripartite Pact was signed in Berlin by Saburō Kurusu of Imperial Japan, Hitler, and Italian foreign minister Ciano.[269] The agreement was later expanded to include Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. They were collectively known as the Axis powers. The purpose of the pact was to deter the United States from supporting the British. By the end of October 1940, air superiority for the invasion of Britain—Operation Sea Lion—could not be achieved, and Hitler ordered nightly air raids of British cities, including London, Plymouth, and Coventry.[270]
In the Spring of 1941, Hitler was distracted from his plans for the East by military activities in North Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East. In February, German forces arrived in Libya to bolster the Italian presence. In April, Hitler launched the invasion of Yugoslavia, quickly followed by the invasion of Greece.[271] In May, German forces were sent to support Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete. On 23 May, Hitler released Führer Directive No. 30.[272]
Path to defeat[link]
On 22 June 1941, contravening the Hitler-Stalin non-aggression pact of 1939, three million German troops attacked the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa.[273] The invasion seized a huge area, including the Baltic states, Belarus, and Ukraine. However, the German advance was stopped outside Moscow in December 1941 by the Russian Winter and fierce Soviet resistance.[274]
Soviet troop concentrations on Germany's eastern border in the spring of 1941 may have prompted Hitler to engage in a Flucht nach vorn ("flight forward") to get in front of an inevitable conflict.[275] Viktor Suvorov, Ernst Topitsch, Joachim Hoffmann, Ernst Nolte, and David Irving have argued that the official reason for Barbarossa given by the German military was the real reason—a preventive war to avert an impending Soviet attack scheduled for July 1941. This theory, however, has been faulted; American historian Gerhard Weinberg once compared the advocates of the preventive war theory to believers in "fairy tales".[276]
The Wehrmacht invasion of the Soviet Union reached its peak on 2 December 1941, when the 258th Infantry Division advanced to within 15 miles (24 km) of Moscow, close enough to see the spires of the Kremlin.[274] However, they were not prepared for the harsh conditions of the Russian winter, and Soviet forces drove back the German troops over 320 kilometres (200 mi).
On 7 December 1941 Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Four days later, Hitler's formal declaration of war against the United States engaged Germany in war against a coalition that included the world's largest empire (the British Empire), the world's greatest industrial and financial power (the United States), and the world's largest army (the Soviet Union).[277]
When Himmler met Hitler on 18 December 1941 and posed the question "What to do with the Jews of Russia?", Hitler replied "als Partisanen auszurotten" ("exterminate them as partisans").[278] Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark is probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the genocide carried out during the Holocaust.[278]
In late 1942 German forces were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein,[279] thwarting Hitler's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East. In February 1943 the Battle of Stalingrad ended with the destruction of the German Sixth Army. Thereafter came a decisive defeat at the Battle of Kursk.[280] Hitler's military judgment became increasingly erratic, and Germany's military and economic position deteriorated along with Hitler's health. Kershaw and others believe that Hitler may have suffered from Parkinson's disease.[281]
Following the allied invasion of Sicily in 1943, Mussolini was deposed by Pietro Badoglio,[282] who surrendered to the Allies. Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler's armies into retreat along the Eastern Front. On 6 June 1944 the Western Allied armies landed in northern France in what was one of the largest amphibious operations in history, Operation Overlord.[283] As a result of these significant setbacks for the German army, many of its officers concluded that defeat was inevitable and that Hitler's misjudgement or denial would drag out the war and result in the complete destruction of the country.[284] Several high-profile assassination attempts against Hitler occurred during this period.
Between 1939 and 1945 there were many plans to assassinate Hitler, some of which proceeded to significant degrees.[285] The most well-known came from within Germany and was at least partly driven by the increasing prospect of a German defeat in the war.[286] In July 1944, in the 20 July plot, part of Operation Valkyrie, Claus von Stauffenberg planted a bomb in one of Hitler's headquarters, the Wolf's Lair at Rastenburg. Hitler narrowly survived because someone had unknowingly pushed the briefcase that contained the bomb behind a leg of the heavy conference table. When the bomb exploded, the table deflected much of the blast away from Hitler. Later, Hitler ordered savage reprisals resulting in the execution of more than 4,900 people.[287]
Defeat and death[link]
Main article: Death of Adolf Hitler
By late 1944, the Red Army had driven the German army back into Western Europe, and the Western Allies were advancing into Germany. After being informed of the failure of his Ardennes Offensive, Hitler realised that Germany was going to lose the war. His hope, buoyed by the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April 1945, was to negotiate peace with America and Britain.[288] Acting on his view that Germany's military failures had forfeited its right to survive as a nation, Hitler ordered the destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied hands.[289] Execution of this scorched earth plan was entrusted to arms minister Albert Speer, who quietly disobeyed the order.[289]
On 20 April, his 56th birthday, Hitler made his last trip from the Führerbunker ("Führer's shelter") to the surface. In the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery, he awarded Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth.[290] By 21 April, Georgy Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the last defences of German General Gotthard Heinrici's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow Heights and advanced into the outskirts of Berlin.[291] In denial about the increasingly dire situation, Hitler placed his hopes on the units commanded by Waffen SS General Felix Steiner, the Armeeabteilung Steiner ("Army Detachment Steiner"). Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the salient and the German Ninth Army was ordered to attack northward in a pincer attack.[292]
During a military conference on 22 April, Hitler asked about Steiner's offensive. After a long silence, he was told that the attack had never been launched and that the Russians had broken through into Berlin. This news prompted Hitler to ask everyone except Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Jodl, Hans Krebs, and Wilhelm Burgdorf to leave the room.[293] Hitler then launched a tirade against the treachery and incompetence of his commanders, culminating in his declaration—for the first time—that the war was lost. Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself.[294]
Goebbels made a proclamation on 23 April urging the citizens of Berlin to courageously defend the city.[293] That same day, Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden in Bavaria, arguing that since Hitler was cut off in Berlin, he, Göring, should assume leadership of Germany. Göring set a time limit, after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated.[295] Hitler responded angrily by having Göring arrested, and when writing his will on 29 April, he removed Göring from all his positions in the government.[296][297]
Berlin became completely cut off from the rest of Germany.[298] On 28 April, Hitler discovered that Himmler was trying to discuss surrender terms with the Western Allies.[299] He ordered Himmler's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein (Himmler's SS representative at Hitler's HQ in Berlin) shot.[300]
After midnight on 29 April, Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in a map room within the Führerbunker. After a modest wedding breakfast with his new wife, he then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament.[301][b] The event was witnessed and documents signed by Hans Krebs, Wilhelm Burgdorf, Joseph Goebbels, and Martin Bormann.[302] Later that afternoon, Hitler was informed of the assassination of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, which presumably increased his determination to avoid capture.[303]
On 30 April 1945, after intense street-to-street combat, when Soviet troops were within a block or two of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler and Braun committed suicide; Braun bit into a cyanide capsule[304] and Hitler shot himself with his 7.65 mm (0.3 in) Walther PPK pistol.[305] The lifeless bodies of Hitler and Eva Braun were carried up the stairs and through the bunker's emergency exit to the bombed-out garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were placed in a bomb crater[306] and doused with petrol. The corpses were set on fire[307] and the Red Army shelling continued.[308]
Berlin surrendered on 2 May. Records in the Soviet archives—obtained after the fall of the Soviet Union—showed that the remains of Hitler, Braun, Joseph and Magda Goebbels, the six Goebbels children, General Hans Krebs, and Hitler's dogs, were repeatedly buried and exhumed.[309] On 4 April 1970 a Soviet KGB team with detailed burial charts secretly exhumed five wooden boxes which had been buried at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg. The remains from the boxes were thoroughly burned and crushed, after which the ashes were thrown into the Biederitz river, a tributary of the nearby Elbe.[310]
Legacy[link]
Further information: Consequences of Nazism and Neo-Nazism
Hitler's suicide was likened by contemporaries to a "spell" being broken.[311][312] According to Toland, without its leader, National Socialism "burst like a bubble".[313]
Hitler's actions and Nazi ideology are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral.[314] His political programme had brought about a world war, leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe. Germany itself suffered wholesale destruction, characterised as "Zero Hour".[315] Hitler's policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale;[316] the Nazi regime was responsible for the deaths of an estimated 21 million civilians and prisoners of war.[317] In addition, 29 million soldiers were killed in the European theater of World War II.[317] Historians, philosophers, and politicians often apply the word "evil" in describing the Nazi regime.[318] In Germany and Austria, Holocaust denial and the display of Nazi symbols such as the swastika are prohibited by law.
The German Liberal historian Friedrich Meinecke described Hitler as "one of the great examples of the singular and incalculable power of personality in historical life".[319] The English historian Hugh Trevor-Roper saw him as "among the 'terrible simplifiers' of history, the most systematic, the most historical, the most philosophical, and yet the coarsest, cruellest, least magnanimous conqueror the world has ever known."[320] For the historian John M. Roberts, Hitler's defeat marked the end of a phase of European history dominated by Germany.[321] In its place emerged the Cold War, a global confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States.[322]
Religious views[link]
Main article: Religious views of Adolf Hitler
Hitler saw the church as important politically, as a conservative influence on society. He felt that if the church were eliminated the faithful would turn to mysticism, which he thought would be a step backwards politically and culturally. Though he never officially left the Catholic church, he had no real attachment to it.[323] After leaving home he never attended Mass or received the sacraments.[324] He favoured aspects of Protestantism that suited his own views, and adopted some elements of the Catholic Church's hierarchical organisation, liturgy, and phraseology in his politics.[325][326] Historian Richard Steigmann-Gall concludes that he "can be classified as Catholic",[327] but that "nominal church membership is a very unreliable gauge of actual piety in this context."[328]
In public, Hitler often praised Christian heritage and German Christian culture, and professed a belief in an "Aryan" Jesus Christ—a Jesus who fought against the Jews.[329] He spoke of his interpretation of Christianity as a central motivation for his antisemitism, stating that "As a Christian I have no duty to allow myself to be cheated, but I have the duty to be a fighter for truth and justice."[330][331] In private, he was more critical of traditional Christianity, considering it a religion fit only for slaves; he admired the power of Rome but maintained a severe hostility towards its teaching.[332] Historian John S. Conway states that Hitler held a "fundamental antagonism" towards the Christian churches.[333]
In political relations with the church, Hitler adopted a strategy "that suited his immediate political purposes".[333] According to a US Office of Strategic Services report, Hitler had a general plan, even before his rise to power, to destroy the influence of Christian churches within the Reich.[334][335] The report titled "The Nazi Master Plan" stated that the destruction of the church was a goal of the movement right from the start, but that it was inexpedient to express this extreme position publicly.[336] His intention, according to Bullock, was to wait until the war was over to destroy the influence of Christianity.[332]
Hitler admired the Muslim military tradition, but considered Arabs as "racially inferior".[337] He believed that the racially-superior Germans, in conjunction with Islam, could have conquered much of the world during the Middle Ages.[338] During a meeting with a Japanese professor in 1931, Hitler praised the Shinto religion and Japanese culture.[339] Although Himmler was interested in the occult, the interpretation of runes, and tracing the prehistoric roots of the Germanic people, Hitler was more pragmatic, and his ideology centred on more practical concerns.[340][341]
Health[link]
Researchers have suggested that Hitler suffered from irritable bowel syndrome, skin lesions, irregular heartbeat, Parkinson's disease,[342][281] syphilis,[342] and tinnitus.[343] In a report prepared for the Office of Strategic Services in 1943, Walter C. Langer of Harvard University described Hitler as a "neurotic psychopath."[344] Theories about Hitler's medical condition are difficult to prove, and according them too much weight may have the effect of attributing many of the events and consequences of the Third Reich to the possibly impaired physical health of one individual.[345] Kershaw feels that it is better to take a broader view of German history by examining what social forces led to the Third Reich and its policies rather than to pursue narrow explanations for the Holocaust and World War II based on only one person.[346]
Hitler followed a vegetarian diet.[347] At social events he sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his dinner guests shun meat.[348] A fear of cancer (from which his mother died)[349] is the most widely cited reason for Hitler's dietary habits. An antivivisectionist, Hitler may have followed his selective diet out of a profound concern for animals.[350] Bormann had a greenhouse constructed near the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden) to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruit and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war. Hitler despised alcohol[351] and was a non-smoker. He promoted aggressive anti-smoking campaigns throughout Germany.[352] Hitler began using amphetamine occasionally after 1937 and became addicted to the drug in the fall of 1942.[353] Albert Speer linked this use of amphetamines to Hitler's increasingly inflexible decision making (for example, never to allow military retreats).[354]
Prescribed ninety different medications during the war years, Hitler took many pills each day for chronic stomach problems and other ailments.[355] He suffered ruptured eardrums as a result of the 20 July plot bomb blast in 1944, and two hundred wood splinters had to be removed from his legs.[356] Newsreel footage of Hitler shows tremors of his hand and a shuffling walk, which began before the war and worsened towards the end of his life. Hitler's personal physician, Theodor Morell, treated Hitler with a drug that was commonly prescribed in 1945 for Parkinson's disease. Ernst-Günther Schenck and several other doctors who met Hitler in the last weeks of his life each formed a diagnosis of Parkinson's disease.[355][357]
Family[link]
Main articles: Hitler family and Sexuality of Adolf Hitler
To the public, Hitler promoted his own image as that of a celibate man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation.[135][358] He met his mistress, Eva Braun, in 1929,[359] and married her in April 1945.[360] In September 1931 his niece, Geli Raubal, committed suicide with Hitler's gun in his Munich apartment. It was rumoured among contemporaries that Geli was in a romantic relationship with him, and her death was a source of deep, lasting pain.[361] Paula Hitler, the last living member of the immediate family, died in 1960.[362]
Hitler in media[link]
File:Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden.ogg
Video of Hitler at Berchtesgaden (c. 1941)
Hitler used documentary films as a propaganda tool. He was involved and appeared in a series of films by the pioneering filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl via Universum Film AG (UFA):[363]
- Der Sieg des Glaubens (Victory of Faith, 1933)
- Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will, 1934), co-produced by Hitler
- Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces, 1935)
- Olympia (1938)
See also[link]
- Führermuseum
- Hitler: A Film from Germany
- Julius Schaub – chief aide
- Karl Mayr – Hitler's superior in army Intelligence 1919–1920
- Karl Wilhelm Krause – personal valet
- List of books by or about Adolf Hitler
- Mein Kampf (online versions)
- Poison Kitchen
- Streets named after Adolf Hitler
- Vorbunker
 |
See more Wikipedia articles related to Adolf Hitler. |
Footnotes[link]
- ^ Hitler also won settlement from a libel suit against the socialist paper the Münchener Post, which had questioned his lifestyle and income. Kershaw 2008, p. 99.
