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Afghanistan
Afghanistan
i/æfˈɡænɨstæn/ (Persian/Pashto: افغانستان, Afġānistān), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming part of South Asia, Central Asia, and Greater Middle East, it is also considered to be part of a broader West Asia. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of 647,500 km2 (250,001 sq mi), making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and the east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast.
Afghanistan has been an ancient focal point of the Silk Road and human migration. Archaeologists have found evidence of human habitation from as far back as 50,000 BC. Urban civilization may have begun in the area as early as 3,000 to 2,000 BC. Sitting at an important geostrategic location that connects the Middle East with Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, the land has been home to various peoples through the ages and witnessed many military campaigns, notably by Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and in modern era Western forces. The land also served as a source from which the Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Timurids, Mughals and many others have risen to form major empires.
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Agra
Agra (i/ˈɑːɡrə/; Hindi: आगरा, Urdu: آ گرہ), the erstwhile capital of Hindustan, is a city on the banks of the river Yamuna in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, India, 363 kilometres (226 mi) west of state capital, Lucknow and 200 kilometres (124 mi) south of the national capital New Delhi. With a population of 1,686,976 (2010 est.), it is one of the most populous cities in Uttar Pradesh and the 19th most populous in India. Because 80 percent of the city's sewage flows into Yamuna River, it is 20th most polluted city in India. Agra can also refer to the administrative district that has its headquarters in Agra city.
The city finds mention in the epic Mahābhārata where it was called Agrevaṇa, or 'the border of the forest'. Legend ascribes the founding of the city to Rājā Badal Singh, a Sikarwar Rajput king (circa 1475), whose fort, Badalgarh, stood on or near the site of the present Fort. However, the 11th century Persian poet Mas'ūd Sa'd Salmān writes of a desperate assault on the fortress of Agra, then held by the Shāhī King Jayapala, by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Sultan Sikandar Lodī was the first to move his capital from Delhi to Agra in the year 1506; he died in 1517 and his son Ibrāhīm Lodī remained in power there for nine more years, finally being defeated at the Battle of Panipat in 1526. It achieved fame as the capital of the Mughal emperors from 1526 to 1658 and remains a major tourist destination because of its many splendid Mughal-era buildings, most notably the Tāj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpūr Sikrī, all three of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
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Agra Fort
Agra Fort, is a monument, (Hindi: आगरा का किला, Urdu: آگرہ قلعہ) is a UNESCO World Heritage site located in Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India. It is about 2.5 km northwest of its more famous sister monument, the Taj Mahal. The fort can be more accurately described as a walled city. After Panipat, Mughals captured the fort and a vast treasure - which included a diamond that was later named as the Koh-i-Noor diamond - was seized. Babur stayed in the fort in the palace of Ibrahim. He built a baoli (step well) in it. Humayun was crowned here in 1530. Humayun was defeated in Bilgram in 1540. Sher Shah held the fort for five years. The Mughals defeated the Hindu King Hemu finally at the Second Battle of Panipat in 1556.
It was originally a brick fort, held by the Hindu Sikarwar Rajputs. It was mentioned for the first time in 1080 AD when a Ghaznavide force captured it. Sikandar Lodi (1488–1517) was the first Sultan of Delhi who shifted to Agra and lived in the fort. He governed the country from here and Agra assumed the importance of the second capital. He died in the fort in 1517 and his son, Ibrahim Lodi, held it for nine years until he was defeated and killed at Panipat in 1526. Several palaces, wells and a mosque were built by him in the fort during his period.
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Ahmedabad
Ahmedabad (i/ˈɑːmɨdəbɑːd/ also known as Amdavad 
) is the largest city and former capital of the Indian state of Gujarat. The city is an administrative centre of Ahmedabad district as well as the judicial capital of Gujarat as the Gujarat High Court is in Ahmedabad. It was founded on 26 February 1411 by Sultan Ahmed Shah to serve as the capital of the Gujarat Sultanate, and was named after him. With a city population of more than 5.5 million and an extended population of 6.3 million it is the fifth largest city and seventh largest metropolitan area of India. Ahmedabad is located on the banks of the River Sabarmati, 32 km (20 mi) from the state capital Gandhinagar.
Though incorporated into the Bombay Presidency during British rule, Ahmedabad remained one of the most important cities in the Gujarat region. The city established itself as the home of a developing textile industry, which earned it the nickname the Manchester of the East. The city was at the forefront of the Indian independence movement in the first half of the 20th century and centre of many campaigns of civil disobedience to promote workers' rights, civil rights, and political independence.
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Ajmer
Ajmer (pronounced [ədʒmeːr] (
listen)) is the 5th largest city in Rajasthan and is the centre of the eponymous Ajmer District. Ajmer has a population of around 800,000 (2011 census), and is located 135 kilometres (84 mi) west of Jaipur, the state capital, 274 km from Udaipur, 439 km from Jaisalmer, and 391 km from Delhi.
Ajmer is surrounded by the Aravalli Mountains. It is a pilgrimage centre for the shrine of the Sufi Saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti and is also the base for visiting Pushkar (11 km), an ancient Hindu pilgrimage city, famous for the temple of Brahma.
Ajmer (Sanskrit Ajayameru) was founded in the late 7th century A.D. by Dushyant Chauhan. The Chauhan dynasty ruled Ajmer in spite of repeated invasions by Turkic marauders from Central Asia across the north of India. Ajmer was conquered by Muhammad of Ghor, founder of the Delhi Sultanate, in 1193. However, the Chauhan rulers were allowed autonomy upon the payment of a heavy tribute to the conquerors. Ajmer remained subject to Delhi until 1365 when it was captured by the ruler of Mewar. In 1509, control of Ajmer was disputed between the Maharajas of Mewar and Marwar unitil it was conquered by the Marwar in 1532. The city was conquered by the Mughal emperor Akbar in 1559. In the 18th century, control passed to the Marathas.
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Amber, India
Amer (or Amber)(IPA: [ameɾ]; Hindi: आमेर, amer ?) was a city of Rajasthan state, India, it is now part of the Jaipur Municipal Corporation. Founded by the Meena Raja Alan Singh (He was from Chanda clan of Meenas), Amer was a flourishing settlement as far back as 967 CE. Around 1037 CE, it was conquered by the Kachwaha clan of Rajputs. Much of the present structure known as Amer Fort is actually the palace built by the great conqueror Raja Man Singh I who ruled from 1590 - 1614 CE. The palace contains several spectacular buildings such as the Diwan-i-Khas and the elaborately painted Ganesh Poll built by the renowned warlord Mirza Raja Jai Singh I (Man Singh I's grandson). The old and original fort of Amer dating from earlier Rajas or the Meena period is what is known in the present day as Jaigarh fort, which is actually the main defensive structure, rather than the palace itself, although the two structures are interconnected by series of encompassing fortification.
Amer was capital of the Kachwahas until 1727 when the ruler of Amer Sawai Jai Singh II founded a capital about nine kilometers south of Amer, this new city which was named after him as Jainagara (Jaipur). After the founding of the new town, the royal palace and houses of prominent persons were shifted to Jaipur, but the priests of Shila Devi temple who were Bengali Brahmins continued to live in the fort(to this date), while the Jaigarh fort above the palace also remained heavily garrisoned. The capital of Kachwahas was supplanted by the modern city of Jaipur, which is the capital of Rajasthan state in India.
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Basra
Basra (Arabic: البصرة; BGN: Al Baṣrah) is the capital of Basra Governorate, in southern Iraq near Kuwait and Iran. It had an estimated population of two million as of 2009. Basra is also Iraq's main port, although it does not have deep water access, which is handled at the port of Umm Qasr.
The city is part of the historic location of Sumer, the home of Sinbad the Sailor, and a proposed location of the Garden of Eden. It also played an important role in early Islamic history, being built in 636 CE, or 14 AH. It is Iraq's second largest and most populous city after Baghdad.
The city was called by many names throughout its history, Basrah being the most common. Although some Chaldean Christians argue that the name has Akkadian roots, other sources claim that the name is derived from the Persian word Bas-rah, which means "where many paths meet". During the pre-Islamic era, the area was known to the Arabs as al-Khariba due to the existence of an ancient city called al-Kharba. After the present city was built, it was called by many names, including "the mother of Iraq", "the reservoir of Arabs", "the prosperous city", and "al-Faiha".
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Battle of Plassey
Coordinates: 23°48′N 88°15′E / 23.80°N 88.25°E / 23.80; 88.25
The Battle of Plassey (Bengali: পলাশীর যুদ্ধ, Pôlashir Juddho), 23 June 1757, was a decisive British East India Company victory over the Nawab of Bengal and his French allies, establishing Company rule in South Asia which expanded over much of the Indies for the next hundred years. The battle took place at Palashi, Bengal (Plassey is the anglicised version of Palashi), on the river banks of the Bhagirathi River, about 150 km north of Calcutta, near Murshidabad, then capital of undivided Bengal. The belligerents were Siraj-ud-daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, and the British East India Company.
The battle was preceded by the attack on British controlled Calcutta by Siraj-ud-daulah and the Black Hole incident. The British sent reinforcements under Colonel Robert Clive and Admiral Charles Watson from Madras to Bengal, and recaptured Calcutta. Clive then seized the initiative to capture the French fort of Chandernagar. Tensions and suspicions between Siraj-ud-daulah and the British culminated in the Battle of Plassey. The battle was waged during the Seven Years' War (1756–63) and, in a mirror of their European rivalry, the French East India Company sent a small contingent to fight against the British. Siraj-ud-Daulah had a numerically superior force and made his stand at Plassey. The British, worried about being outnumbered, formed a conspiracy with Siraj-ud-Daulah's demoted army chief Mir Jafar, along with others such as Yar Lutuf Khan, Jagat Seths (Mahtab Chand and Swarup Chand), Omichund and Rai Durlabh. Mir Jafar, Rai Durlabh and Yar Lutuf Khan thus assembled their troops near the battlefield but made no move to actually join the battle. Siraj-ud-Daulah's army was defeated by roughly 3,000 soldiers of Col. Robert Clive, owing to the flight of Siraj-ud-daulah from the battlefield and the inactivity of the conspirators.
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Bengal
Bengal (Bengali: বাংলা
Bangla (help·info), Bengali: বঙ্গ Bôngo, Bengali: বঙ্গদেশ Bôngodesh, or Bengali: বাংলাদেশ Bangladesh) is a historical and geographical region in the northeast region of the Indian Subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. Today, it is mainly divided between the sovereign land of People's Republic of Bangladesh (previously East Bengal / East Pakistan) and the Indian state of West Bengal, although some regions of the previous kingdoms of Bengal (during local monarchical regimes and British rule) are now part of the neighboring Indian states of Bihar, Jharkhand, Assam, Tripura and Orissa. The majority of Bengal is inhabited by Bengali people (বাঙালি Bangali) who speak the Bengali language (বাংলা Bangla).
The region of Bengal is one of the most densely populated regions on earth, with a population density exceeding 900/km². Most of the Bengal region lies in the low-lying Ganges–Brahmaputra River Delta or Ganges Delta, the world's largest delta. In the southern part of the delta lies the Sundarbans—the world's largest mangrove forest and home of the Bengal tiger. Though the population of the region is mostly rural and agrarian, two megacities, Kolkata (previously Calcutta) and Dhaka (previously Dacca), are located in Bengal. The Bengal region is renowned for its rich literary and cultural heritage as well as its immense contribution to the socio-cultural uplift of Indian society in the form of the Bengal Renaissance, and revolutionary activities during the Indian independence movement.
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Bibi Ka Maqbara
Bibi Ka Maqbara (Urdu: بیبی كا مقبرا, Hindi, Marathi: बीबी का मकबरा) is a maqbara built by the Mughal Prince Azam Shah, in the late 17th century as a loving tribute to his mother, Rabia Durrani (the first wife of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb). The comparison to the Taj Mahal has resulted in a general ignorance of the monument. This monument is also called the Dakkhani Taj (Taj of the Deccan).
The monument's name translates literally to 'Tomb of the Lady', but has earned the nickname 'poor man’s Taj' because it was originally planned to rival the Taj Mahal (but was prevented from doing so due to budgetary constraints—Aurangzeb gave Azam Shah Rs. 7,00,000 only for the construction, where Taj Mahal cost 32 million Rupees approximately).
It is situated in Aurangabad, Maharashtra. The tomb in itself represents the transition from the ostentatious architecture of Akbar and Shah Jahan to the simple architecture of the later Mughals.
In the form of a hexagon and angles are ornamented with minarets. Bibi-ka-maqbara was built in 1660 by Aurangzeb's son, Azam Shah, as a loving tribute to his mother, Dilras Bano Begam. In 1720, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asif Jah, a distinguished General of Aurangzeb with the intention of founding his own dynasty in the Deccan, arrived at Aurangabad and made it his capital. He paid a visit to Delhi in 1723, but returned in 1724. Nizam Ali Khan Asaf Jah II transferred his capital from Aurangabad to Hyderabad in 1763.[3]
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Bikaner
Bikaner ( pronunciation (help·info)) is a District in the northwest of the state of Rajasthan in northern India. It is located 330 kilometres (205 mi) northwest of the state capital, Jaipur. Bikaner city is the administrative headquarters of Bikaner District and Bikaner division. It was formerly the capital of the princely state of Bikaner. The city was founded by Rao Bika. Bikaner. in 1486 and from its small origins it has developed into the fifth largest city in Rajasthan. The Ganges Canal, completed in 1928, and the Indira Gandhi Canal, completed in 1987, have allowed the farming of crops such as mustard, cotton, groundnuts, wheat and vegetables. Other industries include wool production and the mining of Gypsum, plaster of Paris and bentonite.
Bikaner is famous for sweets and snacks (or namkeens in Hindi).
Prior to the mid 15th century, the region that is now Bikaner was a barren wilderness called Jangladesh. In 1488 Rao Bika established the city of Bikaner. Rao Bika was the second son of Maharaja Rao Jodha of the Rathor clan, the founder of Jodhpur and conquered the largely arid country in the north of Rajasthan. As the second son of Joda he had no chance of inheriting Jodhpur from his father or the title of Maharaja. He therefore decided to build his own kingdom in what is now the state of Bikaner in the area of Jungladesh. Though it was in the Thar Desert, Bikaner was considered an oasis on the trade route between Central Asia and the Gujarat coast as it had adequate spring water. Bika’s name was attached to the city he built and to the state of Bikaner (“the settlement of Bika”) that he established. Bika built a fort in 1478, which is now in ruins, and a hundred years later a new fort was built about 1.5 km from the city centre, known as the Junagarh Fort.
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Columbia University
Columbia University in the City of New York, commonly referred to as Columbia University, is an American private Ivy League research university located in New York City, New York, United States. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution. Today the university operates seven Columbia Global Centers overseas in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Santiago and Nairobi.
The university was founded in 1754 as King's College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain. After the American Revolutionary War, King's College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. The University now operates under a 1787 charter that places the institution under a private board of trustees, and in 1896 it was further renamed Columbia University. That same year, the university's campus was moved from Madison Avenue to its location in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Manhattan, where it occupies more than six city blocks, or 32 acres (0.13 km2). The university encompasses twenty schools and is affiliated with numerous institutions, including Teachers College, Barnard College, and the Union Theological Seminary, with joint undergraduate programs available through the Jewish Theological Seminary of America as well as the Juilliard School.
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Delhi
Delhi (/ˈdɛli/; locally pronounced Dillee or Dehli), officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is the largest metropolis by area and the second-largest metropolis by population in India. It is the eighth largest metropolis in the world by population with 16.7 million inhabitants in the Territory at the 2011 Census. The region has been given special status of National Capital Region under The Constitution (69th Amendment) Act, 1991. There are nearly 22.2 million residents in the greater National Capital Region urban area (which also includes the cities Noida, Greater Noida, Ghaziabad, Gurgaon,Sonepat and Faridabad along with other smaller nearby towns).
Delhi is known to have been continuously inhabited since at least the 6th century BCE, though human habitation is believed to have existed since the second millennium BCE. Delhi is also widely believed to have been the site of Indraprastha, the legendary capital of the Pandavas during the times of the Mahabharata. Delhi re-emerged as a major political, cultural and commercial city along the trade routes between northwest India and the Gangetic plain after the rise of the Delhi sultanates. It is the site of many ancient and medieval monuments, archaeological sites and remains.
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Goa
Goai/ˈɡoʊ.ə/ is India's smallest state by area and the fourth smallest by population. Located in West India in the region known as the Konkan, it is bounded by the state of Maharashtra to the north, and by Karnataka to the east and south, while the Arabian Sea forms its western coast. Goa is India's richest state with a GDP per capita two and a half times that of the country as a whole. It was ranked the best placed state by the Eleventh Finance Commission for its infrastructure and ranked on top for the best quality of life in India by the National Commission on Population based on the 12 Indicators.
Panaji is the state's capital, while Vasco da Gama is the largest city. The historic city of Margao still exhibits the cultural influence of the Portuguese, who first landed in the early 16th century as merchants and conquered it soon thereafter. Goa is a former Portuguese colony, the Portuguese overseas territory of Portuguese India existed for about 450 years until it was annexed by India in 1961.
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Gujarat
Gujarat /ˌɡʊdʒəˈrɑːt/ (Gujarati: ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt [ɡudʒ(ə)ɾat] ( listen)) is a state in western India. It has an area of 75,686 sq mi (196,030 km2) with a coastline of 1,600 km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 60 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east and the Arabian Sea as well as the Pakistani province of Sindh on the west. Its capital is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is home to the Gujarati-speaking people of India.
The state encompasses major sites of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, such as Lothal and Dholavira. Lothal is believed to be one of the world's first ports. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch and Khambhat, served as ports and trading centers in the Maurya and Gupta empires. Mahatma Gandhi, India's "father of the nation", who led the Indian Independence Movement against the British colonial rule was a Gujarati.Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, independent India's first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister was also from Gujarat.
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Gurdaspur district
Gurdaspur district (Doabi:ਗੁਰਦਸਪੂਰ ਜ਼ਿਲਾ) is a district in the state of Punjab, situated in the northwest part of the Republic of India. Gurdaspur is the district headquarters. It internationally borders Narowal District of the Pakistani Punjab, Kathua District of Jammu and Kashmir, the Punjab districts of Amritsar and Hoshiarpur, and Chamba and Kangra districts of Himachal Pradesh. Two main rivers Beas and Ravi passes through the district. The Mughal emperor Akbar is said to have been enthroned in a garden near Kalanaur, a historically important town in the district. The district is at the foothills of the Himalayas.
The current member of Parliament of Gurdaspur is Pratap Singh Bajwa .
As of 2011 it is the third most populous district of Punjab (out of 22), after Ludhiana and Amritsar.
Gurdaspur was founded by Guriya Ji in the beginning of 17th century. On his name, this city was named as Gurdaspur. He bought land for Gurdaspur from Jats of Sangi Gotra. It is also established that some people used to live in huts in the old city. Guriya Ji a Sanwal Brahmin of Kaushal Gotra belonged to a village Paniar situated 5 miles north of Gurdaspur. The ancestors of Guriya Ji came from Ayodhaya long time ago and settled in Paniar. Guriya Ji had two sons Sh.Nawal Rai and Sh.Pala Ji. The descendants of Nawal Rai settled in Gurdaspur Nawal Rai’s son Baba Deep Chand was a contemporary of Guru Gobind Singh Ji. It is believed that Guru Gobind Singh Ji gave the title of Ganj Bakhsh (Owner Of Treasure) to Baba Deep Chand. The descendants of Baba Deep Chand are known as Mahants.
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Haridwar
Haridwar pronunciation (help·info) (also spelled Hardwar, Hindi: हरिद्वार) is an important pilgrimage city and municipality in the Haridwar district of Uttarakhand, India. The River Ganges, after flowing for 253 kilometres (157 mi) from its source at Gaumukh at the edge of the Gangotri Glacier, enters the Indo-Gangetic Plains of North India for the first time at Haridwar, which gave the city its ancient name, Gangadwára.
Haridwar is regarded as one of the seven holiest places to Hindus. According to the Samudra manthan, Haridwar along with Ujjain, Nasik and Allahabad is one of four sites where drops of Amrit, the elixir of immortality, accidentally spilled over from the pitcher while being carried by the celestial bird Garuda. This is manifested in the Kumbha Mela being celebrated every 3 years in one of the 4 places, and thus every 12 years in Haridwar. Amidst the Kumbha Mela, millions of pilgrims, devotees, and tourists congregate in Haridwar to perform ritualistic bathing on the banks of the river Ganges to wash away their sins to attain Moksha. Brahma Kund, the spot where the Amrit fell, is located at Har ki Pauri (literally, "footsteps of the Lord") and is considered to be the most sacred ghat of Haridwar.
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Hindukush
Coordinates: 35°N 71°E / 35°N 71°E / 35; 71
The Hindu Kush (Pashto/Persian: ھندوکُش, Urdu: سلسلہ کوہ ہندوکش) is an 800 km (500 mi) long mountain range that stretches between central Afghanistan and northern Pakistan. The highest point in the Hindu Kush is Tirich Mir (7,708 m or 25,289 ft) in Chitral District of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
It is the westernmost extension of the Pamir Mountains, the Karakoram Range, and is a sub-range of the Himalayas.
The names Hindu Kush (Persian: ھندوکُش), Hindu Kūh (ھندوکوه) and Kūh-e Hind (کوهِ ھند) are usually applied to the entire range separating the basins of the Kabul and Helmand rivers from that of the Amu River (ancient Oxus) or more specifically to that part of the range, northwest of the Afghan capital Kabul. Sanskrit documents refer to the Hindu Kush as Pāriyātra Parvata (पारियात्र पर्वत). Greek geographers adapted the Sanskrit to "Paropanisadae" by Greeks in the late first millennium BC.
The Persian-English dictionary indicates that the word 'Kush' is derived from the verb Kushtar - to slaughter or carnage. Kush is probably also related to the verb Koshtan, meaning to kill.
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Humayun's Tomb
Humayun's tomb (Urdu: ہمایوں کا مقبرہ Humayun ka Maqbara) is the tomb of the Mughal Emperor Humayun. The tomb was commissioned by Humayun's wife Hamida Banu Begum in 1562 AD, and designed by Mirak Mirza Ghiyath, a Persian architect. It was the first garden-tomb on the Indian subcontinent, and is located in Nizamuddin East, Delhi, India, close to the Dina-panah citadel also known as Purana Qila (Old Fort), that Humayun founded in 1533. It was also the first structure to use red sandstone at such a scale The tomb was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993, and since then has undergone extensive restoration work, which is still underway. Besides the main tomb enclosure of Humayun, several smaller monuments dot the pathway leading up to it, from the main entrance in the West, including one that even pre-dates the main tomb itself, by twenty years; it is the tomb complex of Isa Khan Niyazi, an Afghan noble in Sher Shah Suri's court of the Suri dynasty, who fought against the Mughals, constructed in 1547 CE.
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Hyderabad State
The Hyderābād state pronunciation (help·info) was located in the south-central region of the Indian subcontinent, and was ruled, from 1724 until 1948, by a hereditary Nizam. Throughout its history it was a Muslim-ruled state. The capital city was Hyderabad.
The region became part of the Mughal Empire in the 1680s. When the empire began to weaken in the 18th century, a Mughal official, Asif Jah, defeated a rival Mughal governor's attempt to seize control of the empire's southern provinces, declaring himself Nizam-al-Mulk of Hyderabad in 1724. The Mughal emperor, under renewed attack from the Marathas, was unable to prevent it.
Nizam's Dominions in the 18th century extended from Aurangabad and Berar in the north to Tiruchirapally in the south, encompassing the entire area of 'Circars' (later annexed by French and British forces), and parts of today's Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The areas in what is now Tamil Nadu were administered by the Nawab of the Carnatic, who acknowledged the Nizam's suzerainity. However, with the death of the first Nizam and the arrival of foreign forces, the dominions gradually lost their coastal territories.
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India
India (i/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
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Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's oceanic divisions, covering approximately 20% of the water on the Earth's surface. It is bounded on the north by the Indian Subcontinent and Arabian Peninsula (or, more generally, by southern and western Asia); on the west by eastern Africa; on the east by Indochina, the Sunda Islands, and Australia; and on the south by the Southern Ocean (or, depending on definition, by Antarctica). The ocean is named after the geographic location of India.
As one component of the interconnected global ocean, the Indian Ocean is delineated from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20° east meridian running south from Cape Agulhas, and from the Pacific by the meridian of 146°55' east. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30° north in the Persian Gulf. This ocean is nearly 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) wide at the southern tips of Africa and Australia; its area is 73,556,000 square kilometres (28,350,000 sq mi), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.
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Iran
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
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Janjira
Coordinates: 18°17′59″N 72°57′51″E / 18.299773°N 72.964239°E / 18.299773; 72.964239
Murud-Janjira ( pronunciation (help·info)) is the local name for a fort situated on an island just off the coastal village of Murud, in the Raigad district of Maharashtra, India. It was occupied by the Siddis and is famous for being the only fort along India's Western coast that remained undefeated despite Dutch, Maratha and English East India Company attacks.
The word Janjira is not native to India, and may have originated after the Arabic word Jazeera, which means an island. Murud was once known in Marathi as Habsan ("of Habshi" or Abyssinian). The name of the fort is a concatenation of the Konkani and Arabic words for Island, "morod" and "jazeera". The word "morod" is peculiar to Konkani and is absent in Marathi.
Murud-Janjira Fort is situated on an oval-shaped rock off the Arabian Sea coast near the port town of Murud, 165km south of Mumbai. Janjira is considered one of the strongest marine forts in India. The fort is approached by sailboats from Rajapuri jetty. The main gate of the fort faces Rajapuri on the shore and can be seen only when one is quite close to it. It has a small postern gate towards the open sea for escape.
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Jeddah
Jeddah (Arabic: جدّة Jidda), sometimes spelled Jiddah or Jedda, is a city located on the coast of the Red Sea and is the major urban center of western Saudi Arabia. It is the largest city in Makkah Province, the largest sea port on the Red Sea, and the second largest city in Saudi Arabia after the capital city, Riyadh. The population of the city currently stands at 3.2 million. It is an important commercial hub in Saudi Arabia.
Jeddah is the principal gateway to Mecca, Islam's holiest city, which able-bodied Muslims are required to visit at least once in their lifetime. It is also a gateway to Medina, the second holiest place in Islam.
Jeddah is one of the most cosmopolitan, diverse, and tolerant of all Saudi Arabian cities, hosting expatriates from all over the world who have made Jeddah their home.[citation needed] Economically, Jeddah is focusing on further developing capital investment in scientific and engineering leadership within Saudi Arabia, and the Middle East. Jeddah was independently ranked 4th in the Africa / Mid-East region in terms of innovation in 2009 in the Innovation Cities Index.
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Kabul
Kabul ( /ˈkɑːbəl/, /ˈkɑːbuːl/; Pashto: کابل Kābəl, IPA: [kɑˈbəl]; Persian: کابل Kābol, IPA: [kɒːˈbol]), also spelled Cabool, Caubul or Cabul, mostly in historical contexts, is the capital and largest city of Afghanistan. Kabul is the 5th fastest growing city in the world [2] and the world's 64th largest city [3]. It is also the capital of Kabul Province, located in the eastern section of Afghanistan. According to latest estimates, the population of the Kabul metropolitan area is over 4 million.
The city serves as the nation's cultural and learning centre, situated 1,791 metres (5,876 ft) above sea level in a narrow valley, wedged between the Hindu Kush mountains along the Kabul River. It is linked with Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-e Sharif via the circular Highway 1 that stretches across Afghanistan. It is also the start of the main road to Jalalabad and further to Peshawar, Pakistan. The Kabul International Airport is located about 16 kilometres (9.9 mi) from the center of the city, next to the Wazir Akbar Khan neighborhood. Bagram Airfield is about 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast of Kabul.
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Lahore
Lahore (Punjabi: لہور, Urdu: لاہور) is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and the second largest city in the country. With a rich history dating back over a millennium, Lahore is a main cultural centre of Pakistan. One of the most densely populated cities in the world, Lahore remains an economic, political, transportation, entertainment, and educational hub.
Lahore successively served as regional capital of the empires of the Shahi kingdoms in the 11th century, the Ghaznavids in the 12th century, the Ghurid State in the 12th and 13th centuries the Mughal Empire in the 16th century, the Sikh expansion in the early 19th century, and it was the capital of the Punjab region under the British Raj in the mid 19th and early 20th century. The traditional capital of Punjab for a thousand years, Lahore was the cultural center of the northern Indian subcontinent which extends from the eastern banks of the Indus River to New Delhi. Mughal structures such as the Badshahi Mosque, the Lahore Fort, Shalimar Gardens, and the mausolea of Jehangir and Nur Jehan are tourist attractions. Lahore is also home to many British colonial structures built in the Indo-Saracenic style, such as the Lahore High Court, the General Post Office, Lahore Museum and many older universities including the University of the Punjab. The Lahore Zoo, thought to be the fourth oldest in the world, is also situated here.
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Lahore Fort
Coordinates: 31°35′25″N 74°18′35″E / 31.59028°N 74.30972°E / 31.59028; 74.30972
The Lahore Fort, locally referred to as Shahi Qila (Punjabi, Urdu: شاہی قلعہ) is citadel of the city of Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan. It is located in the northwestern corner of the Walled City of Lahore. The trapezoidal composition is spread over 20 hectares.
Origins of the fort go as far back as antiquity, however, the existing base structure was built during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar between 1556–1605 and was regularly upgraded by subsequent Mughal, Sikh and British rulers.It has two gates one is known as Alamgiri Gate build by Emperor Aurangzeb which opens towards Badshahi Mosque and other older one known as Maseeti (Punjabi language word means of Masjid) or Masjidi Gate which open towards Masti Gate Area of Walled City and was built by Emperor Akbar. Currently Alamgiri Gate is used as the principal entrance while Masti Gate is permanently closed .The fort manifests the rich traditions of Mughal architecture. Some of the famous sites inside the fort include: Sheesh Mahal, Alamgiri Gate, Naulakha pavilion, and Moti Masjid. In 1981, the fort was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with the Shalimar Gardens (Lahore).
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Lalbagh Fort
Coordinates: 23°43.16′N 90°23.26′E / 23.71933°N 90.38767°E / 23.71933; 90.38767
Lalbagh Fort (Bengali: লালবাগ দূর্গ) (also known as "Fort Aurangabad") is an incomplete Mughal palace fortress at the Buriganga River in the southwestern part of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Construction was commenced in 1678 by Prince Muhammad Azam during his 15-month long vice-royalty of Bengal, but before the work could complete, he was recalled by Aurangzeb. His successor, Shaista Khan, did not complete the work, though he stayed in Dhaka up to 1688. His daughter Iran Dukht nicknamed Pari Bibi (Fairy Lady) died here in 1684 and this led him to consider the fort to be ominous.
Lalbagh Fort is also the witness of the revolt of the native soldiers against the British during the Great Rebellion of 1857. As in the Red Fort in India, they were defeated by the force led by the East India Company. They and the soldiers who fled from Meerat were hanged to death at the Victoria Park. In 1858 the declaration of Queen Victoria of taking over the administrative control of India from the Company was read out at the Victoria park, latter renamed Bahadur Shah Park after the name of the last Mughal Emperor who led that greatest rebellion against then British empire.
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Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh /ˈmɑːdjə prəˈdɛʃ/, abbreviated MP, often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and Indore is the largest city.
Madhya Pradesh is the second largest state by area and with over 75 million inhabitants the sixth largest state in India by population. It borders the states of Uttar Pradesh to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the southeast, Maharashtra to the south, Gujarat to the west, and Rajasthan to the northwest.
The city of Ujjain (also known as Avanti) arose as a major center in the second wave of Indian urbanization in the sixth century BC, and served as the chief city of the kingdom of Malwa or Avanti. Further east, the kingdom of Chedi lie in Bundelkhand. Chandragupta Maurya united northern India c. 320 BC, establishing the Maurya empire (321 to 185 BC), which included all of modern-day Madhya Pradesh. King Ashoka's wife was said to come from Vidisha- a town north of today's Bhopal. The Maurya empire went into decline after the death of Asoka the Great, and Central India was contested among the Sakas, Kushanas, and local dynasties during the 3rd to 1st centuries BCE. Ujjain emerged as the predominant commercial center of western India from the first century BCE, located on the trade routes between the Ganges plain and India's Arabian Sea ports. It was also an important Hindu and Buddhist center.
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Mecca
Mecca ( /ˈmɛkə/; Arabic: مكة, Makkah, pronounced [ˈmækːɐ]) is a city in the Hejaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located 70 km (43 mi) inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of 277 m (909 ft) above sea level. Its resident population in 2012 was 2 million, although visitors more than triple this number every year during Hajj period held in the twelfth Muslim lunar month of Dhu al-Hijjah.
As the birthplace of Muhammad and a site of the composition of the Quran, Mecca is regarded as the holiest city in the religion of Islam and a pilgrimage to it known as the Hajj is obligatory upon all able Muslims. The Hijaz was long ruled by Muhammad's descendants, the sharifs, either as independent rulers or as vassals to larger empires. It was absorbed into Saudi Arabia in 1925. In its modern period, Mecca has seen tremendous expansion in size and infrastructure. Because of this Mecca has lost many thousand years old buildings and archaeological sites. Today, more than 15 million Muslims visit Mecca annually, including several million during the few days of the Hajj. As a result, Mecca has become one of the most cosmopolitan and diverse cities in the Muslim world, although non-Muslims remain prohibited from entering the city.
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Medina
Medina (/mɛˈdiːnə/; Arabic: اَلْمَدِينَة اَلْمَنَوَّرَة, al-Madīnah al-Munawwarah, “the radiant city” (officially), or اَلْمَدِينَة al-Madīnah; also transliterated as Madinah, or madinat al-nabi "the city of the prophet") is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, and serves as the capital of the Al Madinah Province. It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. Medina is historically significant for being Muhammad's home after the Hijrah. Before the advent of Islam, the city was known as Yathrib, but was personally renamed by Muhammad.
Medina is home to the three oldest mosques in Islam, namely Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (The Prophet's Mosque), Quba Mosque (the first mosque in Islam's history), and Masjid al-Qiblatain (the mosque where the qibla was switched to Mecca).
Because of the Saudi government's religious policy and concern that historic sites could become the focus for idolatry, much of Medina's Islamic physical heritage has been destroyed since the beginning of Saudi rule.[citation needed]
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Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire, Shahan-e-Gurkhani, Shahan-e-Mughal, Sultanate-e-Mughliya, Daulat-e-Mughliya (Persian: شاهان گورکانی Shāhān-e Gūrkānī; Urdu: مغلیہ سلطنت; self-designation: گوركانى Gūrkānī ), or Mogul (also Moghul) Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were direct descendants of Genghis Khan through Chagatai Khan and Timur. The Mughal Empire began in 1526; at the height of their power in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, they controlled most of the Indian Subcontinent—extending from Bengal in the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south. According to "Babur-Nama", Kazakh tribal aristocracy along with number of other Turkic soldiers participated actively in the campaign of Babur, which made great influence over the development of Mughal Empire. Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million, over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles).
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New Delhi
New Delhii/ˈnjuː dɛli/ is the capital city of India. As the national capital, New Delhi is the seat of executive, legislative, and judiciary branches of the Government of India. It also serves as the centre of the Government of the National Capital Territory of Delhi. New Delhi is situated within the metropolis of Delhi and is one of the nine districts of Delhi Union Territory.
The definition of New Delhi is unclear and the differentiation between Delhi and New Delhi is blurry. Even administratively, the demarcation between Delhi and New Delhi is not clear. Government of India and Government of Delhi have not clearly defined the area and boundaries of New Delhi. The boundaries of areas of New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC) and New Delhi district of Delhi do not completely overlap. In 1920s, when British constructed New Delhi, there were only two Delhis' – the old walled city called Old Delhi and the new city designed by Edwin Lutyens to serve as capital of British India, which was called 'New Delhi'. The rest of Delhi was rural. But after independence as more and more areas around New Delhi urbanized they also became a part of New Delhi as they were also a part of Delhi which was 'new'. Now, almost all of National Capital Territory of Delhi, with exceptions of the old city called Old Delhi, Civil Lines area, Trans-Yamuna region, some rural areas and some underdeveloped parts of Delhi (e.g. Ashok Vihar, Timarpur, Nangloi, Sultanpuri, Mangolpuri, Badarpur etc.), is designated as 'New Delhi' in postal addresses. Especially, almost all the places in South, South-west, Central and West districts of Delhi are designated as New Delhi. Most of the time, the terms Delhi and New Delhi are used interchangeably.
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Pakistan
Pakistan (
i/ˈpækɨstæn/ or i/pɑːkiˈstɑːn/; Urdu: پاکستان) (Urdu pronunciation: [paːkɪˈst̪aːn] (
listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان), is a sovereign country in South Asia. It sits at the crossroads of the strategically important regions of South Asia, Central Asia and the Middle East. It has a 1,046-kilometre (650 mi) coastline along the Arabian Sea and the Gulf of Oman in the south and is bordered by India to the east, Afghanistan to the west and north, Iran to the southwest and China in the far northeast. It is separated from Tajikistan by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor in the north, and it shares a marine border with Oman.
The territory of modern Pakistan was the site of several ancient cultures, including the Neolithic Mehrgarh and the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilisation, and has undergone invasions or settlements by Hindu, Persian, Indo-Greek, Islamic, Turco-Mongol, Afghan and Sikh cultures. Thus the area has been ruled by numerous empires and dynasties, including the Indian Mauryan Empire, the Persian Achaemenid Empire, the Arab Umayyad Caliphate, the Mongol Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Durrani Empire, the Sikh Empire and the British Empire. As a result of the Pakistan Movement led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah and India's struggle for independence, Pakistan was created in 1947 as an independent nation for Muslims from the regions in the east and west of India where there was a Muslim majority. Initially a dominion, Pakistan adopted a new constitution in 1956, becoming an Islamic republic. A civil war in 1971 resulted in the secession of East Pakistan as the new country of Bangladesh.
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Persia
Coordinates: 32°N 53°E / 32°N 53°E / 32; 53
Iran (i/ɪˈrɑːn/ or /aɪˈræn/;Persian: ایران [ʔiˈɾɒn] ( listen)), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān), is a country in Southern and Western Asia. The name "Iran", which in Persian means "Land of the Aryans", has been in use natively since the Sassanian era. It came into use internationally in 1935, before which the country was known to the Western world as Persia ( /ˈpɜrʒə/ or /ˈpɜrʃə/). Both "Persia" and "Iran" are used interchangeably in cultural contexts; however, "Iran" is the name used officially in political contexts.
The 18th-largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km2 (636,372 sq mi), Iran has a population of around 79 million. It is a country of particular geopolitical significance owing to its location in the Middle East and central Eurasia. Iran is bordered on the north by Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan. As Iran is a littoral state of the Caspian Sea, which is an inland sea, Kazakhstan and Russia are also Iran's direct neighbors to the north. Iran is bordered on the east by Afghanistan and Pakistan, on the south by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman, on the west by Iraq and on the northwest by Turkey. Tehran is the capital, the country's largest city and the political, cultural, commercial and industrial center of the nation. Iran is a regional power, and holds an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of its large reserves of petroleum and natural gas. Iran has the second largest proven natural gas reserves in the world and the fourth largest proven petroleum reserves.
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Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf is located in Western Asia between Iran (Persia) and the Arabian Peninsula. It is an extension of the Indian Ocean.
The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers. In 1991, the Persian Gulf again was the background for what was called the "Persian Gulf War" or the "Gulf War" when Iraq invaded Kuwait and was subsequently pushed back, despite the fact that this conflict was primarily a land conflict.
The Persian Gulf has many good fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, but its ecology has come under pressure from industrialization, and in particular, oil and petroleum spillages during wars in the region.
Historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf, this body of water is sometimes controversially referred to as the Arabian Gulf or simply The Gulf by most Arab states, although neither of the latter two terms are recognized internationally. The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) is used by the International Hydrographic Organization.
