Coordinates | 19°28′58″N99°11′00″N |
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name | The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine |
alt | A golden medallion with an embossed image of a bearded man facing left in profile. To the left of the man is the text "ALFR•" then "NOBEL", and on the right, the text (smaller) "NAT•" then "MDCCCXXXIII" above, followed by (smaller) "OB•" then "MDCCCXCVI" below. |
description | Discoveries in Physiology or Medicine that led to benefit for mankind |
presenter | Nobel Assembly at Karolinska Institutet |
country | Sweden |
year | 1901 |
website | nobelprize.org }} |
As of 2010, 101 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 196 men, and 10 women. The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil Adolf von Behring, for his work on serum therapy and the development of a vaccine against diphtheria. The first woman to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, Gerty Cori, received it in 1947 for her role in elucidating the metabolism of glucose, important in many aspects of medicine, including treatment of diabetes. In 2010, the prize was awarded to Robert G. Edwards of the United Kingdom for the development of in vitro fertilization.
Some awards have been controversial. This includes one to António Egas Moniz in 1949 for the prefrontal leucotomy, bestowed despite protests from the medical establishment. Other controversies resulted from disagreements over who was included in the award. The 1952 prize to Selman Waksman was litigated in court, and half the patent rights awarded to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz who was not recognized by the prize. The 1962 prize awarded to James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins for their work on DNA structure and properties did not acknowledge the contributing work from others, such as Oswald Avery and Rosalind Franklin who had died by the time of the nomination. Since the Nobel Prize rules forbid nominations of the deceased, longevity is an asset, one prize being awarded as long as 50 years after the discovery. Also forbidden is awarding any one prize to more than three recipients, and since in the last half century there has been an increasing tendency for scientists to work as teams, this rule has resulted in controversial exclusions.
Alfred Nobel was born on October 21, 1833 in Stockholm, Sweden into a family of engineers. He was a chemist, engineer and inventor who amassed a fortune during his lifetime, most of it from his 355 inventions of which dynamite is the most famous. He was interested in experimental physiology and set up his own labs in France and Italy to conduct experiments in blood transfusions. Keeping abreast of scientific findings, he was generous in his donations to Ivan Pavlov's laboratory in Russia, and was optimistic about the progress resulting from scientific discoveries made in laboratories.
In 1888, Nobel was surprised to read his own obituary, titled ''‘The merchant of death is dead’'', in a French newspaper. As it happened, it was Nobel's brother Ludvig who had died, but Nobel, unhappy with the content of the obituary and concerned that his legacy would reflect poorly on him, was inspired to change his will. In his last will, Nobel requested that his money be used to create a series of prizes for those who confer the "greatest benefit on mankind" in physics, chemistry, peace, physiology or medicine, and literature. Though Nobel wrote several wills during his lifetime, the last was written a little over a year before he died at the age of 63. Because his will was contested, it was not approved by the Storting (Norwegian Parliament) until April 26, 1897.
After Nobel´s death, the Nobel Foundation was set up to manage the assets of the bequest. In 1900, the Nobel Foundation's newly created statutes were promulgated by Swedish King Oscar II. According to Nobel's will, the Karolinska Institutet in Sweden, a medical school and research center, is responsible for the Prize in Physiology or Medicine. Today the prize is commonly referred to as the Nobel Prize in Medicine.
True to its mandate, the Committee has selected researchers working in the basic sciences over those who have made applied contributions. Harvey Cushing, a pioneering American neurosurgeon who identified Cushing's syndrome never was awarded the prize, nor was Sigmund Freud, as his psychoanalysis lacks hypotheses that can be tested experimentally. The public expected Jonas Salk or Albert Sabin to win the prize for their development of the polio vaccines, but instead the award went to John Enders, Thomas Weller, and Frederick Robbins whose basic discovery that the polio virus could reproduce in monkey cells in laboratory preparations was a fundamental finding that led to the elimination of the disease of polio.