- ^ MI5, Hitler's Last Days: "Hitler's will and marriage" on the website of MI5, using the sources available to Trevor Roper (a WWII MI5 agent and historian/author of The Last Days of Hitler), records the marriage as taking place after Hitler had dictated his last will and testament.
References[link]
- ^ NS-Archiv, 7 April 1925.
- ^ Maser 1973, p. 4.
- ^ Maser 1973, p. 15.
- ^ Rosenbaum 1999.
- ^ Hamann 2010, p. 50.
- ^ Toland 1992, pp. 246–47.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Jetzinger 1976, p. 32.
- ^ BBC News, 2011.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 9.
- ^ Rosmus 2004, p. 33.
- ^ Keller 2010, p. 15.
- ^ Hamann 2010, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Kubizek 2006, p. 37.
- ^ Kubizek 2006, p. 92.
- ^ Hitler 1999, p. 6.
- ^ Fromm 1977, pp. 493–498.
- ^ Hauner 1983, p. 2.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Payne 1990, p. 22.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 9.
- ^ Hitler 1999, p. 8.
- ^ Keller 2010, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Fest 1977, p. 32.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 8.
- ^ Lipstadt 2011, p. 272.
- ^ Hitler 1999, p. 10.
- ^ Evans 2003, p. 163.
- ^ Bendersky 2000, p. 26.
- ^ Ryschka 2008, p. 35.
- ^ Hamann 2010, p. 13.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 10.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 19.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 20.
- ^ Bullock 1962, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Hitler 1999, p. 20.
- ^ Bullock 1999, pp. 30–33.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 26.
- ^ Hamann 2010, pp. 243–246.
- ^ Hamann 2010, pp. 341–345.
- ^ Hamann 2010, p. 350.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 60–67.
- ^ Hitler 1999, p. 52.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 25.
- ^ Hamann 1999, p. 176.
- ^ Hamann 2010, pp. 348.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 66.
- ^ Hamann 2010, pp. 347–359.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 64.
- ^ Evans 2011.
- ^ a b Shirer 1960, p. 27.
- ^ Weber 2010, pp. 13.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 27, footnote.
- ^ a b Kershaw 1999, p. 90.
- ^ Weber 2010, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 53.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 54.
- ^ Weber 2010, p. 100.
- ^ a b Shirer 1960, p. 30.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 59.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 52.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 96.
- ^ Steiner 1976, p. 392.
- ^ Jamieson 2008.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 57.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 58.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 59, 60.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 97.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 102.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 61, 62.
- ^ Keegan 1987, pp. 238–240.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 60.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 61–63.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 96.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 80, 90, 92.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 61.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 109.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 82.
- ^ Stackelberg 2007, p. 9.
- ^ Mitcham 1996, p. 67.
- ^ Fest 1970, p. 21.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 94, 95, 100.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 87.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 88.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 89.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 89–92.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 81.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 100, 101.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 102.
- ^ a b Kershaw 2008, p. 103.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 83, 103.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 376.
- ^ Frauenfeld 1937.
- ^ Goebbels 1936.
- ^ Kressel 2002, p. 121.
- ^ Trevor-Roper 1987, p. 116.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 105–106.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 377.
- ^ Heck 2001, p. 23.
- ^ Larson 2011, p. 157.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 367.
- ^ Kellogg 2005, p. 275.
- ^ Kellogg 2005, p. 203.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 126.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 125.
- ^ a b Kershaw 2008, p. 128.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 129.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 130–131.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 132.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 131.
- ^ Munich Court, 1924.
- ^ Fulda 2009, pp. 68–69.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 239.
- ^ a b Bullock 1962, p. 121.
- ^ Spiro 2008.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 148–149.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 158, 161, 162.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 162, 166.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 129.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 166, 167.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 170, 172.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 136–137.
- ^ Kolb 2005, pp. 224–225.
- ^ Kolb 1988, p. 105.
- ^ Halperin 1965, p. 403 et. seq.
- ^ Halperin 1965, pp. 434–446 et. seq.
- ^ Wheeler-Bennett 1967, p. 218.
- ^ Wheeler-Bennett 1967, p. 216.
- ^ Wheeler-Bennett 1967, pp. 218–219.
- ^ Wheeler-Bennett 1967, p. 222.
- ^ Halperin 1965, p. 449 et. seq.
- ^ Halperin 1965, pp. 434–436, 471.
- ^ a b Shirer 1960, p. 130.
- ^ Hinrichs 2007.
- ^ Halperin 1965, p. 476.
- ^ Halperin 1965, pp. 468–471.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 201.
- ^ Halperin 1965, pp. 477–479.
- ^ Letter to Hindenburg, 1932.
- ^ Fox News, 2003.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 184.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 262.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 194.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 192.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 262.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 265.
- ^ City of Potsdam.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 196–197.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 198.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 196.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 269.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 199.
- ^ Time, 1934.
- ^ a b Shirer 1960, p. 201.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 202.
- ^ a b Evans 2003, pp. 350–374.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 309–314.
- ^ Tames 2008, pp. 4–5.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 313–315.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 226–227.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 229.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 309.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 230.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 392, 393.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 312.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 393–397.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 308.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 318–319.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 397–398.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 259–260.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 258.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 262.
- ^ Speer 1971, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Weinberg 1970, pp. 26–27.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, pp. 490–491.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, pp. 492, 555–556, 586–587.
- ^ Carr 1972, p. 23.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 297.
- ^ Messerschmidt 1990, pp. 601–602.
- ^ Hildebrand 1973, p. 39.
- ^ Roberts 1975.
- ^ Messerschmidt 1990, pp. 630–631.
- ^ a b Overy, Origins of WWII Reconsidered 1999.
- ^ Carr 1972, pp. 56–57.
- ^ Messerschmidt 1990, p. 642.
- ^ Aigner 1985, p. 264.
- ^ a b Messerschmidt 1990, pp. 636–637.
- ^ Carr 1972, pp. 73–78.
- ^ Messerschmidt 1990, p. 638.
- ^ Marrus 2000, p. 37.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, pp. 567–568.
- ^ Overy 2005, p. 252.
- ^ Gellately 1996.
- ^ a b Snyder 2010, p. 416.
- ^ Steinberg 1995.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 683.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 965.
- ^ Naimark 2002, p. 81.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 967.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 687.
- ^ Megargee 2007, p. 146.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 670–675.
- ^ Megargee 2007, p. 144.
- ^ Yad Vashem, 2006.
- ^ Yad Vashem, 2008.
- ^ Holocaust Memorial Museum.
- ^ Hancock 2004, pp. 383–396.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 946.
- ^ US Holocaust Memorial Museum.
- ^ Niewyk & Nicosia 2000, p. 45.
- ^ Goldhagen 1996, p. 290.
- ^ Downing 2005, p. 33.
- ^ a b Bloch 1992, pp. 178–179.
- ^ Plating 2011, p. 21.
- ^ Butler & Young 1989, p. 159.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 434.
- ^ Overy 2005, p. 425.
- ^ Weinberg 1980, pp. 334–335.
- ^ Weinberg 1980, pp. 338–340.
- ^ Weinberg 1980, p. 366.
- ^ Weinberg 1980, pp. 418–419.
- ^ Kee 1988, pp. 149–150.
- ^ Weinberg 1980, p. 419.
- ^ Murray 1984, pp. 256–260.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 469.
- ^ Overy, The Munich Crisis 1999, p. 207.
- ^ Kee 1988, pp. 202–203.
- ^ Weinberg 1980, pp. 462–463.
- ^ Messerschmidt 1990, p. 672.
- ^ Messerschmidt 1990, pp. 671, 682–683.
- ^ Rothwell 2001, pp. 90–91.
- ^ Time, January 1939.
- ^ a b Murray 1984, p. 268.
- ^ Murray 1984, pp. 268–269.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 448.
- ^ Weinberg 1980, pp. 579–581.
- ^ a b Messerschmidt 1990, pp. 688–690.
- ^ a b Weinberg 1980, pp. 537–539, 557–560.
- ^ a b Maiolo 1998, p. 178.
- ^ Weinberg 1980, p. 558.
- ^ Carr 1972, pp. 76–77.
- ^ Kershaw 2000b, pp. 36–37, 92.
- ^ Weinberg 1955.
- ^ Robertson 1985, p. 212.
- ^ Bloch 1992, p. 228.
- ^ a b Overy & Wheatcroft 1989, p. 56.
- ^ Bloch 1992, pp. 210, 228.
- ^ Craig 1983.
- ^ Overy, The Third Reich 1999.
- ^ Robertson 1963, pp. 181–187.
- ^ Beloff 1949.
- ^ Bloch 1992, pp. 252–253.
- ^ Weinberg 1995, pp. 85–94.
- ^ Bloch 1992, pp. 255–257.
- ^ Weinberg 1980, pp. 561–562, 583–584.
- ^ Messerschmidt 1990, p. 714.
- ^ Bloch 1992, p. 260.
- ^ Hakim 1995.
- ^ Time, October 1939.
- ^ a b c Rees 1997, pp. 141–145.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 527.
- ^ a b c d Rees 1997, pp. 148–149.
- ^ Winkler 2007, p. 74.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 696–730.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 731–737.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 774–782.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 580.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 570.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 604–605.
- ^ Kurowski 2005, pp. 141–142.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 830.
- ^ a b Shirer 1960, p. 863.
- ^ Evans 1989, p. 43.
- ^ Weinberg et al. 1989.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 900–901.
- ^ a b Bauer 2000, p. 5.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 921.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 1006.
- ^ a b BBC News, 1999.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 997.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 1036.
- ^ Speer 1971, p. 513–514.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 544–547, 821–822, 827–828.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 816–818.
- ^ Shirer 1960, §29.
- ^ Bullock 1962, pp. 753, 763, 778, 780–781.
- ^ a b Bullock 1962, pp. 774–775.
- ^ Beevor 2002, p. 251.
- ^ Beevor 2002, pp. 255–256.
- ^ Le Tissier 2010, p. 45.
- ^ a b Dollinger 1995, p. 231.
- ^ Beevor 2002, p. 275.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 787.
- ^ Bullock 1962, pp. 787, 795.
- ^ Butler & Young 1989, pp. 227–228.
- ^ Beevor 2002, p. 323.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 791.
- ^ Bullock 1962, pp. 792, 795.
- ^ Beevor 2002, p. 343.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 795.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 798.
- ^ Linge 2009, p. 199.
- ^ Joachimsthaler 1999, pp. 160–180.
- ^ Joachimsthaler 1999, pp. 217–220.
- ^ Linge 2009, p. 200.
- ^ Bullock 1962, pp. 799–800.
- ^ Vinogradov 2005, pp. 111, 333.
- ^ Vinogradov 2005, pp. 333–336.
- ^ Fest 1974, p. 753.
- ^ Speer 1971, p. 617.
- ^ Toland 1977, p. 892.
- ^ Kershaw 2000a, pp. 1–6.
- ^ Fischer 1995, p. 569.
- ^ Del Testa, Lemoine & Strickland 2003, p. 83.
- ^ a b Rummel 1994, p. 112.
- ^ Welch 2001, p. 2.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 6.
- ^ Hitler & Trevor-Roper 1988, p. xxxv.
- ^ Roberts 1996, p. 501.
- ^ Lichtheim 1974, p. 366.
- ^ Speer 1971, pp. 141–142.
- ^ Rißmann 2001, pp. 94–96.
- ^ Rißmann 2001, p. 96.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 219.
- ^ Steigmann-Gall 2003, p. XV.
- ^ Steigmann-Gall 2007.
- ^ Steigmann-Gall 2003, pp. 27, 108.
- ^ Hitler 1942, p. 20.
- ^ Hitler 1973, p. 23.
- ^ a b Bullock 1962, pp. 219, 389.
- ^ a b Conway 1968, p. 3.
- ^ Sharkey 2002.
- ^ Bonney 2001.
- ^ Office of Strategic Services, 1945.
- ^ Speer 1971, p. 142–143.
- ^ Payne 2008, p. 171.
- ^ Hanfstaengl 1994, p. 174.
- ^ Speer 1971, pp. 171, 174.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 729.
- ^ a b Bullock 1962, p. 717.
- ^ Redlich 2000, pp. 129–190.
- ^ Langer 1972, p. 126.
- ^ Kershaw 2000a, p. 72.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. xxxv–xxxvi.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 388.
- ^ Wilson 1998.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 380.
- ^ Dietrich 2010, p. 172.