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Portugal
Portugali/ˈpɔrtʃʉɡəl/ (Portuguese: Portugal, IPA: [puɾtuˈɣaɫ]), officially the Portuguese Republic (Portuguese: República Portuguesa) is a country situated in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula . Portugal is the westernmost country of mainland Europe, and is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the West and South and by Spain to the North and East. The Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores and Madeira are part of Portugal. The country is named after its second largest city, Porto, whose Latin name was Portus Cale.
The land within the borders of the current Portuguese Republic has been continuously settled since prehistoric times: occupied by Celts like the Gallaeci and the Lusitanians, integrated into the Roman Republic and later settled by Germanic peoples such as the Suebi, Swabians, Vandals and the Visigoths. In the 8th century most of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Moorish invaders professing Islam, which were later expelled by the Knights Templar under the Order of Christ. During the Christian Reconquista, Portugal established itself as an independent kingdom from León in 1139, claiming to be the oldest European nation state.
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Portuguese Empire
The Portuguese Empire (Portuguese: Império Português), also known as the Portuguese Overseas Empire (Ultramar Português) or the Portuguese Colonial Empire (Império Colonial Português), was the first global empire in history. In addition, it was the longest-lived of the modern European colonial empires, spanning almost six centuries, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the handover of Macau in 1999 or the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002. The empire spread throughout a vast number of territories that are now part of 53 different sovereign states.
Portuguese sailors began exploring the coast of Africa in 1419, using recent developments in navigation, cartography and maritime technology such as the caravel, in order that they might find a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice trade. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the crown's secret design, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil on the South American coast. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts and factories as they went. By 1571, a string of outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and Asia. This commercial network brought great wealth to Portugal.
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Portuguese India
The Portuguese Viceroyalty of India (Portuguese: Vice-Reino da Índia Portuguesa), later the Portuguese State of India (Portuguese: Estado Português da Índia), was the aggregate of Portugal's colonial holdings in India.
The government started in 1505, six years after the discovery of a sea route to India by Vasco da Gama, with the nomination of the first Viceroy Francisco de Almeida, then settled at Cochin. Until 1752, the "State of India" included all Portuguese possessions in the Indian Ocean, from southern Africa to Southeast Asia, governed by either a Viceroy or a Governor from headquarters established in Goa since 1510. In 1752 Mozambique got its own government and in 1844 the Portuguese Government of India stopped administering the territory of Macau, Solor and Timor, being then confined to Malabar.
At the time of British India's independence in 1947, Portuguese India included a number of enclaves on India's western coast, including Goa proper, as well as the coastal enclaves of Daman (Port: Damão) and Diu, and the enclaves of Dadra and Nagar Haveli, which lie inland from Daman. The territories of Portuguese India were sometimes referred to collectively as Goa. Portugal lost the last two enclaves in 1954, and finally the remaining three in December 1961, when they were taken back by India after military action (although Portugal only recognized Indian control in 1975, after the Carnation Revolution and the fall of the Estado Novo regime).
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Qandahar
Kandahar, occasionally Candahar, or Qandahar, (Pashto: کندهار Kandahār) is the second largest city in Afghanistan, with a population of about 512,200 as of 2011. It is the capital of Kandahar Province, located in the south of the country at about 1,005 m (3,297 feet) above sea level. The Arghandab River runs along the west of the city.
Kandahar is the original and most culturally significant city of the Pashtuns and has always been their traditional seat of power. It is a major trading center for sheep, wool, cotton, silk, felt, food grains, fresh and dried fruit, and tobacco. The region produces fine fruits, especially pomegranates and grapes, and the city has plants for canning, drying, and packing fruit. Kandahar has an international airport and extensive road links with Farah and Herat to the west, Kabul and Peshawar to the northeast, Tarinkot to the north, and Quetta in neighboring Balochistan (Pakistan) to the south.
The region around Kandahar is one of the oldest known human settlements. Alexander the Great is said to have laid-out the foundation of what is now Old Kandahar in the 4th century BC and gave it the Ancient Greek name Αλεξάνδρεια Aραχωσίας (Alexandria of Arachosia). Many empires have long fought over the city due to its strategic location along the trade routes of southern, central and western Asia. In 1709, Mirwais Hotak made the region an independent kingdom and turned Kandahar into the first capital of the Hotaki dynasty. In 1747, Ahmad Shah Durrani, founder of the last Afghan empire, made it the capital of modern Afghanistan.
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Ranthambore Fort
Ranthambore Fort (Hindi:रणथम्भोर) is a formidable fort and has been a focal point of historical developments of Rajasthan. It is situated near Sawai Madhopur town in Rajasthan. This fort is known for the glory and valor of brave Hammir dev of Chauhan dynasty.
It is surrounded today and lies within the famous Ranthambore National Park which was formerly the hunting grounds for the Maharajahs of Jaipur before Indian independence.
Its earlier name was Ranastambha (Hindi:रणस्तम्भ) or Ranastambhapura (Hindi:रणस्तम्भपुर). It was associated with Jainism during the reign of Prithviraja I of Chauhan dynasty in 12th century. Siddhasenasuri, who lived in 12th century has included this place in the list of holy Jaina tirthas. In Mughal period a temple of Mallinatha was built in the fort.
The fortress of Ranthambore was founded in 944 by the Nagil Jats. The fortress commanded a strategic location, 700 feet above the surrounding plain. It is of historical importance to know about Nagil clan. Nagil people are descendants of Nagavanshi mahapurusha Nagavaloka (नागावलोक).
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Red Fort
Coordinates: 28°39′21″N 77°14′25″E / 28.65583°N 77.24028°E / 28.65583; 77.24028
The Red Fort (Hindi: लाल क़िला, Urdu: لال قلعہ, usually transcribed into English as Lal Qil'ah or Lal Qila) is a 17th century fort complex constructed by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in the walled city of Old Delhi (in present day Delhi, India) that served as the residence of the Mughal Emperors. It also served as the capital of the Mughals until 1857, when Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar was exiled by the British Indian government. It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007. It covers a total area of about 254.67 acres. Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan, started construction of the red fort in 1638 and work was completed in 1648 (10 years). The Red Fort was originally referred to as "Qila-i-Mubarak" (the blessed fort), because it was the residence of the royal family . The layout of the Red Fort was organised to retain and integrate this site with the Salimgarh Fort. The fortress palace was an important focal point of the medieval city of Shahjahanabad. The planning and aesthetics of the Red Fort represent the zenith of Mughal creativity which prevailed during the reign of Emperor Shah Jahan. This Fort has had many developments added on after its construction by Emperor Shahjahan. The significant phases of development were under Aurangzeb and later Mughal rulers. Important physical changes were carried out in the overall settings of the site after the Indian Mutiny in 1857. After Independence, the site experienced a few changes in terms of addition/alteration to the structures. During the British period the Fort was mainly used as a cantonment and even after Independence, a significant part of the Fort remained under the control of the Indian Army until the year 2003. The Red Fort is an attraction for tourists from around the world.
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Sapper
A sapper, also called pioneer or combat engineer, is a combatant or soldier who performs a variety of military engineering duties such as bridge-building, laying or clearing minefields, demolitions, field defences and general construction, as well as road and airfield construction and repair. They are also trained to serve as infantry personnel in defensive and offensive operations. A sapper's tasks are devoted to tasks involving facilitating movement of allied forces and impeding those of enemies.
The term "sapper" is used in the British Army, Polish Army, Commonwealth nations and U.S. military.
A sapper, in the sense first used by the Assyrian Army in the early 7th Century BC[citation needed], was one who excavated trenches under defensive fire to advance a besieging army's position in relation to the works of an attacked fortification, which was referred to as sapping the enemy fortifications.
Saps were excavated by brigades of trained sappers or instructed troops. When an army was defending a fortress with cannon, they had an obvious height and therefore range advantage over the attacker's guns. The attacking army's artillery had to be brought forward, under fire, so as to facilitate effective counter-battery fire.
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Siege of Diu
Coordinates: 20°N 71°E / 20°N 71°E / 20; 71
The Siege of Diu occurred when an Ottoman imperial fleet attempted to capture the Indian city of Diu in 1538, then held by the Portuguese. It ended with a Portuguese victory.
In the Indian Ocean, Süleyman Pasha, Governor of Egypt, led several naval campaigns against the Portuguese in an attempt to remove them and reestablish trade with India. In 1509, the major Battle of Diu (1509) took place between the Portuguese and a joint fleet of the Sultan of Gujarat, the Mamlûk Burji Sultanate of Egypt, the Zamorin of Kozhikode with support of the Ottomans. Since 1517, the Ottomans had attempted to combine forces with Gujarat in order to fight the Portuguese away from the Red Sea and in the area of India. Pro-Ottoman forces under Captain Hoca Sefer had been installed by Selman Reis in Diu.
Diu in Gujerat, was with Surat, one of the main points of supply of spices to Ottoman Egypt at that time. However, Portuguese intervention thwarted that trade by controlling the traffic in the Red Sea. In 1530, the Venetians could not obtain any supply of spices through Egypt.
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Sikandra, Agra
The Tomb of Akbar the Great is an important Mughal architectural masterpiece, built 1605-1613, set in 48 Ha (119 acres) of grounds in Sikandra, a suburb of Agra, Uttar Pradesh, India.
The third Mughal Emperor Akbar the Great (1555–1605), himself commenced its construction in around 1600, according to Tartary tradition to commence the construction of one's tomb during one's lifetime. Akbar himself planned his own tomb and selected a suitable site for it, after his death, Akbar's son Jahangir completed the construction in 1605-1613. Akbar was one of the greatest emperors of his time. This was not known until later on because his burial chamber laid on a 20 by 5 acre plot of land.
It is located at Sikandra, in the suburbs of Agra, on the Mathura road (NH2), 8 km WNW of the city center.About 1 km away from the tomb, lies Mariam's Tomb, the tomb of Mariam-uz-Zamani, wife of the Mughal Emperor Akbar and the mother of Jahangir.
The south gate is the largest, with four white marble chhatri-topped minarets which are similar to (and pre-date) those of the Taj Mahal, and is the normal point of entry to the tomb. The tomb itself is surrounded by a walled enclosure 105 m square. The tomb building is a four-tiered pyramid, surmounted by a marble pavilion containing the false tomb. The true tomb, as in other mausoleums, is in the basement.
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Sindh
Sindh (pronounced [sɪnd̪ʱ]; Sindhi: سنڌ; Urdu: سندھ Indica in Latin, Indus in Greek) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan and historically is home to the Sindhi people. It is also locally known as the "Mehran" and has been given the title of Bab-ul-Islam (The gateway of Islam). The name of Sindh is derived from the Indus River that separates it from Balochistan and the greater Iranian Plateau. This river was known to the ancient Iranians in Avestan as Indus, in Sanskrit as Sindhu, to Assyrians (as early as the seventh century BC) as Sinda, to the Greeks as Indos, to the Romans as Indus, to the Persians as Ab-e-sind, to the Pashtuns as "Abasind", to the Arabs as Al-Sind, to the Chinese as Sintow, and to the Javanese as the Santri.
Sindh is bounded to the west by the Indus River and Balochistan, to the north by Punjab, the east by the Indian states of Gujarat and Rajasthan and to the south by the Arabian Sea. The capital of the province is Karachi, Pakistan's largest city and financial hub. Most of the population in the province is Muslim, with sizeable Christian, Zoroastrian and Hindu minorities. The main language spoken is Sindhi by about 40 million people, while there exists a significant Urdu-speaking minority.
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Siwana
Siwana is a Tehsil in Barmer district in Indian state of Rajasthan, located 151 km from Barmer. The place is known for its fort. Siwana have 129 villages. total Population as per 2001 census is 213,648, 111,155 male and 102,493 female. Siwana is near Balotara.
Famous Fort Siwana or Gadh Siwana is situated on a hilltop. The fort was built by a famous Rajput ruler Raja Bhoj’s son Veernarayan, who at one stage controlled much of Barmer and had close ties with the Solanki dynasty of Gujarat.
The fort is not in the best of condition now however it still houses a beautiful pond. The fort fell to forces of Alauddin Khilji in 1308. When Alauddin Khilji, the Sultan of Delhi, besieged the fort the people led by Sutal Deo mounted a heroic defence. To commemorate this ancient event an annual fair called the Kalyan Singh Ka Mela is still held within the precincts of the fort in the month of Shravan (July-Aug). Later, in the period 1318-20, Luntiga Chauhan stormed the fort of Siwana and slaughtered its Muslim garrison. No Sultan of Delhi tried to recover this fort.
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Surat
Surat, previously known as Suryapur, is a commercial city of the Indian state of Gujarat. It is also administrative capital of Surat district and one of the fastest growing cities in India. The city proper is the third cleanest city in India. Surat is Gujarat's second largest city and India's 8th most populated city (in terms of Population in Municipal Corporation area of the City) with a population of 4.5 million. Surat ranks fourth in a global study of fastest developing cities conducted by The City Mayors Foundation, an international think tank on urban affairs. It is the fastest growing Indian city in terms of economic prosperity. The city registered an annualised GDP growth rate of 11.5 per cent over the seven fiscal years between 2001 and 2008, according to data compiled by the economic research firm Indicus Analytics. UK-based charity, The Ecological Sequestration Trust (TEST), has selected Surat as one of the three cities in the world, to be developed as "global cities."
The city is located 306 km south of state capital Gandhinagar, and is situated on the left bank of the Tapti River (Tapi), the centre being around 22 km (14 mi) from its mouth. A moat divides the older parts of the city, with its narrow streets and handsome houses, and the newer suburbs. The city is largely recognised for its textile and diamond businesses. It is also known as the diamond capital of the world and the textile capital/Manchester textile city of India, a distinction it took over from Ahmedabad. It is also known as the "Embroidery capital of India" with the highest number of embroidery machines than any other city. 92% of the world's diamonds are cut and polished in Surat. It has one of the highest GDP growth rates in India at 11.5% as of 2008. Surat was the primary port of India during the Mughal period, a distinction it lost to Bombay during the late 17th century as the East India Company grew.
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Taj Mahal
The Taj Mahal ( /ˈtɑːdʒ/ or /ˈtɑːʒ məˈhɑːl/;Hindi: ताज महल, from Persian/Urdu: تاج محل "crown of palaces", pronounced [ˈt̪aːdʒ mɛˈɦɛl]; also "the Taj") is a white marble mausoleum located in Agra, India. It was built by Mughal emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his third wife, Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal is widely recognized as "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage.It coveres area about 221 hectare (552 Acres) which include 38 hectare taj mahal and 183 hectare taj protected forest are."
Taj Mahal is the finest example of Mughal architecture, a style that combines elements from Persian, Turkish and Indian architectural styles.
In 1983, the Taj Mahal became a UNESCO World Heritage Site. While the white domed marble mausoleum is the most familiar component of the Taj Mahal, it is actually an integrated complex of structures. The construction began around 1632 and was completed around 1653, employing thousands of artisans and craftsmen. The construction of the Taj Mahal was entrusted to a board of architects under imperial supervision, including Abd ul-Karim Ma'mur Khan, Makramat Khan, and Ustad Ahmad Lahauri. Lahauri is generally considered to be the principal designer.
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Umerkot
Umarkot or Umer Kot,, also known as Amar Kot, Omarkot and Omercote, (Sindhi: عمرڪوٽ ,Urdu: عمرکوٹ ) is town in the Umerkot District in Sindh, Pakistan. The city is well connected with the other large cities like Karachi, the provincial capital and Hyderabad.
Formerly known as Amarkot, it was the capital of Greater Sindh Province, including some parts of present Rajasthan state of India. It also became prominent during the time of the Mughals and during the British Raj. The Mughal king Akbar was born in Umerkot when his father Humayun fled from military defeat at the hands of Sher Shah Suri. Rana Prasad, a Hindu Sodha Rajput ruler of Amarkot, gave refuge to Humayun. Later the Mughal Emperor Akbar became the Shahenshah of Hind and was a popular figure with both Hindus and Muslims. Umerkot has many sites of historical significance such as Mughal emperor Akbar's birthplace at Umalrkot Fort on 14 October 1542 . Rana Chandra Singh (1931–2009) was the Rana of the former Amarkot jagir after 1947, and remained a member of National assembly many times and also a federalhj minister.
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Uttar Pradesh
Uttar Pradesh /ˌʌtər prəˈdɛʃ/, abbreviation U.P. ("Northern Province"; formerly: United Provinces), is a state located in the north western part of India. With a population of over 200 million people, it is India's most populous state, as well as the world's most populous sub-national entity. Were it a nation in its own right, Uttar Pradesh would be the world's fifth most populous country, ahead of Brazil (a country thirty-five times larger in territorial area than Uttar Pradesh). On 9 November 2000, the Himalayan portion of the state, comprising the Garhwal and Kumaon divisions and Haridwar district, was formed into a new state 'Uttaranchal', now called Uttarakhand, meaning the 'Northern Segment' state.
Uttar Pradesh is the second largest state-economy in India, with a GDP of $103.5 billion in 2009. The annual per capita GDP of the state was $1586 in 2009, on purchasing power parity basis. It contributed 8.34% to India's total GDP in the financial year 2010. Agriculture is a significant part of UP's economy. The state was India's sixth largest producer of fruits, and became the largest producer of vegetables in 2010. With an area of 93,933 sq mi (243,290 km2), Uttar Pradesh covers a large part of the highly fertile and densely populated upper Gangetic plain. It shares an international border with Nepal to the north. Other states along Uttar Pradesh's border include Uttarakhand, Haryana and Delhi to the north and northwest; Rajasthan on the west; Madhya Pradesh on the south; Chhattisgarh and Jharkhand on the south east; and Bihar on the east.
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Wazir Khan Mosque
The Wazir Khan Mosque (Punjabi/Urdu: مسجد وزیر خان Masjid Wazīr Khān) in Lahore, Pakistan, is famous for its extensive faience tile work. It has been described as 'a mole on the cheek of Lahore'. It was built in seven years, starting around 1634–1635 AD, during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Shah Jehan. It was built by Hakim Shaikh Ilm-ud-din Ansari, a native of Chiniot, who rose to be the court physician to Shah Jahan and a governor of Lahore. He was commonly known as Wazir Khan, a popular title bestowed upon him (the word Wazir means 'minister' in Urdu). The mosque is inside the Inner City and is easiest accessed from Delhi Gate.
Within the inner courtyard of the mosque lies the subterranean tomb of Syed Muhammad Ishaq, known as Miran Badshah, a divine from Iran who settled in Lahore during the time of the Tughluq dynasty. The tomb, therefore, predates the mosque.
Wazir Khan Mosque, 1866 water colour by William Carpenter
tWazir Khan Mosque, February 1895 by William Henry Jackson
thumb|Pigeons flying over the mosque]]
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Abbas I of Persia
Shāh ‘Abbās the Great (or Shāh ‘Abbās I) (Persian: شاه عَباس بُزُرگ) (January 27, 1571 – January 19, 1629) was Shah (king) of Iran, and generally considered the greatest ruler of the Safavid dynasty. He was the third son of Shah Mohammad.
Abbas came to the throne during a troubled time for Iran. Under his weak-willed father, the country was riven with discord between the different factions of the Qizilbash army, who killed Abbas' mother and elder brother. Meanwhile, Iran's enemies, the Ottoman Empire and the Uzbeks, exploited this political chaos to seize territory for themselves. In 1587, one of the Qizilbash leaders, Murshid Qoli Khan, overthrew Shah Mohammed in a coup and placed the 16-year-old Abbas on the throne. But Abbas was no puppet and soon seized power for himself. He reduced the influence of the Qizilbash in the government and the military and reformed the army, enabling him to fight the Ottomans and Uzbeks and reconquer Iran's lost provinces. He also took back land from the Portuguese and the Mughals. Abbas was a great builder and moved his kingdom's capital from Qazvin to Isfahan. In his later years, the shah became suspicious of his own sons and had them killed or blinded.
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Adham Khan
Adham Khan (Hindi:आधम खान) was a general of Akbar. He was the younger son of Maham Anga, he thus became the foster brother of Akbar. In his fourth regnal year, Akbar married him to the daughter of Baqi Khan Baqlani.
After the dismissal of Bairam Khan, Adham Khan was appointed as a general and was sent to Malwa to capture it.
In 1561, the Mughal army led by Adham Khan and Pir Muhammad Khan invaded Malwa. They defeated the army of Baz Bahadur, the Sultan of Malwa in the battle of Sarangpur on March 29, 1561. All his treasures, elephants and his harem was captured by the victors. Adham Khan tried to take possession of Baz Bahadur's Hindu mistress Rani Roopmati also, but she killed herself by consuming poison. According to the historian Badauni, both the commanders, Adham Khan and Pir Muhammad Khan perpetrated acts of barbaric cruelty, massacring the prisoners and killing even their wives and children. After the victory, Adham Khan sent to the emperor Akbar a report of victory along with only a few elephants, himself appropriating the rest of the spoils.
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Aishwarya Rai
Aishwarya Rai, known also as Aishwarya Rai Bachchan after her marriage (Tulu pronunciation [əjɕʋərjaː rəj]; born 1 November 1973) is an Indian film actress. She worked as a model before starting her acting career, and ultimately won the Miss World pageant in 1994. Rai has featured in films in various languages including Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu, and Bengali.
Often cited by the media as the "most beautiful woman in the world", Rai made her acting debut with Mani Ratnam's Tamil film Iruvar (1997), and had her first commercial success in Jeans (1998). She found success in Bollywood with Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (1999) and Devdas (2002) and eventually won two Filmfare Awards in the Best Actress category.
After a series of unsuccessful films during 2003–2005, she appeared in the blockbuster action thriller Dhoom 2 (2006) and subsequently featured in such films as Guru (2007), Jodhaa Akbar (2008), and Enthiran (2010). She gained critical acclaim for her performances in offbeat, independent films such as Chokher Bali (2003), Raincoat (2004), and Provoked (2007). Rai has thus established herself as one of the leading contemporary actresses of Indian cinema.
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Akbar
Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar (Persian: جلال الدین محمد اکبر - Jalāl ud-Dīn Muḥammad Akbar), also known as Shahanshah Akbar-e-Azam or Akbar the Great (14 October 1542 – 27 October 1605), was the third Mughal Emperor. He was of Timurid descent; the son of Emperor Humayun, and the grandson of the Mughal Emperor Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur, the ruler who founded the Mughal dynasty in India. At the end of his reign in 1605 the Mughal empire covered most of northern and central India. He is most appreciated for having a liberal outlook on all faiths and beliefs and during his era, culture and art reached a zenith as compared to his predecessors.
Akbar was 13 years old when he ascended the Mughal throne in Delhi (February 1556), following the death of his father Humayun. During his reign, he eliminated military threats from the powerful Pashtun descendants of Sher Shah Suri, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he decisively defeated the newly self-declared Hindu king Hemu. It took him nearly two more decades to consolidate his power and bring all the parts of northern and central India into his direct realm. He influenced the whole of the Indian Subcontinent as he ruled a greater part of it as an emperor. As an emperor, Akbar solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Hindu Rajput caste, and by marrying Rajput princesses.
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Akbar Shah II
Akbar Shah II (1760–1837 CE), also known as Mirza Akbar, was the second-to-last of the Mughal emperors of India. He held the title from 1806 to 1837. He was the second son of Shah Alam II and the father of Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
Akbar had little real power due to the increasing British control of India through the East India Company. Shortly before his death he sent Ram Mohan Roy as an ambassador to Britain. During his regime, in 1835, the East India Company (EIC) discontinued calling itself the lieutenant of the Mughal Emperor and issuing coins in his name. The Persian lines in the Company's coins to this effect were deleted.
His grave lies, next to the dargah of 13th century, Sufi saint, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki at Mehrauli, in a marble enclosure, along with that of Bahadur Shah I (also known as Shah Alam I) and Shah Alam II.
Prince Akbar was born on 22 April 1760 to Emperor Shah Alam II at Mukundpur, Rewa, while his father was in exile. On 2 May 1781, at the Red Fort, the prince was made Crown Prince with the title of Wali Ahd Bahadur, after the death of his elder brother. When the renegade eunuch Ghulam Qadir captured Delhi, the young Prince Mirza Akbar was forced to nautch dance together along with other Mughal princes and princesses. He witnessed how the members of the imperial Mughal family were humiliated, as well as starved. When Jahan Shah IV fled, Mirza Akbar was titular Emperor with the title of Akbar Shah II, and was to remain acting emperor even after the reinstation of his father Shah Alam II, till December 1788.
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Alamgir II
Aziz-ud-din Alamgir II (عالمگير ۲) (1759 - 1699) was the Mughal Emperor of India from 3 June 1754 to 29 November 1759. He was the son of Jahandar Shah.
Aziz-ud-Din, the second son of Jahandar Shah, was raised to the throne by Imad-ul-Mulk after he deposed Ahmad Shah Bahadur in 1754. On ascending the throne, he took the title of Alamgir and tried to follow the approach of Aurangzeb Alamgir. At the time of his accession to throne he was an old man of 55 years. He had no experience of administration and warfare as he had spent most of his life in jail. He was a weak ruler, with all powers vested in the hand of his Wazir, Ghazi-ud-Din Imad-ul-Mulk. In 1756, Ahmad Shah Abdali invaded India once again and captured Delhi and plundered Mathura. Marathas became more powerful because of their collaboration with Imad-ul-Mulk, and dominated the whole of northern India. This was the peak of Maratha expansion, which caused great trouble for the Mughal Empire, already weak with no strong ruler.
The relations between Alamgir II and the usurping Vizier, Imad-ul-Mulk, by this time had gotten worse. Alamgir II was murdered by Imad-ul-Mulk and the Maratha leader Sadashivrao Bhau. Alamgir II's son Ali Gauhar escaped persecution from Delhi, while Shah Jahan III was placed on the throne.
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Allen Lane
Sir Allen Lane (born Allen Lane Williams, 21 September 1902 – 7 July 1970) was a British publisher who founded Penguin Books, bringing high quality paperback fiction and non-fiction to the mass market.
Allen Lane Williams was born in Bristol to Camilla (née Lane) and Samuel Williams, and studied at Bristol Grammar School. In 1919 he joined the publishing company Bodley Head as an apprentice to his uncle and founder of the company John Lane. In the process, he and the rest of his family changed their surname to Lane to retain the childless John Lane's company as a family firm. Lane married Lettice Lucy Orr on 28 June 1941 and had three daughters, the older two of whom were Clare and Christine. He was knighted in 1962.
He rose quickly in the business becoming managing editor in 1925 following the death of his uncle. After conflict with the board of directors who were wary at first — for fear of being prosecuted — of publishing James Joyce's controversial book Ulysses, Lane left in 1936 to set up Penguin Books. The legend goes that on a train journey back from visiting Agatha Christie in 1934, Lane found himself on an Exeter station platform with nothing available worth reading. He conceived of paperback editions of literature of proven quality which would be cheap enough to be sold from a vending machine; the first was set up in Charing Cross Road and dubbed the "Penguincubator". Lane was also well aware of the Hamburg publisher Albatross Books and adopted many of its innovations. The paperback venture was extremely successful, and he expanded into other areas such as Puffin Books in 1940 and the Penguin Classics series in 1945. Lane was responsible for the decision to publish an unexpurgated edition of D. H. Lawrence's Lady Chatterley's Lover as a means of testing the Obscene Publications Act 1959.
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Amartya Sen
Amartya Sen, CH (Bengali: অমর্ত্য সেন, translit. Ômorto Shen; born 3 November 1933) is an Indian economist who was awarded the 1998 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences for his contributions to welfare economics and social choice theory, and for his interest in the problems of society's poorest members. Sen is best known for his work on the causes of famine, which led to the development of practical solutions for preventing or limiting the effects of real or perceived shortages of food. He helped to create the United Nations Human Development Index. In 2012, he became the first non-American recipient of the National Humanities Medal.
He is currently the Thomas W. Lamont University Professor and Professor of Economics and Philosophy at Harvard University. He is also a senior fellow at the Harvard Society of Fellows, distinguished fellow of All Souls College, Oxford and a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, where he previously served as Master from 1998 to 2004. He is the first Indian and the first Asian academic to head an Oxbridge college.
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Amir Khusrau
Ab'ul Hasan Yamīn ud-Dīn Khusrow (1253-1325 CE) (Persian, Urdu: ابوالحسن یمینالدین خسرو}}; Hindi: अबुल हसन यमीनुद्दीन ख़ुसरौ), better known as Amīr Khusrow (also Khusrau, Khusro) Dehlawī (امیر خسرو دہلوی; अमीर ख़ुसरौ दहलवी), was an Indian musician, scholar and poet. He was an iconic figure in the cultural history of the Indian subcontinent. A Sufi mystic and a spiritual disciple of Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi, Amīr Khusrow was not only a notable poet but also a prolific and seminal musician. He wrote poetry primarily in Persian, but also in Hindavi.
He is regarded as the "father of qawwali" (the devotional music of the Sufis in the Indian subcontinent). He is also credited with enriching Hindustani classical music by introducing Persian and Arabic elements in it, and was the originator of the khayal and tarana styles of music. The invention of the tabla is also traditionally attributed to Amīr Khusrow.[citation needed]
A musician and a scholar, Amir Khusrow was as prolific in tender lyrics as in highly involved prose and could easily emulate all styles of Persian poetry which had developed in medieval Persia, from Khāqānī's forceful qasidas to Nizami's khamsa. He used only 11 metrical schemes with 35 distinct divisions. The verse forms he has written in include Ghazal, Masnavi, Qata, Rubai, Do-Beti and Tarkibhand. His contribution to the development of the ghazal, hitherto little used in India, is particularly significant.
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Antonio Vivaldi
Antonio Lucio Vivaldi (4 March 1678 – 28 July 1741), nicknamed il Prete Rosso ("The Red Priest") because of his red hair, was an ItalianBaroque composer, priest, and virtuoso violinist, born in Venice. Recognized as one of the greatest Baroque composers, his influence during his lifetime was widespread over Europe. Vivaldi is known mainly for composing instrumental concertos, especially for the violin, as well as sacred choral works and over 40 operas. His best known work is a series of violin concertos known as The Four Seasons.
Many of his compositions were written for the female music ensemble of the Ospedale della Pietà, a home for abandoned children where Vivaldi worked from 1703 to 1715 and from 1723 to 1740. Vivaldi also had some success with stagings of his operas in Venice, Mantua and Vienna. After meeting the Emperor Charles VI, Vivaldi moved to Vienna hoping for preferment. The Emperor died soon after Vivaldi's arrival, and the composer died a pauper, without a steady source of income.
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Asaf Khan
Asaf Khan (Urdu: آصف خان) may refer to:
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Ashutosh Gowariker
Ashutosh Gowariker (Marathi: आशुतोष गोवारिकर) (born 15 February 1964) is an Indian film director, actor, writer and producer. He is known for directing the films Lagaan (2001), Swades (2004), Jodhaa Akbar (2008), What's Your Raashee (2009) and Khelein Hum Jee Jaan Sey (2010). He was nominated for an Academy Award and European Film Award, and has won a number of other awards, including a National Film Award, five Filmfare Awards, and seven international film festival awards. He also became a voting member for the Academy Awards in 2005.
Ashutosh Gowariker was born in a Maharashtrian family. He belongs to a Maratha family of Ashok Gowariker (father) and Kishori Gowariker (mother). He is married to Sunita and they have two sons - Konark & Vishwang.
Ashutosh Gowariker started his career as an actor, making his debut in 1984 in director Ketan Mehta's movie, Holi. On the Holi sets, Ashutosh met Aamir Khan. After that, he acted in several television serials, including Kachchi Dhoop (1987), Circus (1989), C.I.D. (1998) and several films, including Naam (1986), Chamatkar (1992), and Kabhi Haan Kabhi Naa (1993).
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Ataga Khan
Shamsuddin Muhammad Atgah Khan (Ataga Khan) (died 1562), also known as Khan-e-Kalan Shamsu'd-Din Muhammad Khan Atgah Khan, held important positions in the court, including that of wakil (advisor or minister) to which he was appointed in November 1561,much to displeasure of Maham Anga, whose son Adham Khan, eventually murdered him in 1562. Ataga Khan was the husband of Ji Ji Anga, one of Akbar's wet nurses.
Shamsuddin was the son of Mir Yar Muhammad of Ghazni, a simple farmer, and started life as a soldier in Kamran Mirza’s army. He saved Humayun from drowning in the Ganges. As reward, Humayun took him into his personal service and his wife became one of Akbar's foster-mothers. She was called foster-mother( Anagah) and her husband Shamsuddin was designated foster-father (Atgah). He also received the title of Khan and his biological son, Aziz became Akbar's foster or milk-brother (Kokah) .
On May 16, 1562, Adham Khan accompanied by a few ruffians burst in upon him as he sat in the Diwan-e-Aam, the hall of audience, in Agra Fort, and murdered him, in the courtyard of Diwan-e-Aam.. Hearing of this murder, an enraged Akbar ordered Adham Khan to be thrown down the rampart of the fort, and when he survived the first fall, he was thrown a second time and killed instantly.
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Aurangzeb
Abul Muzaffar Muhiu 'd-Din Muhammad Aurangzeb (Persian/Urdu: ابلمظفر محىالدين محمداورنگزيب, Hindi: अबुल मुज़फ्फर मुहिउद्दीन मुहम्मद औरंगज़ेब आलमगीर) (4 November [O.S. 25 October] 1618 – 3 March [O.S. 20 February] 1707), is more popularly known as Aurangzeb, or by his chosen imperial title Alamgir ("Conquerer of the World"), he was the sixth Mughal Emperor, whose reign lasted for 49 years, from 1658 until his death in 1707.
Aurangzeb was a notable expansionist and was also among the wealthiest of the previous Mughal rulers with an annual yearly tribute of £38,624,680 (in the year 1690), during his lifetime victories in the south expanded the Mughal Empire to more than 1.25 million square miles, he ruled over more than 150 million subjects, constituting nearly one fourth of the world's population.
Aurangzeb was born the third son and sixth child of Shah Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal (Arjumand Bāno Begam) in Dahod on the way to Ujjain. Aurangzeb was born when Shah Jahan was a governor of Gujarat suba. In June 1626, after an unsuccessful rebellion by his father, Aurangzeb and his brother Dara Shikoh were kept as hostages under Nur Jahan at there grandfather Jahangir's Lahore court. On 26 February 1628, Shah Jahan was officially declared the Mughal Emperor, and then Aurangzeb returned to Agra fort to live with his parents and Since then Aurangzeb received his formal education in Arabic and Persian. His daily allowance were fixed to
500, while he spent his allowance in religious education and the study of history, he accused his brothers of alcoholism and womanizing.
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Babur
Zahir-ud-din Muhammad Babur (February 14, 1483 – December 26, 1530; sometimes also spelt Baber or Babar) was a conqueror from Central Asia who, following a series of setbacks, finally succeeded in laying the basis for the Mughal dynasty in the Indian Subcontinent and became the first Mughal emperor. He was a direct descendant of Timur through his father, and a descendant also of Genghis Khan through his mother. Babur identified his lineage as Timurid and Chaghatay-Turkic. He was greatly influenced by Persian culture and this affected both his own actions and those of his successors, giving rise to a significant expansion of the Persianate ethos in the Indian subcontinent.
Ẓahīr ad-Dīn Muḥammad (Persian: ﻇﻬﻴﺮﺍﻟﺪﻳﻦ محمد, also known by his royal titles as al-ṣultānu 'l-ʿazam wa 'l-ḫāqān al-mukkarram bādshāh-e ġāzī), is more commonly known by his nickname, Bābur (بابر).
According to Stephen Frederic Dale, the name Babur is derived from the Persian word babr, meaning "tiger", a word that repeatedly appears in Firdawsī's Shāhnāma and had also been borrowed by the Turkic languages of Central Asia. This thesis is supported by the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, explaining that the Turko-Mongol name Timur underwent a similar evolution, from the Sanskrit word cimara ("iron") via a modified version *čimr to the final Turkicized version timür, with -ür replacing -r due to the Turkish vowel harmony (hence babr → babür).[citation needed]
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Bahadur Shah I
Bahadur Shah (Persian: بہادر شاه Bahādur Shāh) (14 October 1643, Burhanpur–27 February 1712, Lahore) was a Mughal Emperor, who ruled India from 1707 to 1712. His original name was Qutb ud-Din Muhammad Mu'azzam later titled as Shah Alam by his father. He took the throne name Bahadur Shah in 1707. His name Bahādur means "brave" & "hero" in Turko-Mongol languages. Reigning just five years, he was an old man of 63 when he came to power. He made settlements with the Marathas, tranquilized the Rajputs, and became friendly with the Sikhs in the Punjab. He was travelling throughout his reign and only came to rest in Lahore in the last few months of his life.
Muazzam, the third son of the emperor Aurangzeb through Nawab Bai Begum Saheba, the daughter of Raja of Rajauri (Jarral Rajput), was born in Burhanpur in 1643. In his father's lifetime, Muazzam was deputed governor of the northwest territories by Aurangzeb. His province included those parts of the Punjab where the Sikh faith was blossoming. As governor, Muazzam relaxed the enforcement of Aurangzeb's severe edicts, and an uneasy calm prevailed in the province for a brief time. In fact, he maintained a friendly relationship with the second last Sikh spiritual leader, Guru Gobind Singh. When Muazzam was challenging his brothers for the Mughal throne, Guru Gobind Singh provided military assistance to the liberal prince. He was also the patron of the poet Jafar Zattalli.
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Bahadur Shah II
Bahadur Shah II (Urdu: بہادر شاہ دوم), born Abu Zafar Sirajuddin Muhammad Bahadur Shah Zafar (Urdu: ابو ظفر سِراجُ الْدین محمد بُہادر شاہ ظفر), on October 1775 – died November 7, 1862) was the last Mughal emperor and a member of the Timurid Dynasty. Zafar was the son of Akbar Shah II and Lalbai, who was a Hindu Rajput, and became Mughal Emperor when his father died on September 28, 1837. He was widely known as Bahadur Shah Zafar. He used Zafar, a part of his name, meaning “victory”, as a nom de plume (takhallus) as an Urdu poet and wrote many Urdu ghazals under it. After his involvement in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 the British tried and then exiled him from Delhi.
Zafar's father, Akbar Shah II, ruled over a rapidly disintegrating empire between 1806 to 1837. It was during his time that the East India Company dispensed with the illusion of ruling in the name of the Mughal monarch and removed his name from the Persian texts that appeared on the coins struck by the company in the areas under their control.
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Baji Rao I
Shrimant Baji Rao Balaji Bhat (Marathi: श्रीमंत बाजीराव बल्लाळ बाळाजी भट) (August 18, 1700 – April 28, 1740), also known as Baji Rao I, was a noted general who served as Peshwa (Prime Minister) to the fourth Maratha Chhatrapati (Emperor) Shahu from 1720 until Baji Rao's death. He is also known as Thorale (Marathi for Elder) Baji Rao. He was also popular with the nickname 'Rau' (in Marathi 'राऊ').
Born a Maratha guardian he took up leading his troops. He is credited with expanding the Maratha Empire especially in north to help reach its zenith during his son's reign twenty years after his death. Baji Rao is thus acknowledged as the most famous of the nine Peshwas.
Baji Rao was the son of the first Bhat family Peshwa, Balaji Vishwanath. At the age of 20, he was appointed by Chhattrapati Shahu as Peshwa upon the death of his father, keeping aside all other claimants. It is quite clear from this appointment that Shahu recognized his talent even as a boy and positioned him as Peshwa. Bajirao was popular with his soldiers and even today his name is an honorable one.
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Banda Singh Bahadur
Banda Singh Bahadur (Punjabi: ਬੰਦਾ ਸਿੰਘ ਬਹਾਦਰ)(1670–1716) aka Laxman Das was a Sikh Military Commander and martyr. He became part of struggle against the Mughal Empire in the early 18th century, after meeting Guru Gobind Singh. Guru Gobind Singh gave him the new name of Banda Singh Bahadur. He is best known for the sack of the Mughal provincial capital, Sirhind, and is revered as one of the most hallowed martyrs of the Khalsa.
His agrarian uprising against the Mughal administration in Punjab was a critical event in the development of the Dal Khalsa and the Sikh Misls, which eventually led to Ranjit Singh capturing Lahore in 1799 and establishing the Sikh Kingdom of the Punjab[citation needed].