Through the 1930s, there were frequent prize winners in classical Physiology, but after that the field began dissolving into specialties. The last classical physiology winners were John Eccles, Alan Hodgkin and Andrew Huxley in 1963 for their findings regarding "unitary electrical events in the central and peripheral nervous system."
The medal awarded by the Karolinska Institute displays an image of "the Genius of Medicine holding an open book in her lap, collecting the water pouring out from a rock in order to quench a sick girl's thirst." The medal is inscribed with words taken from Virgil's Aeneid and reads: ''Inventas vitam juvat excoluisse per artes'', which translates to "inventions enhance life which is beautified through art."
The first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded in 1901 to the German physiologist Emil Adolf von Behring. Behring's discovery of serum therapy in the development of the diphtheria and tetanus vaccines put "in the hands of the physician a victorious weapon against illness and deaths". In 1902, the award went to Ronald Ross for his work on malaria, "by which he has shown how it enters the organism and thereby has laid the foundation for successful research on this disease and methods of combating it". He identified the mosquito as the transmitter of malaria, and worked tirelessly on measures to prevent malaria worldwide. The 1903 prize was awarded to Niels Ryberg Finsen, the first Danish winner, "in recognition of his contribution to the treatment of diseases, especially lupus vulgaris, with concentrated light radiation, whereby he has opened a new avenue for medical science". He died within a year after receiving the prize at the age of 43. Pavlov, whose work Nobel admired and supported, won the prize in 1904 for his work on the physiology of digestion.
Subsequently, those selecting the recipients have exercised wide latitude in determining what falls under the umbrella of Physiology or Medicine. The awarding of the prize in 1973 to Nikolaas Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz and Karl von Frisch for their observations of animal behavioral patterns could be considered a prize in the behavioral sciences rather than medicine or physiology. Tinbergen expressed surprise in his Nobel Prize acceptance speech at "the unconventional decision of the Nobel Foundation to award this year’s prize ‘for Physiology or Medicine’ to three men who had until recently been regarded as ‘mere animal watchers’".
Laureates have won the Nobel Prize in a wide range of fields that relate to physiology or medicine. As of 2010, eight Prizes have been awarded for contributions in the field of signal transduction through G proteins and second messengers. 13 have been awarded for contributions in the field of neurobiology and 13 have been awarded for contributions in Intermediary metabolism. The 100 Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine have been awarded to 195 individuals through 2009. Ten women have won the prize: Gerty Cori (1947), Rosalyn Yalow (1977), Barbara McClintock (1983), Rita Levi-Montalcini (1986), Gertrude B. Elion (1988), Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard (1995), Linda B. Buck (2004), Françoise Barré-Sinoussi (2008), Elizabeth H. Blackburn (2009) and Carol W. Greider (2009). Only one woman, Barbara McClintock, has won an unshared prize in this category, for the discovery of genetic transposition. Mario Capecchi, Martin Evans and Oliver Smithies won the prize in 2007 for the discovery of a gene targeting procedure (a type of genetic recombination) for introducing homologous recombination in mice, employing embryonic stem cells through the development of the knockout mouse. There have been 37 times when the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to a single individual, 31 times when it was shared by two, and 32 times there were three winners (the maximum allowed).
In 2009, the Nobel Prize was awarded to Elizabeth Blackburn, Carol W. Greider and Jack W. Szostak of the United States for discovering the process by which chromosomes are protected by telomeres (regions of repetitive DNA at the ends of chromosomes) and the enzyme telomerase; they shared the prize of 10,000,000 SEK (slightly more than €1 million, or US$1.4 million). Rita Levi-Montalcini, an Italian neurologist, who together with colleague Stanley Cohen, received the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discovery of Nerve growth factor (NGF), is the oldest living Nobel Laureate, being over 100 as of June 2010.