- ^ Dietrich 2010, p. 171.
- ^ Toland 1992, p. 741.
- ^ Heston & Heston 1980, pp. 125–142.
- ^ Heston & Heston 1980, pp. 11–20.
- ^ a b Kershaw 2008, p. 782.
- ^ Linge 2009, p. 156.
- ^ O'Donnell 2001, p. 37.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 563.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 378.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 947–948.
- ^ Bullock 1962, pp. 393–394.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 4.
- ^ The Daily Telegraph, 2003.
Sources[link]
- Aigner, Dietrich (1985). "Hitler's ultimate aims – a programme of world dominion?". In Koch, H.W. Aspects of the Third Reich. London: MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-312-05726-8.
- Bauer, Yehuda (2000). Rethinking the Holocaust. Yale University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-300-08256-2.
- Beevor, Antony (2002). Berlin: The Downfall 1945. London: Viking-Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-670-03041-5.
- Beloff, Max (1949). The Foreign Policy of Soviet Russia. II, I936–4I. Oxford University Press. OCLC 264346.
- Bendersky, Joseph W (2000). A History of Nazi Germany: 1919–1945. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-1003-5.
- Bloch, Michael (1992). Ribbentrop. New York: Crown Publishing. ISBN 978-0-517-59310-3.
- Bonney, Richard (2001). "The Nazi Master Plan, Annex 4: The Persecution of the Christian Churches". Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion. http://www.leics.gov.uk/the_nazi_master_plan.pdf. Retrieved 7 June 2011.
- Bullock, Alan (1962) [1952]. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-013564-0.
- Bullock, Alan (1999) [1952]. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny. New York: Konecky & Konecky. ISBN 978-1-56852-036-0.
- Butler, Ewan; Young, Gordon (1989). The Life and Death of Hermann Göring. Newton Abbot, Devon: David & Charles. ISBN 978-0-7153-9455-7.
- Carr, William (1972). Arms, Autarky and Aggression. London: Edward Arnold. ISBN 978-0-7131-5668-3.
- Conway, John S. (1968). The Nazi Persecution of the Churches 1933–45. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-76315-4.
- Craig, Gordon (1983) [1949]. "The German Foreign Office from Neurath to Ribbentrop". In Craig, Gordon A.; Gilbert, Felix. Documents on German foreign Policy, 1918–1945, from the archives of the German Foreign Ministry. pp. 435–436. OCLC 21151259.
- Del Testa, David W; Lemoine, Florence; Strickland, John (2003). Government Leaders, Military Rulers, and Political Activists. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 83. ISBN 978-1-57356-153-2.
- Dietrich, Otto (2010). The Hitler I Knew: Memoirs of the Third Reich's Press Chief. New York: Skyhorse. ISBN 978-1-60239-972-3.
- Dollinger, Hans (1995) [1965]. The Decline and Fall of Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan: A Pictorial History of the Final Days of World War II. New York: Gramercy. ISBN 978-0-517-12399-7.
- Downing, David (2005). The Nazi Death Camps. World Almanac Library of the Holocaust. Gareth Stevens. ISBN 978-0-8368-5947-8.
- Evans, Richard J. (1989). In Hitler's Shadow : West German Historians and the Attempt to Escape from the Nazi Past. New York: Pantheon. ISBN 978-0-394-57686-2.
- Evans, Richard J. (2003). The Coming of the Third Reich. Penguin Group. ISBN 978-0-14-303469-8.
- Fest, Joachim C. (1970). The Face of the Third Reich. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-17949-8.
- Fest, Joachim C. (1974) [1973]. Hitler. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. ISBN 978-0-297-76755-8.
- Fest, Joachim C. (1977) [1973]. Hitler. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-021983-8.
- Fischer, Klaus P. (1995). Nazi Germany: A New History. London: Constable and Company. ISBN 978-0-09-474910-8.
- Fromm, Erich (1977) [1973]. The Anatomy of Human Destructiveness. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-004258-0.
- Fulda, Bernhard (2009). Press and Politics in the Weimar Republic. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-954778-4.
- Gellately, Robert (1996). "Reviewed work(s): Vom Generalplan Ost zum Generalsiedlungsplan by Czeslaw Madajczyk. Der "Generalplan Ost." Hauptlinien der nationalsozialistischen Planungs- und Vernichtungspolitik by Mechtild Rössler; Sabine Schleiermacher". Central European History 29 (2): 270–274.
- Goldhagen, Daniel (1996). Hitler's Willing Executioners: Ordinary Germans and the Holocaust. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-44695-8.
- Hakim, Joy (1995). War, Peace, and All That Jazz. A History of US. 9. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509514-2.
- Halperin, Samuel William (1965) [1946]. Germany Tried Democracy: A Political History of the Reich from 1918 to 1933. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-00280-5.
- Hamann, Brigitte (1999). Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship. Trans. Thomas Thornton. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512537-5.
- Hamann, Brigitte (2010) [1999]. Hitler's Vienna: A Portrait of the Tyrant as a Young Man. Trans. Thomas Thornton. London; New York: Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 978-1-84885-277-8.
- Hancock, Ian (2004). "Romanies and the Holocaust: A Reevaluation and an Overview". In Stone, Dan. The Historiography of the Holocaust. New York; Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-99745-1.
- Hanfstaengl, Ernst (1994) [1957]. Hitler: The Missing Years. New York: Arcade. ISBN 978-1-55970-272-0.
- Hauner, Milan (1983). Hitler: A Chronology of his Life and Time. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-30983-4.
- Heck, Alfons (2001) [1985]. A Child of Hitler: Germany In The Days When God Wore A Swastika. Phoenix, AZ: Renaissance House. ISBN 978-0-939650-44-6.
- Heston, Leonard L.; Heston, Renate (1980) [1979]. The Medical Casebook of Adolf Hitler: His Illnesses, Doctors, and Drugs. New York: Stein and Day. ISBN 978-0-8128-2718-7.
- Hildebrand, Klaus (1973). The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich. London: Batsford. ISBN 978-0-7134-1126-3.
- Hitler, Adolf (1999) [1925]. Mein Kampf. Trans. Ralph Manheim. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-92503-4.
- Hitler, Adolf (1973) [1941]. Roussy de Sales, Raoul de. ed. My New Order. New York: Octagon Books. ISBN 978-0-374-93918-2.
- Hitler, Adolf (1942). Baynes, Norman H.. ed. The Speeches of Adolf Hitler, April 1922 – August 1939. London: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-86527-493-8.
- Hitler, Adolf; Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1988) [1953]. Hitler's Table-Talk, 1941–1945: Hitler's Conversations Recorded by Martin Bormann. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285180-2.
- Jamieson, Alastair (19 November 2008). "Nazi leader Hitler really did have only one ball". The Daily Telegraph. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/howaboutthat/3481932/Nazi-leader-Hitler-really-did-have-only-one-ball.html. Retrieved 27 May 2011.
- Jetzinger, Franz (1976) [1956]. Hitler's Youth. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-8371-8617-7.
- Joachimsthaler, Anton (1999) [1995]. The Last Days of Hitler: The Legends, the Evidence, the Truth. Trans. Helmut Bögler. London: Brockhampton Press. ISBN 978-1-86019-902-8.
- Kee, Robert (1988). Munich: The Eleventh Hour. London: Hamish Hamilton. ISBN 978-0-241-12537-3.
- Keegan, John (1987). The Mask of Command: A Study of Generalship. London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6526-1.
- Keller, Gustav (2010) (in German). Der Schüler Adolf Hitler: die Geschichte eines lebenslangen Amoklaufs [The Student Adolf Hitler: The Story of a Lifelong Rampage]. Münster: LIT. ISBN 978-3-643-10948-4.
- Kellogg, Michael (2005). The Russian Roots of Nazism White Émigrés and the Making of National Socialism, 1917–1945. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84512-0.
- Kershaw, Ian (1999) [1998]. Hitler: 1889–1936: Hubris. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-04671-7.
- Kershaw, Ian (2000a) [1985]. The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation (4th ed.). London: Arnold. ISBN 978-0-340-76028-4.
- Kershaw, Ian (2000b). Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis. New York; London: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-32252-1.
- Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6.
- Kolb, Eberhard (2005) [1984]. The Weimar Republic. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34441-8.
- Kolb, Eberhard (1988) [1984]. The Weimar Republic. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09077-3.
- Kressel, Neil J. (2002). Mass Hate: The Global Rise Of Genocide And Terror. Boulder: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-8133-3951-1.
- Kubizek, August (2006) [1953]. The Young Hitler I Knew. St. Paul, MN: MBI. ISBN 978-1-85367-694-9.
- Kurowski, Franz (2005). The Brandenburger Commandos: Germany's Elite Warrior Spies in World War II. Stackpole Military History series. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-3250-5.
- Langer, Walter C. (1972) [1943]. The Mind of Adolf Hitler: The Secret Wartime Report. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04620-1.
- Larson, Erik (2011). In the Garden of Beasts: Love, Terror, and an American Family in Hitler's Berlin. New York, NY: Random House/Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-40884-6.
- Lichtheim, George (1974). Europe In The Twentieth Century. London: Sphere Books. ISBN 978-0-351-17192-5.
- Linge, Heinz (2009) [1980]. With Hitler to the End: The Memoirs of Adolf Hitler's Valet. Intro. Roger Moorhouse. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60239-804-7.
- Lipstadt, Deborah E. (2011). The Eichmann Trial. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-8052-4260-7.
- Maiolo, Joseph (1998). The Royal Navy and Nazi Germany 1933–39: Appeasement and the Origins of the Second World War. London: Macmillan Press. ISBN 978-0-333-72007-3.
- Maser, Werner (1973). Hitler: Legend, Myth, Reality. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-0473-4.
- Marrus, Michael (2000). The Holocaust in History. Toronto: Key Porter. ISBN 978-0-299-23404-1.
- Megargee, Geoffrey P. (2007). War of Annihilation: Combat and Genocide on the Eastern Front, 1941. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-4482-6.
- Messerschmidt, Manfred (1990). "Foreign Policy and Preparation for War". In Deist, Wilhelm. Germany and the Second World War. 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822866-0.
- Mitcham, Samuel W. (1996). Why Hitler?: The Genesis of the Nazi Reich. Westport, Conn: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-95485-7.
- Murray, Williamson (1984). The Change in the European Balance of Power. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05413-1.
- Naimark, Norman M. (2002). Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00994-3.
- Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0.
- O'Donnell, James P. (2001) [1978]. The Bunker. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80958-3.
- Overy, Richard; Wheatcroft, Andrew (1989). The Road To War. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-14-028530-7.
- Overy, Richard (1999). "Germany and the Munich Crisis: A Mutilated Victory?". In Lukes, Igor; Goldstein, Erik. The Munich Crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II. London; Portland, OR: Frank Cass. OCLC 40862187.
- Overy, Richard (1999). "Economy Germany, 'Domestic Crisis' and War in 1939". In Leitz, Christian. The Third Reich: The Essential Readings. Oxford: Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-20699-6.
- Overy, Richard (1999). "Misjudging Hitler". In Martel, Gordon. The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered. London: Routledge. pp. 93–115. ISBN 978-0-415-16324-8.
- Overy, Richard (2005). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-393-02030-4.
- Payne, Robert (1990) [1973]. The Life and Death of Adolf Hitler. New York, New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 978-0-88029-402-7.
- Payne, Stanley G. (2008). Franco and Hitler: Spain, Germany, and World War II. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12282-4.
- Plating, John D. (2011). The Hump: America's Strategy for Keeping China in World War II. Williams-Ford Texas A&M University military history series, no. 134. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-60344-238-1.
- Redlich, Fritz R. (September 2000). Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive Prophet. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513631-9.
- Rees, Laurence (1997). The Nazis: A Warning From History. New York: New Press. ISBN 978-0-563-38704-6.
- Rißmann, Michael (2001) (in German). Hitlers Gott. Vorsehungsglaube und Sendungsbewußtsein des deutschen Diktators. Zürich München: Pendo. ISBN 978-3-85842-421-1.
- Roberts, J. M. (1996). A History of Europe. Oxford: Helicon. ISBN 978-1-85986-178-3.
- Roberts, Martin (1975). The New Barbarism – A Portrait of Europe 1900–1973. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-913225-6.
- Robertson, Esmonde M. (1963). Hitler's Pre-War Policy and Military Plans: 1933–1939. London: Longmans. OCLC 300011871.
- Robertson, E. M. (1985). "Hitler Planning for War and the Response of the Great Powers". In H.W, Koch. Aspects of the Third Reich. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-05726-8.
- Rosenbaum, Ron (1999). Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of His Evil. Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-095339-3.
- Rosmus, Anna Elisabeth (2004). Out of Passau: Leaving a City Hitler Called Home. Columbia, S.C: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-508-1.
- Rothwell, Victor (2001). The Origins of the Second World War. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-5957-5.
- Rummel, Rudolph (1994). Death by Government. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. ISBN 978-1-56000-145-4.
- Ryschka, Birgit (29 September 2008). Constructing and Deconstructing National Identity: Dramatic Discourse in Tom Murphy's the Patriot Game and Felix Mitterer's in Der Löwengrube. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-58111-7.
- Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-62420-0.
- Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00239-9.
- Speer, Albert (1971) [1969]. Inside the Third Reich. New York: Avon. ISBN 978-0-380-00071-5.
- Spiro, Jonathan Peter (2008). Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant. Lebanon, NH: University Press of Vermont. ISBN 978-1-58465-715-6.
- Stackelberg, Roderick (2007). The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany. New Yor: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-30860-1.
- Steigmann-Gall, Richard (2003). The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. DOI:10.2277/978-0-521-82371-5. ISBN 978-0-521-82371-5.