After establishing his authority in Punjab, Banda Singh Bahadur abolished the zamindari system, and granted property rights to the tillers of the land[citation needed].
There are different views regarding origin of Banda Singh Bahadur:
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Baz Bahadur
Miyan Bayezid Baz Bahadur was the last sultan of Malwa, who reigned from 1555 to 1562. He succeeded his father, Shuja'at Khan. He is known for his romantic liaison with Roopmati, a singer of Rajput birth.
Baz Bahadur as sultan did not bother to look after his kingdom nor did he maintain a strong army, being devoted to the arts and to his paramour. The Mughals defeated him and captured his queen Roopmati, who killed herself at this turn of events.
In 1561, Akbar's army led by Adham Khan and Pir Muhammad Khan attacked Malwa and defeated Baz Bahadur in the battle of Sarangpur on 29 March, 1561. One of the reasons for Adham Khan's attack seems to be his love for Rani Roopmati. Rani Roopmati poisoned herself to death on hearing the news of fall of Mandu. Baz Bahadur fled to Khandesh. Akbar, soon recalled Adham Khan and made over command to Pir Muhammad. Pir Muhammad attacked Khandesh and proceeded up to Burhanpur but he was defeated by a coalition of three powers: Miran Mubarak Shah II of Khandesh, Tufal Khan of Berar and Baz Bahadur. Pir Muhammad died while retreating. The confederate army pursued the Mughals and drove them out of Malwa. Baz Bahadur regained his kingdom for a short period. In 1562, Akbar sent another army led by Abdullah Khan, the Uzbeg, which finally defeated Baz Bahadur. He fled to Chittor. Baz Bahadur remained a fugutive at a number of courts till he surrenedered in November, 1570 to Akbar at Nagaur. He joined Akbar's service.
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Bertrice Small
Bertrice Small (b. December 9, 1937 in Manhattan, New York, New York, is an American New York Times bestselling writer of historical and erotic romance novels. Bertrice lives on Long Island, New York with her husband George Small. She is a member of The Authors Guild, Romance Writers of America, PAN, and PASIC.
Bertrice Small was born December 9, 1937 in Manhattan, New York, New York, U.S.A.. Married to George Small, they have a son. She has lived on eastern Long Island for 30 years.
Since 1978, she has written over 50 novels. She's written historical romance, fantasy romance, and erotic contemporary. Her novels include "The Kadin", and the series "The O'Malley Saga" and "Skye's Legacy".
A New York Times bestselling author, Mrs. Small has also appeared on other best-seller lists including Publishers Weekly, USA Today, and the L.A. Times. She is the recipient of numerous awards including Best Historical Romance, Outstanding Historical Romance Series, Career Achievement for Historical Fantasy, and several Reviewers Choice awards from Romantic Times. She has a "Silver Pen" from Affaire de Coeur, and an Honorable Mention from The West Coast Review of Books. In 2004 Bertrice Small was awarded a Lifetime Achievement Award by Romantic Times magazine for her contributions to the genre.
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Bhagwant Das
Maharaja Bhagawant Das (Rajasthani: राजा भगवंत दास) (January 27, 1574 - December 10, 1589) was a Kacchwaha ruler of Amber. One of his descendants Jai Singh II founded Jaipur.
He was the eldest son of Raja Ankitmal or Bharmal and succeeded him after his death. He was a general of Mughal emperor Akbar, who awarded him a mansab (rank) of 5000 in 1585. and conferred him the title of Amir-ul-Umra.
He fought many battles for Akbar including battles in Punjab, Kashmir and Afghanistan, and also remained governor of Kabul. He was first time sent to Punjab on c. December 10, 1578. He married his daughter to Prince Salim, who later assumed throne as emperor Jahangir. He was succeeded by his son by Bhagawati Devi, Raja Man Singh I after his death. His second son Madho Singh became the ruler of Bhangarh.
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Birbal
Some historians reckon Birbal is a work of fiction. Akbarnama does not mention of Birbal's existence. However few Indian historians do state existence of Mahesh Das as a poor Brahmin to have been born to Gangadas and Anabhadevi in Trivikrampur in 1528.
Birbal (Mahesh Das or Maheshdas Bhat; 1528–1586) was the Grand Vizier (Wazīr-e Azam) of the Mughal court in the administration of the Mughal emperor Akbar. He was one of his most trusted members along with being a part of Akbar's inner council of nine advisors, known as the navaratna, a Sanskrit word meaning nine jewels. Birbal was one of only a few persons other than Akbar that were Din-i-Ilahi believers.
Birbal's duties in Akbar's court were mostly military and administrative, but he was also a very close friend of the emperor, who appreciated Birbal for his wit and wisdom, often involving humorous exchanges. These and other stories have become part of a rich tradition of folklore and legend.
Born Mahesh Das in 1528 in the Narnaul , of Haryana. He grew up in a moderate household and was educated in the regional and Persian languages. Birbal was a poet and author, whose intelligence and wisdom led the Emperor Akbar to invite him to be a part of the royal court and to bestow upon him a new name - Birbal (Bir means Brain, Bal means Strong). Akbar also conferred on him the title of Raja
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Catalan people
The Catalans or Catalonians are the people from, or with origins in, Catalonia who form a historical nationality in northern Spain. The inhabitants of the adjacent portion of southern France (known in Catalonia proper as Catalunya Nord, and in France as the Pays Catalan) sometimes are included in this definition. Also, sometimes Catalan is used to define people from Catalan Countries, which include other areas where the Catalan language is spoken.
The other Catalan-speaking people, namely Andorrans, Valencians, Balearics, some Aragonese, and Alguerese are sometimes identified as a distinct Catalan ethnic group by certain nationalists. The latter assertion is especially rooted in Catalan nationalism.[citation needed] In the aforementioned territories (often designated Països Catalans, "Catalan Countries", by Catalan nationalists). This extended concept is unpopular and eventually brings conflict, most of all in the Valencian Community where it is a great issue involving discrimination of the language and mediatic manipulation.
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Faizi
Shaikh Abu al-Faiz ibn Mubarak, popularly known by his pen-name, Faizi (24 September 1547 – 5 October 1595 ) was a poet and scholar of late medieval India. In 1588, he became the Malik-ush-Shu'ara (poet laureate) of Akbar's Court. He was the elder brother of Akbar's historian Abul Fazl. Akbar highly recognized the genius in him and appointed him tutor for his sons and gave place to him among his decorative 'Navaratnas'.
Faizi was born in Agra, the fifth descendant of Shaikh Musa, a Sindhi Shaikh who lived in Rel near Siwistan (Sehwan), in the realm of Sindh. He was the eldest son of Shaikh Mubarak of Nagaur. He was born at Agra on 5 Sha'ban, AH 954 (24 September 1547). His father, Shaikh Mubarak, was a scholar in the philosophy and literature of Greece as well as in Islamic theology. He was educated mostly by his father.
In AH 974 (1566-7), he reached Akbar's court. Akbar successively appointed him tutor for his princes, Salim, Murad and Daniyal. In AH 990 (1581), he was appointed sadr of Agra, Kalpi and Kalinjar. In 1588, he became poet laureate of Akbar's court. In AH 999 (1591-2), he was sent to Khandesh and Ahmednagar as Mughal envoy.
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Furrukhsiyar
Abu'l Muzaffar Muin ud-din Muhammad Shah Farrukh-siyar Alim Akbar Sani Wala Shan Padshah-i-bahr-u-bar [Shahid-i-Mazlum] (or Farrukhsiyar, 20 August 1685 – 19 April 1719) was the Mughal emperor between 1713 and 1719. Noted as a handsome ruler he was easily swayed by his advisers, he lacked the ability, knowledge and character to rule independently.
His reign witnessed the primacy of the Sayyid Brothers who became the effective powers of the land, behind the façade of Mughal rule. His constant plotting eventually led the Sayyid Brothers to officially depose him.
Farrukhsiyar first married Nawab Fakhr-un-Nisa Begum Sahiba, daughter of Mir Muhammad Taqi Husaini, a Kashmiri nobleman from the Marashi clan, sometime prior to December 1715. In September 1715, Farrukhsiyar married Indira Kanwar, daughter of Maharaja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur.
Jahandar Shah was defeated at the Second Battle of Samugarh near Agra on 10 January 1713. Following this, the Sayyid Brothers, helped Farukhsiyar to secure his throne. He took the throne On 11 January 1713, at the age of 30. Farrukhsiyar had the incumbent Mughal Grand Vizier Zulfiqar Khan Nusrat Jung, Jahandar Shah and his wife Lal Kunwar, and several nobles executed.
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Gokula
Gokula (Hindi: गोकुला) or Gokul Singh (Hindi: गोकुल सिंह) (died 1670 AD) was a Jatchieftain of Sinsini village in Bharatpur district (Hindi: भरतपुर) in Rajasthan, India. Later, he became a chieftain of Tilpat in Haryana. His father's name was Madu. Madu had four sons namely, Sindhuraj, Ola, Jhaman and Saman. The second son Ola later became famous as Gokula. Gokula provided leadership to the Jat peasants who challenged the Imperial power. Gokula inspired the Jats to fight the Mughals.
The first serious outbreak of anti-imperial reaction took place among the Jats of Mathura district Uttar Pradesh, where the imperial faujdar 'Abdun-Nabi', had oppressed them greatly. In 1669 the sturdy Jat peasantry rose under a leader, Gokula, Zamindar of Tilpat, killed the faujdar, but the freedom of the district could not be maintained for more than a year, and they were suppressed by the deceitful methods implemented under the command of Hasan Ali Khan, the new faujdar of Mathura aided personally by Mughal tyrant Aurangzeb. The Lion-heart Gokula was put to death.
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Gondi people
The Gondi (Gōndi) or Gond people are people in central India, spread over the states of Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra (Vidarbha), Chhattisgarh, northern Andhra Pradesh, and Western Orissa. With over four million people, they are the largest tribe in Central India.
Gond or Rajgond are same tribes. The term Raj Gond ,was widly used in 1940's but has now become almost obsolete, probably because of the political eclipse of the Gond Rajas.
The Gondi language is related to Telugu and other Dravidian languages. About half of Gonds speak Gondi languages, while the rest speak Indo-Aryan languages including Hindi.
For many years during the British colonial period of India the Gonds were considered to have performed human sacrifices, although this notion was later discredited.
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Guru Gobind Singh
Guru Gobind Singh Ji (born: Gobind Rai) (Punjabi: ਗੁਰੂ ਗੋਬਿੰਦ ਸਿੰਘ [ɡʊɾu ɡobɪnd sɪ́ŋɡ], Marathi: गुरु गोबिंद सिंघ; 22 December 1666 - 7 October 1708) is the Tenth of Eleven Sikh Guru Ji'. Born in Patna, Bihar in India, He was also a Warrior, Poet and Philosopher. He succeeded His Father Guru Tegh Bahadur Sahib Ji as the Leader of Sikhs at a young age of nine. He contributed much to Sikhism; notable was His contribution to the continual formalisation of the faith which the First Sikh Guru Ji Guru Nanak Dev Ji had founded, as a religion, in the 15th century. Guru Gobind Singh transformed Sikhs into Khalsa (pure) in 1699.
Gobind Singh was born to Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Sikh guru, and Mata Gujri in Patna. He was born while his father was on a tour of a neighbouring state Assam, spreading God's word. He learned Persian and Sanskrit when he was a child and was also trained to become a warrior.
Gobind Singh married three times and had four children. He was married off to Mata Jito in 1677, when he was only 11-years-old. They had three children together Zorawar Singh, Jujhar Singh and Fateh Singh. He married Mata Sundari in 1684, and the couple had one child, Sahibzada Ajit Singh. His third wife was Mata Sahib Dewan.
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Guru Hargobind
Guru Hargobind Sahib, (Punjabi: ਗੁਰੂ ਹਰਿ ਗੋਬਿੰਦ ਸਾਹਿਬ [ɡʊru həɾɡobɪnd sɑhɪb]) also Saccha Badshah (ਸੱਚਾ ਪਾਦਸ਼ਾਹ "True Emperor") (19 June 1595–2 March 1644) was the sixth of the Sikh gurus and became Guru on 25 May 1606 following in the footsteps of his father Guru Arjan Dev. He was not, perhaps, more than eleven at his father's execution. Before ascension, he nominated Guru Har Rai, his grandson as the next Guru of the Sikhs.
From the very beginning he was the deadly enemy of the Mughal Empire.
He put on two swords: one indicated his spiritual authority and the other his temporal authority. He built the Akal Takht, the Throne of the Almighty. Guru Hargobind ji excelled in matters of state and his Darbar (Court) was noted for its splendour. The arming and training of some of his devoted followers began, the Guru came to possess seven hundred horses and his Risaldari (army) grew to three hundred horsemen and sixty gunners in the due course of time. Additionally, five hundred men from the Majha area of the Punjab were recruited as infantry. Guru Hargobind built a fortress at Amritsar called Lohgarh “Fortress of steel”. He had his own flag and war-drum which was beaten twice a day.
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Guru Nanak
Guru Nanak (Punjabi: ਗੁਰੂ ਨਾਨਕ; Hindi: गुरु नानक, Urdu: گرونانک [ˈɡʊɾu ˈnɑnək] Gurū Nānak) (15 April 1469 – 22 September 1539 at Talwandi (present-day Pakistan)) was the founder of the religion of Sikhism and the first of the ten Sikh Gurus.
The Sikhs believe that all subsequent Gurus possessed Guru Nanak’s divinity and religious authority, and were named "Nanak" in the line of succession.
Guru Nanak was born on 15 April 1469, now celebrated as Prakash Divas of Guru Nanak Dev, into a Hindu Khatri family in the village of Rāi Bhōi dī Talwandī, now called Nankana Sahib, near Lahore, Pakistan. Today, his birthplace is marked by Gurdwara Janam Asthan. Some are of the opinion that 20 October is his enlightenment day rather than his birthday. His father, Kalyan Chand Das Bedi, popularly shortened to Kalu Mehta, was the patwari (accountant) of crop revenue for the village of Talwandi in the employment of a Muslim landlord of that area, Rai Bular Bhatti. Guru Nanak’s mother was Tripta Devi and he had one elder sister, Bibi Nanaki who became a spiritual figure in her own right.
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Hafez
Khwāja Shamsu d-Dīn Muhammad Hāfez-e Shīrāzī (Persian: خواجه شمسالدین محمد حافظ شیرازی), known by his pen name Hāfez (1325/1326–1389/1390), was a Persian lyric poet. His collected works composed of series of Persian poetry (Divan) are to be found in the homes of most Persian speakers in Iran and Afghanistan, as well as elsewhere in the world, who learn his poems by heart and use them as proverbs and sayings to this day. His life and poems have been the subject of much analysis, commentary and interpretation, influencing post-fourteenth century Persian writing more than any other author.
Themes of his ghazals are the beloved, faith, and exposing hypocrisy. His influence in the lives of Iranians can be found in "Hafez readings" (fāl-e hāfez, Persian: فال حافظ), frequent use of his poems in Persian traditional music, visual art and Persian calligraphy. His tomb in Shiraz is visited often. Adaptations, imitations and translations of Hafez' poems exist in all major languages.
Hafez was born in Shiraz, modern Iran. Despite his profound effect on Persian life and culture and his enduring popularity and influence, few details of his life are known. Accounts of his early life rely upon traditional anecdotes. Early tazkiras (biographical sketches) mentioning Hafez are generally considered unreliable. The preface of his Divān, in which his early life is discussed, was written by an unknown contemporary of Hafez whose name may have been Moḥammad Golandām. Two of the most highly regarded modern editions of Hafez's Divān are compiled by Moḥammad Qazvini and Qāsem Ḡani (495 ghazals) and by Parviz Natil Khanlari (486 ghazals).
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Hamida Banu Begum
Hamida Banu Begam, 'Maryam Makani' (1527–1604) was a wife of the second Mughal Emperor, Humayun, and the mother of Mughal Emperor , Akbar. Her important architectural legacy is the Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, which she commissioned in 1562 CE, and saw through its construction over the next eight years.
Hamida Banu Begum was born in 1527 to Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a Persian Shia, and a friend and preceptor to Mirza Hindal, the youngest son of first Mughal Emperor and Humayun's father Babur. Ali Akbar Jami was also known as Mir Baba Dost, who belonged to the lineage of Ahmad Jami Zinda-fil. Hamida Banu's mother was Mah Afraz Begum, who married Ali Akbar Jami in Paat, Sindh.
She met Humayun, as a thirteen year old girl and frequenting Mirza Hindal's household, at a banquet given by Dildar Begum, Babar's wife and Humayun's stepmother in Alwar. Mughal Emperor, Humayun was in exile after his exodus from Delhi, due to the armies of Sher Shah Suri, who had ambitions of restoring Afghan rule in Delhi.
Though initially she refused to meet him, eventually after forty days of pursuit and at the insistence of Dildar Begum, she agreed to marry the Emperor. She refers to her initial reluctance in her book the Humayunama,
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Hemu
Samrat Hem Chandra Vikramaditya, Hemu Vikramaditya, Raja Vikramaditya or simply Hemu (Hindi: सम्राट हेम चंद्र विक्रमादित्य) (1501–5 November 1556) was a Hindu emperor of India during the sixteenth century AD. This was one of the crucial periods in Indian history, when the Mughals and Afghans were desperately vying for power.
The son of a Hindu priest, who later became a food seller, and a vendor of saltpetre at Rewari, Hemu rose to become Chief of Army and Prime Minister of Adil Shah Suri of the Suri Dynasty. He fought Afghan rebels across North India from the Punjab to Bengal and the Mughal forces of Akbar and Humayun in Agra and Delhi, winning 22 battles continuously, without a single setback.
Hem Chandra acceded to the throne of Delhi on 7 October 1556, assuming the title of "Vikramaditya" that had been earlier adopted by many Hindu kings since the Vedic times. His Rajyabhishek (coronation) as Samrat was held at Purana Quila in Delhi. Hemu re-established the Hindu rule (albeit for a short duration) in North India, after over 350 years of Muslim rule. Some historians say that this rule was on the pattern of a strong Hindu state prevailing in South India for more than three centuries, known as 'Vijaynagar Empire'. Hemu struck coins bearing his title.
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Henry Every
Henry Every, also Evory or Avery, (23 August 1659 – after 1696), sometimes erroneously given as John Avery, was an English pirate who operated in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans in the mid-1690s. He likely used several aliases throughout his career, including Henry Bridgeman, and was known as Long Ben to his crewmen and associates. Dubbed "The Arch Pirate" and "The King of Pirates" by contemporaries, Every was the most notorious pirate of his time; he earned his infamy by becoming one of the few major pirate captains to retire with his loot without being arrested or killed in battle, and also for being the perpetrator of what has been called the most profitable pirate raid in history. Although Every's career as a pirate lasted only two years, his exploits captured the public's imagination, inspired others to take up piracy, and spawned numerous works of literature.
Every was born in England's West Country, but little else is known about his early life. He served in the Royal Navy from 1689 to 1690, likely participating in several battles of the Nine Years' War (1688–1697). Following his discharge from the navy, Every began slave trading along Africa's Slave Coast. In 1693, he was again employed as a mariner, this time as first mate aboard the warship Charles II, which had been commissioned by England's ally, Charles II of Spain (the ship's namesake), to prey on French vessels in the West Indies. After leaving London in August 1693, the Charles II anchored in the northern Spanish harbor of Corunna, where other vessels were assembling for the expedition. The crew grew discontent as Madrid failed to deliver a letter of marque and the Charles II's owners failed to pay their wages. On the evening of 7 May 1694, the restless sailors mutinied. With the Charles II renamed the Fancy and Every elected as the new captain, the Fancy sailed south en route to the Indian Ocean, soon plundering five ships off the West African coast.
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Hiravijaya
Hirvijaya ji (1526–1595 C.E) (also known as Muni Hiravijayji and Hiravijay Suri ) was the supreme pontiff of Tapa Gachcha order of Jain Svetambara tradition. He is famous for propounding the Jain philosophy to Emperor Akbar and turning him towards vegetarianism.
Hiravijaya was born in a Jain Oswal family in Palanpur in Gujarat in 1527. His parents had died when he was still an infant, and he was brought up by his two elder sisters. He became the disciple of a Jain monk, Vijayadana Suri in 1540 at the age of 13, and a new name Hira Harsh was given to him. He was taken to Devagiri[disambiguation needed
] – a center of Sanskrit learning in those days, for further education. He successively won the title of Pandit in 1550, Upadhyaya in 1552 and Suri in 1553. This last title he won at Sirohi. Hence-forth he was known as Hiravijaya Suri. In 1556 when his guru died, the Svetambara community of Gujarat selected him as their Acarya (head of congregation). At that time there was a large community of around 2,000 students studying under him.
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Hrithik Roshan
Hrithik Roshan ([ˈrɪt̪ʰɪk ˈroːʃən]; born 10 January 1974) is an Indian film actor. Having appeared as a child actor in several films throughout the 1980s, Roshan made his film debut in a leading role in Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai in 2000. His performance in the film earned him Filmfare Awards for Best Actor and Best Male Debut. He followed it with leading roles in Fiza and Mission Kashmir (both 2000) and a supporting part in the blockbuster Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001), which was India's highest-grossing film in the overseas market up to then.
Following through with several unnoticed performances from 2002 to 2003, he starred in the blockbusters Koi... Mil Gaya (2003) and its sequel Krrish (2006), both of which won him numerous Best Actor awards. Roshan received his third Filmfare Award for Best Actor in 2006 for his performance in the action film Dhoom 2, his biggest commercial success to date, and his fourth for Jodhaa Akbar, for which he was also awarded at the Golden Minbar International Film Festival. These accomplishments have established him as one of the leading contemporary actors of Hindi cinema. He later received further acclaim for his work in Guzaarish (2010), Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara (2011) and Agneepath (2012).
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Humayun
Nasir ud-din Muhammad Humayun (Persian: نصیر الدین محمد همایون; full title: Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram, Jam-i-Sultanat-i-haqiqi wa Majazi, Sayyid al-Salatin, Abu'l Muzaffar Nasir ud-din Muhammad Humayun Padshah Ghazi, Zillu'llah; OS 7 March 1508 – OS 17 January 1556) was the second Mughal Emperor who ruled present day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of northern India from 1530–1540 and again from 1555–1556. Like his father, Babur, he lost his kingdom early, but with Persian aid, he eventually regained an even larger one. On the eve of his death in 1556, the Mughal empire spanned almost one million square kilometers.
He succeeded his father in India in 1530, while his half-brother Kamran Mirza, who was to become a rather bitter rival, obtained the sovereignty of Kabul and Lahore, the more northern parts of their father's empire. He originally ascended the throne at the age of 22 and was somewhat inexperienced when he came to power.
Humayun lost Mughal territories to the Pashtun noble, Sher Shah Suri, and, with Persian aid, regained them 15 years later. Humayun's return from Persia, accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen, signaled an important change in Mughal court culture, as the Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences of Persian art, architecture, language and literature and also there are many stone carved and Persian language In India from the time of Humayun also thousands of Persian manuscript in India.
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Ibrahim Lodi
Ibrahim Lodi (Pashto: ابراهیم لودي, Hindi: इब्राहिम लोधी) (b.? - April 21, 1526) was one of the rulers of the Lodi dynasty who became the last Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate in India. He was an Afghan (specifically of the Ghilzai tribe of Pashtuns) who ruled over much of northern India from 1517 to 1526, when he was defeated by Babur's army.
Lodi attained the throne upon the death of his father, Sikandar Lodi, but was not blessed with the same ruling capability. He faced a number of rebellions. The Mewar ruler Rana Sanga extended his empire right up to western Uttar Pradesh and threatened to attack Agra. There was rebellion in the East also. Lodi also displeased the nobility when he replaced old and senior commanders by younger ones who were loyal to him. He was feared and loathed by his subjects. His Afghan nobility eventually invited Babur to invade India.
Ibrahim died in the Battle of Panipat, where Babur's artillery and the desertion of many of Lodi's soldiers led to his downfall, despite superior troop numbers.
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Irfan Habib
Irfan Habib (Urdu: عرفان حبیب, Gujarati: ઈરફાન હબીબ; born 1931) is an Indian Marxist historian, a former Chairman of the Indian Council of Historical Research and a Padma Bhushan awardee. He is a Professor Emeritus at Aligarh Muslim University. He has served in the Indian History Congress for many years. Irfan Habib and R.S. Sharma have been historians of international repute even before the Indian Council of Historical Research was set up.
Habib is the son of Mohammad Habib, the eminent historian and independence activist. His paternal grandfather was Mohammad Naseem, a wealthy barrister, and nationalist, who funded the Lucknow Session of the Indian National Congress in 1916. His mother Sohaila Habib (née Tyabji) was the daughter of Abbas Tyabji, a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi, who became the Chief Justice of the High Court of Baroda. His wife Sayera Habib (née Siddiqui) taught as Professor of Economics at Aligarh Muslim University. His second son Faiz Habib is Cartographic Assistant in Archaeological Section of Center of Advanced Study.
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Islam Shah
Islam Shah Suri (reigned: 1545–1554) was the second ruler of the Sur dynasty which ruled part of India in the mid-16th century. His original name was Jalal Khan and he was the second son of Sher Shah Suri.
On his father's death, an emergency meeting of nobles chose Jalal Khan to be successor instead of his elder brother Adil Khan, since he had shown greater military ability. Jalal Khan was crowned on 26 May 1545 and took the title "Islam Shah". He was still worried that his brother would threaten his power and tried to have him captured. But Adil Khan evaded his grasp and raised an army. It marched on Islam Shah while he was at Agra. In the battle Islam Shah came out victorious and Adil Khan fled, never to be seen again.
The support some of the nobles had given his brother made Islam Shah suspicious and he ruthlessly purged their ranks, strictly subordinating the nobility to the crown. He continued his father's policies of efficient administration and increased centralisation. He had little opportunity for military campaigning; the fugitive Mughal emperor Humayun, whom his father had overthrown, made only one abortive attempt to attack him.
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Ismail I
Ismail I (July 17, 1487 – May 23, 1524), known in Persian as Shāh Ismāʿil (Persian: شاه اسماعیل; full name: Abū l-Muzaffar bin Haydar as-Safavī), was a Shah of Azerbaijan (1501), Shah of Iran (1502) and the founder of the Safavid dynasty which survived until 1736. Isma'il started his campaign in Azerbaijan in 1500 as the leader of the Safaviyya, an Twelver Shia militant religious order and unified all of Iran by 1509. Born in Ardabil in Northwestern Iran, he reigned as Shah Ismail I of Iran from 1502 to 1524.
Ismail played a key role in the rise of Twelver Islam; he converted Iran from Sunni and Ismaili Shi'i Islam, importing religious authorities from the Levant. In Alevism, Shah Ismail remains revered as a spiritual guide.
Ismail was also a prolific poet who, under the pen name Khatā'ī ("Sinner") contributed greatly to the literary development of the Azerbaijani language.
Ismail was born to Martha and Shaykh Haydar on July 17, 1487 in Ardabil. His father, Haydar, was the sheikh of the Safaviyya Sufi order and a direct descendant of its founder, Safi-ad-din Ardabili (1252–1334). Ismail was the last in line of hereditary Grand Masters of the Safaviyah Sufi order, prior to his ascent to a ruling dynasty. As a boy only a year old, he lost his father, the leader of a growing Qizilbash Shi'i community in Azerbaijan, who died in battle. His mother, Martha, was the daughter of Uzun Hasan by his Pontic Greek wife Theodora, better known as Despina Khatun. Theodora was the daughter of Emperor John IV of Trebizond. (She had married Uzun Hassan in a deal to protect Trebizond from the Ottomans.) Ismail grew up bilingual, speaking Persian and Azeri.
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Jadunath Sarkar
Sir Jadunath Sarkar (Bengali: যদুনাথ সরকার) was a prominent Indian Bengali aristocrat and historian.
Born in Singra, Natore. He was the son of Rajkumar Sarkar, the Zamindar of Karchamaria in Natore in Bengal.
In 1891, he passed the B.A. examination with honours in English and History from Presidency College, Calcutta. In 1892, he stood First in the First Class in the M.A. examination of Calcutta University in English. In 1897, he received Premchand-Roychand scholarship.
He became a teacher in English literature in 1893 at Ripon College, Kolkata (later renamed Surendranath College). In 1898, he started teaching at Presidency College, Calcutta. In 1899, he was transferred to Patna College, Patna, where he taught till 1926. In between, in 1917-1919, he taught Modern Indian History in Benaras Hindu University and during 1919-1923 he taught in Ravenshaw College, Cuttack, in Orissa. In 1923, he became an honorary member of the Royal Asiatic Society of London. In August 1926, he was appointed as the Vice Chancellor of Calcutta University. In 1928, he joined as Sir W. Meyer Lecturer in Madras University.
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Jahandar Shah
Jahandar Shah (1661–1713) was a Mughal Emperor who ruled India for a brief period in 1712-1713. His title was Shahanshah-i-Ghazi Abu'l Fath Muiz-ud-Din Muhammad Jahandar Shah Sahib-i-Quran Padshah-i-Jahan (Khuld Aramgah).
Jahandar Shah was born on 10 May 1661, a son of the emperor Bahadur Shah I. Upon the death of their father on 27 February 1712, he and his brother Azim-ush-Shan both declared themselves emperor and conducted a struggle for the succession. Azim-us-Shan was killed on 17 March 1712 and Jahandar Shah was able to rule for a further eleven months. Before coming to the throne, Jahandar Shah had sailed around the Indian ocean, and had been a very prosperous trader, and was later appointed Subedar of Sindh. He was the father of three sons, including Aziz-ud-Din who reigned as Mughal emperor between 1754 and 1759.
His court was depraved. He was a mere puppet in the hands of his favourite wife, Lal Kunwar. Before her elevation to the position of Queen Consort, she was a mere dancing girl. Her children were promoted to the highest offices of the Empire. He was defeated in the battle at Agra on 10 January 1713 by Farrukhsiyar, his nephew and the second son of Azim-us-Shan, with the support of the Syed Brothers.
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Jahangir
|سلیم جهانگیر نورالدین}}}} Persian: نورالدین سلیم جهانگیر Hindi: नूरुद्दीन सलीम जहांगीर) (full title: Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram, Khushru-i-Giti Panah, Abu'l-Fath Nur-ud-din Muhammad Jahangir Padshah Ghazi [Jannat-Makaani]) (20 September 1569 – 8 November 1627) was the ruler of the Mughal Empire from 1605 until his death. The name Jahangir is from Persian جهانگیر,meaning "Conqueror of the World". Nur-ud-din or Nur al-Din is an Arabic name that means " Light of the Faith". Born as Prince Muhammad Salim and nicknamed Sheykhu Baba, he was the third and eldest surviving son of Mogul Emperor Akbar. Akbar's twin sons, Hasan and Hussain, died in infancy. His mother was the Rajput Princess of Amber, Jodhabai(born Rajkumari Hira Kunwari, eldest daughter of Raja Bihar Mal or Bharmal, Raja of Amber, India). Jahangir was a child of many prayers.]
It is said to be by the blessing of Shaikh Salim Chishti (one of the revered sages of his times) that Akbar's first surviving child, the future Jahangir, was born. The child was named Salim after the dervish and was affectionately addressed by Akbar as Sheikhu Baba.
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Jaimal and Patta
Jaimal Rathore of Badnor and Patta of Kelwa (Jaimal Rathore: cousin of Meerabai, Patta or Fatta:Fateh Singh Sisodiya) were the warriors who faced attack of Akbar in 1567 and 1568 AD on the fort of Chittor. Both were aged 16 years.When Akbar attacked Chittor, Rana Udai Singh II left the fort together with his family. Jaimal Rathore of Merta was appointed qiledar (Commander in charge) of the fort. Akbar arrived at Chittor on 23 October 1567 AD and sieged the fort. The siege continued for at least four months. Ultimately Akbar ordered his men to bury mines and explode them to demolish the walls of the fort so that the Mughal army could enter it. The people inside the fort were running short of food and water and other supplies. Finally Akbar was able to damage a wall of the fort. Next morning on 23 February 1568 AD Jaimal Rathore started repairing part of the damaged wall. Akbar noticed him walking on the walls and guessed from his clothing that he was an important person. He shot at him with his gun "Sangram" and wounded Jaimal in the leg. When the Rajputs in the fort felt that the war could not be won, they decided to die in the war. On the same night Rajput ladies committed Jauhar. When the flames were sighted atop the fort, Raja Bhagwandas of Amer immediately realized that they were the flames of Jauhar. He cautioned the Mughal forces to be ready to face the ferocious Rajput men at any moment because Rajputs would now fight till their last breath. Next morning the Rajput men under the command of lame but valiant Jaimal Rathore and his army performed Saka (Kesariya or Saffron) by wearing saffron clothes and fought their last fight with Mughal army. Since Jaimal was injured and could not ride a horse, his brother Kalla Rathore made him sit on his shoulders and as a single entity, they fought with four hands. It seemed as if god Charbhujanathji himself had incarnated on the batllefield. When Jaimal died in the war, Patta Sisodia took the command, but he too died in the battle. These young men displayed true Rajput chivalry. Akbar commissioned a statue of Jaimal and Patta riding on elephants at the gates of the Agra fort as a mark of their bravery. The statues were later destroyed by the Aurangzeb.
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James Tod
Lieutenant-Colonel James Tod (20 March 1782 – 18 November 1835) was an English officer of the British East India Company and an Oriental scholar. He combined his official role and his amateur interests to create a series of works about the history and geography of India, and in particular the area then known as Rajputana that corresponds to the present day state of Rajasthan, and which Tod referred to as Rajas'han.
Tod was born in London and educated in Scotland. He joined the East India Company as a military officer and travelled to India in 1799 as a cadet in the Bengal Army. He rose quickly in rank, eventually becoming captain of an escort for an envoy in a Sindian royal court. After the Third Anglo-Maratha War, during which Tod was involved in the intelligence department, he was appointed Political Agent for some areas of Rajputana. His task was to help unify the region under the control of the East India Company. During this period Tod conducted most of the research that he would later publish. While Tod was initially successful in his official role, his methods were questioned by other members of the East India Company. Over time, his work was restricted and his areas of oversight were significantly curtailed. In 1823, due to declining health and reputation, Tod resigned his post as Political Agent and travelled back to England.
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Jerry Bentley
Jerry H. Bentley (born 1949) is a world history professor at the University of Hawaii, USA, and founding editor of the Journal of World History since 1990. He has written on the cultural history of early modern Europe and on cross-cultural interactions in world history. He is one of the cited experts in Annenberg Media's 2004 series of educational videos that are broadcast by satellite on the Annenberg Channel.
Bentley was born in Birmingham, Alabama, USA, the oldest of three boys. His father was an engineer, and his mother was a homemaker and entrepreneur. He attended Brainerd High School in Chattanooga, Tennessee, and then went on to the University of Tennessee where he obtained a Bachelors Degree in 1971, and then his Masters (1974) and PhD (1976) from the University of Minnesota. Following this he began working as an Assistant Professor at the University of Hawaii in 1976. He rose to Associate Professor in 1982, and full professor in 1987. In 1990 he was the founding editor of the Journal of World History, with Elton Daniel and Daniel Kwok as editorial board members, and Herbert F. Ziegler as the book review editor. The University released a series of monographs on world history, Perspectives on the Global Past, and then became the headquarters for the World History Association. Bentley and Ziegler were also co-authors of the college-level world history textbook Traditions and Encounters which as of 2011 is in its 5th edition.[1]
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Kabir
Kabīr (also Kabīra) (Hindi: कबीर, Punjabi: ਕਬੀਰ, Urdu: کبير) (1440–1518) was a mystic poet and saint of India, whose writings have greatly influenced the Bhakti movement. The name Kabir comes from Arabic al-Kabīr which means 'The Great' - the 37th name of God in Islam.
Apart from having an important influence on Sikhism, Kabir's legacy is today carried forward by the Kabir Panth ("Path of Kabir"), a religious community that recognizes him as its founder and is one of the Sant Mat sects. Its members, known as Kabir panthis, are estimated to be around 9,600,000. They are spread over north and central India, as well as dispersed with the Indian diaspora across the world, up from 843,171 in the 1901 census. His writings include Bijak, Sakhi Granth, Kabir Granthawali and Anurag Sagar.
Not much is known of Kabir's birth parents, but it is known that he was brought up in a family of Muslim weavers. He was found by a Muslim weaver named Niru and his wife, Nima, in Lehartara, situated in Varanasi. They adopted the boy and taught him the weaver's trade.
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Kim Stanley Robinson
Kim Stanley Robinson (born March 23, 1952) is an American science fiction writer known for his award-winning Mars trilogy. His work delves into ecological and sociological themes regularly, and many of his novels appear to be the direct result of his own scientific fascinations, such as the fifteen years of research and lifelong fascination with the planet Mars.
Robinson's work has been labeled by reviewers as literary science fiction.
Kim Stanley Robinson was born in Waukegan, Illinois, but grew up in Southern California. In 1974 he earned a B.A. in literature from the University of California, San Diego. In 1975, he earned a M.A. in English from Boston University and in 1982, he earned a PhD in English from the University of California, San Diego. His doctoral thesis, The Novels of Philip K. Dick, was published in 1984.
Robinson describes himself as a backpacker but not a mountain climber, though mountain climbing appears in several of his fiction works, most notably Antarctica, the Mars trilogy, "Green Mars" (a short story found in The Martians), Forty Signs of Rain, and Escape from Kathmandu.
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Maharana Pratap
Maharana Pratap or Pratap Singh (May 24, 1540 – January 19, 1597) was a Hindu ruler of Mewar, a small region in north-western India in the present day state of Rajasthan. In popular Indian culture, Pratap is considered to exemplify the qualities like bravery and chivalry to which Rajputs aspire, especially in context of his opposition to the Akbar. The struggle between Rajput confederacy led by Pratap Singh, and the Mughal Empire under Akbar, has often been characterised in popular Hindutva culture as a struggle between Hindus and the 'invading' Muslims, much on the same lines as the struggle between Shivaji and Aurangzeb a little less than a century later. However, notably, unlike Shivaji, Pratap Singh has also symbolised the pride and prestige of upper caste Hindus in northern India, because of the obvious differences between their lineages - but this allegation have little truth because much of Pratap's own soldiery were recruited from among tribal people like Bhils and backward castes like Lohars, while his own upper caste contemporaries like Man Singh of Amber supported Mughals.
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Malik Ambar
Malik Ambar (1549–1626) was an Ethiopian born in Harar, sold as a child by his parents due to poverty. He eventually arrived in India, where he was educated and given opportunities, but he remained a slave. Nevertheless in time he created an independent army that had up to 1500 men. This army resided in the Deccan region and was hired by many local kings. He also founded the city of Aurangabad, Maharashtra on the site of a previous village. He eventually rose to become a very popular Prime Minister of the Ahmadnagar Sultanate, showing his administrative acumen in various fields. Malik is also regarded as a pioneer in Guerilla warfare in the Deccan region. He is credited with having carried out a systematic revenue settlement of major portions of the Deccan, which formed the basis for many subsequent settlements. He died in 1626. He is a figure of veneration to the Siddis of Gujarat. He humbled the might of the Mughals and Adil Shah of Bijapur and raised the falling status of the Nizam Shah.
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Man Singh
Raja Shri Man Singh Ji Saheb (Man Singh I) (December 21, 1550 – July 6, 1614) was the Kacchwaha King of Amber, a state later known as Jaipur. He was a trusted general of the Mughal emperor Akbar, who included him among the Navaratnas, or the nine gems of the royal court.
He was the son of Rani Sa Bhagawati Ji Sahiba at Amber; his father was Raja Bhagwant Das of Amber. He was born on Sunday, December 21, 1550. He was about eight years younger than Mughal Emperor Akbar who was born on November 23, 1542 and about ten years younger than Rana Pratap who was born on May 9, 1540, These three great personalities, of the same generation, had a great impact on sixteenth century India's polity, society, and history. They are remembered with reverence in India, although Rana Pratap fought unrelenting wars with both of them. Raja Bharmal, the first Rajput ruler to marry his daughter to a Mughal, was Man Singh I's grandfather.