Some of the awards have been controversial. Who was deserving of the 1923 prize for the discovery of insulin as a central hormone for controlling diabetes (awarded only a year after its discovery) has been heatedly debated. It was shared between Frederick Banting and John Macleod; this infuriated Banting who regarded Macleod's involvement as minimal. Macleod was the department head at the University of Toronto but otherwise was not directly involved in the findings. Banting thought his laboratory partner Charles Best, who had shared in the laboratory work of discovery, should have shared the prize with him as well. In fairness, he decided to give half of his prize money to Best. Macleod on his part felt the biochemist James Collip, who joined the laboratory team later, deserved to be included in the award and shared his prize money with him.
In 1949, despite protests from the medical establishment, the Portuguese neurologist António Egas Moniz received the Physiology or Medicine Prize for his development of the prefrontal leucotomy, which he promoted by declaring the procedure's success just 10 days postoperative. Due largely to the publicity surrounding the award, it was prescribed without regard for modern medical ethics. Favorable results were reported by such publications as ''The New York Times''. It is estimated that around 5,000 lobotomies were performed between 1949 and 1952 in the United States, until the procedure's popularity faded. Joseph Kennedy, the father of John Kennedy, subjected his daughter, Rosemary, to the procedure which incapacitated her to the degree that she needed to be institutionalized for the rest of her life.
The 1952 prize, awarded solely to Selman Waksman for his discovery of streptomycin, omitted the recognition some felt due to his co-discoverer Albert Schatz. There was litigation brought by Schatz against Waksman over the details and credit of the streptomycin discovery; Schatz was awarded a substantial settlement, and, together with Waksman, Schatz was to be officially recognized as a co-discoverer of streptomycin as far as patent rights. However, he is not recognized as a Nobel Prize winner.
The 1962 Prize awarded to James D. Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins—for their work on DNA structure and properties—did not recognize contributing work from others, such as Alec Stokes and Herbert Wilson. In addition, Erwin Chargaff, Oswald Avery and Rosalind Franklin (whose key DNA x-ray crystallography work was the most detailed yet least acknowledged among the three) contributed directly to the ability of Watson and Crick to solve the structure of the DNA molecule—but Avery died in 1955, and Franklin in 1958 and posthumous nominations for the Nobel Prize are not permitted. However, recently unsealed files of the Nobel Prize nominations reveal that no one ever nominated Franklin for the prize when she was alive. Wilkins' only contribution was to show Rosa Franklin's key x-ray photos to Watson. As a result of Watson's misrepresentations of Franklin and her role in the discovery of the double helix in his controversial book ''The Double Helix'', Franklin has come to be portrayed as a classic victim of sexism in science. Chargaff, for his part, was not quiet about his exclusion from the prize, bitterly writing to other scientists about his disillusionment regarding the field of molecular biology.
The 2008 award went to Harald zur Hausen in recognition of his discovery of the human papillomavirus (HPV) causing cervical cancer, and to Françoise Barré-Sinoussi and Luc Montagnier for discovering the Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Whether Robert Gallo or Luc Montagnier deserved more credit for the discovery of the virus that causes AIDS has been a matter of considerable controversy. As it was, Gallo was left out and not awarded a prize. Additionally, there was scandal when it was learned that Harald zur Hausen was being investigated for having a financial interest in vaccines for the cervical cancer HPV can cause. AstraZeneca, which has a stake in two lucrative HPV vaccines therefore can gain financially from the prize, had agreed to sponsor Nobel Media and Nobel Web. According to Times Online, two senior figures in the selection process that chose zur Hausen also had strong links with AstraZeneca.