- Steigmann-Gall, Richard (April 2007). "Christianity and the Nazi Movement: A Response". Journal of Contemporary History 42 (2): 185–211. DOI:10.1177/0022009407075560.
- Steinberg, Jonathan (June 1995). "The Third Reich Reflected: German Civil Administration in the Occupied Soviet Union, 1941-4". The English Historical Review 110 (437): 620–651. OCLC 83655937.
- Steiner, John Michael (1976). Power Politics and Social Change in National Socialist Germany: A Process of Escalation into Mass Destruction. The Hague: Mouton. ISBN 978-90-279-7651-2.
- Tames, Richard (2008). Dictatorship. Chicago: Heinemann Library. ISBN 978-1-4329-0234-6.
- Le Tissier, Tony (2010) [1999]. Race for the Reichstag. Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1-84884-230-4.
- Toland, John (1977) [1976]. Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography. London: Book Club Associates.
- Toland, John (1992) [1976]. Adolf Hitler: The Definitive Biography. Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-42053-2.
- Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1987) [1947]. The Last Days of Hitler. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-81224-3.
- Vinogradov, V. K. (2005). Hitler's Death: Russia's Last Great Secret from the Files of the KGB. Chaucer Press. ISBN 978-1-904449-13-3.
- Weber, Thomas (2010). Hitler's First War: Adolf Hitler, The Men of the List Regiment, and the First World War. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923320-5.
- Weinberg, Gerhard (December 1955). "Hitler's Private Testament of 2 May 1938". The Journal of Modern History 27 (4): 415–419. DOI:10.1086/237831. OCLC 482752575.
- Weinberg, Gerhard (1970). The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Diplomatic Revolution in Europe 1933–1936. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-88509-4.
- Weinberg, Gerhard (1980). The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-88511-7.
- Weinberg, Gerhard; Topitsch, Ernst; Taylor, A.; Taylor, B. (June 1989). "Review of Stalin's War: A Radical New Theory of the Origins of the Second World War by Ernst Topitsch". The American Historical Review 94 (3): 800–801. DOI:10.2307/1873876. OCLC 486363416.
- Weinberg, Gerhard (1995). "Hitler and England, 1933–1945: Pretense and Reality". Germany, Hitler, and World War II: Essays in Modern German and World History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47407-8.
- Welch, David (2001). Hitler: Profile of a Dictator. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-25075-7.
- Wheeler-Bennett, John (1967). The Nemesis of Power. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-1812-3.
- Winkler (2007). Germany: The Long Road West. Vol. 2, 1933–1990. Sager, Alexander (trans.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926598-5.
Online
- "Parkinson's part in Hitler's downfall". BBC News. 29 July 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/406713.stm. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
- "Adolf Hitler's Austrian hometown revokes honour title". BBC News Online. 8 July 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-14084913. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
- "1933 – Day of Potsdam". City of Potsdam. http://www.potsdam.de/cms/beitrag/10000945/33981/. Retrieved 13 June 2011.
- "Documents: Bush's Grandfather Directed Bank Tied to Man Who Funded Hitler". Fox News. 17 October 2003. http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,100474,00.html. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
- "Hitler's Last Days". mi5.gov.uk. MI5 Security Service. https://www.mi5.gov.uk/output/hitlers-last-days.html. Retrieved 5 January 2012.
- Evans, Richard J. (22 June 2011). "How the First World War shaped Hitler". The Globe and Mail (Phillip Crawley). http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/arts/books/hitlers-first-war-by-thomas-weber/article2070942/. Retrieved 29 April 2012.
- Frauenfeld, A. E (August 1937). "The Power of Speech". Calvin College. http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/machtrede.htm. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
- Goebbels, Joseph (1936). "The Führer as a Speaker". Calvin College. http://www.calvin.edu/academic/cas/gpa/ahspeak.htm. Retrieved 19 October 2011.
- Hinrichs, Per (10 March 2007). "Des Führers Pass, Hitlers Einbürgerung [Hitler's Naturalisation: Pass the Leader]" (in German). Spiegel Online. http://www.spiegel.de/panorama/zeitgeschichte/0,1518,470844,00.html. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
- "Introduction to the Holocaust". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005143. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
- "Eingabe der Industriellen an Hindenburg vom November 1932 [Letter of the industrialists to Hindenburg, November 1932]". Glasnost–Archiv. http://www.glasnost.de/hist/ns/eingabe.html. Retrieved 16 October 2011.
- "[The Hitler Trial Before the People's Court in Munich]" (in German) Der Hitler-Prozeß vor dem Volksgericht in München. 1924.
- Office of Strategic Services (1945). "The Nazi Master Plan: The Persecution of the Christian Churches". Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion (Ithaca, NY: Cornell Law Library): 6–7. OCLC 320083040. http://org.law.rutgers.edu/publications/law-religion/nurinst1.shtml.
- "Hitler ersucht um Entlassung aus der österreichischen Staatsangehörigkeit [Hitler's official application to end his Austrian citizenship]" (in German). NS-Archiv. 7 April 1925. http://www.ns-archiv.de/personen/hitler/oesterreich/staatsbuergerschaft.php. Retrieved 13 April 2012.
- Sharkey, Joe (13 January 2002). "Word for Word/The Case Against the Nazis; How Hitler's Forces Planned To Destroy German Christianity". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/01/13/weekinreview/word-for-word-case-against-nazis-hitler-s-forces-planned-destroy-german.html?pagewanted=all. Retrieved 7 June 2011.
- "Leni Riefenstahl". The Daily Telegraph (London: TMG). 10 September 2003. ISSN 0307-1235. OCLC 49632006. http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1440991/Leni-Riefenstahl.html?pageNum=3. Retrieved 14 December 2011-12-14.
- "Man of the Year". Time Magazine (Time). 2 January 1939. Archived from the original on 7 June 2008. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,760539-1,00.html. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
- "Seven Years War?". Time Magazine (Time). 2 October 1939. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,789000,00.html. Retrieved 30 August 2008.
- "Germany: Second Revolution?". Time Magazine (Time). 2 July 1934. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,754321,00.html. Retrieved 17 October 2011.
- "Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era: The Invasion and Occupation of Poland". ushmm.org. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. http://www.ushmm.org/education/resource/poles/poles.php. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
- Wilson, Bee (9 October 1998). "Mein Diat – Adolf Hitler's diet". New Statesman. UK: FindArticles. Archived from the original on 21 March 2005. http://web.archive.org/web/20050321091219/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_n4406_v127/ai_21238666. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
- Yad Vashem Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority (2006). Yad Vashem Studies. 34. Jerusalem: Yad Vashem. OCLC 610688434.
- "How many Jews were murdered in the Holocaust? How do we know? Do we have their names?". Yad Vashem. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080519014604/http://www1.yadvashem.org/about_holocaust/faqs/answers/faq_3.html. Retrieved 22 May 2008.
External links[link]
| Find more about Adolf Hitler on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
|
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
|
Images and media from Commons |
|
Learning resources from Wikiversity |
|
News stories from Wikinews |
|
Quotations from Wikiquote |
|
Source texts from Wikisource |
|
Textbooks from Wikibooks |
- Works by or about Adolf Hitler in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Adolf Hitler at the Internet Movie Database – real life footage in documentaries
- Adolf Hitler (Character) at the Internet Movie Database – as portrayed in film and TV
- "Adolf Hitler". The Vault. FBI Records. http://vault.fbi.gov/adolf-hitler.
- "Hitler and his officers". World War II Movies in Color. WW2inColor. http://www.ww2incolor.com/gallery/movies/hitler_color.
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Office created |
Reichsstatthalter of Prussia 1933–1935 |
Succeeded by Office abolished |
| Preceded by Kurt von Schleicher |
Chancellor of Germany(1) 1933–1945 |
Succeeded by Joseph Goebbels |
| Preceded by Paul von Hindenburg As President |
Führer of Germany(1) 1934–1945 |
Succeeded by Karl Dönitz As President |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by Anton Drexler |
Leader of the NSDAP 1921–1945 |
|
| Military offices | ||
| Preceded by Franz Pfeffer von Salomon |
Leader of the SA 1930–1945 |
|
| Preceded by Walther von Brauchitsch |
Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres (Army Commander) 1941–1945 |
Succeeded by Ferdinand Schörner |
| Honorary titles | ||
| Preceded by Chiang Kai-shek and Soong May-ling |
Time Person of the Year 1938 |
Succeeded by Joseph Stalin |
| Notes and references | ||
| 1. The positions of Head of State and Government were combined 1934–1945 in the office of Führer and Chancellor of Germany | ||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
.svg){kind=small}
.svg){kind=small}
.svg){kind=small}
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hitler, Adolf |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Führer of the National Socialist German Workers Party; Reichskanzler of Germany |
| Date of birth | 20 April 1889 |
| Place of birth | Braunau am Inn, Austria |
| Date of death | 30 April 1945 |
| Place of death | Berlin, Germany |
http://wn.com/Adolf_Hitler
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Adolf Hitler
http://fr.wn.com/Adolf Hitler
http://es.wn.com/Adolf Hitler
http://ru.wn.com/Гитлер, Адольф
http://cs.wn.com/Adolf Hitler
http://pt.wn.com/Adolf Hitler
http://pl.wn.com/Adolf Hitler
http://hi.wn.com/एडोल्फ हिटलर
http://it.wn.com/Adolf Hitler
http://id.wn.com/Adolf Hitler
http://nl.wn.com/Adolf Hitler
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adolf_Hitler
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is about Walt Disney, the person. For the company he founded, see The Walt Disney Company. For other uses, see Walt Disney (disambiguation).
| Walt Disney | |
|---|---|
 Walt Disney on January 1, 1954 |
|
| Born | Walter Elias Disney (1901-12-05)December 5, 1901[1] Hermosa, Chicago, Illinois, U.S. |
| Died | December 15, 1966(1966-12-15) (aged 65) Burbank, California, U.S. |
| Cause of death | Lung Cancer |
| Resting place | Forest Lawn Memorial Park, Glendale, California, U.S. |
| Residence | Burbank, California |
| Nationality | American |
| Education | McKinley High School |
| Occupation | Film producer, Co-founder of The Walt Disney Company, formerly known as Walt Disney Productions |
| Years active | 1920–1966 |
| Home town | Chicago, Illinois |
| Political party | Republican |
| Board member of | The Walt Disney Company |
| Religion | Christian (Congregationalist)[2] |
| Spouse | Lillian Bounds (1925–1966; his death) |
| Children | Diane Marie Disney Sharon Mae Disney |
| Parents | Elias Disney Flora Call Disney |
| Relatives | Ronald William Miller (son-in-law) Robert Borgfeldt Brown (son-in-law) Roy Edward Disney (nephew) |
| Family | Herbert Arthur Disney (brother) Raymond Arnold Disney (brother) Roy Oliver Disney (brother) Ruth Flora Disney (sister) |
| Awards | 7 Emmy Awards, 22 Academy Awards, Cecil B.DeMille Award |
| Signature |  |
Walter Elias "Walt" Disney (December 5, 1901 – December 15, 1966) was an American film producer, director, screenwriter, voice actor, animator, entrepreneur, entertainer, international icon,[3] and philanthropist, well known for his influence in the field of entertainment during the 20th century. Along with his brother Roy O. Disney, he was co-founder of Walt Disney Productions, which later became one of the best-known motion picture producers in the world. The corporation is now known as The Walt Disney Company and had an annual revenue of approximately US$36 billion in the 2010 financial year.[4]
Disney is particularly noted as a film producer and a popular showman, as well as an innovator in animation and theme park design. He and his staff created some of the world's most well-known fictional characters including Mickey Mouse, for whom Disney himself provided the original voice. During his lifetime he received four honorary Academy Awards and won 22 Academy Awards from a total of 59 nominations, including a record four in one year,[5] giving him more awards and nominations than any other individual in history.[6] Disney also won seven Emmy Awards and gave his name to the Disneyland and Walt Disney World Resort theme parks in the U.S., as well as the international resorts Tokyo Disney Resort, Disneyland Paris, and Hong Kong Disneyland.
The year after his December 15, 1966 death from lung cancer in Burbank, California, construction began on Walt Disney World Resort in Florida. His brother Roy Disney inaugurated the Magic Kingdom on October 1, 1971.
Contents |
1901–1937: Beginnings[link]
Childhood[link]
File:Flora and Elias Disney.JPG
Walt’s parents, Elias and Flora (Call) Disney
Disney was born on December 5, 1901, at 2156 N. Tripp Avenue in Chicago's Hermosa community area to Irish-Canadian father Elias Disney and Flora Call Disney, who was of German and English descent.[7][8] His great-grandfather, Arundel Elias Disney, had emigrated from Gowran, County Kilkenny, Ireland where he was born in 1801. Arundel Disney was a descendant of Robert d'Isigny, a Frenchman who had travelled to England with William the Conqueror in 1066.[9] With the d'Isigny name anglicised as "Disney", the family settled in a village now known as Norton Disney, south of the city of Lincoln, in the county of Lincolnshire.
In 1878, Disney's father Elias had moved from Huron County, Ontario, Canada to the United States at first seeking gold in California before finally settling down to farm with his parents near Ellis, Kansas, until 1884. Elias worked for the Union Pacific Railroad and married Flora Call on January 1, 1888, in Acron, Florida. The family moved to Chicago, Illinois, in 1890,[10] hometown of his brother Robert[10] who helped Elias financially for most of his early life.[10] In 1906, when Walt was four, Elias and his family moved to a farm in Marceline, Missouri,[11] where his brother Roy had recently purchased farmland.[11] In Marceline, Disney developed his love for drawing[12] with one of the family's neighbors, a retired doctor named "Doc" Sherwood, paying him to draw pictures of Sherwood's horse, Rupert.[12] His interest in trains also developed in Marceline, a town that owed its existence to the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway which ran through it. Walt would put his ear to the tracks in anticipation of the coming train[8] then try and spot his uncle, engineer Michael Martin, conducting the train.