Initially known as Kunwar (prince), Man Singh received the title of Mirza Raja and the mansab (rank) of 5000 after the death of his father on December 10, 1589 from Akbar. On August 26, 1605, Man Singh became a mansabdar of 7,000, i.e., a commander of 7,000 cavalry in the Mughal forces, which was the maximum command for anyone other than a son of the Mughal emperor and the guardian of Khusrau, the eldest son of Jahangir.Akbar called him Farzand (son). He fought many important campaigns for Akbar. Kunwar Man Singh led the Mughal Army in the well-known battle of Haldighati fought in 1576 between the Mughal Empire and Maha Rana Pratap.
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Mariam-uz-Zamani
Mariam uz-Zamani Begum Sahiba (Imperial Princess) Rukmavati Sahiba [Jodha Bai]. m. ca. 1581, H.M.Mirza Jalal ud-din 'Abu'l Fathe Muhammad Akbar I Padshah Ghazi, Emperor of India., née Rajkumari (Princess) Hira Kunwari, alias Harkha Bai or Jodha Bai (October 1, 1542 – 1622) was a Rajput princess who became the Mughal Empress, after her marriage to Mughal Emperor Akbar. She was the eldest daughter of Kachwaha Rajput, Raja Bharmal of Amber, the older name of the Rajput State of Jaipur.
Her notability arises from her marriage to the Mughal emperor Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar. She was also the mother of emperor Nuruddin Salim Jahangir, her husband's heir.
Her name as in Mughal chronicles was Mariam-uz-Zamani. This is why the mosque of Mariyam Zamani Begum was constructed in Lahore, Pakistan, in her honour. She has been also referred to as Jodha Bai or Jodhabai. Hira Kunwari, Akbar's first Rajput wife, was the eldest daughter of Raja Bhar Mal of Amber. She was also the sister of Bhagwandas and the aunt of Man Singh I of Amber.
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Moinuddin Chishti
Sultan-ul-Hind, Moinuddin Chishti (Urdu/Persian: معین الدین چشتی) (Persian: چشتی - Čištī) (Arabic: ششتى - Shishti) was born in 1141 and died in 1230 CE. Also known as Gharīb Nawāz "Benefactor of the Poor" (غریب نواز), he is the most famous Sufi saint of the Chishti Order of the Indian Subcontinent. He introduced and established the order in South Asia. The initial spiritual chain or silsila of the Chishti order in India, comprising Moinuddin Chishti, Bakhtiyar Kaki, Baba Farid and Nizamuddin Auliya (each successive person being the disciple of the previous one), constitutes the great Sufi saints of Indian history.
Moinuddin Chishtī is said to have been born in 536 A.H./1141 CE, in Chishti in Sistan region of Afghanistan. He was a Sayed, a descendant of Muhammad through Ja'far aṣ-Ṣādiq. He grew up in Persia. His parents died when he was only fifteen years old. He inherited a windmill and an orchard from his father. During his childhood, young Moinuddin was different from others and kept himself busy in prayers and meditation. Legend has it that once when he was watering his plants, a revered Sufi, Shaikh Ibrāhim Qundūzī (or Kunduzi) -- the name deriving from his birth place, Kunduz in Afghanistan -- came to his orchard. Young Moinuddin approached him and offered him some fruits. In return, Sheikh Ibrāhīm Qundūzī gave him a piece of bread and asked him to eat it. The Khwāja got enlightened and found himself in a strange world after eating the bread. After this he disposed of his property and other belongings and distributed the money to the poor. He renounced the world and left for Bukhara in search of knowledge and higher education.
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Muhammad
Muhammad (c. 26 April 570 – 8 June 632; also transliterated as Mohammad, Mohammed, or Muhammed; Arabic: محمد), full name: Muhammad Ibn `Abd Allāh Ibn `Abd al-Muttalib (Arabic: محمد بن عبدالله بن عبد المطلب ) was a leader from Mecca who unified the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. He is believed by Muslims and Bahá'ís to be a messenger and prophet of God. Muslims believe that Islam was not his own invention but was revealed by God, and most consider him to be the last prophet of God Muslims thus consider him the restorer of an uncorrupted original monotheistic faith (islām) of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets.
Born in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca, he was orphaned at an early age and brought up under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. He later worked mostly as a merchant, as well as a shepherd, and was first married by age 25. Being in the habit of periodically retreating to a cave in the surrounding mountains for several nights of meditation and prayer, he later reported that it was there, at age 40, that he received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit. islām) is the only way (dīn) acceptable to God, and that he himself was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as other Islamic prophets.
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Muhammad Shah
Shahanshah Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Shah, Abu Al-Fatah Nasir-ud-Din Roshan Akhtar Muhammad Shah (محمد شاه) (1748 – 1702) also known as Roshan Akhtar, was the Mughal emperor between 1719 and 1748. He was son of Khujista Akhtar, the fourth son of Bahadur Shah I. Ascending the throne at 17 with the help of the Sayyid Brothers, he later got rid of them with the help of Asaf Jah I. Muhammad Shah was a great patron of the arts, including musical, cultural and administrative developments, his pen-name was Sada Rangila ("ever joyous").
Roshan Akhtar was born in 1702 in Ghazna (in modern day Afghanistan) to Prince Khujista Akhtar, during the reign of the Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb. In the year 1707, his grandfather Bahadur Shah I had defeated and eliminated his own brother Muhammad Azam Shah on 19 June 1707 at the Battle of Jajau, during another war of succession that followed after the death of his aged grandfather Bahadur Shah I his father was killed, and the 12-year-old prince and his mother were imprisoned by his uncle Jahandar Shah but spared from death. Handsome and quick to learn, his mother took good care of his education, while his father had enhanced his administrative abilities. Since the overthrow of Farrukhsiyar in 1719 many Mughal Emperors briefly ascended to the throne, but the Sayyid Brothers eventually chose 17-years-old Roshan Akhtar to become the new Mughal Emperor.
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Muzaffar Alam
Muzaffar Alam (born 3 February 1947) is the George V. Bobrinskoy Professor in South Asian Languages and Civilization at the University of Chicago.
Muzaffar Alam is a historian trained at Jamia Millia Islamia (New Delhi), Aligarh Muslim University and Jawaharlal Nehru University (New Delhi), where he obtained his doctorate in history in 1977. Before joining the SALC at the University of Chicago in 2001, he taught at the Centre for Historical Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, and has held visiting positions in the Collège de France (Paris), Leiden University, University of Wisconsin–Madison, and the EHESS (Paris).
Professor Alam has taught courses on the history of the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire, and he has also worked closely with students on advanced Urdu and Persian literary and historical texts. His working languages include English, Persian, French, and Urdu.
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Nader Shah
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}} Nāder Shāh Afshār (Persian: نادر شاه افشار; also known as Nāder Qoli Beg - نادر قلی بیگ or Tahmāsp Qoli Khān - تهماسپ قلی خان) (November, 1688 or August 6, 1698 – June 19, 1747) ruled as Shah of Iran (1736–47) and was the founder of the Afsharid dynasty. Because of his military genius, some historians have described him as the Napoleon of Persia or the Second Alexander. Nader Shah was a member of the Turkic Afshar tribe of northern Persia, which had supplied military power to the Safavid state since the time of Shah Ismail I.
Nader rose to power during a period of anarchy in Iran after a rebellion by the Hotaki Afghans had overthrown the weak Persian Shah Sultan Husayn, and both the Ottomans and the Russians had seized Persian territory for themselves. Nader reunited the Persian realm and removed the invaders. He became so powerful that he decided to depose the last members of the Safavid dynasty, which had ruled Iran for over 200 years, and become shah himself in 1736. His numerous campaigns throughout the Naderian Wars created a great empire that encompassed what is now part of or including Iran, Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, India, Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Russia, Oman and the Persian Gulf but his military spending had a ruinous effect on the Persian economy.
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Nawab of Awadh
The Nawab of Awadh is the title of rulers who governed the state of Awadh in India in the 18th and 19th century. The Nawabs of Awadh originated from Persia.
As the Moghul power declined and the emperors lost their paramountcy and they became first the puppets and then the prisoners of their feudatories, so Awadh grew stronger and more independent. Its capital city was Faizabad.
Of all the Muslim states and dependencies of the Mughal empire, Awadh had the newest royal family. They were descended from a Persian adventurer called Sa'adat Khan, originally from the city of Nishapur. There were many Khurasanis in the service of the Mughals, mostly soldiers, and if successful, they could hope for rich rewards. Burhan ul Mulk Sa'adat Khan proved to be amongst the most successful of this group. In 1732, he was made governor of the province of Awadh. His original title was Nazim, which means Governor, but soon he was made Nawab. In 1740, the Nawab was called Wazir or vizier, which means Chief Minister, and thereafter he was known as the Nawab Wazir. In practice, from Sa'adat Khan onwards, the titles had been hereditary, though in theory they were in the gift of the Mughal emperor, to whom allegiance was paid. A nazar, or token tribute, was sent each year to Delhi, and members of the imperial family were treated with great deference; two of them actually lived in Lucknow after 1819, and were treated with great courtesy.
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Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire or Turkish Empire or Sublime Ottoman State or sometimes also referred to as Turkey (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye (also عثمانلى دولتى Osmanlı Devleti),Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Devleti or Osmanlı İmparatorluğu) was a Turkish empire which lasted from 27 July 1299 to 1 November 1922, when the Sultanate was abolished.
The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and longest lasting empires in history; such that the Ottoman State, its politics, conflicts, and cultural heritage in a vast geography provide one of the longest continuous narratives. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire was one of the most powerful states in the world – a multinational, multilingual empire that stretched from the southern borders of the Holy Roman Empire to the outskirts of Vienna, Royal Hungary (modern Slovakia) and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the north to Yemen and Eritrea in the south; from Algeria in the west to Azerbaijan in the east; controlling much of southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.
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Parsi
Parsi or Parsee ( /ˈpɑrsiː/) refers to a member of the larger of the two Zoroastrian communities in South Asia, the other being the Irani community.
According to tradition, the present-day Parsis descend from a group of Zoroastrians of Iran who immigrated to India during the 10th century AD, to avoid persecution by Muslim invaders who were in the process of conquering Iran. At the time of the Arab invasion of Iran, the dominant religion of the region was Zoroastrianism. The Iranians rebelled against the Arab invaders for almost 200 years; in Iran this period is now known as the "Two "Centuries of Silence" or "Period of Silence". After many failed attempts to free the country from Arab domination, the Iranians were forced to either pay heavy taxes (Jizya) or to convert to Islam, the latter being the ultimate goal of the new rulers and thus the easier way. During this time many Iranians who are now called Parsi rejected both options and instead chose to take refuge by fleeing from Iran to India.
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Pashtun people
Pashtuns (Pashto: پښتانه Pax̌tānə; also spelled Pushtuns, Pakhtuns or Pukhtuns), also known as ethnic Afghans (Persian: افغان) or Pathans (Urdu: پٹھان, Hindi: पठान Paṭhān), are an Eastern Iranian ethnic group with populations primarily in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Pashtuns are typically characterised by their usage of the Pashto language and practice of Pashtunwali, which is a traditional set of ethics guiding individual and communal conduct. Their origins are unclear but historians have come across references to various ancient peoples called Paktha (Pactyans) between the 2nd and the 1st millennium BC, who inhabited the region between the Hindu Kush and Indus River and may be the early ancestors of Pashtuns. Since the 3rd century AD and onward, they have been referred to by the ethnonym "Afghan".
Often characterised as a warrior and martial race, their history is spread amongst various countries of South, Central and Western Asia, centred around their traditional seat of power in medieval Afghanistan. During the Delhi Sultanate era, the Pashtun Lodi dynasty replaced the Turkic kingdoms as the ruling dynasty in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. Other Pashtuns fought the Persian Empire and the Mughal Empire before obtaining an independent state in the early-18th century, which began with a successful revolution by the Mirwais Hotak followed by conquests by Ahmad Shah Durrani. Pashtuns played a vital role during the Great Game from the 19th century to the 20th century as they were caught between the imperialist designs of the British and Russian empires.
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Persian people
The Persian people are part of the Iranian peoples who speak the modern Persian language and closely akin Iranian dialects and languages. The origin of the ethnic Iranian/Persian peoples are traced to the Ancient Iranian peoples, who were part of the ancient Indo-Iranians. The synonymous usage of Iranian and Persian has persisted over the centuries although some modern Western sources use Iranic/Iranian as a wider term that includes the term Persian as well as related Iranian languages and ethnic groups. However, these terms have been used both synonymously as well as in a complementary fashion since ancient times; as the Ancient Iranian peoples such as the Old Persians, Medes, Bactrians, Parthians and Avesta peoples considered themselves to be part of the greater Iranian ethnic stock.
The term Persian translates to "from or of Persis" which is a region north of the Persian Gulf located in Pars, Iran. It was from this region that Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Achaemenid empire, united all other Iranian empires (such as the Medes and the Elamites), and expanded the Persian cultural and social influences by incorporating the Babylonian empire, and the Lydian empire. Although not the first Iranian empire, the Achaemenid empire is the first Persian empire well recognized by Greek and Persian historians for its massive cultural, military and social influences going as far as Athens, Egypt, and Libya.
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Prithviraj Kapoor
Prithviraj Kapoor (Hindi:पृथ्वीराज कपूर, Pṛithvīrāj Kapūr), 3 November 1906 –29 May 1972) was a pioneer of Indian theatre and of the Hindi film industry, who started his career as an actor, in the silent era of Hindi cinema, associated with IPTA and who founded Prithvi Theatres, a travelling theatre company based in Mumbai, in 1944.
He was also the patriarch of the Kapoor family of Hindi films, five generations of which family, beginning with him, have played active roles in Hindi film industry. The Government of India honoured him with the Padma Bhushan in 1969 and the Dadasaheb Phalke Award in 1971 for his contributions towards Indian cinema.[citation needed]
Prithviraj was born on November 3, 1906 at Samundri near the town of Lyallpur (currently Faisalabad, Pakistan) in Punjab, then under British colonial rule. His ancestors had earlier lived in Peshawar. Prithviraj could speak English, Hindi, Punjabi, and Hindko.
His father, Dewan Basheswarnath Kapoor, was a sub-inspector of police. Prithviraj received his initial education at Khalsa College Lyallpur and at Lahore. His paternal grandfather, Dewan Keshavmal, was a powerful influence during his childhood. Baseshwarnath was posted at Peshawar, and so Prithviraj received his higher education at the Edwardes College, Peshawar, Pakistan and joined a one year program in Law to become a Lawyer. It was here that his talents on stage first received expression. Prithviraj's son Shammi recollects that Prof. Jai Dayal, a member of the faculty, was instrumental in nurturing his talent. The professor was in love with an English lady by the name of Nora Richard, who in turn was a theatre aficionado with a passion for Shakespeare and Ibsen. The couple found Prithviraj the perfect material for many roles in the plays they mounted. This was his grounding in the art of the theatre.
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Queen Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was queen regnant of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana, or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The daughter of Henry VIII, she was born a princess, but her mother, Anne Boleyn, was executed two and a half years after her birth, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Her half-brother, Edward VI, bequeathed the crown to Lady Jane Grey, cutting his half-sisters out of the succession in contradiction to statute law. His will was set aside, Lady Jane Grey was executed, and in 1558 Elizabeth succeeded the Catholic Mary I, during whose reign she had been imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels.
Elizabeth set out to rule by good counsel, and she depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, Baron Burghley. One of her first moves as queen was the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement later evolved into today's Church of England. It was expected that Elizabeth would marry and produce an heir so as to continue the Tudor line. She never did, however, despite numerous courtships. As she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity, and a cult grew up around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants, and literature of the day.
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Raja Man Singh
Raja Shri Man Singh Ji Saheb (Man Singh I) (December 21, 1550 – July 6, 1614) was the Kacchwaha King of Amber, a state later known as Jaipur. He was a trusted general of the Mughal emperor Akbar, who included him among the Navaratnas, or the nine gems of the royal court.
He was the son of Rani Sa Bhagawati Ji Sahiba at Amber; his father was Raja Bhagwant Das of Amber. He was born on Sunday, December 21, 1550. He was about eight years younger than Mughal Emperor Akbar who was born on November 23, 1542 and about ten years younger than Rana Pratap who was born on May 9, 1540, These three great personalities, of the same generation, had a great impact on sixteenth century India's polity, society, and history. They are remembered with reverence in India, although Rana Pratap fought unrelenting wars with both of them. Raja Bharmal, the first Rajput ruler to marry his daughter to a Mughal, was Man Singh I's grandfather.
Initially known as Kunwar (prince), Man Singh received the title of Mirza Raja and the mansab (rank) of 5000 after the death of his father on December 10, 1589 from Akbar. On August 26, 1605, Man Singh became a mansabdar of 7,000, i.e., a commander of 7,000 cavalry in the Mughal forces, which was the maximum command for anyone other than a son of the Mughal emperor and the guardian of Khusrau, the eldest son of Jahangir.Akbar called him Farzand (son). He fought many important campaigns for Akbar. Kunwar Man Singh led the Mughal Army in the well-known battle of Haldighati fought in 1576 between the Mughal Empire and Maha Rana Pratap.
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Rajput
A Rajput (from Sanskrit raja-putra, “son of a king”) is a member of one of the patrilineal clans of western, central, northern India and some parts of Pakistan. They claim to be descendants of ruling Hindu warrior classes of North India.[dubious – discuss] Rajputs rose to prominence during the 6th to 12th centuries. Until the 20th century Rajputs ruled in the "overwhelming majority" of the princely states of Rajasthan and Surashtra, where the largest number of princely states were found.
The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread through much of the subcontinent, particularly in north, west and central India. Populations are found in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Surashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra.
Rajput is from the Sanskrit word Raja-Putra (son of a king). The word is found in ancient texts, including the Vedas, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata.[citation needed] It was used by the ancient Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini in the 4th century BCE.[citation needed] The word Kshatriya ("warrior") was used for the Vedic community of warriors and rulers. To differentiate royal warriors from other Kshatriyas the word Rajputra was used.[citation needed] Rajputra eventually was shortened to Rajput; gradually it became a caste.[citation needed] Rajputs claim descent from various mythological patrilineages, being Suryavanshi, Chandravanshi, Agnivanshi and Nagavanshi.[citation needed]
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Rajputs
A Rajput (from Sanskrit raja-putra, “son of a king”) is a member of one of the patrilineal clans of western, central, northern India and some parts of Pakistan. They claim to be descendants of ruling Hindu warrior classes of North India.[dubious – discuss] Rajputs rose to prominence during the 6th to 12th centuries. Until the 20th century Rajputs ruled in the "overwhelming majority" of the princely states of Rajasthan and Surashtra, where the largest number of princely states were found.
The Rajput population and the former Rajput states are found spread through much of the subcontinent, particularly in north, west and central India. Populations are found in Rajasthan, Gujarat and Surashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Jammu, Punjab, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra.
Rajput is from the Sanskrit word Raja-Putra (son of a king). The word is found in ancient texts, including the Vedas, the Ramayana, and the Mahabharata.[citation needed] It was used by the ancient Sanskrit grammarian Pāṇini in the 4th century BCE.[citation needed] The word Kshatriya ("warrior") was used for the Vedic community of warriors and rulers. To differentiate royal warriors from other Kshatriyas the word Rajputra was used.[citation needed] Rajputra eventually was shortened to Rajput; gradually it became a caste.[citation needed] Rajputs claim descent from various mythological patrilineages, being Suryavanshi, Chandravanshi, Agnivanshi and Nagavanshi.[citation needed]
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Ram Singh I
Mirza Raja Ram Singh I was the elder son Mirza Raja Jai Singh I and was ruler of Amber (now part of the Jaipur Municipal Corporation), and head of the Kachwaha Rajput clan, from 1667 to 1688.
Kunwar Ram Singh had served in the campaigns of his great father Jai Singh I and by 1654 had acquired a rank of commander of 3000 (cavalry) in the Mughal nobility. His first independent campaign was in 1660, after the accession of Aurangzeb as emperor, when he led an army against the hill-state of Srinagar(Uttarakhand). Jai Singh took his younger son Kirat Singh on his last campaign to the Deccan (1664–67) leaving Ram Singh to be his representative at the Mughal court. When Jai Singh sent the Maratha hero Shivaji, to meet Aurangzeb (1666), he took an oath to be responsible for his safety at the Mughal court, and made Ram Singh Shivaji's caretaker.
Shivaji, accomapanied by his son Sambhaji and other officials and servants, was received by Kanvar Ram Singh at his military camp in the suburbs of Agra city (12 May 1666). Ram Singh escorted them to meet the emperor at the Diwan-e-khas (hall of special audience) in Agra fort. Here they gave a customary present (nazara) of 1,500 gold pieces (mohurs) at which, Aurangzeb cried out, "Come up Shivaji Raja!"
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Rana Sanga
Maharana Sangram Singh (commonly known as Rana Sanga) (April 12, 1484 – March 17, 1528)
Sangram Singh who was popularly known as Rana Sanga was younger son of Rana Raimal of Mewar who succeed Rana Kumbha. He is famous for his daring military exploits and vast conquests across Western India in early sixteenth century.
A war of succession followed last days and death of Raimal – his sons jockeyed for power and in civil war that followed, all princes were killed except Sanga who had much earlier left for Malwa where he lived for a while incognito as a cattleherd. Rajput sardars of Mewar who found out Sanga, invited him to become Rana as there was no one left for throne. Thus Sanga became Rana in 1509.
By war and diplomacy, he united all warring principalities of Rajasthan under his leadership – a remarkable feat when one consider the fact that no once could attain this after death of Prithviraj Chauhan in late 12th century AD.
Once he brought whole of Rajasthan under his control, he made his move on Malwa – Malwa ruled by Mehmod Khilji was torn by dissensions – Mehmod was wary of overgrown power of his Rajput wazir Medini Rai and his followers and so Mehmod who lacked personal strength to deal with Medini Rai asked for help from Ibrahim Lodi of Delhi and Bahadur Shah of Gujarat. Medini Rai on his part requested Rana Sanga to come to his aid.
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Rani Durgavati
Rani Durgavati (October 5, 1524 – June 24, 1564) was born in the family of famous Rajput Chandel Emperor Keerat Rai. She was born at the fort of Kalanjar (Banda, Uttar Pradesh, India). Chandel Dynasty is famous in the Indian history for the defense of king Vidyadhar who repulsed the Muslim attacks of Mahmud Ghaznavi. His love for sculptures is shown in the world famed temples of Khajuraho and Kalanjar fort. Rani Durgavati's achievements further enhanced the glory of her ancestral tradition of courage and patronage of arts.
In 1542, she was married to Dalpat Shah, the eldest son of king Sangram Shah of Gond Dynasty. Chandel and Gond dynasties got closer as a consequence of this marriage and that was the reason Keerat Rai got the help of Gonds and his son-in-law Dalpat Shah at the time of Sher Shah Suri.
She gave birth to a son in 1545 CE. who was named Vir Narayan. Dalpat Shah died in about 1550 CE. As Vir Narayan was too young at that time, Durgavati took the reins of the Gond kingdom in her hands. Diwan or Prime Minister Beohar Adhar Simha and minister Man Thakur helped the Rani in looking after the administration successfully and effectively. Rani moved her capital to Chauragarh in place of Singaurgarh. It was a fort of strategic importance situated on the Satpura hill range.
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Rao Udaisingh
Rao Udai Singh (reigned 1583–95), also known by the sobriquet Mota Raja (the fat king) was the Rathore ruler of Marwar, which was later known as Jodhpur (in the present day Rajasthan state of India). After the death of his father Rao Maldeo on November 7, 1562 a fatricidal war for succession started and his younger brother Rao Chandrasen crowned himself in the capital Jodhpur. But his reign was short lived as Akbar's army occupied Merta in the same year and the capital in 1563. Udai Singh later joined the Mughal service.
After the death of Rao Chandrasen in January, 1581 Marwar was brought under direct Mughal administration and in August 1583, Akbar restored the throne of Marwar to Udai Singh. He married his daughter Jodha Bai (Jagat Gosayini or Bhanmati) to Jahangir in 1587. Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) was the son of Jodha Bai. Udai Singh died in Lahore on July 10, 1595. He was succeeded by his son Sur Singh Rathore.
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Sadashivrao Bhau
Sadashiv Rao Bhau (August 4, 1730 – January 14, 1761) was son of Chimaji Appa and Rakhmabai, and the nephew of Peshwa Baji Rao I. He served as the Sarsenapati (commander-in-chief) of the Maratha army at the third battle of Panipat. He died fighting at the third battle of Panipat.
Sadashivrao, born in Saswad near Pune, was the son of Baji Rao's brother Chimaji Appa. His mother Rakhmabai died when he was barely a month old.His father died when he was 10. He was cared by his grandmother Radhabai his aunt Kashibai. He was very bright from early years. He was educated in Satara. His tutor was shrewd Ramchandrababa Shenvi. Though Nanasaheb became Peshwa, he stayed in Satara.
His first military achievement was in 1746 in Carnatic region, with Mahadjipant Purandare and Sakharam Bappu as his political advisers. He had conquered from the Nawab of Savanur and subsequently annexed the cities of Kittur, Parasgad, Gokak, Yadwad, Bagalkot, Badami, Navalgund, Umbal, Giri, Torgal, Haliyal, Harihar and basavapatna. He crushed the revolt of Yamaji Shivdev.
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Sadiq Ali
Sadiq Ali (May 2, 1952 – April 18, 2011) was a senior politician of Kashmir, India, a noted poet and writer and an active environmentalist. He was an elected legislator in the Kashmir State Assembly for three consecutive terms. Mr Sadiq Ali was born in Srinagar into an influential business family. His father, the late Mr. Jaffer Ali was a Paper mache artist and businessman.
Sadiq Ali graduated from Aligarh Muslim University and earned his MA in Political Science. He has given some important recommendations about the solution of the Kashmir conflict between India and Pakistan. His self-rule report has been widely applauded in both India and Pakistan and his recommendations have been regarded as one of the most workable solutions of this issue. He has also written a comprehensive paper on the deteriorating conditions of the forests of Jammu and Kashmir State; he has further submitted an indepth research paper outlining how the Dal Lake may be saved from further degradation.
Mr Sadiq Ali entered politics at a very young age, and was one of the closest associates of Sheikh Abdullah, the founder of National Conference. He was nominated to the State Legislative Council numerous times. He also held the position of treasurer of the JKNC for 23 years.
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Saiyid Nurul Hasan
Saiyid Nurul Hasan was a historian of medieval India, a prolific author, a statesman in the Government of India, and governor of Bengal and Governor of Orissa.
Hasan was born in Lucknow, India. He belonged to a prominent landowning (madad-i ma'ash) family of the United Provinces. He was the son of Sayyid Abdul Hasan and Nur Fatima Begum. His father was a District Settlement Officer and later President of the Court of Wards in the United Provinces. He was a grandson of Sir Sayyid Wazir Hasan, the prominent politician. He was married to Nawabzadi Khurshid Laqa Begum Sahiba, a daughter of Nawab Raza Ali Khan of Rampur. They had two children, Sayyid Sirajul Hasan and Sayyida Talat Fatima Hasan.
He was educated at La Martiniere Boys' College in Kolkata,. He complete his granduation from Muir Central College, Allahabad. Later he went to New College, Oxford, where he completed an M.A. and D.Phil. in Indian history. In Oxford he was the President of the Oxford India Majlis.
He began his academic career as a Professor in the Department of History at Aligarh Muslim University, of which he was a Chairperson as well. Later he had become a General Secretary and President of the Indian History Congress. He was a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society and the Royal Asiatic Society in London.
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Salim Chishti
Shaikh Salim Chishti (Urdu: شيخ سلیم چشتی ) was Sufi saint during Mughal Empire in South Asia. Salim Chishti (1478 – 1572) was one of the famous Sufi saints of the Chishti Order in India.
Salim Chisti, leading his Shaikzada division, fought in the Battle of Haldighati on the side of Akbar against Maharana Pratap[citation needed].
Salim Chishti was a greatly revered Sufi Mystic who, it was thought by many, could perform wonders. The Mughal Emperor Akbar-e-Azam went to the shrine of Hazrat Ashraf Jahangir Semnani, but on his travels, had received inspiration to go to see Salim Chishti. Akbar came to the holy man's camp, deep in the desert, seeking a male heir to his throne. Salim Chishti blessed Akbar, and soon the first of three sons was born to him. He named his first son Salim (later emperor Jahangir) in honor of Salim Chishti. A daughter of Sheikh Salim Chishti, was the foster mother of Emperor Jahangir. The emperor was deeply attached to his foster mother, as reflected in the Jahangirnama and he was extremely close to her son Qutb-ud-din Khan Koka whose was made the governor of Bengal and his descendants are still to be found in Sheikhupur, Badaun.
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Salim Chisti
Shaikh Salim Chishti (Urdu: شيخ سلیم چشتی ) was Sufi saint during Mughal Empire in South Asia. Salim Chishti (1478 – 1572) was one of the famous Sufi saints of the Chishti Order in India.
Salim Chisti, leading his Shaikzada division, fought in the Battle of Haldighati on the side of Akbar against Maharana Pratap[citation needed].
Salim Chishti was a greatly revered Sufi Mystic who, it was thought by many, could perform wonders. The Mughal Emperor Akbar-e-Azam went to the shrine of Hazrat Ashraf Jahangir Semnani, but on his travels, had received inspiration to go to see Salim Chishti. Akbar came to the holy man's camp, deep in the desert, seeking a male heir to his throne. Salim Chishti blessed Akbar, and soon the first of three sons was born to him. He named his first son Salim (later emperor Jahangir) in honor of Salim Chishti. A daughter of Sheikh Salim Chishti, was the foster mother of Emperor Jahangir. The emperor was deeply attached to his foster mother, as reflected in the Jahangirnama and he was extremely close to her son Qutb-ud-din Khan Koka whose was made the governor of Bengal and his descendants are still to be found in Sheikhupur, Badaun.
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Salman Rushdie
Sir Ahmed Salman Rushdie (Hindi: अहमद सलमान रुशदी (Devanagari), احمد سلمان رشدی (Nastaʿlīq); /sælˈmɑːn ˈrʊʃdi/; born 19 June 1947) is a British Indian novelist and essayist. His second novel, Midnight's Children (1981), won the Booker Prize in 1981. Much of his fiction is set on the Indian subcontinent. He is said to combine magical realism with historical fiction; his work is concerned with the many connections, disruptions and migrations between East and West.
His fourth novel, The Satanic Verses (1988), was the centre of a major controversy, provoking protests from Muslims in several countries, some violent. Death threats were made against him, including a fatwā issued by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the Supreme Leader of Iran, on 14 February 1989.
Rushdie was appointed Commandeur dans Ordre des Arts et des Lettres of France in January 1999. In June 2007, Queen Elizabeth II dubbed him Knight Bachelor for his services to literature. In 2008, The Times ranked him thirteenth on its list of the fifty greatest British writers since 1945.
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Sambhaji
Shrimant Maharajadhiraj Chhatrapati Sambhaji Shivaji Raje Bhosle (14 May 1657 – 11 March 1689) was the eldest son and successor of Emperor Chhatrapati Shivaji, the founder of the Maratha empire and his first Empress consort Sayeebai.
Sambhaji was born at Purandar fort. He was 17 years old when his father Shivaji was crowned in 1674.He lost his mother Saibai who was Shivaji's favourite wife at the age of 2.Since then he was under the care of his grandmother. His grandmother and mentor Jijabai died in the same year of the coronation of Shivaji. Sambhaji was taken as security by Mughal Sardar Mirza Raja Jayasingh until he receives all forts of agreement which Shivaji Maharaj did with him to stop his attack on Maratha kingdom under his control. Sambhaji was 9 years old at that time.
In a marriage of political alliance, Sambhaji was married to Jivubai, renamed (as per Maratha custom) Yesubai, daughter of Pilajirao Shirke who came to service of Shivaji Maharaj after defeat of a powerful Deshmukh he was serving.Thus giving Shivaji access to the Konkan coastal belt.
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Sanjay Khan
Sanjay Khan (Hindi: संजय ख़ान) is an Indian actor, director and producer.
Abbas Khan made his debut in the 1964 Chetan Anand film "Haqeeqat" followed by the Rajshri film Dosti. In the 1960s and 1970s Khan starred in the movies Dus Lakh, Ek Phool Do Mali and Intaqam. He also acted opposite his brother Feroz in three films Upaasna (1971), Mela (1971) and Nagin (1976). He turned producer and director of three films in which he played the leading role which were Chandi Sona (1977), Abdullah (1980) and Kala Dhanda Goray Log (1986). After Kala Danda Goray Log he stopped acting in films and moved onto starring in and directing television series. In 1990 he starred and directed the Indian TV series The Sword of Tipu Sultan. While filming in 1989, he got severely burnt in a fire on the sets in Premier Studios in Mysore. He recovered after many months in hospital and has since produced and directed television serials. He also directed the Mega Indian TV series, based on life of Maratha General Mahadji Shinde called, "The Great Maratha". In the late 90s he directed the TV-series Jai Hanuman (1997–2000). In the new millennium, he directed a mini series called Maha Kavya Mahabharat and a movie starring Jessica Chapnik called Maryada Purushottam (2005).
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Seydi Ali Reis
Seydi Ali Reis (1498 – 1563) was an Ottoman admiral.
He commanded the left wing of the Ottoman fleet at the naval Battle of Preveza in 1538.
He was later promoted to the rank of Commander of the Ottoman Indian Ocean Fleet, and as such, encountered the Portuguese forces based in Goa, India, in several occasions in 1554.
He is famous today for his books of travel such as the Mir'ât ül Memâlik (Mirror of Countries, 1557) which describes the lands he has seen on his way back from India to Constantinople, and his books of navigation and astronomy, such as the Mir’ât-ı Kâinât (Mirror of the Universe) and the Kitâb ül Muhit: El Muhit fî İlmi'l Eflâk ve'l Buhûr (Book of the Regional Seas and the Science of Astronomy and Navigation) which contain information on navigation techniques, methods of determining direction, calculating time, using the compass, information on stars, sun and moon calendars, wind and sea currents, as well as portolan information regarding the ports, harbours, coastal settlements and islands in the various regions of the Ottoman Empire. His books are translated into numerous languages including English, French, Italian, German, Greek, Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Russian, and are considered among the finest literary works dating from the Ottoman period.
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Shah Jahan
Shah Jahan(also spelled Shah Jehan, Shahjehan,(Urdu: شاه جہاں, Persian: شاه جهان) (January 5, 1592–January 22, 1666), (full title: Shahanshah Al-Sultan al-'Azam wal Khaqan al-Mukarram, Malik-ul-Sultanat, Ala Hazrat Abu'l-Muzaffar Shahab ud-din Muhammad Shah Jahan I, Sahib-i-Qiran-i-Sani, Padshah Ghazi Zillu'llah, Firdaus-Ashiyani, Shahanshah—E--Sultanant Ul Hindiya Wal Mughaliya) was the emperor of the Mughal Empire in South Asia from 1628 until 1658. The name Shah Jahan comes from Persian meaning "Ruler of Everywhere". He was the fifth Mughal emperor after Babur, Humayun, Akbar, and Jahangir. While young, he was favourite of his legendary grandfather, Akbar the Great. Shah Jahan was a direct descendant of Genghis Khan through Timur and was the heir of the Mughal Empire of Babur, he is also alleged to have been a descendant of Charlemagne.
At a young age, he was chosen as successor to the Mughal throne after the death of Emperor Jahangir. He succeeded to the throne upon his father's death in 1627. He is considered to be one of the greatest Mughals, and his reign has been called the Golden Age of the Mughals and one of the most prosperous ages of Indian civilization. Like Akbar, he was eager to expand his vast empire. In 1658, he fell ill and was confined by his son Emperor Aurangzeb in the Agra Fort until his death in 1666.
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Sher Shah Suri
Sher Shah Suri (1486 – May 22, 1545) (Pashto: فريد خان شیر شاہ سوری - Šīr Šāh Sūrī, Bengali: শের শাহ সুরি), birth name Farid Khan, also known as Sher Khan (The Lion King), was the founder of the Muslim Sur Empire in northern India, with its capital at Delhi. An Afghan (Pathan) by origin, he rebelled against the Mughals and took control of India in 1540 until an accidental death in 1545 when Islam Shah Suri became his successor. He first served as a private before rising to become a commander in the Mughal Army under Babur and then as the governor of Bihar. In 1537, when Babur's son Humayun was elsewhere on an expedition, Sher Khan, power hungry turned on his true master and overran the state of Bengal and established the Sur Empire. A brilliant strategist, Sher Shah proved himself a gifted administrator as well as an able general. His reorganization of the empire laid the foundations for the later Mughal emperors, notably Akbar the Great, son of Humayun.
During his five year rule from 1540 to 1545, he set up a new template for civic and military administration, issued the first Rupee and re-organised the postal system of India. He further developed Humayun's Dina-panah city and named it Shergarh and revived the historical city of Pataliputra as Patna which had been in decline since the 7th century CE. He is also famously remembered for killing a fully grown tiger with his bare hands in a jungle of Bihar.
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Shivaji
Shivaji Bhosale ([ʃiʋaˑɟiˑ bʱoˑs(ə)leˑ]; 19 February 1630 – 3 April 1680), with the royal title Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, was a Maratha sovereign who founded the Maratha Empire, which, at its peak, covered much of the Indian subcontinent, encompassing a territory of over 2.8 million km². Shivaji as an aristocrat of the Bhosle clan led a resistance to free the Maratha people from the Sultanate of Bijapur and the Mughal Empire and established a Hindavi Swarajya ("self-rule of Hindu people"). He created an independent Maratha kingdom with Raigad as its capital. He was crowned as Chhatrapati ("sovereign") of the Maratha empire in 1674.
He established a competent and progressive civil rule with the help of a well-regulated and disciplined military and well-structured administrative organizations. He also innovated rules of military engagement, pioneering the "Shiva sutra" or ganimi kava (guerrilla tactics), which leveraged strategic factors like geography, speed, surprise and focused pinpoint attacks to defeat his larger and more powerful enemies From a small contingent of 2,000 soldiers inherited from his father, he created a formidable force of 100,000 soldiers. He built and restored forts located strategically on land & sea for secure lands and coastline. He revived ancient Hindu political tradition & court conventions, and promoted Marathi and Sanskrit in court and administration usage. He is well known for his strong religious and warrior code of ethics and exemplary character. He was recognized as a great national hero during Indian Independence movement.
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Sikandar Shah Suri
Sikandar Shah Suri (died 1559) was the sixth ruler of Sur dynasty, a late medieval Pashtun (Afghan) dynasty of northern India. He became the sultan of Delhi after overthrowing Ibrahim Shah Suri.
Sikandar Shah Suri's actual name was Ahmad Khan Suri. He was the brother-in-law of sultan Muhammad Adil Shah. He was the governor of Lahore before declaring independence from Delhi in 1555.
After becoming the independent sultan and bringing Punjab under control, he marched towards the territory controlled by sultan Ibrahim Shah Suri. Ibrahim was defeated in a battle at Farah near Agra and Sikandar took possession of both Delhi and Agra. While Sikandar was busy with his struggle against Ibrahim, Humayun captured Lahore in February 1555. Another detachment of his forces captured Dipalpur. Next, the Mughal army occupied Jalandhar and their advanced division proceeded towards Sirhind. Sikandar sent a force of 30,000 horses but they were defeated by the Mughal army in a battle at Machhiwara and Sirhind was occupied by the Mughals. Sikandar, then led an army of 80,000 horses himself and met the Army at Sirhind. On June 22, 1555 he was defeated by the Mughal army and was compelled to retreat to the Sivalik Hills in northern Punjab. The victorious Mughals marched to Delhi and occupied it.
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Suraj Mal
Maharaja Suraj Mal (1707–1763) (Devanagari:महाराजा सूरज मल) was ruler of Bharatpur in Rajasthan in India. He has been described by a contemporary historian as "the Plato of the Jat people" and by a modern writer as the "Jat Ulysses", because of his political sagacity, steady intellect and clear vision.
Surajmal was born on February 1707 in Bharatpur, India. He was eldest son of Jat Emperor of Bharatpur, Maharaja Badan Singh, and his wife Rani Devki of Jat family from Kama.
He had 14 Queens, out of which 6 have been authentically told to us by Fransoo. He enumerates them as below :
From his four wives, he left five sons: Jawar Singh, Ratan Singh, Nawal Singh, Ranjit Singh and Nahar Singh. The first two were born of a lady, popularly reputed to have been a Rajputni, possibly of Gaurua clan, the third was son of a Malin mother, the last two, Ranjit Singh and Nahar Singh were born of his own Jat tribe.But the mother of none of these enjoyed the particular affection of the King, who loved most dearly his masculine and barren wife, the famous queen Maharani Kishori. Jawahar Singh was fortunate enough to be adopted by this lady, whose influence and affection shielded the rebellious youth from the worst effects on the wrath of his father.For various political reasons, Suraj Mal also had 24 mistresses each from a different cast, so as to gain popularity within a cast.
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Tahmasp I
Tahmasp or Tahmasb I (Persian: شاه تهماسب یکم) (February 22, 1514 – May 14, 1576) was an influential Shah of Iran, who enjoyed the longest reign of any member of the Safavid dynasty. He was the son of Ismail I and Shah-Begi Khanum (known under the title Tajlu Khanum) of the Turcoman Mawsillu tribe.
During his childhood he was weak and came under the control of the Qizilbash, Turkic tribesmen who formed the backbone of Safavid power. The Qizilbash leaders fought among themselves for the right to be regents over Tahmasp. Upon adulthood, however, Tahmasp was able to reassert the power of the Shah and control the tribesmen.
His reign was marked by foreign threats, primarily from the Ottomans and the Uzbeks. In 1555, however, he regularized relations with the Empire through the Peace of Amasya. This peace lasted for 30 years, until it was broken in the time of Shah Mohammed Khodabanda.
He is also known for the reception he gave to the fugitive Mughal Emperor Humayun which is depicted in a painting on the walls of the Safavid palace of Chehel Sotoon. Humayun's return from Persia, accompanied by a large retinue of Persian noblemen and soldiers, signaled an important change in Mughal court culture, as the Central Asian origins of the dynasty were largely overshadowed by the influences of Persian art, architecture, language and literature.
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Tardi Baig Khan
Tardi Beg was a military commander in the 16th century in Mughal India. He served under the Mughal Emperors Humayun and Akbar.
Beg was part of Humayun's forces when they retreated from India after the siege by Sher Shah. He remained with his leader throughout his exile in Persia.
It is reported that he was disliked by both the troops and generals and was eventually killed for cowardice by Bairam Khan.
Beg is said to have refused to give up his horse for the heavily pregnant Hamida, wife of Humayun, when she was eight months pregnant with her son Akbar. He is also said to have charged Humayun 20% interest on a loan. Beg was further accused of deserting the city of Agra as soon as Hemu's forces approached.
The truth of these allegations is difficult to gauge as most were written after his death and following the great successes of Bairam Khan, his executor. The allegations therefore may have been created to justify the action taken by Bairam.
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The Great
There are many people in history who are commonly appended with the phrase "the Great", or who were called that or an equivalent phrase in their own language. Other languages have their own suffixes such as e Bozorg and e azam in Persian and Urdu respectively.
In Persia, the title "the Great" at first seems to be a colloquial version of the Old Persian title "Great King". This title was first used by the conqueror Cyrus II of Persia.
The Persian title was inherited by Alexander III of Macedon (336–323 BC) when he conquered the Persian Empire, and the epithet "Great" eventually became personally associated with him. The first reference (in a comedy by Plautus) assumes that everyone knew who "Alexander the Great" was; however, there is no earlier evidence that Alexander III of Macedon was called "the Great".
The early Seleucid kings, who succeeded Alexander in Persia, used "Great King" in local documents, but the title was most notably used for Antiochus the Great (223–187 BC).
Later rulers and commanders began to use the epithet "the Great" as a personal name, like the Roman general Pompey. Others received the surname retrospectively, like the Carthaginian Hanno and the Indian emperor Ashoka the Great. Once the surname gained currency, it was also used as an honorific surname for people without political careers, like the philosopher Albert the Great.
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Timur
Timur (Turkish: Demir "iron", Persian: تمور Timūr, Chagatai: Temür "iron"; 8 April 1336 – 18 February 1405), historically known as Tamerlane (from Persian: تيمور لنگ, Timūr-i Lang, Aksak Timur "Timur the Lame" in Turkish), was a Turkic, who conquered West, South and Central Asia, and the founder of the Timurid dynasty. He was the grandfather of Ulugh Beg, who ruled Central Asia from 1411 to 1449, and the great-great-grandfather of Babur, founder of the Mughal Empire, which ruled South Asia for centuries.
Timur envisioned the restoration of the Mongol Empire of Genghis Khan. Unlike his predecessors Timur was also a devout Muslim and referred to himself as the Sword of Islam. His armies were inclusively multi-ethnic and multicultural. During his lifetime Timur would emerge as the most powerful ruler in the Muslim world after defeating the formidable Mamluks of Egypt and Syria, the emerging Ottoman Empire and the declining Sultanate of Delhi; Timur had also decisively defeated the Knights Hospitaler at Smyrna and since then referred to himself as a Ghazi. By the end of his reign Timur had also gained complete suzerainty over all the remnants of the Chagatai Khanate, Ilkhanate, Golden Horde and even the Yuan Khanate.
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Vikram Gokhale
Vikram Gokhale (occasionally credited as Vikram Gokhle) is a well known Indian film, television and stage actor, notable for his roles in Marathi theatre and Hindi films and television. He is the son of another well known veteran Marathi theater and film actor Chandrakant Gokhale,and brother Mohan Gokhale who acted in 68 Marathi and 16 Hindi films besides 64 Marathi plays and several Marathi TV serials over a span of 75 years.
Gokhale is now directing his debut directorial film titled Aaghaat. Produced by Sprint Arts Creation and executive producer Rajesh Damble, the film is based on a story written by Dr Nitin Lavangare. The cast of the film includes actors Mukta Barve and Dr Amol Kolhe and is shot in Pune. The film is getting released on 24 December 2010.
Vikram Gokhale has a long family lineage active in Indian film industry. His great grandmother Durgabai Kamat was the first female artiste of the Indian screen, while his grandmother Kamlabai Gokhale (Kamlabai Kamat at that time) was the first female child artiste of Indian cinema. Way back in 1913, Durgabai acted as Parvati and Kamlabai as Mohini in a film by name Mohini Bhasmasur, produced and directed by Dadasaheb Phalke, the father of Indian cinema. His father Chandrakant Gokhale was a veteran Marathi film and stage artist and has acted in over 70 Marathi and Hindi films.
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Jodhaa Akbar (2008)
"Jodhaa Akbar (2008)" Actors
- Hrithik Roshan
- Aishwarya Rai
- Kulbhushan Kharbanda
- Suhasini Mulay
- Raza Murad
- Rajesh Vivek
- Ila Arun
- Digvijay Purohit
- Dilnaz Irani
- Sonu Sood (ii)
- Amin Hajee (ii)
- Amitabh Bachchan
"Jodhaa Akbar (2008)" Director
Akbar Filmography
- Suno Sasurjee (2004)
- Rajaji (1999)
- Prem Aggan (1998)
- Chachi 420 (1997)
- Tere Mere Sapne (1996)
- PremGranth (1996)
- Chhote Sarkar (1996)
- Love Love Love (1989)
- Duniya (1984)
- Teri Kasam (1982)
- Ghar (1978)
- Zameer (1975)
- Jeene Ki Raah (1969)
Akbar Filmography
Akbar, S. Filmography
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JEFFERY DALLAS - Akbar
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:42
- Updated: 30 Nov 2012
iTunes: bit.ly | Amazon: amzn.to Tweet it: bit.ly Follow Jeffery on Twitter: twitter.com Like Jeffery on Facebook: facebook.com Written & Directed by Julian Smith Cinematography by: Julian Smith & Justin Johns ( youtube.com ) © 2012 Papertown Entertainment
http://wn.com/JEFFERY_DALLAS_Akbar
iTunes: bit.ly | Amazon: amzn.to Tweet it: bit.ly Follow Jeffery on Twitter: twitter.com Like Jeffery on Facebook: facebook.com Written & Directed by Julian Smith Cinematography by: Julian Smith & Justin Johns ( youtube.com ) © 2012 Papertown Entertainment
ARRehman - Khwaja Mere Khwaja (Jodhaa Akbar)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:35
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
Lyrics and translation thanks to khel03 and Azan786: Khwajaji, khwaja (O saint khwaja) Khwajaji, khwaja, khwaja ji (O saint khwaja) ; (O saint khwaja) Ya gharib nawaz (The one who cherishes/soothes the poor) Ya moinuddin, ya khwaja ji (O moinuddin chisti), (O khwaja saint) Khwaja mere khwaja (O saint khwaja) Dil mein sama ja (Reside in my heart) Shaho ka shah tu (You are the king of kings) Ali ka dulara (Ali's beloved) Khwaja mere khwaja dil mein sama ja (O saint khwaja); (Reside in my heart) Beqaso ki taqdeer, tune hai sawari (The destiny of the ones in despair, you have changed for the better) Khwaja mere khwaja (O saint khwaja) Tere darbar mein khwaja (At your door, o khwaja) Door toh hai dekha (Ive seen it from far) Sar jhuka te hai auliya (Your confidents/protectors/confessors bow down to you) Tu hai Hindalwali khwaja (You are the hindalwali Khwaja) Rutba hai pyara (Your status is glorious/great) Chahne se tujhko khwaja ji mustafa ko paya (By wishing/worshipping you Khwaja, I have found muhammed [the chosen one]) Khwaja mere khwaja (O saint khwaja) Dil mein sama ja (Reside in my heart) Shaho ka shah tu (You are the king of kings) Ali ka dulara (Ali's beloved) Mere peer ka sadka (The alms of my old age) Hai mere peer ka sadka (It is the charity of my old age) Tera daaman hai thama (That I have come in your refuge) Khawajaji Tali har bala humari (All my problems/crisis have been averted) Chaya hai khumar tera (Your trance is all over me) Jitna bhi rashk kare beshak (No ...
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Lyrics and translation thanks to khel03 and Azan786: Khwajaji, khwaja (O saint khwaja) Khwajaji, khwaja, khwaja ji (O saint khwaja) ; (O saint khwaja) Ya gharib nawaz (The one who cherishes/soothes the poor) Ya moinuddin, ya khwaja ji (O moinuddin chisti), (O khwaja saint) Khwaja mere khwaja (O saint khwaja) Dil mein sama ja (Reside in my heart) Shaho ka shah tu (You are the king of kings) Ali ka dulara (Ali's beloved) Khwaja mere khwaja dil mein sama ja (O saint khwaja); (Reside in my heart) Beqaso ki taqdeer, tune hai sawari (The destiny of the ones in despair, you have changed for the better) Khwaja mere khwaja (O saint khwaja) Tere darbar mein khwaja (At your door, o khwaja) Door toh hai dekha (Ive seen it from far) Sar jhuka te hai auliya (Your confidents/protectors/confessors bow down to you) Tu hai Hindalwali khwaja (You are the hindalwali Khwaja) Rutba hai pyara (Your status is glorious/great) Chahne se tujhko khwaja ji mustafa ko paya (By wishing/worshipping you Khwaja, I have found muhammed [the chosen one]) Khwaja mere khwaja (O saint khwaja) Dil mein sama ja (Reside in my heart) Shaho ka shah tu (You are the king of kings) Ali ka dulara (Ali's beloved) Mere peer ka sadka (The alms of my old age) Hai mere peer ka sadka (It is the charity of my old age) Tera daaman hai thama (That I have come in your refuge) Khawajaji Tali har bala humari (All my problems/crisis have been averted) Chaya hai khumar tera (Your trance is all over me) Jitna bhi rashk kare beshak (No ...
- published: 29 Mar 2008
- views: 427310
- author: yvsot
Akbar the Great - Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 22:44
- Updated: 19 Nov 2012
Akbar the Great - Part 1 The magnificent and moving story of "Jalaluddin Mohammed, known to posterity as "Akbar The Great" is chronicled in this mega - epic which vividly re - captures one of the most dazzling and outstanding accounts of chivalry valour and statesmanship in the history of the world. The brilliant exploits and the invincible might of the mughal armies as they raze one enemy castle after another, are marvelously sublimated by this supreme philosopher king as he introduces radical solutions for a strife - torn kingdom in the form of Din - E - Ilahi the divine faith and Sulh - I - kul universal brotherhood as the ideology of an Empire. An awe-inspiring narrative of the transformation of India from a trouble - torn & warning geographical mass, into a harmonious, prosperous and patriotic nation pledged to uphold equality, fraternity and liberty long before the modern world discovered these virtues. Watch the brilliant and fascination story of "Akbar The Great". The serial has been produced and directed by Akbar Khan, a well established motion picture producer, director and leading film actor. The first fifteen episodes of the TV Serial "The Sword of Tipu Sultan" directed by him, have already received worldwide praise. Although the scenario - script of the serial has been developed and written by our team of eminent writers, all events and happening that appears in the episodes have been drawn from various historical books and therefore are authentic Looking at ...
http://wn.com/Akbar_the_Great_Part_1
Akbar the Great - Part 1 The magnificent and moving story of "Jalaluddin Mohammed, known to posterity as "Akbar The Great" is chronicled in this mega - epic which vividly re - captures one of the most dazzling and outstanding accounts of chivalry valour and statesmanship in the history of the world. The brilliant exploits and the invincible might of the mughal armies as they raze one enemy castle after another, are marvelously sublimated by this supreme philosopher king as he introduces radical solutions for a strife - torn kingdom in the form of Din - E - Ilahi the divine faith and Sulh - I - kul universal brotherhood as the ideology of an Empire. An awe-inspiring narrative of the transformation of India from a trouble - torn & warning geographical mass, into a harmonious, prosperous and patriotic nation pledged to uphold equality, fraternity and liberty long before the modern world discovered these virtues. Watch the brilliant and fascination story of "Akbar The Great". The serial has been produced and directed by Akbar Khan, a well established motion picture producer, director and leading film actor. The first fifteen episodes of the TV Serial "The Sword of Tipu Sultan" directed by him, have already received worldwide praise. Although the scenario - script of the serial has been developed and written by our team of eminent writers, all events and happening that appears in the episodes have been drawn from various historical books and therefore are authentic Looking at ...
- published: 06 Feb 2010
- views: 105562
- author: UltraHindi
Jodhaa Akbar - Official Trailer (English subtitles)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:10
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
Watch the official trailer of the movie Jodhaa Akbar starring Hrithik Roshan and Aishwarya Rai.
http://wn.com/Jodhaa_Akbar_Official_Trailer_English_subtitles
Watch the official trailer of the movie Jodhaa Akbar starring Hrithik Roshan and Aishwarya Rai.
- published: 12 Apr 2010
- views: 131658
- author: UTVMotionPictures
Amar Akbar Anthony - Parda Hai Parda - Mohammad Rafi
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:18
- Updated: 28 Nov 2012
Movie : Amar Akbar Anthony Music Director : Laxmikant-Pyarelal Singer : Mohammed Rafi Director : Manmohan Desai Enjoy this super hit song from the 1977 movie Amar Akbar Anthony starring Amithabh Bachchan, Vinod Khanna, Rishi Kapoor, Neetu Singh, Parveen Babi, Shabana Azmi, Nirupa Roy, Pran. Subscribe and get regular updates on newly uploaded songs www.youtube.com To watch more Superhit Bollywood Old & New Songs click here www.youtube.com Join us on Facebook at www.facebook.com Follow us on Twitter at twitter.com
http://wn.com/Amar_Akbar_Anthony_Parda_Hai_Parda_Mohammad_Rafi
Movie : Amar Akbar Anthony Music Director : Laxmikant-Pyarelal Singer : Mohammed Rafi Director : Manmohan Desai Enjoy this super hit song from the 1977 movie Amar Akbar Anthony starring Amithabh Bachchan, Vinod Khanna, Rishi Kapoor, Neetu Singh, Parveen Babi, Shabana Azmi, Nirupa Roy, Pran. Subscribe and get regular updates on newly uploaded songs www.youtube.com To watch more Superhit Bollywood Old & New Songs click here www.youtube.com Join us on Facebook at www.facebook.com Follow us on Twitter at twitter.com
- published: 28 Jul 2011
- views: 287263
- author: ShemarooEnt
Akbar Birbal
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:47
- Updated: 24 Nov 2012
www.rajshri.com The stories of Akbar and Birbal have delighted children and adults alike for generations and have come to become two of the most-loved figures of Indian folklore. Experience the timeless wisdom of the endearing Akbar-Birbal tales in these animated videos.
http://wn.com/Akbar_Birbal
www.rajshri.com The stories of Akbar and Birbal have delighted children and adults alike for generations and have come to become two of the most-loved figures of Indian folklore. Experience the timeless wisdom of the endearing Akbar-Birbal tales in these animated videos.
- published: 19 Dec 2007
- views: 884392
- author: rajshri
Jodhaa Akbar (Full Song) - Inn Lamhon Ke (Hrithik Roshan & Aishwarya Rai) HQ
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:56
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
Watch this video to enjoy the exclusive song "Inn Lamhon Ke" from the movie Jodhaa Akbar
http://wn.com/Jodhaa_Akbar_Full_Song_Inn_Lamhon_Ke_Hrithik_Roshan_Aishwarya_Rai_HQ
Watch this video to enjoy the exclusive song "Inn Lamhon Ke" from the movie Jodhaa Akbar
- published: 30 Mar 2010
- views: 908430
- author: UTVMotionPictures
Azeem O Shaan Shahenshah HD (Jodha Akbar)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:18
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
Hindi movie song, jodha akbar
http://wn.com/Azeem_O_Shaan_Shahenshah_HD_Jodha_Akbar
Hindi movie song, jodha akbar
- published: 29 Dec 2009
- views: 474972
- author: krish8raj
Azeem-O-Shaan Shahenshah - Jodhaa Akbar (2008) *HD* 1080p *BluRay* Music Video
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:38
- Updated: 28 Nov 2012
Movie: JODHAA AKBAR Cast: Hrithik Roshan, Aishwarya Rai Singer(s): MOHD. ASLAM, BONNY CHAKRAVARTI Lyrics: (Azeem-O-Shaan Shahenshah) - 2 Furwa Rawa Hamesha Hamesha Salamat Rahe Tere Ho Kya Bayain Tu Shaan-E-Hindustan Hindustan Teri Jaan Tu Jaan-E-Hindustan Marhaba Hooo Oo Marhaba Marhaba...
http://wn.com/Azeem-O-Shaan_Shahenshah_Jodhaa_Akbar_2008_*HD*_1080p_*BluRay*_Music_Video
Movie: JODHAA AKBAR Cast: Hrithik Roshan, Aishwarya Rai Singer(s): MOHD. ASLAM, BONNY CHAKRAVARTI Lyrics: (Azeem-O-Shaan Shahenshah) - 2 Furwa Rawa Hamesha Hamesha Salamat Rahe Tere Ho Kya Bayain Tu Shaan-E-Hindustan Hindustan Teri Jaan Tu Jaan-E-Hindustan Marhaba Hooo Oo Marhaba Marhaba...
- published: 25 Jun 2012
- views: 9422
- author: MissDilbarak
Jodha Akbar (Aishwarya Rai & Hrithik Roshan) - Azeem O Shaan Shahenshah (HQ) Full Song
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:13
- Updated: 28 Nov 2012
Watch this video to see the song Azeem O Shaan Shahenshah from the movie Jodhaa Akbar.
http://wn.com/Jodha_Akbar_Aishwarya_Rai_Hrithik_Roshan_Azeem_O_Shaan_Shahenshah_HQ_Full_Song
Watch this video to see the song Azeem O Shaan Shahenshah from the movie Jodhaa Akbar.
- published: 25 Feb 2010
- views: 590787
- author: UTVMotionPictures
Jodha Akbar--Jashne Bahara(High Quality)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:46
- Updated: 25 Nov 2012
jodha akbar
http://wn.com/Jodha_Akbar--Jashne_BaharaHigh_Quality
jodha akbar
- published: 16 Jul 2008
- views: 899222
- author: Vikash Shah
Jodhaa Akbar - Theatrical Trailer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:28
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
Jodhaa Akbar : Theatrical Trailer - Movie Promo 4 Min 30 Sec
http://wn.com/Jodhaa_Akbar_Theatrical_Trailer
Jodhaa Akbar : Theatrical Trailer - Movie Promo 4 Min 30 Sec
- published: 21 Apr 2011
- views: 19341
- author: agppl
Jodhaa Akbar - Aishwarya Rai - Hrithik Roshan - Khawaja Mere Khawaja Full Song
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:01
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
Watch this video to see Hritik Roshan dance to the tunes of Khwaja Mere Khwaja in the movie Jodhaa Akbar.
http://wn.com/Jodhaa_Akbar_Aishwarya_Rai_Hrithik_Roshan_Khawaja_Mere_Khawaja_Full_Song
Watch this video to see Hritik Roshan dance to the tunes of Khwaja Mere Khwaja in the movie Jodhaa Akbar.
- published: 02 Mar 2010
- views: 1350833
- author: UTVMotionPictures
Akbar the Great - Part 57
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:14
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
Akbar The Great - Part 57. The magnificent and moving story of "Jalaluddin Mohammed, known to posterity as "Akbar The Great" is chronicled in this mega - epic which vividly re - captures one of the most dazzling and outstanding accounts of chivalry valour and statesmanship in the history of the world. The brilliant exploits and the invincible might of the mughal armies as they raze one enemy castle after another, are marvelously sublimated by this supreme philosopher king as he introduces radical solutions for a strife - torn kingdom in the form of Din - E - Ilahi the divine faith and Sulh - I - kul universal brotherhood as the ideology of an Empire. An awe-inspiring narrative of the transformation of India from a trouble - torn & warning geographical mass, into a harmonious, prosperous and patriotic nation pledged to uphold equality, fraternity and liberty long before the modern world discovered these virtues. Watch the brilliant and fascination story of "Akbar The Great". The serial has been produced and directed by Akbar Khan, a well established motion picture producer, director and leading film actor. The first fifteen episodes of the TV Serial "The Sword of Tipu Sultan" directed by him, have already received worldwide praise. Although the scenario - script of the serial has been developed and written by our team of eminent writers, all events and happening that appears in the episodes have been drawn from various historical books and therefore are authentic Looking ...
http://wn.com/Akbar_the_Great_Part_57
Akbar The Great - Part 57. The magnificent and moving story of "Jalaluddin Mohammed, known to posterity as "Akbar The Great" is chronicled in this mega - epic which vividly re - captures one of the most dazzling and outstanding accounts of chivalry valour and statesmanship in the history of the world. The brilliant exploits and the invincible might of the mughal armies as they raze one enemy castle after another, are marvelously sublimated by this supreme philosopher king as he introduces radical solutions for a strife - torn kingdom in the form of Din - E - Ilahi the divine faith and Sulh - I - kul universal brotherhood as the ideology of an Empire. An awe-inspiring narrative of the transformation of India from a trouble - torn & warning geographical mass, into a harmonious, prosperous and patriotic nation pledged to uphold equality, fraternity and liberty long before the modern world discovered these virtues. Watch the brilliant and fascination story of "Akbar The Great". The serial has been produced and directed by Akbar Khan, a well established motion picture producer, director and leading film actor. The first fifteen episodes of the TV Serial "The Sword of Tipu Sultan" directed by him, have already received worldwide praise. Although the scenario - script of the serial has been developed and written by our team of eminent writers, all events and happening that appears in the episodes have been drawn from various historical books and therefore are authentic Looking ...
- published: 23 Aug 2010
- views: 20859
- author: UltraHindi
Man Mohana Jodhaa Akbar (Lyrics)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:51
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
Jodhaa-Akbar (Hindi: जोधा-अकबर, Urdu: جودھا اکبر) is an Indian epic film released on 15 February 2008.[4] It is directed and produced by Ashutosh Gowariker, the director of the Academy Award-nominated Lagaan (2001). It stars Hrithik Roshan and Aishwarya Rai Bachchan...
http://wn.com/Man_Mohana_Jodhaa_Akbar_Lyrics
Jodhaa-Akbar (Hindi: जोधा-अकबर, Urdu: جودھا اکبر) is an Indian epic film released on 15 February 2008.[4] It is directed and produced by Ashutosh Gowariker, the director of the Academy Award-nominated Lagaan (2001). It stars Hrithik Roshan and Aishwarya Rai Bachchan...
- published: 04 Mar 2010
- views: 513382
- author: Sam Yout
Man Mohana - Jodha Akbar
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:58
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
Plz Visit My Blog's. just-love-songs.blogspot.com http (Blog on Tantra)
http://wn.com/Man_Mohana_Jodha_Akbar
Plz Visit My Blog's. just-love-songs.blogspot.com http (Blog on Tantra)
- published: 19 May 2008
- views: 562680
- author: vikramkorde
Jashn e Bahara - jodha akbar
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:12
- Updated: 30 Nov 2012
One of The Best love song from Jodha Akbar
http://wn.com/Jashn_e_Bahara_jodha_akbar
One of The Best love song from Jodha Akbar
- published: 15 Jun 2009
- views: 817894
- author: feelinraw3
Akbar Khamisu Khan Sindhi folk Alghoza Player Post by Zagham
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 21:28
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
A Morning with Farah Celebrating independence day with folk singers of Pakistan and showing that we are still intact with our roots and culture.So be a part of the show through your massages and live call and enjoy the melody of Pakistan.
http://wn.com/Akbar_Khamisu_Khan_Sindhi_folk_Alghoza_Player_Post_by_Zagham
A Morning with Farah Celebrating independence day with folk singers of Pakistan and showing that we are still intact with our roots and culture.So be a part of the show through your massages and live call and enjoy the melody of Pakistan.
- published: 13 Aug 2009
- views: 26164
- author: zagham99
Akbar Birbal Remixed - April Fool
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:37
- Updated: 12 Nov 2012
Watch Akbar Birbal Remixed - April Fool. An irked Akbar Anna holds a gun on Birbal's head and death seems looming large but Birbal turns the tables on him. And how...! Click www.rajshri.com to watch more episodes of Akbar Birbal Remixed.
http://wn.com/Akbar_Birbal_Remixed_April_Fool
Watch Akbar Birbal Remixed - April Fool. An irked Akbar Anna holds a gun on Birbal's head and death seems looming large but Birbal turns the tables on him. And how...! Click www.rajshri.com to watch more episodes of Akbar Birbal Remixed.
- published: 26 Jun 2008
- views: 28931
- author: rajshri
Amar Akbar Anthony
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 167:39
- Updated: 10 Oct 2012
This 1970 Hindi cult movie is about lost and found. The anhonee ie impossible became the honee ie possible. A story of three lost brothers separated in childhood adopted by a Hindu a Christian and a Muslim growing up with their mother hovering in the background and reuniting. But the sheer pulse racing style of storytelling the stellar performances by Anthony played by Amitabh Bachchan Amar played by Vinod Khanna and Akbar played by Rishi Kapoor. Not to forget the glamour factor provided by Parveen Babi Neetu Singh and Shabana Azmi. And the ever dependable Nirupa Royals Bharti the mother of the trio.
http://wn.com/Amar_Akbar_Anthony
This 1970 Hindi cult movie is about lost and found. The anhonee ie impossible became the honee ie possible. A story of three lost brothers separated in childhood adopted by a Hindu a Christian and a Muslim growing up with their mother hovering in the background and reuniting. But the sheer pulse racing style of storytelling the stellar performances by Anthony played by Amitabh Bachchan Amar played by Vinod Khanna and Akbar played by Rishi Kapoor. Not to forget the glamour factor provided by Parveen Babi Neetu Singh and Shabana Azmi. And the ever dependable Nirupa Royals Bharti the mother of the trio.
- published: 20 Oct 2011
- views: 3318
- author: bollynbeyond
Jashn-E-Bahaara-Jodhaa Akbar
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:06
- Updated: 28 Nov 2012
Jashn-E-Bahaara-Jodhaa Akbar Starring: * Hrithik Roshan * Aishwarya Rai * Amitabh Bachchan... Narrator With English Subtitles Jashn E Bahar Jodha Askbar AR Rahman Hindi BOllywood Bolly India Indian Roshan He Funny Comedy American Idol (16) +160...
http://wn.com/Jashn-E-Bahaara-Jodhaa_Akbar
Jashn-E-Bahaara-Jodhaa Akbar Starring: * Hrithik Roshan * Aishwarya Rai * Amitabh Bachchan... Narrator With English Subtitles Jashn E Bahar Jodha Askbar AR Rahman Hindi BOllywood Bolly India Indian Roshan He Funny Comedy American Idol (16) +160...
- published: 09 Mar 2008
- views: 534126
- author: itellyouwheretopark
Ali Akbar Khan - Marwa 01
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:48
- Updated: 25 Nov 2012
Clip 1 of 2
http://wn.com/Ali_Akbar_Khan_Marwa_01
Clip 1 of 2
- published: 09 May 2008
- views: 61622
- author: IMNxJRSP5G
Akbar Birbal Remixed - Kachra Ho Gaya
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:12
- Updated: 20 Mar 2012
Watch Akbar Birbal Remixed - Kachra Ho Gaya. A 'social worker' for the past many years, Akbar Anna wants to shrug off the tag of the underworld. He almost succeeds...well almost! Click www.rajshri.com to watch more episodes of Akbar Birbal Remixed.
http://wn.com/Akbar_Birbal_Remixed_Kachra_Ho_Gaya
Watch Akbar Birbal Remixed - Kachra Ho Gaya. A 'social worker' for the past many years, Akbar Anna wants to shrug off the tag of the underworld. He almost succeeds...well almost! Click www.rajshri.com to watch more episodes of Akbar Birbal Remixed.
- published: 25 Jun 2008
- views: 23282
- author: rajshri
photo: UN / Eric Kanalstein
29 Nov 2012
Just before she leapt from her roof into the streets of Kabul, Farima thought of the wedding that would never happen and the man she would never marry. Her fiance would be pleased to see her die, she later recalled thinking. It would offer relief to them both. Farima, 17, had resisted her engagement to Zabiullah since it was ordained by her grandfather when she was 9 ... He ran outside. His daughter's torso was contorted ... Her skin was pallid....(size: 12.8Kb)
photo: AP / Sepahnews
27 Nov 2012
WASHINGTON -- The drone wars are here. While President Obama ponders new legal and moral guidelines to govern America's growing use of armed robot aircraft, the world outside the White House is engaged in a revolutionary frenzy of building, arming and flying killer drones ... More than 50 countries operate surveillance drones and, increasingly, are fitting them with weapons. The U.S ... spy drone was shot down last December ... On Oct ... 988 miles ... ....(size: 8.4Kb)
photo: UN / Jan Golinski
27 Nov 2012
Doha conference is warned that climate models do not yet take account of methane in thawing permafrost. Frozen ground in Siberia. Permafrost covers nearly a quarter of the northern hemisphere. Photograph. Francis Latreille/Corbis. The United Nations sounded a stark warning on the threat to the climate from methane in the thawing permafrost as governments met for the second day of climate change negotiations in Doha, Qatar ... ....(size: 5.3Kb)
photo: AP / Jerome Delay
27 Nov 2012
M23 rebels controlling the eastern city of Goma in the DR Congo have said they are not about to withdraw as demanded by regional leaders. The rebels said on Tuesday there were still in charge of Goma, just hours after General Aronda Nyakairima, the head of the Ugandan military, was quoted by the Reuters news agency as saying that their leader, Sultani Makenga, had told him he would pull out of Goma and Sake ... 276 Source. ... Share ... News ... ;">....(size: 17.7Kb)
photo: UN
30 Nov 2012
UNITED NATIONS -- The UN voted overwhelmingly Thursday to recognize a Palestinian state, a long-sought victory for the Palestinians and an embarrassing diplomatic defeat for the United States. The resolution upgrading the Palestinians' status to a nonmember observer state at the UN was approved in the 193-member world body by a vote of 138-9, with 41 abstentions ... The Palestinians still face enormous limitations ... U.S ... 0. Click to rate ... St ... ....(size: 9.3Kb)
Indian Express
30 Nov 2012
As lights were dimmed on the stage at the National School of Drama (NSD) auditorium on Wednesday night, 45 differently-abled children and young adults between the age of six and 25 took the audience back to the times of Lord Krishna, Mughal emperor Akbar and the 1857 Uprising ... ....(size: 1.3Kb)
The Times of India
30 Nov 2012
Renowned Telugu director S S Rajamouli has expressed his desire to make a Bollywood film with superstar Aamir Khan. "I love all actors from here. But I love Aamir Khan the most. I adore him and treat him as a guru. I like the way he makes films, the way he promotes them ... The director's 2006 film 'Vikramarkudu' was remade in Hindi as 'Rowdy Rathore' ... Like the story between Rana Pratap and Akbar, Shivaji and Aurangzeb ... ....(size: 2.4Kb)
Jakarta Globe
30 Nov 2012
When Golkar Party stalwart Akbar Tanjung told the media that former Vice President Jusuf Kalla was considering approaching former President Megawati Sukarnoputri to form a ticket in the 2014 presidential elections, the news immediately attracted much media attention. There are at least two reasons why the idea of pairing Megawati with Kalla in the 2014 presidential election is newsworthy ... Now the political landscape has changed ... ....(size: 4.3Kb)
Deccan Herald
30 Nov 2012
Renowned Telugu director S S Rajamouli has expressed his desire to make a Bollywood film with superstar Aamir Khan. "I love all actors from here. But I love Aamir Khan the most. I adore him and treat him as a guru. I like the way he makes films, the way he promotes them ... The director's 2006 film 'Vikramarkudu' was remade in Hindi as 'Rowdy Rathore' ... Like the story between Rana Pratap and Akbar, Shivaji and Aurangzeb ... "I don't like remakes....(size: 4.8Kb)
Palm Beach Post
30 Nov 2012
GIRLS BASKETBALL. Thursday’s results. Wellington 52, John I. Leonard 45. JOHN I. LEONARD. Birch 7 4-8 22, Hands 1 0-0 2, King 1 1-4 3, Aurelia Lebron 2 2-3 6, Ingraham 5 0-6 12. Totals 16 7-21 45. WELLINGTON. White 1 0-0 2, Ashman 9 6-9 25, Long 1 0-0 2, Sabbat 6 0-2 12, Ruchti 1 0-0 2, Lee 4 0-0 9. Totals 22 6-11 52. John I. Leonard 12 13 9 11 — 45. Wellington 11 13 15 13 — 52 ... PINE CREST ... Totals 18 2-5 41 ... M ... G ... Akbar 1 0-0 3, C ... K....(size: 11.8Kb)
The Siasat Daily
29 Nov 2012
November 29.. Failed love affair led to suicide. (Siasat News). A lover who was failed in his affair, committed suicide. This incident occurred in R G Pet police station limits where Devender Singh, 22, ended his life by hanging. Police sources said that the deceased failed to get reciprocation from his beloved. A case has been registered ... Osman whereas the person who sustained injuries was Akbar ... Both Osman and Akbar got injured....(size: 3.0Kb)
The Times of India
29 Nov 2012
JALPAIGURI ... A large section of Nepalis in the plains are therefore anxious about their future and have expressed unhappiness at the Hills party. "The GJM leaders must not have gone into any agreement with the state and the Centre, excluding the Dooars and Terai ... A clash between the two groups had also claimed the life of one Akbar Lama of Ethelbari ... A clash between the two groups also claimed the life of one Akbar Lama of Ethelbari ... ....(size: 6.0Kb)
STL Today
29 Nov 2012
photo: WN / deniseyong
29 Nov 2012
The Indonesia Stock Exchange will extend trading hours starting Jan. 2, moving the market opening forward by half an hour to bring it more into line with regional counterparts, a director at the bourse said today ... “Some people are followers,” Akbar Syarief a fund manager overseeing Rp 4.1 trillion ($426 million) at MNC Asset Management in Jakarta, said by phone today ... 4....(size: 1.7Kb)
noodls
29 Nov 2012
FFE Pakistan Continues to Promote Health, Hygiene. 1/12/2012 12.00 AM ... Later in November, our local NGO partner the Community Development Foundation arranged an "Oral Care Day" at GGPS Akbar Peerzada in Jacobabad District, and 550 girls and 10 teachers participated in demonstrations on oral care and personal hygiene ... « BACK. distributed by ... (noodl. 16777512) ....(size: 2.2Kb)
Jakarta Globe
29 Nov 2012
Bambang Soesato of the Golkar Party Akbar Faisal of the People’s Conscience Party (Hanura) backed the HMP option, “but other members of the team want to give the KPK [Corruption Eradication Commission] the chance to develop its investigation after receiving instruction from their parties,” Hendrawan said. The meeting, however, was not attended by representatives from the Democratic Party ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
The Daily Telegraph Australia
29 Nov 2012
SYDNEY Airport's curfew is costing the state almost $600 million a year as frustrated airlines fly to rival airports. Qatar Airways is the latest carrier to criticise Sydney's 11pm to 6am curfew, with CEO Akbar Al Baker saying the airline would not fly here unless there were changes. Mr Al Baker said it was impossible to schedule flights to Sydney amid the current restrictions ... Recommended Coverage. Curfew walls us away from world ... ....(size: 3.8Kb)
This article is about the Mughal emperor. For other uses, see Akbar (disambiguation).
| Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar | |
|---|---|
 |
|
 3rd Mughal Emperor |
|
| Predecessor | Humayun |
| Successor | Jahangir |
| Regent | Bairam Khan (1556–1561) |
| Spouse | 30 wives including Mariam-uz-Zamani |
| Issue | |
| Jahangir, Murad, Danyal, 6 daughters others | |
| Full name | |
| Abu'l-Fath Jalal ud-din Muhammad Akbar I | |
| House | Timurid |
| Father | Humayun |
| Mother | Hamida Banu Begum[1] |
| Born | (1542-10-15)15 October 1542 Umerkot, Sind |
| Died | 27 October 1605(1605-10-27) (aged 63) Fatehpur Sikri, Agra |
| Burial | Sikandra, Agra |
| Religion | Din-i-Ilahi |
Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar (Persian: جلال الدین محمد اکبر - Jalāl ud-Dīn Muḥammad Akbar), also known as Shahanshah Akbar-e-Azam or Akbar the Great (14 October 1542 – 27 October 1605),[2][3] was the third Mughal Emperor. He was of Timurid descent; the son of Emperor Humayun, and the grandson of the Mughal Emperor Zaheeruddin Muhammad Babur, the ruler who founded the Mughal dynasty in India. At the end of his reign in 1605 the Mughal empire covered most of northern and central India. He is most appreciated for having a liberal outlook on all faiths and beliefs and during his era, culture and art reached a zenith as compared to his predecessors.
Akbar was 13 years old when he ascended the Mughal throne in Delhi (February 1556), following the death of his father Humayun.[4] During his reign, he eliminated military threats from the powerful Pashtun descendants of Sher Shah Suri, and at the Second Battle of Panipat he decisively defeated the newly self-declared Hindu king Hemu.[5][6] It took him nearly two more decades to consolidate his power and bring all the parts of northern and central India into his direct realm. He influenced the whole of the Indian Subcontinent as he ruled a greater part of it as an emperor. As an emperor, Akbar solidified his rule by pursuing diplomacy with the powerful Hindu Rajput caste, and by marrying Rajput princesses.[5][7]
Akbar's reign significantly influenced art and culture in the country. He was a great patron of art and architecture [8] He took a great interest in painting, and had the walls of his palaces adorned with murals. Besides encouraging the development of the Mughal school, he also patronised the European style of painting. He was fond of literature, and had several Sanskrit works translated into Persian and Persian scriptures translated in Sanskrit apart from getting many Persian works illustrated by painters from his court.[8] During the early years of his reign, he showed intolerant attitude towards Hindus and other religions, but later exercised tolerance towards non-Islamic faiths by rolling back some of the strict sharia laws.[9][10][11] His administration included numerous Hindu landlords, courtiers and military generals. He began a series of religious debates where Muslim scholars would debate religious matters with Hindus, Jains, Zoroastrians and Portuguese Roman Catholic Jesuits. He treated these religious leaders with great consideration, irrespective of their faith, and revered them. He not only granted lands and money for the mosques but the list of the recipients included a huge number Hindu temples in north and central India, Christian churches in Goa.