The Disneys remained in Marceline for four years,[13] before moving to Kansas City in 1911[14] where Walt and his younger sister Ruth attended the Benton Grammar School. At school he met Walter Pfeiffer who came from a family of theatre aficionados, and introduced Walt to the world of vaudeville and motion pictures. Before long Walt was spending more time at the Pfeiffers' than at home.[15] As well as attending Saturday courses at the Kansas City Art Institute,[16] Walt often took Ruth to Electric Park, 15 blocks from their home, which Disney would later acknowledge as a major influence of his design of Disneyland.[citation needed]
Teenage years[link]
In 1917, Elias acquired shares in the O-Zell jelly factory in Chicago and moved his family back to the city,[17] where in the fall Disney began his freshman year at McKinley High School and took night courses at the Chicago Art Institute.[18] He became the cartoonist for the school newspaper, drawing patriotic topics and focusing on World War I. Despite dropping out of high school at the age of sixteen to join the army, Disney was rejected for being underage.[19]
After his rejection by the army, Walt and a friend decided to join the Red Cross.[20] Soon after joining he was sent to France for a year, where he drove an ambulance, but only after the armistice was signed on November 11, 1918.[21]
Hoping to find work outside the Chicago O-Zell factory,[22] in 1919 Walt moved back to Kansas City to begin his artistic career.[23] After considering whether to become an actor or a newspaper artist, he decided on a career as a newspaper artist, drawing political caricatures or comic strips. But when nobody wanted to hire him as either an artist or even as an ambulance driver, his brother Roy, then working in a local bank, got Walt a temporary job through a bank colleague at the Pesmen-Rubin Art Studio[23] where he created advertisements for newspapers, magazines, and movie theaters.[24] At Pesmen-Rubin he met cartoonist Ubbe Iwerks[25] and when their time at the studio expired, they decided to start their own commercial company together.[26]
In January 1920, Disney and Iwerks formed a short-lived company called, "Iwerks-Disney Commercial Artists". However, following a rough start, Disney left temporarily to earn money at the Kansas City Film Ad Company, and was soon joined by Iwerks who was not able to run their business alone.[27] While working for the Kansas City Film Ad Company, where he made commercials based on cutout animations, Disney became interested in animation, and decided to become an animator.[28] The owner of the Ad Company, A.V. Cauger, allowed him to borrow a camera from work to experiment with at home. After reading the Edwin G. Lutz book Animated Cartoons: How They Are Made, Their Origin and Development, Disney considered cel animation to be much more promising than the cutout animation he was doing for Cauger. Walt eventually decided to open his own animation business,[29] and recruited a fellow co-worker at the Kansas City Film Ad Company, Fred Harman, as his first employee.[29] Walt and Harman then secured a deal with local theater owner Frank L. Newman, arguably the most popular "showman" in the Kansas City area at the time,[30] to screen their cartoons at his local theater, which they titled Laugh-O-Grams.[30]
Laugh-O-Gram Studio[link]
Presented as "Newman Laugh-O-Grams",[30] Disney's cartoons became widely popular in the Kansas City area[31] and through their success, he was able to acquire his own studio, also called Laugh-O-Gram,[32] for which he hired a vast number of additional animators, including Fred Harman's brother Hugh Harman, Rudolf Ising, and his close friend Ubbe Iwerks.[33] Unfortunately, studio profits were insufficient to cover the high salaries paid to employees. Unable to successfully manage money,[34] Disney's studio became loaded with debt[34] and wound up bankrupt[35] whereupon he decided to set up a studio in the movie industry's capital city, Hollywood, California.[36]
Hollywood[link]
Disney and his brother Roy pooled their money and set up a cartoon studio in Hollywood[37] where they needed to find a distributor for Walt's new Alice Comedies, which he had started making while in Kansas City[35] but never got to distribute. Disney sent an unfinished print to New York distributor Margaret Winkler, who promptly wrote back to him that she was keen on a distribution deal for more live-action/animated shorts based upon Alice's Wonderland.[38]
Alice Comedies[link]
Virginia Davis, the live-action star of Alice’s Wonderland and her family relocated from Kansas City to Hollywood at Disney's request, as did Iwerks and his family. This was the beginning of the Disney Brothers' Studio located on Hyperion Avenue in the Silver Lake district, where it remained until 1939. In 1925, Disney hired a young woman named Lillian Bounds to ink and paint celluloid. After a brief courtship, the pair married that same year.
The new series, Alice Comedies, proved reasonably successful, and featured both Dawn O'Day and Margie Gay as Alice with Lois Hardwick also briefly assuming the role. By the time the series ended in 1927, its focus was more on the animated characters and in particular a cat named Julius who resembled Felix the Cat, rather than the live-action Alice.
Oswald the Lucky Rabbit[link]
Main article: Oswald the Lucky Rabbit
By 1927, Charles Mintz had married Margaret Winkler and assumed control of her business. He then ordered a new all-animated series to be put into production for distribution through Universal Pictures. The new series, Oswald the Lucky Rabbit, was an almost instant success, and the character, Oswald — drawn and created by Iwerks — became a popular figure. The Disney studio expanded and Walt re-hired Harman, Rudolph Ising, Carman Maxwell, and Friz Freleng from Kansas City.
Disney went to New York in February 1928 to negotiate a higher fee per short and was shocked when Mintz told him that not only did he want to reduce the fee he paid Disney per short but also that he had most of his main animators, including Harman, Ising, Maxwell, and Freleng—but not Iwerks, who refused to leave Disney—under contract and would start his own studio if Disney did not accept the reduced production budgets. Universal, not Disney, owned the Oswald trademark, and could make the films without Walt. Disney declined Mintz's offer and as a result lost most of his animation staff whereupon he found himself on his own again.[39]
It subsequently took his company 78 years to get back the rights to the Oswald character when in 2006 the Walt Disney Company reacquired the rights to Oswald the Lucky Rabbit from NBC Universal, through a trade for longtime ABC sports commentator Al Michaels.[40]
Mickey Mouse[link]
Main article: Mickey Mouse
After losing the rights to Oswald, Disney felt the need to develop a new character to replace him, which was based on a mouse he had adopted as a pet while working in his Laugh-O-Gram studio in Kansas City.[41] Ub Iwerks reworked the sketches made by Disney to make the character easier to animate although Mickey's voice and personality were provided by Disney himself until 1947. In the words of one Disney employee, "Ub designed Mickey's physical appearance, but Walt gave him his soul."[41] Besides Oswald and Mickey, a similar mouse-character is seen in the Alice Comedies, which featured "Ike the Mouse". Moreover, the first Flip the Frog cartoon called Fiddlesticks showed a Mickey Mouse look-alike playing fiddle. The initial films were animated by Iwerks with his name prominently featured on the title cards. Originally named "Mortimer", the mouse was later re-christened "Mickey" by Lillian Disney who thought that the name Mortimer did not fit. Mortimer later became the name of Mickey's rival for Minnie – taller than his renowned adversary and speaking with a Brooklyn accent.
The first animated short to feature Mickey, Plane Crazy was a silent film like all of Disney's previous works. After failing to find a distributor for the short and its follow-up, The Gallopin' Gaucho, Disney created a Mickey cartoon with sound called Steamboat Willie. A businessman named Pat Powers provided Disney with both distribution and Cinephone, a sound-synchronization process. Steamboat Willie became an instant success,[42] and Plane Crazy, The Galloping Gaucho, and all future Mickey cartoons were released with soundtracks. After the release of Steamboat Willie, Disney successfully used sound in all of his subsequent cartoons, and Cinephone also became the new distributor for Disney's early sound cartoons.[43] Mickey soon eclipsed Felix the Cat as the world's most popular cartoon character[41] and by 1930, despite their having sound, cartoons featuring Felix had faded from the screen after failing to gain attention.[44] Mickey's popularity would subsequently skyrocket in the early 1930s.[41]
[edit] Silly Symphonies
Following in the footsteps of Mickey Mouse series, a series of musical shorts titled, Silly Symphonies were released in 1929. The first, The Skeleton Dance was entirely drawn and animated by Iwerks, who was also responsible for drawing the majority of cartoons released by Disney in 1928 and 1929. Although both series were successful, the Disney studio thought it was not receiving its rightful share of profits from Pat Powers,[45] and in 1930, Disney signed a new distribution deal with Columbia Pictures. The original basis of the cartoons was their musical novelty with the first Silly Symphony cartoons featuring scores by Carl Stalling.[46]
Iwerks was soon lured by Powers into opening his own studio with an exclusive contract, while Stalling would also later leave Disney to join Iwerks.[47] Iwerks launched his Flip the Frog series with the first voiced color cartoon Fiddlesticks, filmed in two-strip Technicolor. Iwerks also created two other cartoon series, Willie Whopper and the Comicolor. In 1936, Iwerks shut down his studio in order to work on various projects dealing with animation technology. He would return to Disney in 1940 and go on to pioneer a number of film processes and specialized animation technologies in the studio's research and development department.
By 1932, although Mickey Mouse had become a relatively popular cinema character, Silly Symphonies was not as successful. The same year also saw competition increase as Max Fleischer's flapper cartoon character, Betty Boop, gained popularity among theater audiences.[48] Fleischer, considered Disney's main rival in the 1930s,[49] was also the father of Richard Fleischer, whom Disney would later hire to direct his 1954 film 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea. Meanwhile, Columbia Pictures dropped the distribution of Disney cartoons to be replaced by United Artists.[50] In late 1932, Herbert Kalmus, who had just completed work on the first three-strip technicolor camera,[51] approached Walt and convinced him to reshoot the black and white Flowers and Trees in three-strip Technicolor.[52] Flowers and Trees would go on to be a phenomenal success and would also win the first 1932 Academy Award for Best Short Subject: Cartoons. After the release of Flowers and Trees, all subsequent Silly Symphony cartoons were in color while Disney was also able to negotiate a two-year deal with Technicolor, giving him the sole right to use their three-strip process,[53][54] a period eventually extended to five years.[46] Through Silly Symphonies, Disney also created his most successful cartoon short of all time, The Three Little Pigs (1933).[55] The cartoon ran in theaters for many months, featuring the hit song that became the anthem of the Great Depression, "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolf".[56]
First Academy Award[link]
In 1932, Disney received a special Academy Award for the creation of "Mickey Mouse", a series which switched to color in 1935 and soon launched spin-offs for supporting characters such as Donald Duck, Goofy, and Pluto. Pluto and Donald became standalone cartoons in 1937,[57] with Goofy following in 1939.[58] Of all Mickey's partners, Donald Duck, who first teamed up with Mickey in the 1934 cartoon, Orphan's Benefit, was arguably the most popular, going on to become Disney's second most successful cartoon character of all time.[59]
Children[link]
The Disneys' first attempt at pregnancy ended in miscarriage. Lillian became pregnant again and gave birth to a daughter, Diane Marie Disney, on December 18, 1933.[60] Later, the Disneys adopted Sharon Mae Disney (December 31, 1936 – February 16, 1993).[61]
Diane married Ron Miller at the age of 20 and is known as Diane Disney Miller. The Millers established and own a winery called Silverado Vineyards in California.[62] Diane and Ron Miller have seven children: Christopher, Joanna, Tamara, Jennifer, Walter, Ronald and Patrick.[63] Years later, Diane went on to become the cofounder of The Walt Disney Family Museum, with the aid of her children.[60] The museum was created to preserve her father's image and reach out to millions of Disney fans worldwide.[64] The museum displays a chronological view of Walt Disney's life through personal artifacts, interactive kiosks and various animations.[64]
Sharon Mae Disney was born December 31, 1936, in Los Angeles, California and was later adopted by the Disneys, due to Lillian's several birth complications.[63][65] In 1950, Sharon went on to star as herself in the Walt Disney Studios special One Hour in Wonderland.[66] Sharon married Robert Brown in 1958, with whom she had one child, and they remained married until his death in 1967.[65] Sharon married William Lund in 1969 and had two children with him, but six years later they divorced.[65][67] Sharon was a philanthropist and had contributed to charities such as the Marianne Frostig Center of Educational Therapy and the Curtis School foundation.[68] In 1993 at the age of 57, Sharon died from cancer at St. John's Hospital in Santa Monica, California.[65] After Sharon's death, her estate donated $11 million to the California School of Performing Arts, where she was a member of the board of trustees for almost two decades. Sharon's donation was commemorated by renaming the School of Dance the Sharon D. Lund School of Dance.[60][69]
1937–1941: Golden age of animation[link]
[edit] "Disney's Folly": Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs
.jpg)
Following the creation of two cartoon series, in 1934 Disney began planning a full-length feature. The following year, opinion polls showed that another cartoon series, Popeye the Sailor, produced by Max Fleischer, was more popular than Mickey Mouse.[70] Nevertheless, Disney was able to put Mickey back on top as well as increase his popularity by colorizing and partially redesigning the character to become what was considered his most appealing design to date.[41] When the film industry learned of Disney's plans to produce an animated feature-length version of Snow White, they were certain that the endeavor would destroy the Disney Studio and dubbed the project "Disney's Folly". Both Lillian and Roy tried to talk Disney out of the project, but he continued plans for the feature, employing Chouinard Art Institute professor Don Graham to start a training operation for the studio staff. Disney then used the Silly Symphonies as a platform for experiments in realistic human animation, distinctive character animation, special effects, and the use of specialized processes and apparatus such as the multiplane camera – a new technique first used by Disney in the 1937 Silly Symphonies short The Old Mill.[71]
All of this development and training was used to increase quality at the studio and to ensure that the feature film would match Disney's quality expectations. Entitled Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, the feature went into full production in 1934 and continued until mid-1937, when the studio ran out of money. To obtain the funding to complete Snow White, Disney had to show a rough cut of the motion picture to loan officers. The film premiered at the Carthay Circle Theater on December 21, 1937 and at its conclusion the audience gave Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs a standing ovation. Snow White, the first animated feature in America made in Technicolor, was released in February 1938 under a new distribution deal with RKO Radio Pictures. RKO had been the distributor for Disney cartoons in 1936, after it closed down the Van Beuren Studios in exchange for distribution.[72] The film became the most successful motion picture of 1938 and earned over $8 million on its initial release. These initial release earnings for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs would be the equivalent of $122,487,945 in 2010.[73]
Golden age of animation[link]
Following the success of Snow White, for which Disney received one full-size, and seven miniature Oscar statuettes, he was able to build a new campus for the Walt Disney Studios in Burbank, which opened for business on December 24, 1939. Snow White was not only the peak of Disney's success, but also ushered in a period that would later be known as the Golden Age of Animation for the studio.[74][75] Feature animation staff, having just completed Pinocchio, continued work on Fantasia and Bambi as well as the early production stages of Alice in Wonderland, Peter Pan and Wind in the Willows while the shorts staff carried on working on the Mickey Mouse, Donald Duck, Goofy, and Pluto cartoon series, ending the Silly Symphonies at this time.[clarification needed More info needed on end of the Silly Symphonies to make a new and separate sentence.] Animator Fred Moore had redesigned Mickey Mouse in the late 1930s after Donald Duck overtook him in popularity among theater audiences.[76]
Pinocchio and Fantasia followed Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs into the movie theaters in 1940, but both proved financial disappointments. The inexpensive Dumbo was then planned as an income generator, but during production most of the animation staff went on strike, permanently straining relations between Disney and his artists.