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Early years and name[link]
Shahzada (son of the emperor) Akbar was born on 15 October 1542 (the fourth day of Rajab, 949 AH), at the Rajput Fortress of Umerkot in Sindh (in modern day Pakistan), where Emperor Humayun and his recently wedded wife, Hamida Banu Begum, daughter of Shaikh Ali Akbar Jami, a Persian Shia, were taking refuge. After the capture of Kabul by Humayun, Badruddin's circumcision ceremony was held and his date of birth and name were changed to throw off evil sorcerers[12] and he was renamed Jalal-ud-din Muhammad by Humayun, a name which he had heard in his dream at Lahore.[3] Part 10:..the birth of Akbar Humayun nama, Columbia University.
Humayun had been driven into exile in Persia by the Pashtun leader Sher Shah Suri.[13] Akbar did not go to Persia with his parents but grew up in the village of Mukundpur in Rewa (in present day Madhya Pradesh).[citation needed] Akbar and prince Ram Singh I, who later became the Maharajah of Rewa, grew up together and stayed close friends through life.[citation needed] Later, Akbar moved to the eastern parts of the Safavid Empire (now a part of Afghanistan) where he was raised by his uncle Mirza Askari. He spent his youth learning to hunt, run, and fight, but he never learned to read or write. This lifestyle of his childhood made him a daring, powerful and a brave warrior but he remained illiterate throughout his life. Although this did not hinder his search of knowledge as it is said whenever he used to go to bed, there would be somebody reading for the king.[14][better source needed]
Following the chaos over the succession of Sher Shah Suri's son Islam Shah, Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partly provided by his Persian ally Tahmasp I. A few months later, Humayun died. Akbar's guardian, Bairam Khan concealed the death in order to prepare for Akbar's succession. Akbar succeeded Humayun on 14 February 1556, while in the midst of a war against Sikandar Shah to reclaim the Mughal throne. In Kalanaur, Punjab, the 13 year old Akbar was enthroned by Bairam Khan on a newly constructed platform, which still stands.[15][dead link][16] He was proclaimed Shahanshah (Persian for "King of Kings"). Bairam Khan ruled on his behalf until he came of age.[17][18]
Military achievements[link]
Military innovations[link]
Akbar was known in his own time as a military genius. Due to the constant state of war between the Hindu Rajputs and the Mughal Empire, particularly after the wounding of the Mughal commander Khan Kilan by Rajput nobles in the year 1572, Akbar began to utilize the Kitar alongside the Mughal Talwars in battle. The latest Matchlocks were mass produced by the finest craftsmen and effectively employed during various conflicts. Akbar also ordered the manufacture of the finest chain-plate armors other protections that made his War elephants and Sowars invincible in combat. Akbar also began to utilize metal cylinder rockets known as bans[19] particularly against War elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal.
Akbar also began to believe that War elephants were the keys to military success, he believed that a single "Armored Elephant" was equal to 500 Sowars at the center of the battlefield. Akbar also noted that elephants have the ability to move through the densest of forests clearing through woods and paving way for both the Mughal Sepoys, Sowars and Cannons. Akbar personally owned 5000 well trained elephants and recorded the use of almost 40,000 across his Mughal Empire. Akbar is also known to have replaced pairs of elephant tusks with a pair of double-curved Tusk Swords. War elephants were also utilized to carry out executions of those who fought against the Mughal Emperor.[20] Akbar was also the first to place advanced swivel guns and cannons atop of Howdahs, thus combining firepower and mobility on the battlefield and sieges.[21]
The Mughal Emperor Akbar also distributed crescent military standards and kettledrums to his finest servicemen.
Early conquests[link]
Akbar decided early in his reign that he should conquer the threat of Sher Shah's dynasty, and decided to lead an army against the strongest of the three, Sikandar Shah Suri, in the Punjab. He left Delhi under the regency of Tardi Baig Khan. Sikandar Shah Suri presented no major concern for Akbar, and often withdrew from territory as Akbar approached.[22]
The Hindu king Hemu, however, commanding the Afghan forces, defeated the Mughal Army and captured Delhi on 6 October 1556.[17] Urged by Bairam Khan, who remarshalled the Mughal army before Hemu could consolidate his position, Akbar marched on Delhi to reclaim it.[23] Akbar's army, led by Bairam Khan, met the larger forces of Hemu on November 5, 1556 at the Second Battle of Panipat, 50 miles (80 km) north of Delhi. The battle was going in Hemu's favour when an arrow pierced Hemu's eye, rendering him unconscious. The leaderless army soon capitulated and Hemu was captured and executed.[24]
The victory also left Akbar with over 1,500 war elephants which he used to re-engage Sikandar Shah at the siege of Choopa. Sikandar, along with several local chieftains who were assisting him, surrendered and so was spared death. With this, the whole of Punjab was annexed to the Mughal empire. Before returning to Agra, Akbar sent a detachment of his army to Jammu, which defeated the ruler Raja Kapur Chand and captured the kingdom.[25] Between 1558 and 1560, after moving the capital from Delhi to Agra, Akbar further expanded the empire by capturing and annexing the kingdoms of Gwalior, northern Rajputana and Jaunpur.[26]
After a dispute at court, Akbar dismissed Bairam Khan in the spring of 1560 and ordered him to leave on Hajj to Mecca.[26] Bairam left for Mecca, but on his way was goaded by his opponents to rebel.[24] He was defeated by the Mughal army in the Punjab and forced to submit. Akbar, however forgave him and gave him the option of either continuing in his court or resuming his pilgrimage, of which Bairam chose the latter.[27]
After dealing with the rebellion of Bairam Khan and establishing his authority. Akbar went on to expand the Mughal empire by subjugating local chiefs and annexing neighbouring kingdoms.[29] The first major conquest was of Malwa in 1561, an expedition that was led by Adham Khan and carried out with such savage cruelty that it resulted in a backlash from the kingdom enabling its ruler Baz Bahadur to recover the territory while Akbar was dealing with the rebellion of Bairam Khan.[30] Subsequently, Akbar sent another detachment which captured Malwa in 1562, and Baz Bahadur eventually surrendered to the Mughals and was made an administrator by Akbar. Around the same time, the Mughal army also conquered the kingdom of the Gonds, after a fierce battle between Asaf Khan[disambiguation needed ], the Mughal governor of Allahabad, and Rani Durgavati queen of the Gonds.[31] However after the victory of the Mughals, Asaf Khan allegedly misappropriated most of the wealth plundered from the kingdom and later Akbar subsequently ordered him to restore some of the wealth, apart from installing Durgavati's son, a convert to Islam, as the local administrator of the newly conquered region.[32]
Over the course of Akbar's conquest of Malwa, he brought most of present-day Rajasthan, Gujarat and Bengal under his control, but Akbar believed that Chittorgarh Fort was a major threat to Mughal Empire because it housed Rajputs who were considered sworn enemies of the Mughals, in the year 1567 Akbar began to gather his forces who were briefly interrupted during the Battle of Thanesar, but by autumn Akbar was prepared to mount his siege. Chittorgarh Fort was ruled by Udai Singh who often gave refuge to the enemies of the Mughal Emperor Akbar. Udai Singh's kingdom was of great strategic importance as it lay on the shortest route from Agra to Gujarat and was also considered a key to central Rajasthan. Fearing Akbar's impending assault Udai Singh retired to the hills, leaving two warriors Jaimal and Patta in charge of the fort.[32]
In October 1567, the Mughal army of approximately 5000 men led by Akbar surrounded and besieged 8000 Hindu Rajputs during the Siege of Chittorgarh and within a few months Akbar's ranks expanded to over 50,000 men. After an arduous siege Akbar ordered his men and augmented them to lift baskets of earth in order to create a hill in front of the fort by which the Mughal Cannons could be placed. As the Mohur Hill was completed Akbar placed his cannons and mortars near its tip, he then organized his sappers to plant mines under the heavy stone walls of the fortress of Chittor, but the mines exploded prematurely during an assault killing about a hundred Mughal Sowars, as the siege continued it is believed that a shot from Akbar's own Matchlock wounded or killed the commander of the already demoralized Hindu Rajputs.[33] The fortress of Chittor finally fell on February 1568 after a siege of four months. The fort was then stormed by the Mughal forces, and a fierce resistance was offered by members of the garrison stationed inside. When the Rajput women were ordered to commit Jauhar (self immolation), Akbar had realized that victory was near and the Mughals launched their final assault over 30,000 inhabitants of Chittorgarh Fort were killed by the victorious Mughal army. Akbar then ordered the heads of his enemies to be displayed upon towers erected throughout the region, in order to demonstrate his authority.[34][35]
The total loot that fell into the hands of the Mughal was distributed throughout the Mughal Empire.[36] Akbar then ordered the statues of two of the "armored elephants" that led the Mughal assault be carved and erected at the chief gate of the Agra Fort.[32][37] Akbar then built similar spiked-gates throughout his fortresses in order to deter elephant attacks. It is said that the brass candlesticks taken from the Kalika temple after its destruction were given to the shrine of Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer, a shrine that Akbar vowed to rebuild after his victory.[34][38] Akbar then celebrated the victory over Chittor and Ranthambore by laying the foundation of a new city, 23 miles (37 km) W.S.W of Agra in 1569. It was called Fatehpur Sikri ("city of victory").[39]
In the year 1568, the 26 year old Mughal Emperor Akbar reigned supreme, bolstered by his success, he was looking forward to widespread acclamation as one of the greatest Muslim conqueror within and beyond his realm and was given the honorable title Zill-e-Ilahi (Zeal of Allah). He gathered miniature painters, who illustrated the Mughal forces that fought during the Siege of Chittorgarh in the Fatahnama-i-Chittor issued by him after the conquest of Chittor at Ajmer, where he stayed for some time and then returned to Agra, on Ramadan 10, 975.AH/March 9, 1568AD. After Akbar's conquest of Chittor, two major Rajput clans remained opposed to him - the Sisodiyas of Mewar and Hadas of Ranthambore.
Ranthambore Fort was reputed to be the most powerful fortress in Rajasthan, was conquered by the Mughal army in 1569 during the Siege of Ranthambore, making Akbar the master of almost the whole of Rajputana. As a result, most of the Rajput kings, including those of Bikaner, Bundelkhand and Jaisalmer submitted to Akbar. Only the clans of Mewar continued to resist Mughal conquest and Akbar had to fight with them from time to time for the greater part of his reign.[32][34] Among the most prominent of them was Maharana Pratap who declined to accept Akbar's suzerainty and also opposed the marriage etiquette of Rajputs who had been giving their daughters to Mughals. He renounced all matrimonial alliances with Rajput rulers who had married into the Mughal dynasty, refusing such alliances even with the princes of Marwar and Amer until they agreed to sever ties with the Mughals.[40]
Consolidation[link]
Having conquered Rajputana, Akbar turned to Gujarat, whose government was in a state of disarray after the death of its previous ruler, Bahadur Shah. The province was a tempting target as it was a center of world trade, it possessed fertile soil and had highly developed crafts.[41] The province had been occupied by Humayun for a brief period, and prior to that was ruled by the Delhi Sultanate.[32] In 1572, Akbar marched to Ahmedabad, which capitulated without offering resistance. He took Surat by siege, and then crossed the Mahi river and defeated his estranged cousins, the Mirzas, in a hard-fought battle at Sarnal.[41][42] During the campaign, Akbar met a group of Portuguese merchants for the first time at Cambay. Having established his authority over Gujarat, Akbar returned to Agra, but Mirza-led rebellions soon broke out. Akbar returned, crossing Rajasthan at great speed on camels and horses, and reached Ahmedabad in eleven days - a journey that normally took six weeks. Akbar's army of 3000 horsemen then defeated the enemy forces numbering 20000 in a decisive victory on 2 September 1573.[41]
Administration[link]
Political government[link]
Akbar's system of central government was based on the system that had evolved since the Delhi Sultanate, but the functions of various departments were carefully reorganised by laying down detailed regulations for their functioning:[43]
- The revenue department was headed by a wazir, responsible for all finances and management of jagir and inam lands.
- The head of the military was called the mir bakshi, appointed from among the leading nobles of the court. The mir bakshi was in charge of intelligence gathering, and also made recommendations to the emperor for military appointments and promotions.
- The mir saman was in charge of the imperial household, including the harems, and supervised the functioning of the court and royal bodyguard.
- The judiciary was a separate organization headed by a chief qazi, who was also responsible for religious endowments.
Akbar departed from the policy of his predecessors in his treatment of the territories he conquered. Previous Mughals extracted a large tribute from these rulers and then leave them to administer their dominions autonomously; Akbar integrated them into his administration, providing them the opportunity to serve as military rulers. He thus simultaneously controlled their power while increasing their prestige as a part of the imperial ruling class.[44] Some of these rulers went on to become the navaratnas in Akbar's court.
Taxation[link]
Akbar set about reforming the administration of his empire's land revenue by adopting a system that had been used by Sher Shah Suri. A cultivated area where crops grew well was measured and taxed through fixed rates based on the area's crop and productivity. However, this placed hardship on the peasantry because tax rates were fixed on the basis of prices prevailing in the imperial court, which were often higher than those in the countryside.[45] Akbar changed to a decentralized system of annual assessment, but this resulted in corruption among local officials and was abandoned in 1580, to be replaced by a system called the dahsala.[46] Under the new system, revenue was calculated as one-third of the average produce of the previous ten years, to be paid to the state in cash. This system was later refined, taking into account local prices, and grouping areas with similar productivity into assessment circles. Remission was given to peasants when the harvest failed during times of flood or drought.[46] Akbar's dahsala system is credited to Raja Todar Mal, who also served as a revenue officer under Sher Shah Suri,[47] and the structure of the revenue administration was set out by the latter in a detailed memorandum submitted to the emperor in 1582-83.[48]
Other local methods of assessment continued in some areas. Land which was fallow or uncultivated was charged at concessional rates.[49] Akbar also actively encouraged the improvement and extension of agriculture. The village continued to remain the primary unit of revenue assessment.[50] Zamindars of every area were required to provide loans and agricultural implements in times of need, to encourage farmers to plough as much land as possible and to sow seeds of superior quality. In turn, the zamindars were given a hereditary right to collect a share of the produce. Peasants had a hereditary right to cultivate the land as long as they paid the land revenue.[49] While the revenue assessment system showed concern for the small peasantry, it also maintained a level of distrust towards the revenue officials. Revenue officials were guaranteed only three-quarters of their salary, with the remaining quarter dependent on their full realisation of the revenue assessed.[51]
Military organization[link]
Main article: Mansabdari
An Emperor shall be ever Intent on Conquest, Ohterwise His enemies shall rise in arms against him.
Jalal-ud-Din Muhammad Akbar,
Akbar organized his army as well as the nobility by means of a system called the mansabdari. Under this system, each officer in the army was assigned a rank (a mansab), and assigned a number of cavalry that he had to supply to the imperial army.[47] The mansabdars were divided into 33 classes. The top three commanding ranks, ranging from 7000 to 10000 troops, were normally reserved for princes. Other ranks between 10 and 5000 were assigned to other members of the nobility. The empire's permanent standing army was quite small and the imperial forces mostly consisted of contingents maintained by the mansabdars.[52] Persons were normally appointed to a low mansab and then promoted, based on their merit as well as the favour of the emperor.[53] Each mansabdar was required to maintain a certain number of cavalrymen and twice that number of horses. The number of horses was greater because they had to be rested and rapidly replaced in times of war. Akbar employed strict measures to ensure that the quality of the armed forces was maintained at a high level; horses were regularly inspected and only Arabian horses were normally employed.[54] The mansabdars were remunerated well for their services and constituted the highest paid military service in the world at the time.[53]
Capital of the empire[link]
Akbar was a follower of Salim Chishti, a holy man who lived in the region of Sikri near Agra. Believing the area to be a lucky one for himself, he had a mosque constructed there for the use of the priest. Subsequently, he celebrated the victories over Chittor and Ranthambore by laying the foundation of a new walled capital, 23 miles (37 km) west of Agra in 1569, which was named Fatehpur ("town of victory") after the conquest of Gujarat in 1573 and subsequently came to be known as Fatehpur Sikri in order to distinguish it from other similarly named towns.[32] Palaces for each of Akbar's senior queens, a huge artificial lake, and sumptuous water-filled courtyards were built there. However, the city was soon abandoned and the capital was moved to Lahore in 1585. The reason may have been that the water supply in Fatehpur Sikri was insufficient or of poor quality. Or, as some historians believe, Akbar had to attend to the northwest areas of his empire and therefore moved his capital northwest. Other sources indicate Akbar simply lost interest in the city[55] or realised it was not militarily defensible. In 1599, Akbar shifted his capital back to Agra from where he reigned until his death.
Diplomacy[link]
Matrimonial alliances[link]
The practice of giving Hindu princesses to Muslim kings in marriage was known much before Akbar's time, but in most cases these marriages did not lead to any stable relations between the families involved, and the women were lost to their families and did not return after marriage.[56][57]
However, Akbar's policy of matrimonial alliances marked a departure from India from previous practice in that the marriage itself marked the beginning of a new order of relations, wherein the Hindu Rajputs who married their daughters or sisters to him would be treated on par with his Muslim fathers-in-law and brothers in-law in all respects except being able to dine and pray with him or take Muslim wives. These Rajputs were made members of his court and their daughters' or sisters' marriage to a Muslim ceased to be a sign of degradation, except for certain orthodox elements who still considered it a sign of humiliation.[57]
The Kacchwaha Rajput, Raja Bharmal, of Amber, who had come to Akbar's court shortly after the latter's accession, entered into an alliance by giving his daughter Harkha Bai (also called Jodhaa Bai) in marriage to the emperor.[58][59] Harkha Bai became Muslim and was renamed Mariam-uz-Zamani.[citation needed] She died in 1623. A mosque was built in her honor by her son Jahangir in Lahore.[60] Bharmal was made a noble of high rank in the imperial court, and subsequently his son Bhagwant Das and grandson Man Singh also rose to high ranks in the nobility.[56]
Other Rajput kingdoms also established matrimonial alliances with Akbar, but matrimony was not insisted on as a precondition for forming alliances. Two major Rajput clans remained aloof – the Sisodiyas of Mewar and Hadas of Ranthambore. In another turning point of Akbar's reign, Raja Man Singh I of Amber went with Akbar to meet the Hada leader, Surjan Hada, to effect an alliance. Surjan accepted an alliance on the condition that Akbar did not marry any of his daughters. Consequently, no matrimonial alliance was entered into, yet Surjan was made a noble and placed in charge of Garh-Katanga.[56] Certain other Rajput nobles did not like the idea of their kings marrying their daughters to Mughals. Rathore Kalyandas threatened to kill both Mota Raja Rao Udaisingh and Jahangir because Udai Singh had decided to marry his daughter to Jahangir. Akbar on hearing this ordered imperial forces to attack Kalyandas at Siwana. Kalyandas died fighting along with his men and the women of Siwana committed Jauhar.[61]
The political effect of these alliances was significant. While some Rajput women who entered Akbar's harem converted to Islam, they were generally provided full religious freedom, and their relatives, who continued to remain Hindu, formed a significant part of the nobility and served to articulate the opinions of the majority of the common populace in the imperial court.[56] The interaction between Hindu and Muslim nobles in the imperial court resulted in exchange of thoughts and blending of the two cultures. Further, newer generations of the Mughal line represented a merger of Mughal and Rajput blood, thereby strengthening ties between the two. As a result, the Rajputs became the strongest allies of the Mughals, and Rajput soldiers and generals fought for the Mughal army under Akbar, leading it in several campaigns including the conquest of Gujarat in 1572.[62] Akbar's policy of religious tolerance ensured that employment in the imperial administration was open to all on merit irrespective of creed, and this led to an increase in the strength of the administrative services of the empire.[63]
Another legend is that Akbar's daughter Meherunnissa was enamoured by Tansen and had a role in his coming to Akbar's court.[64] Tansen converted to Islam from Hinduism, apparently on the eve of his marriage with Akbar's daughter.[65][66]
Relations with the Portuguese[link]
At the time of Akbar's ascension in 1556, the Portuguese had established several fortresses and factories on the western coast of the subcontinent, and largely controlled navigation and sea-trade in that region. As a consequence of this colonialism, all other trading entities were subject to the terms and conditions of the Portuguese, and this was resented by the rulers and traders of the time including Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.[68]
in the year 1572 the Mughal Empire annexed Gujarat and acquired its first access to the sea, the local officials informed Akbar that the Portuguese have begun to exert their control in the Indian Ocean. Hence Akbar's was conscious of the threat posed by the presence of the Portuguese, remained content with obtaining a cartaz (permit) from them for sailing in the Persian Gulf region.[69] At the initial meeting of the Mughals and the Portuguese during the Siege of Surat in 1572, the Portuguese, recognising the superior strength of the Mughal army, chose to adopt diplomacy instead of war, and the Portuguese Governor, upon the request of Akbar, sent him an ambassador to establish friendly relations.[70] Akbar's efforts to purchase and secure from the Portuguese some of their compact Artillery pieces were unsuccessful and that is the reason why Akbar could not establish the Mughal navy along the Gujarat coast.[71]
Akbar accepted the offer of diplomacy, but the Portuguese continually acknowledged their authority and power in the Indian Ocean, in fact Akbar was highly concerned when he had to request a permit from the Portuguese before any ships from the Mughal Empire were to depart for the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca and Medina.[72] In 1573, he issued a firman directing Mughal administrative officials in Gujarat not to provoke the Portuguese in the territory they held in Daman. The Portuguese, in turn, issued passes for the members of Akbar's family to go on Hajj to Mecca. The Portuguese made mention of the extraordinary status of the vessel and the special status to be accorded to its occupants.[73]
In the year 1579 Jesuits from Goa were allowed to visit the court of Akbar, the Jesuit did not confine themselves to the exposition of their own beliefs, but reviled Islam and the Prophet in unrestrained language. Their comments enraging the Imam's and Ulama, who objected to the remarks of the Jesuit, but Akbar however ordered their comments to be recorded and observed the Jesuits and their behavior carefully. This event was followed by a rebellion of Muslim clerics led by Mullah Muhammad Yazdi and Muiz-ul-Mulk, the chief Qadi of Bengal in the year 1581, when these rebels wanted to overthrow Akbar and insert his brother Mirza Muhammad Hakim ruler of Kabul on the Mughal throne. Akbar however successfully defeated the rebels and had grown more cautious about his guests and his proclamations, which he later checked with his advisers carefully.[74]
Relations with the Ottoman Empire[link]
In the year 1555, while Akbar was still a child the Ottoman Admiral Seydi Ali Reis visited the Mughal Emperor Humayun. Later in the year 1569, during the early years of Akbar's rule another Ottoman Admiral Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis arrived on the shores of the Mughal Empire. These Ottoman Admirals sought to end the growing threats of the Portuguese Empire during their Indian Ocean campaigns. During his reign Akbar himself is known to have sent six documents addressing the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.[75][76]
In 1576 Akbar sent a very large contingent of pilgrims led by Khwaja Sultan Naqshbandi, Yahya Saleh, with 600,000 gold and silver coins and 12,000 Kaftans of honor and large consignments of rice.[77] In October 1576, the Mughal Emperor Akbar, sent a delegation including members of his family including his aunt Gulbadan Begum and his consort Salima, on Hajj by two ships from Surat including an Ottoman vessel, which reached the port of Jeddah in 1577 and then proceeded towards Mecca and Medina.[78] Four more caravans were sent from 1577 to 1580, with exquisite gifts for the authorities of Mecca and Medina.[79][80]
The imperial Mughal entourage stayed in Mecca and Medina for nearly four years, and attended the Hajj four times. During this period Akbar even financed the pilgrimages of many poor Muslims from the Mughal Empire and also funded the foundations of the Qadiriyya Sufi Order's dervish lodge in the Hijaz[81]. The Mughals eventually set out for Surat and their return was assisted by the Ottoman Pasha in Jeddah.[82]. Due to Akbar's attempts to build Mughal presence in Mecca and Medina, the local Sharif's began to have more confidence in the financial support provided by Mughal Empire, this lessened their dependency upon Ottoman bounty[83]. Mughal-Ottoman trade also flourished during this period, in fact merchants loyal to Akbar are known to have reached and sold spices, dyestuff, cotton and shawls in the Bazaars of Aleppo after arriving and journeying upriver through the port of Basra.[84]
According to some accounts Mughal Emperor Akbar expressed a desire to form an alliance with the Portuguese, mainly in order to advance his interests, but whenever the Portuguese attempted to invade the Ottomans, the Mughal Emperor Akbar proved abortive.[85][86] In 1587 a Portuguese fleet sent to attack Yemen was ferociously routed and defeated by the Ottoman Navy, thereafter the Mughal-Portuguese alliance, immediately collapsed mainly due to the continuing pressure by the Mughal Empire's prestigious vassals at Janjira.[87]
Relations with the Safavid Dynasty[link]
The Safavids and the Mughals had a long history of diplomatic relationship, with the Safavid ruler Tahmasp I having provided refuge to Humayun when he had to flee the Indian subcontinent following his defeat by Sher Shah Suri. During the[\]][.] [.' sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the two empires, along with the Ottoman Empire to the west, were the site of major power struggles in Asia. However, the Safavids differed from the Mughals and the Ottomans in following the Shiite sect of Islam as opposed to the Sunni sect practised by the other two.[88] One of the longest standing disputes between the Safavids and the Mughals pertained to the control of the city of Qandahar in the Hindukush region, forming the border between the two empires.[89] The Hindukush region was militarily very significant owing to its geography, and this was well-recognised by strategists of the times.[90] Consequently, the city, which was being administered by Bairam Khan at the time of Akbar's accession, was invaded and captured by the Persian ruler Husain Mirza, a cousin of Tahmasp I, in 1558.[89] Subsequent to this, Bairam Khan sent an envoy to Tahmasp I's court, in an effort to maintain peaceful relations with the Safavids. This gesture was reciprocated and a cordial relationship continued to prevail between the two empires during the first two decades of Akbar's reign.[91] However, the death of Tahmasp I in 1576 resulted in civil war and instability in the Safavid empire, and diplomatic relations between the two empires ceased for more than a decade, and were restored only in 1587 following the accession of Shah Abbas to the Safavid throne.[92] Shortly afterwards, Akbar's army completed its annexation of Kabul, and in order to further secure the north-western boundaries of his empire, it proceeded to Qandahar. The city capitulated without resistance on April 18, 1595, and the ruler Muzaffar Hussain moved into Akbar's court.[93] Qandahar continued to remain in Mughal possession, and the Hindukush the empire's western frontier, for several decades until Shah Jahan's expedition into Badakhshan in 1646.[94] Diplomatic relations continued to be maintained between the Safavid and Mughal courts until the end of Akbar's reign.[95]
Relations with other medieval kingdoms[link]
Vincent Arthur Smith observes that the merchant Mildenhall was employed in 1600 while the establishment of the Company was under adjustment to bear a letter from Queen Elizabeth to Akbar requesting liberty to trade in his dominions on terms as good as those enjoyed by the Portuguese.[96]
Akbar was also visited by the French explorer Pierre Malherbe.[97]
Religious policy[link]
Akbar, as well as his mother and other members of his family, are believed to have been Sunni Hanafi Muslims.[98] His early days were spent in the backdrop of an atmosphere in which liberal sentiments were encouraged and religious narrow-mindednness was frowned upon.[99] From the 15th century, a number of rulers in various parts of the country adopted a more liberal policy of religious tolerance, attempting to foster communal harmony between Hindus and Muslims.[100] These sentiments were earlier encouraged by the teachings of popular saints like Guru Nanak, Kabir and Chaitanya,[99] the verses of the Persian poet Hafez which advocated human sympathy and a liberal outlook,[101] as well as the Timurid ethos of religious tolerance that persisted in the polity right from the times of Timur to Humayun, and influenced Akbar's policy of tolerance in matters of religion.[102] Further, his childhood tutors, who included two Irani Shias, were largely above sectarian prejudices, and made a significant contribution to Akbar's later inclination towards religious tolerance.[102]
One of Akbar's first actions after gaining actual control of the administration was the abolition of jizya, a tax which all non-Muslims were required to pay, in 1562.[99] The tax was reinstated in 1575,[103] a move which has been viewed as being symbolic of vigorous Islamic policy,[104] but was again repealed in 1580.[105] Akbar adopted the Sulh-e-Kul (or Peace to All) concept of Sufism as official policy, integrated many Hindus into high positions in the administration, and removed restrictions on non-Muslims, thereby bringing about a composite and diverse character to the nobility.[106][107] As a mark of his respect for all religions, he ordered the observance of all religious festivals of different communities in the imperial court.[108]
Relation with Jains[link]
Akbar regularly held discussions with Jain scholars and was also greatly impacted by some of their teachings. His first encounter with Jain rituals was when he saw a Jain shravika named Champa's procession after a six month long fast. Impressed by her power and devotion, he invited her guru or spiritual teacher AcharyaHiravijaya Suri to Fatehpur Sikri. Acharya accepted the invitation and began his march towards the Mughal capital from Gujarat.[109]
Akbar was greatly impressed by the scholastic qualities and character of the Acharya. He held several debates and discussions on religion and philosophy in his courts. Arguing with Jains, Akbar remained sceptical of their rituals, and yet became convinced by their arguments for vegetarianism and ended up deploring the eating of all flesh.[110]
The Indian Supreme Court too has cited examples of co-existence of Jain and Mughal architecture. Terming Mughal emperor Akbar as "the architect of modern India", a bench said that Akbar, who had great respect for Jainism, had declared "Amari Ghosana" banning the killing of animals during Paryushan and Mahavir Jayanti. He rolled back the Jazia tax from Jain pilgrim places like Palitana. These farmans were also issued in 1592, 1584 and 1598.[111]
Relations with Shias and Islamic clergy[link]
During the early part of his reign, Akbar adopted an attitude of suppression towards Muslim sects that were condemned by the orthodoxy as heretical.[11] In 1567, on the advice of Shaikh Abdu'n Nabi, he ordered the exhumation of Mir Murtaza Sharifi Shirazi - a Shia buried in Delhi - because of the grave's proximity to that of Amir Khusrau, arguing that a "heretic" could not be buried so close to the grave of a Sunni saint, reflecting a restrictive attitude towards the Shia, which continued to persist till the early 1570s.[112] He suppressed Mahdavism in 1573 during his campaign in Gujarat, in the course of which the Mahdavi leader Bandagi Miyan Shiek Mustafa was arrested and brought in chains to the court for debate and released after eighteen months.[112] However, as Akbar increasingly came under the influence of pantheistic Sufi mysticism from the early 1570s, it caused a great shift in his outlook and culminated in his shift from orthodox Islam as traditionally professed, in favor of a new concept of Islam transcending the limits of religion.[112] Consequently, during the latter half of his reign, he adopted a policy of tolerance towards the Shias and declared a prohibition on Shia-Sunni conflict, and the empire remained neutral in matters of internal sectarian conflict.[113] In the year 1578, the Mughal Emperor Akbar famously referred to himself as:
| “ | Emperor of Islam, Emir of the Faithful, Shadow of God on earth, Abul Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar Badshah Ghazi (whose empire Allah perpetuate), is a most just, most wise, and a most God-fearing ruler. | ” |
In 1580, a rebellion broke out in the eastern part of Akbar's empire, and a number of fatwas, declaring Akbar to be a heretic, were issued by Qazis. Akbar suppressed the rebellion and handed out severe punishments to the Qazis. In order to further strengthen his position in dealing with the Qazis, Akbar issued a mazhar or declaration that was signed by all major ulemas in 1579.[114][115] The mahzar asserted that Akbar was the Khalifa of the age, the rank of the Khalifa was higher than that of a Mujtahid, in case of a difference of opinion among the Mujtahids, Akbar could select any one opinion and could also issue decrees which did not go against the nass.[116] Given the prevailing Islamic sectarian conflicts in various parts of the country at that time, it is believed that the Mazhar helped in stabilizing the religious situation in the empire.[114] It made Akbar very powerful due to the complete supremacy accorded to the Khalifa by Islam, and also helped him eliminate the religious and political influence of the Ottoman Khalifa over his subjects, thus ensuring their complete loyalty to him.[117]
Throughout his reign the Mughal Emperor Akbar was a patron of influential Muslim scholars such as Mir Ahmed Nasrallah Thattvi and Tahir Muhammad Thattvi.
Din-i-Ilahi[link]
Main article: Din-i-Ilahi
Akbar was deeply interested in religious and philosophical matters. An orthodox Muslim at the outset, he later came to be influenced by Sufi mysticism that was being preached in the country at that time, and moved away from orthodoxy, appointing to his court several talented people with liberal ideas, including Abul Fazl, Faizi and Birbal. In 1575, he built a hall called the Ibadat Khana ("House of Worship") at Fatehpur Sikri, to which he invited theologians, mystics and selected courtiers renowned for their intellectual achievements and discussed matters of spirituality with them.[99] These discussions, initially restricted to Muslims, were acrimonious and resulted in the participants shouting at and abusing each other. Upset by this, Akbar opened the Ibadat Khana to people of all religions as well as atheists, resulting in the scope of the discussions broadening and extending even into areas such as the validity of the Quran and the nature of God. This shocked the orthodox theologians, who sought to discredit Akbar by circulating rumours of his desire to forsake Islam.[114] Akbar's choices, decisions, decrees, discussions and regulations on religious matters even caused some of his brilliant courtiers like Qutb-ud-din Khan Koka and Shahbaz Khan Kamboh to criticize the emperor in the court.
Akbar's effort to evolve a meeting point among the representatives of various religions was not very successful, as each of them attempted to assert the superiority of their respective religions by denouncing other religions. Meanwhile, the debates at the Ibadat Khana grew more acrimonious and, contrary to their purpose of leading to a better understanding among religions, instead led to greater bitterness among them, resulting to the discontinuance of the debates by Akbar in 1582.[118] However, his interaction with various religious theologians had convinced him that despite their differences, all religions had several good practices, which he sought to combine into a new religious movement known as Din-i-Ilahi.[119][120] However, some modern scholars claim that Akbar did not initiate a new religion and did not use the word Din-i-Ilahi.[121] According to the contemporary events in the Mughal court Akbar was indeed angered by the acts of embezzlement of wealth by many high level Muslim clerics.[122]
The purported Din-i-Ilahi was more of an ethical system and is said to have prohibited lust, sensuality, slander and pride, considering them sins. Piety, prudence, abstinence and kindness are the core virtues. The soul is encouraged to purify itself through yearning of God.[123] Celibacy was respected, chastity enforced, the slaughter of animals was forbidden and there were no sacred scriptures or a priestly hierarchy.[124] However, a leading Noble of Akbar's court, Aziz Koka, wrote a letter to him from Mecca in 1594 arguing that the discipleship promoted by Akbar amounted to nothing more than a desire on Akbar's part to portray his superiority regarding religious matters[125] To commemorate Din-e-Ilahi, he changed the name of Prayag to Allahabad (pronounced as ilahabad) in 1583.[126][127]
It has been argued that the theory of Din-i-Ilahi being a new religion was a misconception which arose due to erroneous translations of Abul Fazl's work by later British historians.[128] However, it is also accepted that the policy of sulh-e-kul, which formed the essence of Din-i-Ilahi, was adopted by Akbar not merely for religious purposes, but as a part of general imperial administrative policy. This also formed the basis for Akbar's policy of religious toleration.[129] At the time of Akbar's death in 1605 there were no signs of discontent amongst his Muslim subjects and the impression of even a theologian like Abdu'l Haq was that close ties remained.[130]
Historical accounts[link]
Personality[link]
Akbar's reign was chronicled extensively by his court historian Abul Fazal in the books Akbarnama and Ain-i-akbari. Other contemporary sources of Akbar's reign include the works of Badayuni, Shaikhzada Rashidi and Shaikh Ahmed Sirhindi.
Akbar was an artisan, warrior, artist, armourer, blacksmith, carpenter, emperor, general, inventor, animal trainer (reputedly keeping thousands of hunting cheetahs during his reign and training many himself), lacemaker, technologist and theologian.[131]
Akbar was said to have been a wise emperor and a sound judge of character. His son and heir, Jahangir, wrote effusive praise of Akbar's character in his memoirs, and dozens of anecdotes to illustrate his virtues.[132] According to Jahangir, Akbar was "of the hue of wheat; his eyes and eyebrows were black and his complexion rather dark than fair". Antoni de Montserrat, the Catalan Jesuit who visited his court described him as follows:
"One could easily recognize even at first glance that he is King. He has broad shoulders, somewhat bandy legs well-suited for horsemanship, and a light brown complexion. He carries his head bent towards the right shoulder. His forehead is broad and open, his eyes so bright and flashing that they seem like a sea shimmering in the sunlight. His eyelashes are very long. His eyebrows are not strongly marked. His nose is straight and small though not insignificant. His nostrils are widely open as though in derision. Between the left nostril and the upper lip there is a mole. He shaves his beard but wears a moustache. He limps in his left leg though he has never received an injury there."[133]
Akbar was not tall but powerfully built and very agile. He was also noted for various acts of courage. One such incident occurred on his way back from Malwa to Agra when Akbar was 19 years of age.[citation needed]
Akbar rode alone in advance of his escort and was confronted by a tigress who, along with her cubs, came out from the shrubbery across his path. When the tigress charged the emperor, he was alleged to have dispatched the animal with his sword in a solitary blow. His approaching attendants found the emperor standing quietly by the side of the dead animal.[134]
Abul Fazal, and even the hostile critic Badayuni, described him as having a commanding personality. He was notable for his command in battle, and, "like Alexander of Macedon, was always ready to risk his life, regardless of political consequences". He often plunged on his horse into the flooded river during the rainy seasons and safely crossed it. He rarely indulged in cruelty and is said to have been affectionate towards his relatives. He pardoned his brother Hakim, who was a repented rebel. But on rare occasions, he dealt cruelly with offenders, such as his maternal uncle Muazzam and his foster-brother Adham Khan, who was twice defenestrated for drawing Akbar's wrath.[citation needed]
He is said to have been extremely moderate in his diet. Ain-e-Akbari mentions that during his travels and also while at home, Akbar drank water from the Ganges river, which he called ‘the water of immortality’. Special people were stationed at Sorun and later Haridwar to dispatch water, in sealed jars, to wherever he was stationed.[135][better source needed] According to Jahangir's memoirs, he was fond of fruits and had little liking for meat, which he stopped eating in his later years. He was more religiously tolerant than many of the Muslim rulers before and after him. Jahangir wrote:
"As in the wide expanse of the Divine compassion there is room for all classes and the followers of all creeds, so... in his dominions, ... there was room for the professors of opposite religions, and for beliefs good and bad, and the road to altercation was closed. Sunnis and Shias met in one mosque, and Franks and Jews in one church, and observed their own forms of worship.[132] "
To defend his stance that speech arose from hearing, he carried out a language deprivation experiment, and had children raised in isolation, not allowed to be spoken to, and pointed out that as they grew older, they remained mute.[136]
Akbar is also said to have thrown a man out of a window, then grab his body and proceed to throw him out again to make sure he was dead. [137]
Hagiography[link]
During Akbar's reign, the ongoing process of inter-religious discourse and syncretism resulted in a series of religious attributions to him in terms of positions of assimilation, doubt or uncertainty, which he either assisted himself or left unchallenged.[138] Such hagiographical accounts of Akbar traversed a wide range of denominational and sectarian spaces, including several accounts by Parsis, Jains and Jesuit missionaries, apart from contemporary accounts by Brahminical and Muslim orthodoxy.[139] Existing sects and denominations, as well as various religious figures who represented popular worship felt they had a claim to him. The diversity of these accounts is attributed to the fact that his reign resulted in the formation of a flexible centralised state accompanied by personal authority and cultural heterogeneity.[138]
[edit] Akbarnāma, the Book of Akbar
Main article: Akbarnama
The Akbarnāma (Persian: اکبر نامہ), which literally means Book of Akbar, is a official biographical account of Akbar, the third Mughal Emperor (r. 1542–1605), written in Persian. It includes vivid and detailed descriptions of his life and times.[140]
The work was commissioned by Akbar, and written by Abul Fazl, one of the Nine Jewels (Hindi: Navaratnas) of Akbar’s royal court. It is stated that the book took seven years to be completed and the original manuscripts contained a number of paintings supporting the texts, and all the paintings represented the Mughal school of painting, and work of masters of the imperial workshop, including Basawan, whose use of portraiture in its illustrations was an innovation in Indian art.[140]
Death and legacy[link]
On 3 October 1605, Akbar fell ill with an attack of dysentery, from which he never recovered. He is believed to have died on or about 27 October 1605, after which his body was buried at a mausoleum in Sikandra, Agra.[141]
Akbar left behind a rich legacy both for the Mughal Empire as well as the Indian subcontinent in general. He firmly entrenched the authority of the Mughal empire in India and beyond, after it had been threatened by the Afghans during his father's reign,[142] establishing its military and diplomatic superiority.[143] During his reign, the nature of the state changed to a secular and liberal one, with emphasis on cultural integration. He also introduced several far-sighted social reforms, including prohibiting sati, legalising widow remarriage and raising the age of marriage.