1941–1945: World War II era[link]
In 1941, the U.S. State Department sent Disney and a group of animators to South America as part of its Good Neighbor policy, at the same time guaranteeing financing for the resultant movie, Saludos Amigos.[77]
Shortly after the release of Dumbo in October 1941, the US entered World War II. The U.S. Army and Navy Bureau of Aeronautics[78] contracted most of the Disney studio's facilities where the staff created training and instruction films for the military, home-front morale-boosting shorts such as Der Fuehrer's Face and the 1943 feature film Victory Through Air Power. However, military films did not generate income, and the feature film Bambi underperformed on its release in April 1942. Disney successfully re-issued Snow White in 1944, establishing a seven-year re-release tradition for his features. In 1945, The Three Caballeros was the last animated feature released by the studio during the war.
In 1944, Encyclopædia Britannica publisher William Benton, entered into unsuccessful negotiations with Disney to make six to twelve educational films per annum. Disney was asked by the US Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, Office of Inter-American Affairs (OIAA), to make an educational film about the Amazon Basin, which resulted in the 1944 animated short, The Amazon Awakens.[79][80][81][82][83]
1945–1955: Post-war period[link]
Disney studios also created inexpensive package films, containing collections of cartoon shorts, and issued them to theaters during this period. These included Make Mine Music (1946), Melody Time (1948), Fun and Fancy Free (1947) and The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad (1949). The latter had only two sections, the first based on The Wind in the Willows by Kenneth Grahame, and the second on The Legend of Sleepy Hollow by Washington Irving. During this period, Disney also ventured into full-length dramatic films that mixed live action and animated scenes, including Song of the South and So Dear to My Heart. After the war ended, Mickey's popularity would also fade.[84]
By the late 1940s, the studio had recovered enough to continue production on the full-length features Alice in Wonderland and Peter Pan, both of which had been shelved during the war years. Work also began on Cinderella, which became Disney's most successful film since Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. In 1948 the studio also initiated a series of live-action nature films, titled True-Life Adventures, with On Seal Island the first. Despite its resounding success with feature films, the studio's animation shorts were no longer as popular as they once were, with people paying more attention to Warner Bros. and their animation star Bugs Bunny. By 1942, Leon Schlesinger Productions, which produced the Warner Bros. cartoons, had become the country's most popular animation studio.[85] However, while Bugs Bunny's popularity rose in the 1940s, so did Donald Duck's,[86] a character who would replace Mickey Mouse as Disney's star character by 1949.[87]
During the mid-1950s, Disney produced a number of educational films on the space program in collaboration with NASA rocket designer Wernher von Braun: Man in Space and Man and the Moon in 1955, and Mars and Beyond in 1957.
Disney and the Second Red Scare[link]
Disney was a founding member of the anti-communist group Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals. In 1947, during the Second Red Scare,[88] Disney testified before the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), where he branded Herbert Sorrell, David Hilberman and William Pomerance, former animators and labor union organizers, Communist agitators. All three men denied the allegations and Sorrell went on to testify before the HUAC in 1946 when insufficient evidence was found to link him to the Communist Party.[89][90]
Disney also accused the Screen Cartoonists Guild of being a Communist front, and charged that the 1941 strike was part of an organized Communist effort to gain influence in Hollywood.[88]
1955–1966: Theme parks and beyond[link]
Planning Disneyland[link]
On a business trip to Chicago in the late-1940s, Disney drew sketches of his ideas for an amusement park where he envisioned his employees spending time with their children. The idea for a children's theme park came after a visit to Children's Fairyland in Oakland, California. It also said that Disney may have been inspired to create Disneyland in the park Republic of the Children located in Manuel B. Gonnet, La Plata, Argentina, and opened in 1951.[91] This plan was originally intended to be built on a plot located across the street to the south of the studio. These original ideas developed into a concept for a larger enterprise that would become Disneyland. Disney spent five years developing Disneyland and created a new subsidiary company, WED Enterprises, to carry out planning and production of the park. A small group of Disney studio employees joined the Disneyland development project as engineers and planners, and were dubbed Imagineers.[citation needed]
As Disney explained one of his earliest plans to Herb Ryman, who created the first aerial drawing of Disneyland presented to the Bank of America during fund raising for the project, he said, "Herbie, I just want it to look like nothing else in the world. And it should be surrounded by a train."[92] Entertaining his daughters and their friends in his backyard and taking them for rides on his Carolwood Pacific Railroad had inspired Disney to include a railroad in the plans for Disneyland.
Disneyland grand opening[link]
File:Waltopening.jpg
Walt Disney giving the dedication day speech July 17, 1955
Disneyland officially opened on July 18, 1955. On Sunday, July 17, 1955, Disneyland hosted a live TV preview, among the thousands of people in attendance were Ronald Reagan, Bob Cummings and Art Linkletter, who shared cohosting duties, as well as the mayor of Anaheim. Walt gave the following dedication day speech:
| “ | To all who come to this happy place; welcome. Disneyland is your land. Here age relives fond memories of the past .... and here youth may savor the challenge and promise of the future. Disneyland is dedicated to the ideals, the dreams and the hard facts that have created America ... with the hope that it will be a source of joy and inspiration to all the world. | ” |
Carolwood Pacific Railroad[link]
Main article: Carolwood Pacific Railroad
During 1949, Disney and his family moved to a new home on a large piece of land in the Holmby Hills district of Los Angeles, California. With the help of his friends Ward and Betty Kimball, who already had their own backyard railroad, Disney developed blueprints and immediately set to work on creating a miniature live steam railroad for his backyard. The name of the railroad, Carolwood Pacific Railroad, came from his home's location on Carolwood Drive. The railroad's half-mile long layout included a 46-foot (14 m) long trestle bridge, loops, overpasses, gradients, an elevated berm, and a 90-foot (27 m) tunnel underneath his wife's flowerbed. He named the miniature working steam locomotive built by Disney Studios engineer Roger E. Broggie Lilly Belle in his wife's honor and had his attorney draw up right-of-way papers giving the railroad a permanent, legal easement through the garden areas, which his wife dutifully signed; however, there is no evidence of the documents ever recorded as a restriction on the property's title.[clarification needed]
Expansion into new areas[link]
As Walt Disney Productions began work on Disneyland, it also began expanding its other entertainment operations. In 1950, Treasure Island became the studio's first all-live-action feature, soon followed by 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (in CinemaScope, 1954), Old Yeller (1957), The Shaggy Dog (1959), Pollyanna (1960), Swiss Family Robinson (1960), The Absent-Minded Professor (1961), and The Parent Trap (1961). The studio produced its first TV special, One Hour in Wonderland, in 1950. Disney began hosting a weekly anthology series on ABC entitled Disneyland, after the park, on which he aired clips of past Disney productions, gave tours of his studio, and familiarized the public with Disneyland as it was being constructed in Anaheim. The show also featured a Davy Crockett miniseries, which started the "Davy Crockett craze" among American youth, during which millions of coonskin caps and other Crockett memorabilia were sold across the country.[93] In 1955, the studio's first daily television show, Mickey Mouse Club debuted on ABC. It was a groundbreaking comedy/variety show aimed specifically for children. Disney took a strong personal interest in the show and even returned to the animation studio to voice Mickey Mouse in its animated segments during its original 1955-59 production run. The Mickey Mouse Club would continue in various incarnations in syndication and on the Disney Channel into the 1990s.
As the studio expanded and diversified into other media, Disney devoted less of his attention to the animation department, entrusting most of its operations to his key animators, whom he dubbed the Nine Old Men. Although he was spending less time supervising the production of the animated films, he was always present at story meetings.[94] During Disney's lifetime, the animation department created the successful Lady and the Tramp ( the first animated film in CinemaScope) in 1955, Sleeping Beauty ( the first animated film in Super Technirama 70mm) in 1959, One Hundred and One Dalmatians (the first animated feature film to use Xerox cels) in 1961, and The Sword in the Stone in 1963.
Production of short cartoons kept pace until 1956, when Disney shut down the responsible division although special shorts projects would continue for the remainder of the studio's duration on an irregular basis. These productions were all distributed by Disney's new subsidiary, Buena Vista Distribution, which had taken over all distribution duties for Disney films from RKO by 1955. Disneyland, one of the world's first theme parks, finally opened on July 17, 1955, and was immediately successful. Visitors from around the world came to visit Disneyland, which contained attractions based on a number of successful Disney characters and films.
After 1955, the Disneyland TV show was renamed Walt Disney Presents. It switched from black-and-white to color in 1961 and changed its name to Walt Disney's Wonderful World of Color, at the same time moving from ABC to NBC,[95] and eventually evolving into its current form as The Wonderful World of Disney. The series continued to air on NBC until 1981, when it was picked up by CBS.[96] Since then, it has aired on ABC, NBC, the Hallmark Channel and the Cartoon Network via separate broadcast rights deals. During its run, the Disney series offered some recurring characters, such as the newspaper reporter and sleuth "Gallegher" played by Roger Mobley with a plot based on the writings of Richard Harding Davis.
Disney had already formed his own music publishing division in 1949 and in 1956, partly inspired by the huge success of the television theme song The Ballad of Davy Crockett, he created a company-owned record production and distribution entity called Disneyland Records.
Early 1960s successes[link]
File:Shermans042.jpg
(Left to right) Robert B. Sherman, Richard M. Sherman and Walt Disney sing "There's a Great Big Beautiful Tomorrow" (1964)
By the early 1960s, the Disney empire had become a major success, and Walt Disney Productions had established itself as the world's leading producer of family entertainment. Walt Disney was the Head of Pageantry for the 1960 Winter Olympics.
After decades of pursuit, Disney finally acquired the rights to P.L. Travers' books about a magical nanny. Mary Poppins, released in 1964, was the most successful Disney film of the 1960s and featured a memorable song score written by Disney favorites, the Sherman Brothers. The same year, Disney debuted a number of exhibits at the 1964 New York World's Fair, including Audio-Animatronic figures, all of which were later integrated into attractions at Disneyland and a new theme park project which was to be established on the East Coast.
Although the studio would probably have proved major competition for Hanna-Barbera, Disney decided not to enter the race and mimic Hanna-Barbera by producing Saturday morning TV cartoon series. With the expansion of Disney's empire and constant production of feature films, the financial burden involved in such a move would have proven too great.
Plans for Disney World and EPCOT[link]
In early 1964, Disney announced plans to develop another theme park to be called Disney World a few miles southwest of Orlando, Florida. Disney World was to include "the Magic Kingdom", a larger, more elaborate version of Disneyland. It would also feature a number of golf courses and resort hotels. The heart of Disney World, however, was to be the Experimental Prototype City (or Community) of Tomorrow, known as EPCOT for short.
Mineral King Ski Resort[link]
During the early-to-mid 1960s, Walt Disney developed plans for a ski resort in Mineral King, a glacial valley in California's Sierra Nevada mountain range. He brought in experts such as the renowned Olympic ski coach and ski-area designer Willy Schaeffler, who helped plan a visitor village, ski runs and ski lifts among the several bowls surrounding the valley. Plans finally moved into action in the mid 1960s, but Walt died before the actual work started. Disney's death and opposition from conservationists ensured that the resort was never built.
Death[link]
Like many people of the time, Walt Disney was a chain smoker his entire adult life, although he made sure he was not seen smoking around children.[97] In 1966, Disney was scheduled to undergo surgery to repair an old neck injury[98] caused by many years of playing polo at the Riviera Club in Hollywood.[99] On November 2, during pre-operative X-rays, doctors at Providence St. Joseph Medical Center, across the street from the Disney Studio, discovered a tumor in his left lung.[100] Five days later a biopsy showed the tumor to be malignant and to have spread throughout the entire left lung.[100] After removal of the lung, doctors informed Disney that his life expectancy was six months to two years.[100] After several chemotherapy sessions, Disney and his wife spent a short amount of time in Palm Springs, California.[98] On November 30, Disney collapsed at his home. He was revived by fire department personnel and rushed to St. Joseph's where on December 15, 1966, at 9:30 a.m., ten days after his 65th birthday, Disney died of acute circulatory collapse, caused by lung cancer.[98] The last thing he reportedly wrote before his death was the name of actor Kurt Russell, the significance of which remains a mystery, even to Russell.[101]
Roy O. Disney continued out with the Florida project, insisting that the name be changed to Walt Disney World in honor of his brother.
The final productions in which Disney played an active role were the animated feature The Jungle Book and the animated short Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day, as well as the live-action musical feature The Happiest Millionaire, all released in 1967. Songwriter Robert B. Sherman recalled of the last time he saw Disney:
| “ | He was up in the third floor of the animation building after a run-through of The Happiest Millionaire. He usually held court in the hallway afterward for the people involved with the picture. And he started talking to them, telling them what he liked and what they should change, and then, when they were through, he turned to us and with a big smile, he said, 'Keep up the good work, boys.' And he walked to his office. It was the last we ever saw of him.[102] | ” |
Hibernation Urban Legend[link]
A long-standing urban legend maintains that Disney was cryogenically frozen, and his frozen corpse stored beneath the Pirates of the Caribbean ride at Disneyland.[103] In fact, Disney was cremated on December 17, 1966, and his ashes interred at the Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, California. The first known human cryogenic freezing did not occur until January 1967, more than a month after Disney's death.[103]
According to "at least one Disney publicist", as reported in the French magazine Ici Paris in 1969, the source of the rumor was a group of Disney Studio animators with "a bizarre sense of humor" who were playing a final prank on their late boss.[104]
Although the rumor is acknowledged as false by most historians, Robert Mosley (in Disney’s World (1986)) and Marc Eliot (in Walt Disney – Hollywood’s Dark Prince (1993)) argue that Disney may have known of cryonics and may have had an interest in the science.[105] However his daughter Diane wrote in 1972, "There is absolutely no truth to the rumor that my father, Walt Disney, wished to be frozen. I doubt that my father had ever heard of cryonics."[104]
Legacy: 1967–present[link]
Continuing Disney Productions[link]
After Walt Disney's death, Roy Disney returned from retirement to take full control of Walt Disney Productions and WED Enterprises. In October 1971, the families of Walt and Roy met in front of Cinderella Castle at the Magic Kingdom to officially open the Walt Disney World Resort.
After giving his dedication for Walt Disney World, Roy asked Lillian Disney to join him. As the orchestra played "When You Wish upon a Star", she stepped up to the podium accompanied by Mickey Mouse. He then said, "Lilly, you knew all of Walt's ideas and hopes as well as anybody; what would Walt think of it [Walt Disney World]?". "I think Walt would have approved," she replied.[106] Roy died from a cerebral hemorrhage on December 20, 1971, the day he was due to open the Disneyland Christmas parade.
During the second phase of the "Walt Disney World" theme park, EPCOT was translated by Disney's successors into EPCOT Center, which opened in 1982. As it currently exists, EPCOT is essentially a living world's fair, different from the actual functional city that Disney had envisioned. In 1992, Walt Disney Imagineering took the step closer to Disney's original ideas and dedicated Celebration, Florida, a town built by the Walt Disney Company adjacent to Walt Disney World, that hearkens back to the spirit of EPCOT. EPCOT was also originally intended to be devoid of Disney characters which initially limited the appeal of the park to young children. However, the company later changed this policy and Disney characters can now be found throughout the park, often dressed in costumes reflecting the different pavilions.
The Disney entertainment empire[link]
Today, Walt Disney's animation/motion picture studios and theme parks have developed into a multi-billion dollar television, motion picture, vacation destination and media corporation that carry his name. Among other assets The Walt Disney Company owns five vacation resorts, eleven theme parks, two water parks, thirty-nine hotels, eight motion picture studios, six record labels, eleven cable television networks, and one terrestrial television network. As of 2007, the company had annual revenues of over U.S. $35 billion.[107]
Disney Animation[link]
Walt Disney was a pioneer in character animation. He was one of the first people to move away from basic cartoons with just "impossible outlandish gags" and crudely drawn characters to an art form with heartwarming stories and characters the audience can connect to on an emotional level. The personality displayed in the characters of his films and the technological advancements remain influential when animating today. He was also considered by many of his colleagues to be a master storyteller and the animation department did not fully recover from his demise until the late 1980s in a period known as the Disney Renaissance. The most financially and critically successful films produced during this time include Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988), The Little Mermaid (1989), Beauty and the Beast (1991), Aladdin (1992) and The Lion King (1994). In 1995, Walt Disney Pictures distributed Pixar's Toy Story, the first computer animated feature film. Walt Disney's nephew Roy E. Disney claimed that Walt would have loved Toy Story and that it was "his kind of movie".[108] With the rise of computer animated films a stream of financially unsuccessful Traditional hand-drawn animated features in the early years of the 2000s (decade) emerged. This led to the company's controversial decision to close the traditional animation department. The two satellite studios in Paris and Orlando were closed, and the main studio in Burbank was converted to a computer animation production facility, firing hundreds of people in the process. In 2004, Disney released what was announced as their final "traditionally animated" feature film, Home on the Range. However, since the 2006 acquisition of Pixar, and the resulting rise of John Lasseter to Chief Creative Officer, that position has changed with the largely successful 2009 film The Princess and the Frog. This marked Disney's return to traditional hand-drawn animation and the studio hired back staff who had been laid-off in the past. Today, Disney produces both traditional and computer animation.
CalArts[link]
In his later years, Disney devoted substantial time to funding The California Institute of the Arts (CalArts). Formed in 1961 through a merger of the Los Angeles Conservatory of Music and the Chouinard Art Institute, which had helped in the training of the animation staff during the 1930s, when Disney died, one-fourth of his estate went to CalArts, which helped in building its campus. In his will, Disney paved the way for the creation of several charitable trusts which included one for the California Institute of the Arts and other for the Disney Foundation.[109] He also donated 38 acres (0.154 km2) of the Golden Oaks ranch in Valencia for construction of the school. CalArts moved onto the Valencia campus in 1972.
In an early admissions bulletin, Disney explained: "A hundred years ago, Wagner conceived of a perfect and all-embracing art, combining music, drama, painting, and the dance, but in his wildest imagination he had no hint what infinite possibilities were to become commonplace through the invention of recording, radio, cinema and television. There already have been geniuses combining the arts in the mass-communications media, and they have already given us powerful new art forms. The future holds bright promise for those who imaginations are trained to play on the vast orchestra of the art-in-combination. Such supermen will appear most certainly in those environments which provide contact with all the arts, but even those who devote themselves to a single phase of art will benefit from broadened horizons."[110]
Walt Disney Family Museum[link]
In 2009, The Walt Disney Family Museum opened in the Presidio of San Francisco. Thousands of artifacts from Disney's life and career are on display, including 248 awards that he received.[111]
Antisemitism accusations[link]
Disney was long rumored to be antisemitic during his lifetime, and such rumors have persisted after his death. Indeed, in the 1930s he welcomed German filmmaker and Nazi propagandist Leni Riefenstahl to Hollywood.[112] Disney biographer Neal Gabler, the first writer to gain unrestricted access to the Disney archives, concluded in 2006 that available evidence does not support such accusations. In a CBS interview Gabler summarized his findings:
| “ | That's one of the questions everybody asks me... My answer to that is, not in the conventional sense that we think of someone as being an antisemite. But he got the reputation because, in the 1940s, he got himself allied with a group called the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals, which was an anti-Communist and antisemitic organization. And though Walt himself, in my estimation, was not antisemitic, nevertheless, he willingly allied himself with people who were antisemitic, and that reputation stuck. He was never really able to expunge it throughout his life.[113] | ” |
Disney eventually distanced himself from the Motion Picture Alliance in the 1950s.[114]
The Walt Disney Family Museum acknowledges that Disney did have "difficult relationships" with some Jewish individuals, and that ethnic stereotypes common to films of the 1930s were included in some early cartoons, such as Three Little Pigs and The Opry House. However, the museum points out that Disney employed Jews throughout his career, donated to several Jewish charities (The Hebrew Orphan Asylum, Yeshiva College[disambiguation needed 
], Jewish Home for the Aged, The American League for a Free Palestine)[114] and was named "1955 Man of the Year" by the B'nai B'rith chapter in Beverly Hills.[114][115]
Academy Awards[link]
Walt Disney holds the record for both the most Academy Award nominations (59) and the number of Oscars awarded (22). He also earned four honorary Oscars. His last competitive Academy Award was posthumous.[116]
- 1932: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Flowers and Trees (1932)
- 1932: Honorary Award for creation of Mickey Mouse.
- 1934: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Three Little Pigs (1933)
- 1935: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: The Tortoise and the Hare (1934)
- 1936: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Three Orphan Kittens (1935)
- 1937: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: The Country Cousin (1936)
- 1938: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: The Old Mill (1937)
- 1939: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Ferdinand the Bull (1938)
- 1939: Honorary Award for Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937) The citation read, "For Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, recognized as a significant screen innovation which has charmed millions and pioneered a great new entertainment field." (The award, unique in the history of the Oscars, is one large statuette and seven miniature statuettes.)[5]
- 1940: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Ugly Duckling (1939)
- 1941: Honorary Award for Fantasia (1940), shared with: William E. Garity and J.N.A. Hawkins. The citation for the certificate of merit read, "For their outstanding contribution to the advancement of the use of sound in motion pictures through the production of Fantasia."[5]
- 1942: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Lend a Paw (1941)
- 1943: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Der Fuehrer's Face (1942)
- 1949: Best Short Subject, Two-reel: Seal Island (1948)
- 1949: Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award (Honorary Award)
- 1951: Best Short Subject, Two-reel: Beaver Valley (1950)
- 1952: Best Short Subject, Two-reel: Nature's Half Acre (1951)
- 1953: Best Short Subject, Two-reel: Water Birds (1952)
- 1954: Best Documentary, Features: The Living Desert (1953)
- 1954: Best Documentary, Short Subjects: The Alaskan Eskimo (1953)
- 1954: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Toot Whistle Plunk and Boom (1953)
- 1954: Best Short Subject, Two-reel: Bear Country (1953)
- 1955: Best Documentary, Features: The Vanishing Prairie (1954)
- 1956: Best Documentary, Short Subjects: Men Against the Arctic
- 1959: Best Short Subject, Live Action Subjects: Grand Canyon
- 1969: Best Short Subject, Cartoons: Winnie the Pooh and the Blustery Day
Other honors[link]
Walt Disney was the inaugural recipient of a star on the Anaheim walk of stars awarded in recognition of his significant contribution to the city of Anaheim and specifically Disneyland, which is now the Disneyland Resort. The star is located at the pedestrian entrance to the Disneyland Resort on Harbor Boulevard. Disney has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame, one for motion pictures and the other for his television work.
Walt Disney received the Congressional Gold Medal on May 24, 1968 (P.L. 90-316, 82 Stat. 130–131) and the Légion d'Honneur awarded by France in 1935.[117] In 1935, Walt received a special medal from the League of Nations for creation of Mickey Mouse, held to be Mickey Mouse award.[118] He also received the Presidential Medal of Freedom on September 14, 1964.[119] On December 6, 2006, California Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger and First Lady Maria Shriver inducted Walt Disney into the California Hall of Fame located at The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts.
A minor planet, 4017 Disneya, discovered in 1980 by Soviet astronomer Lyudmila Karachkina, is named after him.[120]
The Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles, California, opened in 2003, was named in his honor.
Waltograph, a freeware typeface, is based on his signature and handwriting.
In 1993, HBO began development of a Walt Disney biopic, directed by Frank Pierson and produced by Lawrence Turman, but the project never materialized and was soon abandoned.[121] However, Walt - The Man Behind the Myth, a biographical documentary about Disney, was later made.[122]
| Preceded by None |
Voice of Mickey Mouse 1928–1947, 1955-1959 |
Succeeded by Jimmy MacDonald |
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ "Walt Disney". IMDB. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000370/. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ http://www.disneydreamer.com/Waltfaith.htm
- ^ Dave Bryan (2002-08-13). "Walt Disney Helped Wernher von Braun Sell Americans on Space". Associated Press. http://www.space.com/news/spacehistory/vonbraun_disney_020813.html. Retrieved 2010-09-27. [dead link]
- ^ "2010 Form 10-K, Walt Disney Company". United States Securities and Exchange Commission. http://www.sec.gov/Archives/edgar/data/1001039/000119312510268910/d10k.htm.
- ^ a b c "Walt Disney Academy awards". Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/index.jsp. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Results Page - Academy Awards Database". http://awardsdatabase.oscars.org/ampas_awards/help/helpMain.jsp?helpContentURL=statistics/indexStats.html. Retrieved 16 February 2012.
- ^ "Walt Disney, the man behind the mouse". Chicago Sun-Times. 2009-09-27. http://www.suntimes.com/lifestyles/1790811,disney-walt-museum-san-francisco-092709.article. Retrieved 2010-10-21. [dead link]
- ^ a b "Walt Disney biography". Just Disney. Archived from the original on 2008-06-05. http://web.archive.org/web/20080605151444/http://www.justdisney.com/WaltDisney100/biography01.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Disneyland Paris. Michelin. 2002-08-07. p. 38. ISBN 2-06-048002-7.