The Mughal descendants include Imran Mughal Imran (1986–present) who resides in Old Lahore, Pakistan. [144]
Citing Akbar's melding of the disparate 'fiefdoms' of India into the Mughal Empire as well as the lasting legacy of "pluralism and tolerance" that "underlies the values of the modern republic of India", Time magazine included his name in its list of top 25 world leaders.[145]
In popular culture[link]
- In 2008, director Ashutosh Gowariker released a film telling the story of Akbar and his wife Hira Kunwari (known more popularly as Jodha Bai), titled Jodhaa Akbar. Akbar was played by Hrithik Roshan and Jodhaa was played by Aishwarya Rai.
- Akbar was portrayed in the award-winning 1960 Hindi movie Mughal-e-Azam (The great Mughal), in which his character was played by Prithviraj Kapoor.
- Akbar and Birbal were portrayed in the Hindi series Akbar-Birbal aired on Zee TV in late 1990s where Akbar's role was essayed by Vikram Gokhale.
- A television series, called Akbar the Great, directed by Sanjay Khan was aired on DD National in the 1990s.
- A fictionalized Akbar plays an important supporting role in Kim Stanley Robinson's 2002 novel, The Years of Rice and Salt.
- Akbar is also a major character in Salman Rushdie's 2008 novel The Enchantress of Florence.
- Amartya Sen uses Akbar as a prime example in his books The Argumentative Indian and Violence and Identity.
- Bertrice Small is known for incorporating historical figures as primary characters in her romance novels, and Akbar is no exception. He is a prominent figure in two of her novels, and mentioned several times in a third, which takes place after his death. In This Heart of Mine the heroine becomes Akbar's fortieth "wife" for a time, while Wild Jasmine and Darling Jasmine centre around the life of his half-British daughter, Yasaman Kama Begum (alias Jasmine).
- Akbar is featured in the video game Sid Meier's Civilization 4: Beyond the Sword as a "great general" available in the game.
- Akbar is also the AI Personality of India in the renowned game Age of Empires III: The Asian Dynasties.
- The violin concerto nicknamed "Il Grosso Mogul" written by Antonio Vivaldi in the 1720s, and listed in the standard catalogue as RV 208, is considered to be indirectly inspired by Akbar's reign.
- In Kunal Basu's The Miniaturist, the story revolves around a young painter during Akbar's time who paints his own version of the Akbarnamu'
- Akbar is mentioned as 'Raja Baadshah' in the Chhattisgarhi folktale of Mohna de gori kayina
- Akbar is the main character in Empire of the Moghul: Ruler of the World, the third book in a quintet based on the 5 great Mughal Emperors of the Mughal Dynasty by Alex Rutherford.
- Akbar is the protagonist in Dirk Collier's historical novel 'The Emperor's Writings, Memories of Akbar the Great' (Delhi, 2011; translated into Dutch under the title 'Afscheid van de keizer'), a fictional autobiography in which Akbar speaks to his son Jahangir, via a series of posthumous letters.
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ Google Images
- ^ "Akbar". TENNYSON'S OWN NOTES TO AKBAR'S DREAM. http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00generallinks/tennyson/akbarsnotes.html. Retrieved 18 May 2011.
- ^ a b Conversion of Islamic and Christian dates (Dual) As per the date convertor Baadshah Akbar's birth date, as per Humayun nama, of 04 Rajab, 949 AH, corresponds to 14 October 1542.
- ^ Majumdar 1984, p. 104
- ^ a b Fazl, Abul. Akbarnama Volume II.
- ^ Prasad, Ishwari (1970). The life and times of Humayun. http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Ishwari%20Prasad%20life%20and%20times%20of%20humayun&hl=en&lr=&oi=scholart.
- ^ "Akbar". Columbia Encyclopedia. 2008. http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Akbar.html. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
- ^ a b Maurice S. Dimand (1953). "Mughal Painting under Akbar the Great". The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin 12 (2): 46–51. JSTOR 3257529.
- ^ Habib 1997, p. 84
- ^ Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (2005). Mughals and Franks. Oxford University Press. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-19-566866-7.
- ^ a b Habib 1997, p. 85
- ^ Hoyland, J.S.; Banerjee S.N. (1996). Commentary of Father Monserrate, S.J: On his journey to the court of Akbar, Asean Educational Services Published. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. p. 57. ISBN 81-206-0807-0.
- ^ Banjerji, S.K.. Humayun Badshah.
- ^ Fazl, Abul. Akbarnama Volume I.
- ^ "Gurdas". Government of Punjab. Archived from the original on 27 May 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080527210721/http://punjabgovt.nic.in/government/gurdas1.GIF. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
- ^ History Gurdaspur district website.
- ^ a b Chandra 2007, p. 226
- ^ Smith 2002, p. 337
- ^ Islamic Mughal Empire: War Elephants Part 3 - YouTube
- ^ Warrior Empire-The Mughals 3/9 - YouTube
- ^ Islamic Mughal Empire: War Elephants Part 2 - YouTube
- ^ Majumdar 1984, pp. 104–105
- ^ Chandra 2007, pp. 226–227
- ^ a b Chandra 2007, p. 227
- ^ Habib 1997, p. 3
- ^ a b Smith 2002, p. 339
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 228
- ^ Painting - Akbar directing the attack against Rai Surjan Hada at Ranthambhor Fort - Victoria & Albert Museum - Search the Collections
- ^ Habib 1997, p. 4
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 229
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 230
- ^ a b c d e f Chandra 2007, p. 231
- ^ Warrior Empire-The Mughals 4/9 - YouTube
- ^ a b c Smith 2002, p. 342
- ^ Chandra, Dr. Satish (2001). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals. Har Anand Publications. p. 107. ISBN 81-241-0522-7.
- ^ Payne, Tod (1994). Tod's Annals of Rajasthan: The Annals of Mewar. Asian Educational Services. p. 71. ISBN 81-206-0350-8.
- ^ Smith 2002, p. 343
- ^ Watson, C.C. (1904). Rajputana District Gazetteers. Scottish Mission Industries Co., Ltd.. p. 17.
- ^ Hastings, James (2003). Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics Part 10. Kessinger Publishing. ISBN 0-7661-3682-5.
- ^ James Tod, Annals and Antiquities of Rajast'han or the Central and Western Rajpoot States of India, 2 vols. London, Smith, Elder (1829, 1832); New Delhi, Munshiram Publishers, (2001), pp. 83-4. ISBN 81-7069-128-1
- ^ a b c Chandra 2007, p. 232
- ^ Smith 2002, p. 344
- ^ Chandra 2007, pp. 240–241
- ^ Habib 1997, p. 15
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 233
- ^ a b Chandra 2007, p. 234
- ^ a b Chandra 2007, p. 236
- ^ Moosvi 2008, p. 160
- ^ a b Chandra 2007, p. 235
- ^ Moosvi 2008, pp. 164–165
- ^ Moosvi 2008, p. 165
- ^ Smith 2002, p. 359
- ^ a b Chandra 2007, p. 238
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 237
- ^ Petersen, A. (1996). Dictionary of Islamic Architecture. New York: Routledge.
- ^ a b c d Chandra 2007, p. 243
- ^ a b Sarkar 1984, p. 37
- ^ Sarkar 1984, p. 36
- ^ Chandra 2007, pp. 242–243
- ^ Nath 1982, p. 52
- ^ Alam, Muzaffar; Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1998). The Mughal State, 1526-1750. Oxford University Press. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-19-563905-6.
- ^ Sarkar 1984, pp. 38–40
- ^ Sarkar 1984, p. 38
- ^ Maryam Juzer Kherulla (12 October 2002). "Profile: Tansen — the mesmerizing maestro". Dawn (newspaper). http://dawn.com/weekly/yworld/archive/021012/yworld5.htm. Retrieved 2 October 2007. [dead link]
- ^ India Divided, By Rajendra Prasad, pg. 63
- ^ A History of Hindi Literature, By F. E. Keay, pg. 36
- ^ The Cambridge history of the British Empire, Volume 2 by Arthur Percival Newton p.14
- ^ Habib 1997, p. 256
- ^ Habib 1997, pp. 256–257
- ^ Habib 1997, p. 259
- ^ part2_16
- ^ part2_19
- ^ Habib 1997, p. 260
- ^ part2_12
- ^ Six Ottoman Documents On Mughal-Ottoman Relations During The Reign Of Akbar
- ^ Book Reviews : NAIMUR RAHMAN FAROOQI, Mughal-Ottoman Relations: A Study of the Political and Diplomatic Relations between Mughal India and the Ottoman Empire, 1556-1748, Delhi...
- ^ Mughal-Ottoman relations: a study of political & diplomatic relations ... - Naimur Rahman Farooqi - Google Boeken
- ^ Moosvi 2008, p. 246
- ^ Ottoman court chroniclers (1578). Muhimme Defterleri, Vol. 32 f 292 firman 740, Shaban 986.
- ^ Khan, Iqtidar Alam (1999). Akbar and his age. Northern Book Centre. p. 218. ISBN 978-81-7211-108-3.
- ^ http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=Fy-C2gHkpecC&pg=PA180&lpg=PA180&dq=Evliya+%C3%87elebi+and+native+americans&source=bl&ots=b4bNJrIHqS&sig=irQ5uEs-Gq2sCm7FEBfFFvg415k&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TsuDT6XCIMLntQbapOT2Bg&sqi=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=indians&f=false
- ^ Mughal-Ottoman relations: a study of political & diplomatic relations ... - Naimur Rahman Farooqi - Google Boeken
- ^ http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=Fy-C2gHkpecC&pg=PA180&lpg=PA180&dq=Evliya+%C3%87elebi+and+native+americans&source=bl&ots=b4bNJrIHqS&sig=irQ5uEs-Gq2sCm7FEBfFFvg415k&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TsuDT6XCIMLntQbapOT2Bg&sqi=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=indians&f=false
- ^ http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=Fy-C2gHkpecC&pg=PA180&lpg=PA180&dq=Evliya+%C3%87elebi+and+native+americans&source=bl&ots=b4bNJrIHqS&sig=irQ5uEs-Gq2sCm7FEBfFFvg415k&hl=en&sa=X&ei=TsuDT6XCIMLntQbapOT2Bg&sqi=2&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAw#v=snippet&q=indian&f=false
- ^ Mughal-Ottoman relations: a study of political & diplomatic relations ... - Naimur Rahman Farooqi - Google Boeken
- ^ Majumdar 1984, p. 158
- ^ Ottoman court chroniclers (1588). Muhimme Defterleri, Vol. 62 f 205 firman 457, Avail Rabiulavval 996.
- ^ Ali 2006, p. 94
- ^ a b Majumdar 1984, p. 153
- ^ Ali 2006, pp. 327–328
- ^ Majumdar 1984, p. 154
- ^ Majumdar 1984, pp. 154–155
- ^ Majumdar 1984, pp. 153–154
- ^ Ali 2006, p. 327
- ^ Majumdar 1984, p. 155
- ^ VA Smith (1919). Akbar the Great Moghul. Oxford. p. 292.
- ^ Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance. Book 1 by Donald F. Lach,Edwin J. Van Kley p.393 [1]
- ^ Habib 1997, p. 80
- ^ a b c d Chandra 2007, p. 253
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 252
- ^ Hasan 2007, p. 72
- ^ a b Habib 1997, p. 81
- ^ Day, Upendra Nath (1970). The Mughal Government, A.D. 1556-1707. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 134.
- ^ Ali 2006, p. 159
- ^ Dasgupta, Ajit Kumar (1993). History of Indian Economic Thought. Routledge. p. 45. ISBN 0-415-06195-4.
- ^ Ali 2006, pp. 164–165
- ^ Hasan 2007, pp. 72–73
- ^ Hasan 2007, p. 73
- ^ Sanghmitra. Jain Dharma ke Prabhavak Acharya. Jain Vishwa Bharati, Ladnu.
- ^ Sen, Amartya (2005). "13". The Argumentative Indian. Allen Lane. ISBN 0-7139-9687-0.
- ^ "Ahmedabad turned Akbar veggie". The Times of India. 23 November 2009. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/ahmedabad/Ahmedabad-turned-Akbar-veggie/articleshow/5259184.cms. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
- ^ a b c Habib 1997, p. 86
- ^ Ali 2006, pp. 165–166
- ^ a b c Chandra 2007, p. 254
- ^ Ali 2006, p. 159
- ^ Hasan 2007, p. 79
- ^ Hasan 2007, pp. 82–83
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 255
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 256
- ^ "Din-i Ilahi — Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9030480/Din-i-Ilahi. Retrieved 18 July 2009.
- ^ Sharma, Sri Ram (1988). The Religious Policy of the Mughal Emperors. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. p. 42. ISBN 81-215-0395-7.
- ^ Smith 2002, p. 348
- ^ Roy Choudhury, Makhan Lal (1941), The Din-i-Ilahi, or, The religion of Akbar (3rd ed.), New Delhi: Oriental Reprint (published 1985, 1997), ISBN 81-215-0777-4
- ^ Majumdar 1984, p. 138
- ^ Koka,Aziz (1594). King's College Collection, MS 194. This letter is preserved in Cambridge University Library. p. ff.5b-8b.
- ^ Conder, Josiah (1828). The Modern Traveller: a popular description. R.H.Tims. p. 282.
- ^ Deefholts, Margaret; Deefholts, Glenn; Acharya, Quentine (2006). The Way We Were: Anglo-Indian Cronicles. Calcutta Tiljallah Relief Inc. p. 87. ISBN 0-9754639-3-4.
- ^ Ali 2006, pp. 163–164
- ^ Ali 2006, p. 164
- ^ Habib 1997, p. 96
- ^ Habib, Irfan (1992). "Akbar and Technology". Social Scientist 20 (9–10): 3–15. DOI:10.2307/3517712.
- ^ a b Jahangir (1600s). Tuzk-e-Jahangiri (Memoirs of Jahangir).
- ^ [2]"Portraits of Akbar, the Great Mughal" by Tancred Borenius The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs Vol. 82, No. 480 (Mar., 1943), pp. 54+67-68
- ^ Garbe, Richard von (1909). Akbar, Emperor of India. Chicago-The Open Court Publishing Company.
- ^ Hardwar Ain-e-Akbari, by Abul Fazl 'Allami, Volume I, A´I´N 22. The A´bda´r Kha´nah. P 55. Translated from the original persian, by H. Blochmann, and Colonel H. S. Jarrett, Asiatic society of Bengal. Calcutta, 1873 – 1907.
- ^ "1200—1750". University of Hamburg. http://www.sign-lang.uni-hamburg.de/bibweb/Miles/1200-1750.html. Retrieved 30 May 2008.
- ^ Bentley, Jerry (2008). Traditions and Encounters, 4th Edition. Traditions and Encounters. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-333067-1.
- ^ a b Sangari 2007, p. 497
- ^ Sangari 2007, p. 475
- ^ a b Illustration from the Akbarnama: History of Akbar Art Institute of Chicago
- ^ Majumdar 1984, pp. 168–169
- ^ Habib 1997, p. 79
- ^ Majumdar 1984, p. 170
- ^ Chandra 2006, pp. 257–258
- ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (4 February 2011). "Top 25 Political Icons:Akbar the Great". Time magazine. http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2046285_2045996_2046303,00.html.
References[link]
- Ali, M. Athar (2006). Mughal India: Studies in Polity, Ideas, Society and Culture. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-569661-5.
- Chandra, Satish (2007). History of Medieval India. New Delhi: Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7.
- Habib, Irfan (1997). Akbar and His India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-563791-5.
- Hasan, Nurul (2007). Religion, State and Society in Medieval India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-569660-8.
- Moosvi, Shireen (2008). People, Taxation and Trade in Mughal India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-569315-7.
- Nath, R. (1982). History of Mughal Architecture. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-159-1.
- Sangari, Kumkum (2007). "Akbar: The Name of a Conjuncture". In Grewal, J.S.. The State and Society in Medieval India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. pp. 475–501. ISBN 978-0-19-566720-2.
- Sarkar, Jadunath (1984). A History of Jaipur. New Delhi: Orient Longman. ISBN 81-250-0333-9.
- Smith, Vincent A. (2002). The Oxford History of India. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-561297-4.
Further reading[link]
- Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak Akbar-namah Edited with commentary by Muhammad Sadiq Ali (Kanpur-Lucknow: Nawal Kishore) 1881–3 Three Vols. (Persian)
- Abu al-Fazl ibn Mubarak Akbarnamah Edited by Maulavi Abd al-Rahim. Bibliotheca Indica Series (Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal) 1877–1887 Three Vols. (Persian)
- Henry Beveridge (Trans.) The Akbarnama of Ab-ul-Fazl Bibliotheca Indica Series (Calcutta: Asiatic Society of Bengal) 1897 Three Vols.
- Haji Muhammad 'Arif Qandahari Tarikh-i-Akbari (Better known as Tarikh-i-Qandahari) edited & Annotated by Haji Mu'in'd-Din Nadwi, Dr. Azhar 'Ali Dihlawi & Imtiyaz 'Ali 'Arshi (Rampur Raza Library) 1962 (Persian)
- Martí Escayol, Maria Antònia. “Antoni de Montserrat in the Mughal Garden of good government European construction of Indian nature”, Word, Image, Text; Studies in Literary and Visual Culture, ed. Shormistha Panja et al., Orient Blacksw an, New Delhi, 2009. ISBN :978812503735
- Satyananda Giri,AKBAR,Trafford Publishing, 2009,ISBN :9781426915611
- Augustus, Frederick; (tr. by Annette Susannah Beveridge) (1890). The Emperor Akbar, a contribution towards the history of India in the 16th century (Vol. 1). Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta. http://www.archive.org/stream/emperorakbaraco00buchgoog#page/n8/mode/1up.
- Augustus, Frederick; (tr. by Annette Susannah Beveridge) (1890). Gustav von Buchwald. ed. The Emperor Akbar, a contribution towards the history of India in the 16th century (Vol. 2). Thacker, Spink and Co., Calcutta. http://www.archive.org/stream/emperorakbaraco00augugoog#page/n4/mode/1up.
- Malleson, Colonel G. B. (1899). Rulers Of India: Akbar And The Rise Of The Mughal Empire. Oxford at the Clarendon Press. http://www.archive.org/stream/rulersofindiaakb009177mbp#page/n7/mode/2up.
- Garbe, Dr.Richard von (1909). Akbar - Emperor of India. A picture of life and customs from the sixteenth century. The Opencourt Publishing Company, Chicago. http://www.archive.org/stream/akbaremperorofin00garb#page/n7/mode/2up.
- The Adventures of Akbar by Flora Annie Steel, 1847-1929 -(ebook)
- Smith, Vincent Arthur (1917). Akbar the Great Mogul, 1542-1605. Oxford at The Clarendon Press. http://www.archive.org/stream/cu31924024056503#page/n7/mode/2up.
- Havell, E. B. (1918). The History of Aryan Rule In India from the earliest times to the death of Akbar. Frederick A. Stokes Co., New York. http://www.archive.org/stream/historyofaryanru00have#page/n9/mode/2up.
- Moreland, W. H. (1920). India at the death of Akbar: An economic study. Macmillan & Co., London. http://www.archive.org/stream/cu31924022895001#page/n5/mode/2up.
- Monserrate, Father Antonio (1922). The commentary of Father Monserrate, S.J., on his journey to the court of Akbar. Oxford University Press. http://www.archive.org/stream/commentaryoffath00monsuoft#page/n7/mode/2up.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Akbar |
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Akbar, Jellaladin Mahommed. |
- Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar The Great
- Akbar, Emperor of India by Richard von Garbe' at Project Gutenberg
- The Mughals: Akbar[dead link]
- The Mughal Emperor Akbar: World of Biography[dead link]
- History of the friendship between Akbar and Birbal
- Photos of Akbar The Great's final resting place
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Akbar
Born: 14 October 1542 Died: 27 October 1605 |
||
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Humayun |
Mughal Emperor 1556–1605 |
Succeeded by Jahangir |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Akbar |
| Alternative names | Akbar, Jalaluddin Muhammad (full name); Akbar, Jellaladin Muhammad (alternate form); Akbar, Celalettin Muhammad (alternate form); Akbar the Great (honorific); جلال الدین محمد اکب (Persian) |
| Short description | Mughal emperor |
| Date of birth | (1542-10-14)14 October 1542 |
| Place of birth | Sindh, Pakistan |
| Date of death | 27 October 1605(1605-10-27) |
| Place of death | Fatehpur Sikri, Agra |
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There are many people in history who are commonly appended with the phrase "the Great", or who were called that or an equivalent phrase in their own language. Other languages have their own suffixes such as e Bozorg and e azam in Persian and Urdu respectively.
In Persia, the title "the Great" at first seems to be a colloquial version of the Old Persian title "Great King". This title was first used by the conqueror Cyrus II of Persia.[1]
The Persian title was inherited by Alexander III of Macedon (336–323 BC) when he conquered the Persian Empire, and the epithet "Great" eventually became personally associated with him. The first reference (in a comedy by Plautus)[2] assumes that everyone knew who "Alexander the Great" was; however, there is no earlier evidence that Alexander III of Macedon was called "the Great".
The early Seleucid kings, who succeeded Alexander in Persia, used "Great King" in local documents, but the title was most notably used for Antiochus the Great (223–187 BC).
Later rulers and commanders began to use the epithet "the Great" as a personal name, like the Roman general Pompey. Others received the surname retrospectively, like the Carthaginian Hanno and the Indian emperor Ashoka the Great. Once the surname gained currency, it was also used as an honorific surname for people without political careers, like the philosopher Albert the Great.
As there are no objective criteria for "greatness", the persistence of later generations in using the designation greatly varies. For example, Louis XIV of France was often referred to as "The Great" in his lifetime but is rarely called such nowadays, while Frederick II of Prussia is still called "The Great". A later Hohenzollern - Wilhelm I - was often called "The Great" in the time of his grandson Wilhelm II, but rarely later.
Contents |
Rulers[link]
- Abbas I of Persia (1571–1629), Shah of Iran
- Akbar (1542–1605), ruler of the Mughal Empire of South Asia, mainly India
- Alain I of Albret (1440–1522), French aristocrat
- Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), King of Macedonia, Persia, Greece, Egypt, and all of Mesopotamia
- Alexander I of Georgia (1386–1446), King of Georgia
- Alfonso III of León (c. 848-910), King of León, Galicia and Asturias
- Alfred the Great (848/849-899), King of Wessex
- Antiochus III the Great (c. 241–187 BC), ruler of the Seleucid Empire
- Ashoka the Great (c. 304–232 BC), Indian emperor of the Maurya dynasty
- Ashot I of Iberia “the Great”(died 826/830), presiding prince of Iberia (modern Georgia),
- Askia Mohammad I (c. 1442–1538), ruler of the Songhai Empire
- Bhumibol Adulyadej (born 1927), King of Thailand
- Bolesław I Chrobry (967-1025), sometimes called "the Great", first King of Poland
- Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the following section)
- Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (1736–1809), founder and ruler of the Rattanakosin Kingdom (in what is now Thailand)
- Cnut the Great (c. 985 or 995-1035), King of Denmark, England, Norway and parts of Sweden
- Casimir III the Great (1310–1370), King of Poland
- Catherine the Great (1729–1796), Empress of Russia
- Chandragupta II (reigned 375-413/415), also known as Vikramaditya, ruler of the Gupta empire in India
- Charlemagne (died 814), King of the Franks and Emperor of the Romans
- Chulalongkorn (1853–1910), King of Siam (now Thailand)
- Chlothar II (584-629), King of Neustria and King of the Franks
- Conrad, Margrave of Meissen (c. 1097-1157), Margrave of Meissen
- Constantine I (c. 272-337), Roman emperor
- Cyaxares the Great (c. 625-585 BC), third king of Media
- Cyrus the Great (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC), founder and ruler of the Persian or Achaemenid Empire
- Darius the Great (550 – 486 BC), third ruler of the Persian Empire
- Devapala (died 850), ruler of the Pala Empire in the Indian subcontinent
- Dionysius I, Greek tyrant of Syracuse[3]
- Ferdinand I of León and Castile (c. 1015–1065), King of León and Count of Castile
- Frederick the Great (1712–1786), King of Prussia
- Genghis Khan (1162?-1227), founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire
- Gero (c. 900–965), ruler of Marca Geronis, a very large march in Europe
- Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1594–1632), King of Sweden, founder of the Swedish Empire, and noted military leader
- Gwanggaeto the Great, King of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea[4][5]
- Hanno the Great, the name of three leaders of Carthage, in the 4th, 3rd, and 2nd centuries BC
- Henry I, Duke of Burgundy (946–1002)
- Henry IV of France (1553–1610), King of France and King of Navarre
- Herod the Great (73/74 BC-4 BC), King of Judea
- Hugh the Great (898-956), Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris
- Hugh Magnus of France (1007–1025), co-King of France
- Hugh I, Count of Vermandois (1057–1101)
- Humphrey I de Bohun (died c. 1123), Anglo-Norman aristocrat
- Ivan III of Russia (1440–1505), Tsar of Russia
- John I of Portugal (1358–1433), King of Portugal and the Algarve
- John II of Aragon (1398–1479), King of Aragon and, through his wife, King of Navarre
- Justinian I (483-565), Byzantine Emperor
- Kamehameha I (c. 1758-1819), first King of Hawai'i
- Kanishka (died c. 127), ruler of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia and parts of India
- Kvirike III of Kakheti (1010–1029), King of Kakheti in eastern Georgia
- Kublai Khan (1215–1294), Mongol ruler in the 13th century and Emperor of China; founder of the Yuan Dynasty
- Llywelyn the Great (c. 1172–1240), Prince of Gwynedd and de facto ruler of most of Wales
- Louis I of Hungary (1326–1382), King of Hungary, Croatia and Poland
- Mangrai the Great (1238–1317), Lanna, northern Thailand
- Emperor Meiji (1852–1912), Emperor of Japan
- Mircea I of Wallachia (1355–1418)
- Mithridates II of Parthia (died 88 BC), ruler of the Parthian Empire (in present day Iran)
- Mithridates VI of Pontus (134 BC–63 BC), ruler of Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom
- Mstislav I of Kiev (1076–1132), Grand Prince of Kievan Rus
- Naresuan (1555–1605), King of Ayutthaya
- Narai (1633–1688), King of Ayutthaya (in what is now modern Thailand)
- Odo the Great (died c. 735), Duke of Aquitaine
- Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (912-973)
- K'inich Janaab' Pakal (603-683), ruler of the Mayan city-state of Palenque
- Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa (1123–1186), King of Sri Lanka
- Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia (died 1075), King of Croatia
- Peter the Great (1672–1725), Tsar of Russia
- Peter III of Aragon (1239–1285), King of Aragon and King of Sicily
- Pompey (106 BC-48 BC), military and political leader of the late Roman Republic, rival of Julius Caesar
- Radama I (1793–1828), first king of greater Madagascar
- Raja Raja Chola I (c. 947-1014), Indian emperor of the Cholas.[6][7][8]
- Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1014–1044), Tamil King of India
- Ramesses II (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC), considered the greatest pharaoh of Ancient Egypt
- Ram Khamhaeng (around 1237 to 1247-1298), King of Sukhothai (in present day Thailand)
- Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (1082–1131), also Count of Provence and various other counties
- Rhodri the Great (c. 820–878), King of Gwynedd (in present day Wales)
- Roman the Great (after 1160-1205), Grand Prince of Kiev
- Saladin (c. 1138-1193), Kurdish Sultan of Egypt and Syria, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, and victor over the Crusaders
- Samudragupta (c. 335–375), ruler of the Gupta empire in the Indian subcontinent
- Sancho III of Navarre (c. 992-1035), King of Kingdom of Navarre
- Sargon of Akkad (died c. 2215 BC), ruler of the Akkadian Empire
- Sejong the Great (1397–1450), Korean king[9]
- Shapur II (309-379), king of the Sassanid Empire, Persia
- Simeon I of Bulgaria (864/865-927), ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire
- Stephen III of Moldavia (1433–1504), Prince of Moldavia (Romania)
- Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia (c. 1308-1355), King of Serbia and Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks
- Taksin (1734–1782), King of the Thonburi Kingdom (Thailand)
- Tamar (1160-1123), Queen of the Georgian Empire
- Timur (1336–1405), better known as Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Dynasty
- Theobald II, Count of Champagne (1090–1151), Count of Blois and of Chartres as Theobald IV, Count of Champagne and of Brie
- Theodoric the Great (454-526), King of the Ostrogoths, regent of the Visigoths and a viceroy of the Byzantine Empire
- Theodosius I (347-395), Roman emperor
- Tigranes the Great (140-55 BC), Emperor of Armenia
- Tiridates III of Armenia (285-339), King of Armenia
- Umar (c. 586 to 590–644), second caliph of the Muslim Empire
- Valdemar I of Denmark (1131–1182), King of Denmark
- Valentinian I (364-375), Roman Emperor
- Vladimir I of Kiev (c. 958-1015), ruler of Kievan Rus
- Vytautas (c. 1350-1430), archduke of the Lithuanian Grand Duchy
- William I, Count of Burgundy (1020–1087), Count of Burgandy and Mâcon
- William V, Duke of Aquitaine (969-1030), also Count of Poitou
- Xerxes I (519-465 BC), King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire (Persia)
- Yu the Great (c. 2200-2100 BC), legendary ruler in ancient China
Religious figures[link]
- Abraham the Great of Kashkar (ca. 492-586), monk and saint of the Assyrian Church of the East
- Abraham Kidunaia (died c. 366, hermit, priest, and Christian saint of Mesopotamia
- Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–1280), medieval German philosopher and theologian
- Anthony the Great (c. 251–356), early Christian saint of Egypt
- Babai the Great (c. 551–628), Assyrian church leader
- Basil of Caesarea (330-379), Greek bishop and theologian
- Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the previous section)
- Euthymius the Great (377-473), abbot and Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saint
- Gertrude the Great (1256-c. 1302), German Benedictine, mystic, theologian and Roman Catholic saint
- Pope Gregory I (c. 540-604)
- Hiyya the Great, 3rd-century rabbi, Palestine
- Pope John Paul II (1920–2005)
- Pope Leo I (c. 391 or 400-461)
- Macarius of Egypt (c. 300-391), Egyptian hermit
- Pope Nicholas I (c. 800-867)
- Photius I of Constantinople (c. 810–c. 893), Eastern Orthodox saint and Patriarch of Constantinople
- William of Maleval (died 1157), founder of the Catholic congregation of Williamites
Other[link]
- Beli Mawr, a figure in medieval Welsh literature and genealogies
- Emmy the Great, folk singer
- Matteo Rosso the Great, Roman politician and father of Pope Nicholas III
- Prokop the Great, Hussite general in Bohemia
See also[link]
- Epithet
- List of monarchs by nickname
- List of nicknames of European Royalty and Nobility: G-I
- James, son of Zebedee, also known as James the Greater, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus
- Ajax (mythology), called Ajax the Greater
- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, whose common honorific "Mahatma" means "Great Soul"
Notes[link]
- ^ In a clay cylinder (online). The expression was used in a propagandistic context: the conqueror wants to show he is a normal Babylonian ruler. The first Persian ruler to use the title in an Iranian context was Darius I of Persia (Darius the Great), in the Behistun Inscription (online).
- ^ Plautus, Mostellaria 775.
- ^ History, Instituto Geografico De Agostini S.p.A., p. 479
- ^ World and Its Peoples:Korea. Marshall Cavendish Corporation. September 2008. p. 887. ISBN 0-7614-7631-8.
- ^ Alison Behnke (2004). North Korea in Pictures. Twenty-First Century Books. p. 70. ISBN 0-8225-1908-9. http://books.google.com/?id=ovWvhyLc6hAC&pg=RA1-PA70&dq=%22Gwanggaeto+the+Great%22.
- ^ Sarkar, Benoy Kumar (December 1919). "An English History of India". Political Science Quarterly 34 (4): 644–653. DOI:10.2307/2142032. JSTOR 2142032. ""The finances of the state were not more centralized under Louis XIV than under Rajaraja the Great.""
- ^ "Heaven sent: Michael Wood explores the art of the Chola dynasty". Royal Academy, UK. http://www.royalacademy.org.uk/ra-magazine/winter2006/features/heven-sent,47,RAMA.html. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
- ^ "The Chola Dynasty: Accession of Rajaraja, the Great". Sify.com. http://sify.com/itihaas/fullstory.php?id=13219885. Retrieved 2007-04-26.
- ^ Christoph Bluth; Gareth Schott (2007). Korea. Polity. p. 10. ISBN 0-7456-3356-0.
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| Hrithik Roshan | |
|---|---|
 Hrithik Roshan at Mumbai Police Show Umang in 2011 |
|
| Born | (1974-01-10) 10 January 1974 (age 38) Mumbai, Maharashtra, India |
| Occupation | Actor |
| Years active | 1980–1986 (child artist) 2000–present |
| Spouse | Suzanne Khan (2000 – present) |
| Children | 2 |
Hrithik Roshan ([ˈrɪt̪ʰɪk ˈroːʃən]; born 10 January 1974)[1] is an Indian film actor. Having appeared as a child actor in several films throughout the 1980s, Roshan made his film debut in a leading role in Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai in 2000. His performance in the film earned him Filmfare Awards for Best Actor and Best Male Debut. He followed it with leading roles in Fiza and Mission Kashmir (both 2000) and a supporting part in the blockbuster Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001), which was India's highest-grossing film in the overseas market up to then.[2]
Following through with several unnoticed performances from 2002 to 2003, he starred in the blockbusters Koi... Mil Gaya (2003) and its sequel Krrish (2006), both of which won him numerous Best Actor awards.[3] Roshan received his third Filmfare Award for Best Actor in 2006 for his performance in the action film Dhoom 2, his biggest commercial success to date, and his fourth for Jodhaa Akbar,[4] for which he was also awarded at the Golden Minbar International Film Festival. These accomplishments have established him as one of the leading contemporary actors of Hindi cinema.[5] He later received further acclaim for his work in Guzaarish (2010), Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara (2011) and Agneepath (2012).
Contents |
Biography[link]
Early career, until 1999[link]
Roshan's first movie role was as a child artist when he was six years old in the 1980s movie Aasha, where he appeared in a dance sequence as an extra. Roshan went on to play minor roles in Aap Ke Deewane (1980) and Bhagwan Dada (1986) both of which starred his father Rakesh Roshan in the leading role. He then became an assistant director assisting in the production of his father's films Karan Arjun (1995) and Koyla (1997).
Breakthrough, 2000–2002[link]
In 2000, Roshan made his film debut as the leading man in the film Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai opposite another debutante actress Amisha Patel. The film, which was directed by his father and saw him playing a double role, proved to be very successful at the box office and was declared a blockbuster,[6] it also became the highest grossing film of 2000[7] and winner of the Filmfare Best Movie Award. Roshan's performance was well-received, and the film made him an overnight star.[8][9][10] He eventually received both the Filmfare Best Male Debut Award and the Filmfare Best Actor Award for the role. The film entered the Limca Book of Records in 2003 for the most number of awards won by a Bollywood film – 102 awards.[11]
Later that year, Roshan starred in Khalid Mohammed's Fiza. Although the film did poorly at the box office, his performance was praised, earning him another nomination for Best Actor at the Filmfare ceremony. Taran Adarsh from indiaFM noted, "The mainstay of the film is undoubtedly Hrithik Roshan. His body language, his diction, his expressions, his overall persona deserves great praise. With this film, Hrithik proves that there is more to him than just being a fashionable rage, a Mills & Boon lover-boy and a sex symbol. His talent comes to the fore in several scenes, especially those with Karisma. All said and done, the show belongs to Hrithik, who saves Fiza to a major extent. A brilliant performance undoubtedly!"[12]
Roshan's last release of the year, Mission Kashmir, became the third highest grossing film of the year.[7] His performance was once again acclaimed with one critic praising him, "Hrithik once again cuts a splendid performance as a youngster sucked in the vortex of terrorism. He is portrayed as anti-government in the early part of the film-- a bold role to play for even a seasoned actor, leave alone a budding superstar." All these achievements promoted him as one of the biggest stars in the industry.[13]
Subhash Ghai's Yaadein was his first release in 2001. This was followed by Karan Johar's melodramatic Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham, which did extremely well at the box office, becoming the second-highest grossing film of 2001 and the biggest hit overseas.[14][15] Roshan's performance was well received and his performance earned him a nomination for Best Supporting Actor at various award ceremonies.
Roshan had an unsuccessful year in 2002 when all three of his releases – Mujhse Dosti Karoge!, Na Tum Jaano Na Hum and Aap Mujhe Achche Lagne Lage – failed to make an impact the box office and were declared flops.[16]
Success, 2003–present[link]
In 2003, he made a comeback with the science-fiction film Koi... Mil Gaya, which saw him playing a mentally disabled young man.[10] The film was the highest grosser of the year and won him many awards, including his second Filmfare Award for Best Actor and his first Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor.[17] Taran Adarsh noted, "Hrithik Roshan dominates the show and packs in a power-packed performance. The role of a mentally challenged person is no cakewalk, but the actor takes to it like a fish takes to water. He manages to pull off the zero to hero routine exceptionally well. As an actor, he scales dizzier heights with this splendid performance."[18] His performance was later included in the 2010 issue of the "Top 80 Iconic Performances" by Filmfare.[19]
Farhan Akhtar's Lakshya was Roshan's only release in 2004; the film was critically acclaimed but did not do well at the box office.[20] His performance was praised by critics.[21] and again, was included in the 2010 issue of the "Top 80 Iconic Performances" by Filmfare.[22]
"Sometimes you can actually tell how an actor has come of age in a movie that deals with coming of age and growing up pangs. Hrithik Roshan´s evolution is marked by a certain self discovery that spreads through the film as it goes on. It´s cinematic translucence at its best. And the perfectionist in Hrithik makes sure that the change is marked not just through the plot but also through his hairstyle, his body language, the look in his eyes... So much so that you grow up along with him, feel his pain and become part of his story. Right to the end."
Roshan took a two-year break from acting before resurfacing with the superhero film Krrish opposite Priyanka Chopra. A sequel to his 2003 film Koi... Mil Gaya, the film was a major box office success and became the second highest grosser of 2006.[23] His performance as a superhero was praised, earning him many Best Actor awards at various award ceremonies, including Star Screen and the International Indian Film Academy.[3] IndiaFM wrote, "To state that Hrithik is the soul of Krrish would be an understatement. If the actor walked away with all noteworthy awards in Koi... Mil Gaya, it's going to be an encore with Krrish. You cannot imagine any other actor enacting the role of a gifted child with aplomb. If his mask and robe look is splendid, watch his makeup, gait and mannerisms as the aged father and you had to agree, he's one of the finest talents on the Indian screen today. Krrish is yet another ground-breaking film in his dazzling repertoire!"[24]
His next film that year was Dhoom 2, a sequel to the 2004 Dhoom. Featured opposite Aishwarya Rai Bachchan, Roshan's performance in the movie not only earned him widespread critical acclaim,[3][25] but also his third Filmfare Best Actor Award. The film went on to become the highest grossing film of 2006, as well as one of the most successful films of Bollywood.[23][26]
In 2008, Roshan featured in Ashutosh Gowariker's Jodhaa Akbar opposite Aishwarya Rai Bachchan. He played the historical role of Akbar the Great. The movie did very good business, both in India and abroad.[15][27] His performance in the movie was widely appreciated by critics,[3] earning him his fourth Filmfare Best Actor Award as well as his first international award for Best Actor at the Golden Minbar International Film Festival in Kazan, Russia.[4]
Roshan then appeared in Zoya Akhtar's Luck by Chance (2009), in which he made a guest appearance. The following year, he was seen in Anurag Basu's Kites along with Mexican actress Bárbara Mori and Kangna Ranaut. The film failed to do well at the box office after taking a huge start and was eventually declared a flop. He next acted in Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Guzaarish opposite Aishwarya Rai. Upon release, the film received overwhelmingly positive reviews and Roshan's portrayal of Ethan Mascarenhas, a quadriplegic patient earned him several Best Actor nominations at various award ceremonies.
In July 2011, he appeared in Zoya Akhtar's Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara alongside Abhay Deol, Farhan Akhtar, Katrina Kaif, Kalki Koechlin. The film opened to positive reviews, and Roshan's portrayal was praised. According to Rajeev Masand, "Hrithik Roshan once again brings real depth to his character with a spectacular performance. He’s shy and restrained, then lets go with such fantastic intensity that you make the inward journey with his character".[28] The film was declared as "super-hit" in both in India and Overseas.[29] In the same year Roshan featured as a judge for the dance competition reality show, Just Dance along with Farah Khan and Vaibhavi Merchant.[30][31] The show got the highest opening (a cumulative TRP of 4.7) for a reality show that year for which he was voted as the best TV host by a poll conducted by Ormax Media.[32] In 2012, he then appeared in Agneepath in which he reprise the role of Vijay Deenanath Chauhan opposite Priyanka Chopra. The film has taken a historic opening and has broken all opening-day records.[33]
Besides acting, Roshan made his debut as a singer in Kites, and has also sung in the films Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara and Guzaarish.[34]
A life-size wax figure was installed at London's Madame Tussauds Wax Museum on 20 January 2011, making him the fifth Indian actor to have been replicated as a wax statue in the museum.[35]
Personal life[link]
Roshan was born in Mumbai to a Hindu family of cinema personalities. His father, film director Rakesh Roshan, is the son of music director Roshan, while his mother, Pinky, is the daughter of producer and director J. Om Prakash. Hrithik has an elder sister, Sunaina. His uncle Rajesh Roshan is a famous music director. As a child, Roshan attended the Bombay Scottish School.[36] He later attended Sydenham College, where he earned a bachelor's degree in Commerce.[37]
During an interview he revealed that his childhood was traumatized because of stammering, a defect that surfaced when he was around six years old and plagues him even today. "For oral tests at school, I used to bunk school, I used to fall sick, I used to break my hand, I used to get a sprain" the actor said. He however said that things improved for him gradually, after he started practicing speech therapies on a daily basis.[38]
Roshan is married to Suzanne (Khan) Roshan, owner of Suzanne Roshan's House of Design and daughter of actor Sanjay Khan. Hrithik got married to Suzanne on 20 December 2000. The couple have two sons, Hrehaan, born in 2006 and Hridhaan born in 2008.[39][40] Roshan has two thumbs on his right hand.[41] Although it is usually hidden in his films, it was not hidden in Koi... Mil Gaya, and was even used as a minor plot point, as Jaadoo the alien was also designed to have two thumbs.[42]
Filmography[link]
| Year | Film | Role | Other notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1980 | Aasha | Sunny (Child artist) | |
| 1980 | Aap Ke Deewane | Child artist | |
| 1986 | Bhagwan Dada | Govinda (Child artist) | |
| 2000 | Kaho Naa... Pyaar Hai | Rohit/Raj Chopra | Filmfare Award for Best Actor Filmfare Award for Best Male Debut |
| 2000 | Fiza | Amaan Ikramullah | Nominated—Filmfare Award for Best Actor |
| 2000 | Mission Kashmir | Altaaf Khan | |
| 2001 | Yaadein | Ronit Malhotra | |
| 2001 | Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... | Rohan Raichand | Nominated—Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actor |
| 2002 | Aap Mujhe Achche Lagne Lage | Rohit | |
| 2002 | Na Tum Jaano Na Hum | Rahul Sharma | |
| 2002 | Mujhse Dosti Karoge! | Raj Khanna | |
| 2003 | Main Prem Ki Diwani Hoon | Prem Kishen Mathur | |
| 2003 | Koi... Mil Gaya | Rohit Mehra | Filmfare Award for Best Actor Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor |
| 2004 | Lakshya | Karan Shergill | Nominated—Filmfare Award for Best Actor |
| 2006 | Krrish | Krishna Mehra (Krrish)/ Rohit Mehra |
Nominated—Filmfare Award for Best Actor |
| 2006 | Dhoom 2 | Aryan Singh/Mr.A | Filmfare Award for Best Actor |
| 2006 | I See You | Special appearance in song "Subah Subah" | |
| 2008 | Jodhaa Akbar | Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar | Filmfare Award for Best Actor |
| 2008 | Krazzy 4 | Special appearance in song "Krazzy 4" | |
| 2009 | Luck by Chance | Ali Zaffar Khan | |
| 2010 | Kites | Jai Singhania | |
| 2010 | Guzaarish | Ethan Mascarenhas | Nominated—Filmfare Award for Best Actor |
| 2011 | Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara | Arjun Saluja | Nominated—Filmfare Award for Best Actor |
| 2011 | Don 2 | Special appearance | |
| 2012 | Agneepath | Vijay Deenanath Chauhan | |
| 2013 | Krrish 3 | Krishna Mehra/Krrish | Filming [43] |
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ "Hrithik Roshan overview and filmography". IMDb. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0004335/. Retrieved 2009-04-20.
- ^ "The Hrithik Roshan Station". IBOS. http://ibosnetwork.com/asp/clsActorDisplay.asp?actor=Hrithik+Roshan&layout=filmography. Retrieved 2011-08-30.
- ^ a b c d "Hrithik the super hero...". Indiatimes Movies. 3 March 2009. http://movies.indiatimes.com/News-Gossip/News/Hrithik-the-super-hero-/articleshow/2830710.cms. Retrieved 2009-08-15.
- ^ a b "Jodhaa Akbar, Hrithik win awards at Golden Minbar Film Festival in Russia". Bollywood Hungama. 23 October 2008. http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/2008/10/23/12089/index.html. [dead link]
- ^ N, Patcy (19 December 2006). "Mr Talented". Rediff.com. http://specials.rediff.com/yearend/2006/dec/19yrsl1.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-08.
- ^ "Boxofficeindia.com". Boxofficeindia.com. http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=127&catName=MjAwMC0yMDA5. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
- ^ a b "Box Office 2000". http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=206&catName=MjAwMA==. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
- ^ Rajendran, Girija (18 August 2000). "A perfect professional has come to stay". Chennai, India: The Hindu. http://www.hindu.com/2000/08/18/stories/09180221.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-08.
- ^ Mitlal, Madhur (7 January 2001). "A year of surprises and shocks". The Tribune. http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010107/spectrum/bolly.htm. Retrieved 2009-08-15.
- ^ a b Verma, Sukanya (15 December 2003). "Bollywood's top 5, 2003: Hrithik Roshan". Rediff.com. http://in.rediff.com/movies/2003/dec/15intro.htm. Retrieved 2009-05-08.
- ^ "2003 tidbits". http://www.hrithikrules.com/filmography/knph/Limca.htm. Retrieved 2007-02-13.
- ^ "Fiza: Movie Review". http://www.indiafm.com/movies/review/6577/index.html. Retrieved 2000-12-15.
- ^ "Top Actors". http://boxofficeindia.com/cpages.php?pageName=top_actors. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
- ^ "Box Office 2001". http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=207&catName=MjAwMQ==. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
- ^ a b "Overseas Earnings (Figures in Ind Rs)". http://boxofficeindia.com/cpages.php?pageName=overseas_earners. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
- ^ "Box Office 2002". http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=208&catName=MjAwMg==. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
- ^ "Box Office 2003". http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=209&catName=MjAwMw==. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
- ^ "Koi... Mil Gaya: Movie Review". http://www.indiafm.com/movies/review/7019/index.html. Retrieved 2003-08-08.
- ^ "80 Iconic Performances 5/10". Filmfare. http://www.filmfare.com/articles/80-iconic-performances-510-955.html. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
- ^ "Box Office 2004". http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=210&catName=MjAwNA==. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
- ^ "Lakshya: Movie Review". http://www.indiafm.com/movies/review/7151/index.html. Retrieved 2004-06-18.
- ^ a b "80 Iconic Performance 9/10". Filmfare. 2010-06-09. http://www.filmfare.com/articles/80-iconic-performance-910-990.html. Retrieved 2012-03-02.
- ^ a b "Box Office 2006". http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=212&catName=MjAwNg==. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
- ^ "Krrish: Movie Review". http://www.indiafm.com/movies/review/12415/index.html. Retrieved 2006-06-22.
- ^ "Dhoom 2: Movie Review". http://www.indiafm.com/movies/review/12546/index.html. Retrieved 2006-11-24.
- ^ "All Time Earners Inflation Adjusted". http://boxofficeindia.com/cpages.php?pageName=all_time_earners. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
- ^ "Box Office 2008". http://boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php?itemCat=215&catName=MjAwOA==. Retrieved 2009-03-04.
- ^ Masand, Rajeev. "Singin’ in (the) Spain!". Rajeev Masand – movies that matter. http://www.rajeevmasand.com/reviews/our-films/singin-in-the-spain/comment-page-1/#comment-3942. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
- ^ TOI, TNN (2011-08-10). "Singham and ZNMD continue to rule the BO". Times of India. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-08-10/box-office/29871593_1_singham-new-releases-films. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
- ^ "Just Dance Press Release by Star Plus". Starplus.startv.in. http://starplus.startv.in/news/1746/first-look-just-dance-with-hrithik-roshan.aspx. Retrieved 2011-06-16.
- ^ "‘Just Dance’ finally hits small screens with Hrithik Roshan on judging panel". Dubaichronicle.com. http://www.dubaichronicle.com/2011/06/16/hrithik-roshan-hits-the-small-screen-with-just-dance/. Retrieved 2011-06-16.
- ^ "Hrithik Roshan voted as the best TV host". Times of India. 2011-10-01. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-10-01/tv/30234682_1_hrithik-roshan-reality-show-tv-host. Retrieved 2011-10-01.
- ^ "I’m overwhelmed, relieved: Hrithik Roshan". The Times Of India. 2012-01-30. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-01-30/news-interviews/30676258_1_agneepath-karan-malhotra-vijay-dinanath-chauhan.
- ^ "Hrithik, Farhan and Abhay Deol sing for Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara". Bollywoodhungama.com. 2010-12-16. http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/news/2010/12/16/15085/index.html. Retrieved 2011-08-25. [dead link]
- ^ Hrithik Roshan's wax statue unveiled at Madame Tussauds[dead link]. Bollywoodhungama.com. Retrieved on 2011-04-26.
- ^ "Rediff On The NeT: Transcript of the Hrithik Roshan Chat". Rediff.com. http://www.rediff.com/chat/hritchat.htm. Retrieved 2011-08-25.
- ^ "Welcome To Sydenham College". Sydenham.edu. http://www.sydenham.edu/prominent_alumni.html. Retrieved 2011-08-25.
- ^ "Stammering made my childhood hell: Hrithik". indianexpress. 2009-09-24. http://indianexpress.com/news/stammering-made-my-childhood-hell-hrithik/521078/.htm. Retrieved 22 december 2010.
- ^ "Another son for Hrithik and Suzanne". Rediff.com. http://www.rediff.com/movies/2008/may/01son.htm. Retrieved 1 May 2008.
- ^ "Hrithik's son to be named Hridhaan". IANS, DNA News. http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?NewsID=1020810&CatID=1. Retrieved 23 March 2006.
- ^ Ahmed, Afsana (2004-06-01). "'Impossible dreams can come true'". Times of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/711649.cms. Retrieved 2009-10-18.
- ^ "'Koi... Mil Gaya'". mjsimpson. http://www.mjsimpson.co.uk/reviews/koimilgaya.html. Retrieved 2010-09-09.
- ^ "Rakesh Roshan gears up for Krrish 2". The Times of India. 2011-07-11. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-07-11/news-interviews/29760510_1_krrish-k2-film. Retrieved 2011-08-25.
External links[link]
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Roshan, Hrithik |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Actor |
| Date of birth | 1974-01-10 |
| Place of birth | Mumbai, Maharashtra, India |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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| Aishwarya Rai | |
|---|---|
 Aishwarya Rai in Cannes film festival 2012 |
|
| Born | Aishwarya Rai (1973-11-01) 1 November 1973 (age 38)[1] Mangalore, Karnataka, India |
| Residence | Mumbai, Maharashtra, India[2] |
| Other names | Aishwarya Rai Bachchan |
| Occupation | actor, model |
| Years active | 1991–present |
| Spouse | Abhishek Bachchan (2007–present) |
| Children | Aaradhya Bachchan |
| Signature | 150px |
Aishwarya Rai, known also as Aishwarya Rai Bachchan after her marriage[3] (Tulu pronunciation [əjɕʋərjaː rəj]; born 1 November 1973) is an Indian film actress. She worked as a model before starting her acting career, and ultimately won the Miss World pageant in 1994. Rai has featured in films in various languages including Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu, and Bengali.
Often cited by the media as the "most beautiful woman in the world",[4][5][6] Rai made her acting debut with Mani Ratnam's Tamil film Iruvar (1997), and had her first commercial success in Jeans (1998). She found success in Bollywood with Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam (1999) and Devdas (2002) and eventually won two Filmfare Awards in the Best Actress category.
After a series of unsuccessful films during 2003–2005, she appeared in the blockbuster action thriller Dhoom 2 (2006) and subsequently featured in such films as Guru (2007), Jodhaa Akbar (2008), and Enthiran (2010). She gained critical acclaim for her performances in offbeat, independent films such as Chokher Bali (2003), Raincoat (2004), and Provoked (2007).[7][8] Rai has thus established herself as one of the leading contemporary actresses of Indian cinema.[9][10]
Rai's off-screen roles include duties as brand ambassador for various charity organisations and campaigns. She is married to fellow actor Abhishek Bachchan, son of actors Amitabh Bachchan and Jaya Bachchan. In 2009 she was honoured with the Padma Shri, the fourth-highest civilian award given by the Government of India.
Contents |
Early life and background[link]
Rai was born into an ethnic Bunt[11] family in Mangalore, Karnataka.[12] Her father, Krishnaraj, was a marine biologist, while her mother, Brindya, is a housewife.[1] She has one elder brother, Aditya Rai, who is an engineer in the merchant navy. He co-produced one of her movies, Dil Ka Rishta (2003).[13]
The family moved to Mumbai, where Rai attended the Arya Vidya Mandir High School.[1] Rai did her intermediate schooling at Jai Hind College for a year,[14] and then joined DG Ruparel College[15] in Matunga, securing 90 percent in the HSC exams.[1][16] She trained in classical dance and music for five years during her teens.[16] Her favourite subject was zoology, so she initially considered a career in medicine.[16] With plans to become an architect, she enrolled at Raheja College, but later gave up her education to pursue a career in modelling.[14]
Modelling career[link]
One of her earliest modelling assignment was, when she was in the ninth grade, for Camlin Pencils.[16] One of her professors at Jai Hind College took pictures of her which were published in a fashion magazine.[17] In 1991 Rai took part in the Ford Supermodel Contest and also appeared in Vogue Magazine.[15] She has been on the cover of Vogue three times.[18]
Rai became popular after appearing in a Pepsi commercial with actor Aamir Khan.[16] She modelled for Longines watches, Coca-Cola,[19] Lakmé Cosmetics, Casio pager, Philips, Palmolive,[17] Lux, and Fuji films.[20] She continued to model while pursuing her studies in architecture.[1][17] She was named the official brand ambassador for De Beers diamonds in India.[20]
In the 1994 Miss India contest, she won second place, behind Sushmita Sen, and was crowned Miss India World.[21] She went on to win the Miss World[22] title the same year, where she also won the Miss Photogenic award.[23] After winning the pageant, she gave up her studies and spent one year reigning as Miss World in London.[21] Rai continued to pursue a career as a model until she became an actress.[24]
Acting career[link]
Early work (1997–98)[link]
Rai made her acting debut in Mani Ratnam's Tamil biopic film Iruvar (1997), where she worked alongside Mohanlal.[25] The film was a critical success and won many awards, including Best Film award at the Belgrade International Film Festival,[26] and two National Film Awards.[26] Rai appeared in dual roles, one of which was a depiction of political leader and former actress J. Jayalalithaa.[27] Rai made her Bollywood debut in the film in Aur Pyaar Ho Gaya, opposite Bobby Deol, which released the same year; the film was unsuccessful at the box office.[28] Her third project, Jeans (1998), a high-budget Tamil film directed by S. Shankar, was a commercial success. The film included the song "Poovukkul", written by Vairamuthu, in which Rai's character is compared to the seven wonders of the world and described as the eighth.[29][30] The film was India's official entry to the Academy Awards in that year.[31]
Success (1999–2002)[link]
In 1999 Rai starred in Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam, opposite Salman Khan and Ajay Devgan.[32] The film had Rai playing Nandini, who is forced to marry Devgan despite being in love with another man (Khan). Her husband tries to help her locate her previous love, and his caring attention eventually wins her over. Rai's portrayal won her critical acclaim, with a review on Rediff.com stating, "Aishwarya looks beautiful as usual ... This film will most likely draw her accolades from all over, may be even get her recognised as an actress the way Manisha Koirala did in Khamoshi. In many scenes, there is no trace of makeup and she looks very fresh".[33] The film was her first box office success in Bollywood, and earned her a Filmfare Best Actress Award.[34]
In the same year she appeared in Subhash Ghai's Taal,[35] in which she played Mansi, a young village woman who becomes a big pop star after being hurt by her lover, played by Akshay Khanna. The film was an average grosser in India but was a big success outside India, especially in the United States, where it became the first Indian film in the top 20 on Variety's box office list.[36] Her performance was praised, with a reviewer from Rediff.com writing, "After being praised for her looks and acting talent in Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam, Aishwarya has excelled in Taal. She looks ethereal and unlike the former film, has a very sober and soft role. Though she looks pained and tragic in most of the film, she does a good job of a woman who is very protective of her father and one who doesn't think twice before rejecting a lover who has insulted her father."[37] She received another Best Actress nomination from the Filmfare Awards for her work in the film.[38]
In 2000 she appeared in Mansoor Khan's Josh alongside Shahrukh Khan and Chandrachur Singh, in which she plays a Catholic named Shirley who falls in love with the sibling of her brother's enemy.[39] The film was a commercial success.[40] Later that year she appeared in Satish Kaushik's Hamara Dil Aapke Paas Hai, opposite Anil Kapoor. It was a moderate success, and her performance earned her a Filmfare Best Actress Award nomination.[41] Later that year she played a supporting role in Aditya Chopra's Mohabbatein, alongside Amitabh Bachchan and Shahrukh Khan. The second-highest grosser of the year, the film was a major commercial success, and earned her a Filmfare Best Supporting Actress Award nomination.[41][42] Later that year, she starred in the Tamil film Kandukondain Kandukondain, alongside Mammooty, Ajith Kumar, and Tabu. Rai plays Tabu's younger sibling, a dreamer at heart, whose hopes come crashing down when she discovers she's been cheated by her lover.[43] Directed by Rajiv Menon, the movie was a successful venture commercially.[7][44]
In 2002 Rai appeared alongside Shahrukh Khan and Madhuri Dixit in Sanjay Leela Bhansali's Devdas, an adaptation of Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay's novel of the same name.[45] She played the role of Paro (Parvati), the love interest of the protagonist, played by Khan. The film received a special screening at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival.[46] It became the highest-grossing film of the year in India and overseas, earning a revenue of Rs 390 million domestically.[47][48] Devdas won numerous awards, including 10 Filmfare Awards, and Rai received her second Filmfare Best Actress Award for her performance.[49]
Professional setback (2003–05)[link]
In 2003 she acted in Rituparno Ghosh's Bengali film Chokher Bali, an adaptation of Rabindranath Tagore's novel of the same name.[50] She portrays the character of a young woman called Binodini,[51] who is left on her own when her sickly husband dies soon after they are married.[52] Rai's performance in the film was well-received by critics, with "Derek Elley" from Variety writing, "Rai dominates the film with her delicately sensual presence and physical grace".[53] The film was critically acclaimed and did well at the box office,[54][55] That year she appeared in the Bollywood film Dil Ka Rishta, with Arjun Rampal, and Rohan Sippy's Kuch Na Kaho, alongside Abhishek Bachchan,[56] neither of which fared well at the box office.[56][57]
In 2004 she appeared alongside Martin Henderson in Bride and Prejudice, Gurinder Chadha's Bollywood-style English adaptation of Jane Austen's Pride and Prejudice. She played Lalita Bakshi, the film's version of Austen's character Elizabeth Bennet. Based on 131 reviews, the film has a rating of 64 percent at the review website Rotten Tomatoes.[58] She played a negative role for the first time in Rajkumar Santoshi's Khakee, which also featured Amitabh Bachchan, Akshay Kumar, Ajay Devgan, and Jayapradha. The film was a box office success.[59] In the same year she worked with director Rituparno Ghosh for the second time, in Raincoat, where she starred alongside Ajay Devgan. The film was highly acclaimed by critics, with Rai receiving rave reviews for her performance.[60] The Hindu commented "Raincoat can easily be Aishwarya Rai's best performance, and as Neerja, the former beauty queen appears to have shed her inhibitions about looking unglamorous. What is more, she seems to have made an earnest effort to emote, using less of her body and limbs and more of her face, and eyes in particular".[61]
In 2005 she appeared in Shabd, a film based on a love triangle, alongside Sanjay Dutt and Zayed Khan. The film was unsuccessful at the box office; it received average reviews from critics.[62] Her next release was Paul Mayeda Berges's The Mistress of Spices, based on the novel of the same name by Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni,[63] in which she starred alongside Dylan McDermott.[64] The film received negative reviews from critics,[65] and was a commercial failure.[66] The same year she made a special appearance in a hugely popular seven-minute dance sequence for the song "Kajra Re", with Amitabh Bachchan and Abhishek Bachchan, in Shaad Ali's Bunty Aur Babli.[67]
Recent work (2006–present)[link]
In 2006 Rai portrayed the title role in J P Dutta's Umrao Jaan, the story of a courtesan and poetess from 19th-century Lucknow. The movie is the second adaptation of the Urdu novel Umrao Jaan Ada (1905), by Mirza Hadi Ruswa. Rai's work received mixed reviews, and the film was a critical and commercial failure. Critics particularly felt the new version is poor when compared to the acclaimed 1981 version by Muzaffar Ali, which starred Rekha in the title role. BBC critic Poonam Joshi wrote, "While only Aishwarya could emulate the grace and poise of Rekha, she doesn't quite capture the intensity of Umrao's abiding melancholy", commenting that "her incandescent beauty and artistry... does indeed keep the audience watching, though not necessarily emotionally engaged."[68] Later that year she appeared as a master thief, Sunheri, in the Yash Raj Films production of Dhoom 2, directed by Sanjay Gadhvi. The ensemble cast included Hrithik Roshan, Abhishek Bachchan, Bipasha Basu, and Uday Chopra. The movie was a blockbuster, and became the highest grossing film of the year in India, earning revenues of over Rs 770 million domestically.[69] A controversy arose regarding a scene containing a kiss between her and Hrithik Roshan.[70] Rai's performance received mostly negative reviews, with a reviewer on Rediff.com writing, "Ash's character too is all gloss and no depth. You seldom feel any tension in her behaviour and expressions as she accompanies the master thief on potentially dangerous missions. Sunehri enters the film nearly 50 minutes after its opening in a disguise. In no time, she is wearing the flimsiest of clothes. Once she opens her mouth—and she does it two minutes after appearing in the film—she spoils the image. There is no sensuality any more, and half an hour later, one wonders what made the master thief fall for her."[71] Nonetheless, her performance earned her a sixth nomination for Filmfare Best Actress Award.
In 2007 she appeared in Mani Ratnam's Guru as Sujata. Speculated to be based on the life of Indian businessman Dhirubhai Ambani, it is a rag to riches story about an ambitious small-town man who ends up as the owner of the biggest corporation in India. The film premièred at the Elgin Theatre in Toronto, Canada, the first Indian film to have a mainstream international premiere in that country.[72][73] The film was critically acclaimed, and performed well at the box office.[74] Critical reception for Rai was mixed. While Nikhat Kazmi from The Times of India wrote that she is "just okay, and fails to register the growth in her character", Rediff.com's Raja Sen described it as "arguably her finest performance, visible especially when she takes over the film's climax."[75][76] Rai received her seventh Filmfare nomination for Best Actress for her performance. In the same year she starred alongside Naveen Andrews and Miranda Richardson in Jag Mundhra's British film Provoked, as Kiranjit Ahluwalia, an Non-resident Indian woman who kills her abusive husband after facing severe domestic violence. Rai received mostly positive reviews for her portrayal. It was screened in the Marché du Film Cannes Film Market during the 2006 Cannes Film Festival. Ahluwalia sat next to Rai during the screening, reportedly holding her hand and sobbing during the most violent scenes.[77] In the same year Rai appeared as a warrior from Kerala named Mira in Doug Lefler's epic film The Last Legion, alongside Sir Ben Kingsley, Colin Firth, and Thomas Sangster. The film was a critical failure.[78]
In 2008 Rai starred alongside Hrithik Roshan in Ashutosh Gowariker's historical drama Jodhaa Akbar. The story is a partly fictionalised account of the life of Muslim Mughal emperor Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar, played by Roshan, and his Hindu wife Jodha Bai, played by Rai. The film was a critical and commercial success, earning revenues of over Rs 590 million domestically. Rai's performance in the film was praised by critics, with Rajeev Masand writing, "Aishwarya Rai is wonderfully restrained and uses her eyes expertly to communicate so much, making this one of her finest outings on screen".[79] She earned her eighth nomination for Best Actress at the Filmfare Awards for her performance. Later that year she co-starred with husband Abhishek Bachchan and father-in-law Amitabh Bachchan in Ram Gopal Verma's Sarkar Raj, a sequel to his previous film, Sarkar.[80] She plays the CEO of a major power company that is proposing a new power plant in rural Maharashtra. The film was a critical and commercial success.[81][82]
In 2009 she appeared in Harald Zwart's spy comedy film The Pink Panther 2, playing the role of criminology expert Sonia Solandres. Like its predecessor, the sequel received negative reviews from critics,[83] and did a moderate business of $34,590,360 at the U.S box office.[84] In 2010 she collaborated with Mani Ratnam for a bilingual project, two films featuring Rai portraying a character based on the goddess Sita. The films were shot simultaneously, with Rai's role being one of the only roles which were played by the same performer in both versions. Upon release, the project received mixed reviews. Though both her portrayals of Ragini were praised, the Hindi version—Raavan, alongside Abhishek Bachchan—failed commercially, whilst the Tamil version—Raavanan—was successful. The Hindi version of the film got decent reviews in various US media, including the New York Times and Los Angeles Times, with the former saying, "Raavan has Bollywood glamour aplenty, with the lovely if occasionally dramatically challenged Aishwarya Rai Bachchan", and the latter describing Rai as a scene-stealer.[85]
Rai paired with Rajinikanth in the science fiction Tamil film Enthiran (2010), directed by S. Shankar.[86] The film—the most expensive ever made in India—was released worldwide in 2010, and is the highest-grossing Indian film when all its versions are totalled.[87][88][89] She appeared in Vipul Shah's Action Replayy opposite Akshay Kumar, which received mixed reviews from critics. Rai's final release in 2010 was Guzaarish, her third collaboration with director Sanjay Leela Bhansali and actor Hrithik Roshan. The film tells the story of Ethan Mascarenhas (Roshan), a former magician who has been quadriplegic for twelve years; after years of struggle he files an appeal to the court for euthanasia. Rai played Ethan's strict, devoted, and supportive nurse Sophie D'Souza. The film opened to positive reviews, and Rai's portrayal was praised. According to Nikhat Kazmi, "Aishwarya is a stunning picture of fire and grace, walking away with certain scenes by her sheer vitality."[90][91] In 2011 she received her ninth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actress. As of May 2011, she is set to appear in Rajkumar Santoshi's next film, Ladies and Gentlemen, along with Abhishek Bachchan,[92] and in Madhur Bhandarkar's next directorial venture, Heroine.[93] The shooting of both films was postponed, due to Rai's pregnancy.[94][95] She will not appear in Heroine, which is going forward with Kareena Kapoor.[96]
Social work[link]
In 1999 Rai participated in a world tour called the Magnificent Five, along with Aamir Khan, Rani Mukerji, Akshaye Khanna, and Twinkle Khanna.[97] In the same year, she was appointed as Longines Ambassador of Elegance.[98] In 2003 she became the first Indian actress to be a jury member at the Cannes Film Festival.[99] In 2003 she became a global brand ambassador of L'Oréal, alongside Andie MacDowell, Eva Longoria, and Penélope Cruz.[100][101] Rai is the brand ambassador for The Eye Bank Association of India's nationwide campaign to promote eye donation in India.[102] In 2005 she became a brand ambassador for Pulse Polio, a campaign established by the Government of India in 1994 to eradicate polio in India.[103] In the same year, Rai was appointed spokesperson for the International Year of Microcredit, raising awareness of the main goals and priorities of the United Nations' poverty alleviation efforts.[104][105]
In February 2005 Rai performed alongside other Bollywood stars at the HELP! Telethon Concert, an event to raise money for the victims of the 2004 tsunami earthquake.[106] Along with other members of the Bachchan family, she laid the foundation of a special school for underprivileged girls in Daulatpur village in Uttar Pradesh in 2008. Construction is being funded by the Bachchan family, and the school will be named after Rai.[107] She appeared along with various other Bollywood actors at the closing ceremony of the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne. The performance showcased Indian culture as a lead-up to India hosting the 2010 Commonwealth Games.[108]
In 2009 Rai was appointed as the first Goodwill Ambassador of Smile Train, an international charity that provides free Cleft lip and palate surgery to children in need. Her work with Smile Train will focus not only on India, but on 76 different developing countries around the world.[109][110]
Personal life[link]
In 1999 Aishwarya began dating Bollywood actor Salman Khan; their relationship was often reported in the media until the couple separated in 2001. Rai cited "abuse (verbal, physical and emotional), infidelity and indignity" on the part of Khan as reasons for ending the relationship.[111] In a 2009 Times of India article, Khan denied ever beating her: "It's not true that I hit a woman."[112]
Rai is married to actor Abhishek Bachchan, they met in 1997.[18] Their engagement was announced on 14 January 2007 and later confirmed by his father, Amitabh Bachchan.[113] The couple married on 20 April 2007 according to traditional Hindu rites of the Bunt community, to which she belongs.[114] Token North Indian and Bengali ceremonies were also performed. The wedding took place in a private ceremony at the Bachchan residence, "Prateeksha", in Juhu, Mumbai.[114] They have been described as a supercouple in the Indian media.[115][116] Rai is very close to her family and lived with them in Bandra, Mumbai, until her marriage.[117][118] Rai is Hindu and deeply religious.[4]
Rai gave birth to a baby girl on 16 November 2011.[119] Her daughter became quite popular by the name of "Beti B" which was christened by the fans and the media, since the couple took over four months to name their daughter. The baby girl was finally named as Aaradhya Bachchan in March 2012.[120]
Awards and honours[link]
Main article: List of awards and nominations received by Aishwarya Rai
Aishwarya Rai is a two-time winner of the Filmfare Best Actress Award, and has been nominated for Filmfare Awards eleven times.[41][121] She has won numerous times at the International Indian Film Academy Awards, Star Screen Awards, Zee Cine Awards, and others. In 2009 Rai was awarded the Padma Shri, the fourth-highest Indian civilian award, for her contributions to Indian cinema.[122] In 2001 Forbes named Rai among the top five Indian movie stars.[123] In a reader poll conducted by UK's Hello! magazine, she was voted "the most attractive woman of 2003".[124] In the same year, Rai appeared in Rolling Stone magazine's annual "Hot List".[125] In 2004 she was chosen by TIME magazine as one of the world's most influential people, and appeared on the cover of its 2003 Asia edition.[126][127][128] In October 2004 a wax figure of Rai was put on display in London's Madame Tussaud's wax museum.[129] She was the sixth Indian and the second Bollywood personality—after her father-in-law, Amitabh Bachchan—to get this honour. In 2007 the same figure was displayed at Madame Tussaud's Museum in Times Square in New York.[130]
In 2005 she was the subject of a 60 Minutes profile on 2 January, which said that "at least according to thousands of Web sites, Internet polls and even Julia Roberts", she was "the world's most beautiful woman".[4] The same year, a tulip in the Netherlands was named "Aishwarya Rai" after her.[131] Also in 2005, Mattel released a limited edition of Barbie dolls of Aishwarya Rai in the United Kingdom.[132] The British magazine Maxim ranked Rai first on their list of "Hottest Women of India".[133]
Rai appeared on such shows as Late Show with David Letterman, and was the first Bollywood personality to appear on Oprah's "Women Across the Globe" segment. In 2005 Harpers and Queen's list of "Most Beautiful Women in The World" ranked her ninth.[134] In May 2006 Aishwarya was featured in People Magazine as one of the "World's Most Beautiful People".[135] The UK magazine Eastern Eye ranked her third in the list of "Asia's Sexiest Women" in 2006,[136] and she was ranked eighth in 2009.[137] In 2008 American television channel E!: Entertainment listed Aishwarya's eyes as the sexiest on their Sexiest Body Parts list.[138] In 2009 she made appearances on Martha Stewart's show Martha and on the The Tyra Banks Show.[139][140] In the same year Forbes listed Rai at 387th out of 1,411 actors on their list of the most bankable stars in Hollywood. She is the highest-ranked Indian actor on the list.[141][142]
In 2009, Rai refused to accept the second-highest Order Of France, Ordre des Arts et des Lettres, as her father was suffering from a serious illness, and she wanted her whole family to attend the award ceremony.[143] She is the fourth Indian actor—after Sivaji Ganesan, Nandita Das, and Shahrukh Khan—to be chosen for the award. Amitabh Bachchan was chosen for another Order Of France, the Legion of Honour.[144] In June 2009 she was declared the Female Star of The Decade at the tenth International Indian Film Academy Awards, held in Macau.[145] In December 2010 she was declared the "Actress of the Decade" at the BIG Star Entertainment Awards.[146] In March 2011 Rai was honoured by Karnataka Chief Minister B. S. Yeddyurappa at World Kannada Meet (Vishwa Kannada Sammelana) for her contributions to the arts.[147] Later that month she was presented with the "Decade of Global Achievement Honour" by FICCI.[148] She attended the 83rd Academy Awards, along with her husband, Abhishek.[149]
Filmography[link]
| Year | Title | Language | Role | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1997 | Iruvar | Tamil | Pushpavalli / Kalpana | Dubbed into Telugu as Iddaru |
| 1997 | Aur Pyaar Ho Gaya | Hindi | Ashi Kapoor | |
| 1998 | Jeans | Tamil | Madhumita | Dubbed into Telugu and Hindi with the same title |
| 1999 | Aa Ab Laut Chalen | Hindi | Pooja | |
| 1999 | Hum Dil De Chuke Sanam | Hindi | Nandini | Filmfare Best Actress Award |
| 1999 | Ravoyi Chandamama | Telugu | Special appearance | |
| 1999 | Taal | Hindi | Mansi | Nominated—Filmfare Best Actress Award Dubbed into Tamil as Thaalam |
| 2000 | Mela | Hindi | Champakali | Guest appearance |
| 2000 | Kandukondain Kandukondain | Tamil | Meenakshi Bala | Dubbed into Telugu as Priyuralu Pilichindi |
| 2000 | Josh | Hindi | Shirley | |
| 2000 | Hamara Dil Aapke Paas Hai | Hindi | Preeti Virat | Nominated—Filmfare Best Actress Award |
| 2000 | Dhaai Akshar Prem Ke | Hindi | Sahiba Grewal | |
| 2000 | Mohabbatein | Hindi | Megha | Nominated—Filmfare Best Supporting Actress Award |
| 2001 | Albela | Hindi | Sonia | |
| 2002 | Hum Tumhare Hain Sanam | Hindi | Suman | Guest appearance |
| 2002 | Hum Kisi Se Kum Nahin | Hindi | Komal Rastogi | |
| 2002 | 23 March 1931: Shaheed | Hindi | Special appearance | |
| 2002 | Devdas | Hindi | Parvati (Paro) | Filmfare Best Actress Award |
| 2002 | Shakti: The Power | Hindi | Herself | Special appearance in song "Ishq Kamina" |
| 2003 | Chokher Bali | Bengali | Binodhini | |
| 2003 | Dil Ka Rishta | Hindi | Tia Sharma | |
| 2003 | Kuch Naa Kaho | Hindi | Namrata Shrivastav | |
| 2004 | Bride & Prejudice | English | Lalita Bakshi | Dubbed into Hindi as Balle Balle Amritsar to LA |
| 2004 | Khakee | Hindi | Mahalakshmi | |
| 2004 | Kyun...! Ho Gaya Na | Hindi | Diya Malhotra | |
| 2004 | Raincoat | Hindi | Neerja | Nominated—Filmfare Best Actress Award |
| 2005 | Shabd | Hindi | Antara Vashist/Tammana | |
| 2005 | Bunty Aur Babli | Hindi | Special appearance in the song "Kajra Re" | |
| 2005 | Mistress of Spices | English | Tilo | |
| 2006 | Umrao Jaan | Hindi | Umrao Jaan | |
| 2006 | Dhoom 2 | Hindi | Sunehri | Nominated—Filmfare Best Actress Award |
| 2007 | Guru | Hindi | Sujata | Nominated—Filmfare Best Actress Award Dubbed into Tamil as Guru and Telugu as Gurukanth |
| 2007 | Provoked | English | Kiranjit Ahluwalia | Dubbed into Hindi with the same title |
| 2007 | The Last Legion | English | Mira | |
| 2008 | Jodhaa Akbar | Hindi | Jodhaa Bai | Nominated—Filmfare Best Actress Award Dubbed into Tamil and Telugu with the same title |
| 2008 | Sarkar Raj | Hindi | Anita Rajan | |
| 2009 | The Pink Panther 2 | English | Sonia Solandres | Dubbed into French as La Pantera Rosa 2 |
| 2010 | Raavan | Hindi | Ragini Sharma | |
| 2010 | Raavanan | Tamil | Ragini Subramaniam | Dubbed into Telugu as Villain |
| 2010 | Enthiran | Tamil | Sana | Dubbed into Telugu as Robo and Hindi as Robot |
| 2010 | Action Replayy | Hindi | Mala | |
| 2010 | Guzaarish | Hindi | Sofia D'Souza | Nominated—Filmfare Best Actress Award |
See also[link]
References[link]
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Further reading[link]
- Ghosh, Biswadeep (2004). Hall of Fame: Aishwarya Rai. Mumbai: Magna Books. ISBN 978-81-7809-244-7. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=tChlAAAAMAAJ&q=aishwarya+rai&dq=aishwarya+rai&hl=en&ei=GC3nTae4HoKiuQOrwbz_DQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CDwQ6AEwAQ. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
External links[link]
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Rai, Aishwarya |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Indian actress |
| Date of birth | 1 November 1973 |
| Place of birth | Mangalore, Karnataka, India |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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