- ^ a b c Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 7.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 9-10.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 15.
- ^ "Walt Disney Hometown Museum". Walt Disney Museum. http://www.waltdisneymuseum.org/. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 18.
- ^ Thomas 1991, pp. 33–41
- ^ "Biography of Walt Disney, Film Producer – kchistory.org – Retrieved September 14, 2009". Kchistory.org. http://kchistory.org/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/Biographies&CISOPTR=31&CISOBOX=1&REC=2. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 30.
- ^ Thomas 1991, pp. 42–43
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 36.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 37.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 38.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 42.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 44.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 45.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 46.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 48.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 51.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 52.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 56.
- ^ a b c Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 57.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 58.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 64.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 64-71.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 68.
- ^ a b Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 72.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 75.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 78.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 80.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 109.
- ^ Stay 'tooned: Disney gets 'Oswald' for Al Michaels, at ESPN web site, retrieved January 4, 2010
- ^ a b c d e Solomon, Charles. "The Golden Age of Mickey Mouse". Disney. Archived from the original on 2008-07-10. http://web.archive.org/web/20080710052034/http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/mickeymousegoldenage/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 128.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 129.
- ^ Gordon, Ian (2002). "Felix the Cat". St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g1epc/is_tov/ai_2419100434. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Neal Gabler, "Walt Disney:The Triumph of the American Imagination" (2006), p. 142.
- ^ a b Merritt, Russell. "THE BIRTH OF THE SILLY SYMPHONIES". Disney. http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/sillysymphonies/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1930.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Langer, Mark (July 1997) (PDF). Popeye From Strip To Screen. 2. Animation Magazine. pp. 17–19. http://www.awn.com/mag/issue2.4/AWNMag2.4.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Fleischer brothers". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106382/Fleischer-brothers. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1932.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "System 4". Widescreen Museum. http://www.widescreenmuseum.com/oldcolor/technicolor4.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "System 4". Widescreen Museum. http://www.widescreenmuseum.com/oldcolor/technicolor5.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Walt Disney at the Museum?". Montreal Museum of Fine Arts. http://www.mbam.qc.ca/disney/index_en.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Once Upon a Time: Walt Disney: The Sources of Inspiration for the Disney Studios". fps magazine. http://www.fpsmagazine.com/review/070312onceupon.php. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Danks, Adrian. "Huffing and Puffing about Three Little Pigs". Senses of Cinema. Archived from the original on April 22, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080422180415/http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/cteq/03/29/3_little_pigs.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Three Little Pigs". Disney. http://disney.go.com/vault/archives/movies/pigs/pigs.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1937.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "GOOFY BIOGRAPHY". Tripod.com. http://members.tripod.com/~kariv/bio.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Donald Duck". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9096160/Donald-Duck. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ a b c "The Windows on Main Street: Sharon Lund « WDW Central". Wdwcentral.wordpress.com. 2008-12-01. http://wdwcentral.wordpress.com/2008/12/01/the-windows-on-main-street-sharon-lund/. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ "Social Security Death Index". Ssdi.rootsweb.ancestry.com. 2011-05-26. http://ssdi.rootsweb.ancestry.com. Retrieved 2011-05-31.
- ^ "Silverado Vineyards". Silverado Vineyards. http://www.silveradovineyards.com/winery/history. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ a b Diane Disney - Biography
- ^ a b "Diane Disney Miller Remembers Dad: Walt's Secret Disneyland Apartment, His Passions & More (PHOTOS)". Huffingtonpost.com. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/02/07/walt-disneys-secret-disneyland-apartment-diane-disney-miller_n_1259421.html. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ a b c d Sharon Disney - Biography
- ^ One Hour in Wonderland (TV 1950) - IMDb
- ^ Barrier, 2008, p.324)
- ^ "Sharon Disney Lund | Sharon Lund; Daughter of Walt Disney". Los Angeles Times. 1993-10-17. http://articles.latimes.com/1993-02-17/local/me-60_1_walt-disney. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ "CalArts Honors Major Donors To Its $125 Million Campaign". Calarts.edu. http://calarts.edu/news/2007-mar-21/calarts-honors-major-donors-its-125-million-campaign. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ "Popeye's Popularity – Article from 1935". Golden Age Cartoons. http://forums.goldenagecartoons.com/showthread.php?t=2907. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Walt Disney, Biography". Just Disney. Archived from the original on 2007-07-10. http://web.archive.org/web/20070710012642/http://www.justdisney.com/walt_disney/biography/long_bio.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Cartoons that Time Forgot". Images Journal. http://www.imagesjournal.com/issue08/reviews/vanbeuren/. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "The Inflation Calculator". The Inflation Calculator. http://www.westegg.com/inflation/infl.cgi. Retrieved 2011-10-09.
- ^ "Walt Disney Studio Biography". Animation USA. http://www.animationusa.com/resources/aboutdisney.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21. [dead link]
- ^ "The Golden Age of Animation". Disney. http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/goldenage/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Fantasia Review". The Big Cartoon Database. http://www.bcdb.com/bcdb/cartoon.cgi?film=15&m=r. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Walt & El Grupo (documentary film, 2008).
- ^ "U.S. Naval Activities World War II by State". Patrick Clancey. http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/USN/ref/USN-Act/CA.html. Retrieved 2012-03-19.
- ^ Gabler, 2006, p.444
- ^ Cramer, Gisela; Prutsch, Ursula, "Nelson A. Rockefeller's Office of Inter-American Affairs (1940–1946) and Record Group 229", Hispanic American Historical Review 2006 86(4):785–806; doi:10.1215/00182168-2006-050. Cf. p.795 and note 28.
- ^ Bender, Pennee. "Hollywood Meets South American and Stages a Show" Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Studies Association. 2009-05-24 <[1][dead link]>
- ^ Niblo, Stephen R., "Mexico in the 1940s: Modernity, Politics, and Corruption", Wilimington, Del. : Scholarly Resources, 1999. ISBN 0-8420-2794-7. Cf. "Nelson Rockefeller and the Office of Inter-American Affairs", p.333
- ^ Leonard, Thomas M.; Bratzel, John F., Latin America during World War II, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2007. ISBN 978-0-7425-3741-5. Cf. p.47.
- ^ Solomon, Charles. "Mickey in the Post-War Era". Disney. http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/mickeymousepostwar/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Warner Bros. Studio Biography". Animation USA. http://www.animationusa.com/resources/aboutwb.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21. [dead link]
- ^ "Disney's Animated Classics". Sandcastle VI. http://www.sandcastlevi.com/movies/disneyh5.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Donald Duck". Pet Care Tips. http://petcaretips.net/donald-duck.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ a b "Testimony of Walter E. Disney before HUAC". CNN. 1947-10-24. Archived from the original on May 14, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080514003423/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/06/documents/huac/disney.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Cogley, John (1956) Report on Blacklisting, Volume I, Movies Fund for the Republic, New York, p. 34 OCLC 3794664; reprinted in 1972 by Arno Press, New York ISBN 0-405-03915-8
- ^ "Communist brochure" Screen Actors Guild accessed October 20, 2008
- ^ "República de los Niños - Historia del Proyecto". Fundacionvalorar.org.ar. http://www.fundacionvalorar.org.ar/republica2008/Historia.asp. Retrieved 2012-04-08.
- ^ "Walt Disney Quotes". Tripod.com. http://disneyspace.tripod.com/id1.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Cotter, Bill. "The Television Worlds of Disney – PART II". Disney. http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/tvworldsofdisney/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ John Lasseter-Commentary-Sleeping Beauty-2008 DVD
- ^ "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1961.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1981.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Gabler, Neal 2006 Walt Disney: The Triumph of Imagination, Alfed A. Knofph Inc, New York City
- ^ a b c "The Day Walt Died". Disney. http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/exhibits/articles/waltspassing/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Horsing Around With Walt and Polo". Mouse Planet. http://www.mouseplanet.com/articles.php?art=ww070711ws. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ a b c "Chronology of the Walt Disney Company". Island Net. http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/disnehis/disn1966.htm. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Kurt Russell Confirms Disney's Last Words". Star Pulse. http://www.starpulse.com/news/index.php/2007/04/24/kurt_russell_confirms_that_walt_disney_s. Retrieved 2007-04-24.
- ^ Greene, K&R (2001). Inside The Dream: The Personal Story Of Walt Disney. Disney Editions. p. 180. ISBN 0-7868-5350-6.
- ^ a b Mikkelson, B & DP (2007-08-24). "Suspended Animation". Snopes.com. http://www.snopes.com/disney/waltdisn/frozen.asp. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ a b Urban Legends Reference Pages © 1995-2001 by Barbara and David P. Mikkelson
- ^ Hoaxipedia, museumofhoaxes.com "Walt Disney Frozen" by Elliot Feldman © 2008 Alex Boese
- ^ Griffiths, Bill. "Grand opening of Walt Disney world". http://www.startedbyamouse.com/archives/GrandOpeningWDW01.shtml. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Walt Disney corporate website". Disney. http://corporate.disney.go.com/investors/index.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ Roy E. Disney-The Legacy of Toy Story-Toy Story-2005, DVD
- ^ "Walt Disney's will". Do Your Own Will. http://www.doyourownwill.com/disney.asp. Retrieved 2008-01-03.
- ^ Plagens, Peter (2000). Sunshine Muse: Art on the West Coast, 1945–1970. University of California Press. p. 159. ISBN 0-520-22392-6.
- ^ Rothstein, Edward (September 30, 2009). "Exploring the Man Behind the Animation". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/01/arts/design/01disney.html?pagewanted=1.
- ^ Dargis, Manohla (21September 2011). "And Now a Word From the Director". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/25/movies/conflicting-voices-in-lars-von-triers-words-and-works.html?scp=1&sq=And%20Now%20a%20Word%20from&st=Search. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
- ^ "Walt Disney: More Than 'Toons, Theme Parks". CBS News. 2006-11-01. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/11/01/earlyshow/leisure/books/main2141735.shtml.
- ^ a b c Gabler, Neal (2007). Walt Disney: The Triumph of the American Imagination. Random House. p. 458. ISBN 978-0-679-75747-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=41e-Ru0wRkEC&pg=PA458.
- ^ http://disney.go.com/disneyatoz/familymuseum/collection/insidestory/inside_1933d.html
- ^ Walt Disney - Awards
- ^ "Disney, Walt" (in French). Bedetheque. http://www.bedetheque.com/auteur-6857-BD-Disney-Walt.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
- ^ "Minnie's Cheat Sheet to my Website". AOL. http://hometown.aol.com/seramary/myhomepage/movies.html. Retrieved 2008-05-21. [dead link]
- ^ link removed, see edit summary
- ^ Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003). Dictionary of Minor Planet Names. New York: Springer Science+Business Media. p. 342. ISBN 3-540-00238-3. http://books.google.com/books?q=4017+Disneya.
- ^ David Rooney (1994-03-03). "Disney wins Houston and Washington teaming ...". Variety. http://www.variety.com/article/VR119623. Retrieved 2009-03-31.
- ^ "Walt: The Man Behind the Myth (TV 2001) - IMDb". Internet Movie Database. IMDb.com, Inc.. 2011. http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0296273/. Retrieved 2011-07-14.
References[link]
- Thomas, Bob (1994). Walt Disney: An American Original. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 0-7868-6027-8.
Further reading[link]
- Barrier, Michael (1999). Hollywood Cartoons: American Animation in Its Golden Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516729-5.
- Broggie, Michael (1997, 1998, 2005). Walt Disney's Railroad Story. Virginia Beach, Virginia. Donning Publishers. ISBN 1-56342-009-0
- Eliot, Marc (1993). Walt Disney: Hollywood's Dark Prince. Carol. ISBN 1-55972-174-X
- Mosley, Leonard. Disney's World: A Biography (1985, 2002). Chelsea, MI: Scarborough House. ISBN 0-8128-8514-7.
- Gabler, Neal. Walt Disney: The Triumph of American Imagination (2006). New York, NY. Random House. ISBN 0-679-43822-X
- Schickel, Richard, and Dee, Ivan R. (1967, 1985, 1997). The Disney Version: The Life, Times, Art and Commerce of Walt Disney. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, Publisher. ISBN 1-56663-158-0.
- Sherman, Robert B. and Sherman, Richard M. (1998) "Walt's Time: From Before to Beyond" ISBN 0-9646059-3-7
- Thomas, Bob (1991). Disney's Art of Animation: From Mickey Mouse to Beauty and the Beast. New York: Hyperion. ISBN 1-56282-899-1.
- Watts, Steven, The Magic Kingdom: Walt Disney and the American Way of Life, University of Missouri Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8262-1379-0
External links[link]
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Walt Disney |
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Walt Disney |
- Walt Disney at the Internet Movie Database
- Walt Disney at the TCM Movie Database
- Works by or about Walt Disney in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Walt Disney Family Museum
- Walt Disney Gravesite
|
||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||
|
||||||||||||||
|
|||||||||||||||||
|
|||||
|
||||||||||||||
|
||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Disney, Walter Elias |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Producer, director and animator |
| Date of birth | December 5, 1901 |
| Place of birth | Chicago, Illinois, United States |
| Date of death | December 15, 1966 |
| Place of death | Los Angeles, California, United States |
http://wn.com/Walt_Disney
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://es.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://ru.wn.com/Дисней, Уолт
http://cs.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://pt.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://pl.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://hi.wn.com/वॉल्ट डिज़्नी
http://it.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://id.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://nl.wn.com/Walt Disney
http://fr.wn.com/Walt Disney
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walt_Disney
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