*Physiology or Medicine, Nobel Prize in Category:Medicine awards Category:Karolinska Institutet
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This text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
Coordinates | 19°28′58″N99°11′00″N |
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name | Richard Timothy Hunt |
birth date | February 19, 1943 |
birth place | Neston, Cheshire, England |
residence | England |
citizenship | United Kingdom |
field | Biochemistry |
work institutions | Cancer Research UK South Mimms |
alma mater | University of Cambridge |
known for | Cell cycle regulation |
prizes | Abraham White Scientific Achievement Award (1993) Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2001) Royal Medal (2006) }} |
While doing summer work in 1982 at the Marine Biological Laboratory at Woods Hole, Massachusetts, using the sea urchin (''Arbacia punctulata'') egg as his model organism, he discovered the cyclin molecule. Hunt found that cyclins begin to be synthesised after the eggs are fertilized and increase in levels during interphase, until they drop very quickly in the middle of mitosis in each cell division. He also found that cyclins are present in vertebrate cells where they also regulate the cell cycle. He and others subsequently showed that the cyclins bind and activate a family of protein kinases, now called the cyclin-dependent kinases, one of which had been identified as a crucial cell cycle regulator by Paul Nurse.
In 1990, he began work at Imperial Cancer Research Fund, now known as the Cancer Research UK London Research Institute in the United Kingdom. He became a fellow of the Royal Society in 1991 and a foreign associate of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 1999. In 2001 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Leland Hartwell and Sir Paul Nurse for their discoveries regarding cell cycle regulation by cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinases. In 2006 he was awarded the Royal Medal for 'discovering a key aspect of cell cycle control, the protein cyclin which is a component of cyclin dependent kinases, demonstrating his ability to grasp the significance of the result outside his immediate sphere of interest'. He was knighted by the Queen in the same year.
He is a member of the Advisory Council for the Campaign for Science and Engineering.
Category:1943 births Category:Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences Category:Living people Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine Category:British Nobel laureates Category:Members of the European Molecular Biology Organization Category:English biochemists Category:English biologists Category:Old Dragons Category:Fellows of the Royal Society Category:Old Waynfletes Category:Fellows of Clare College, Cambridge Category:Alumni of Clare College, Cambridge Category:People from Neston Category:Royal Medal winners Category:Knights Bachelor
ar:تيم هانت ca:Tim Hunt da:R. Timothy Hunt de:Tim Hunt es:Tim Hunt fr:Tim Hunt hr:R. Timothy Hunt id:Richard Timothy Hunt it:R. Timothy Hunt nl:Tim Hunt ja:ティモシー・ハント no:Tim Hunt oc:Tim Hunt pnb:ٹم ہنٹ pl:Timothy Hunt pt:Richard Timothy Hunt ru:Хант, Тимоти simple:Tim Hunt fi:Tim Hunt sv:Tim Hunt uk:Тімоті Хант yo:Tim Hunt zh:蒂姆·亨特This text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
In July, 2011, Berg will leave leave his position at the NIH to become the Associate Vice Chancellor for Health Policy and Planning at the University of Pittsburgh as well as assume the role of professor in the University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine’s Department of Computational and Systems Biology. Joining Berg at Pitt will be his wife, Wendie, who will become a professor in the School of Medicine’s Department of Radiology.
Berg has bachelor's and master's degrees from Stanford University and a Ph.D. from Harvard University.
This text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
Coordinates | 19°28′58″N99°11′00″N |
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name | Gertrude Elion |
birth date | January 23, 1918 |
death date | February 21, 1999 |
awards | Garvan-Olin Medal (1968), Nobel Prize in Medicine (1988) National Medal of Science (1991) Lemelson-MIT Lifetime Achievement Award (1997) National Inventors Hall of Fame (1991) (first woman to be inducted) |
signature | |
spouse | }} |
Born in New York City to immigrant parents, she graduated from Hunter College in 1937 and New York University (M.Sc.) in 1941. Unable to obtain a graduate research position due to her gender, she worked as a lab assistant and a high school teacher. Later, she left to work as an assistant to George H. Hitchings at the Burroughs-Wellcome pharmaceutical company (now GlaxoSmithKline). She never obtained a formal Ph.D., but was later awarded an honorary Ph.D from Polytechnic University of New York in 1989 and honorary SD degree from Harvard university in 1998.
Rather than relying on trial-and-error, Elion and Hitchings used the differences in biochemistry between normal human cells and pathogens (disease-causing agents) to design drugs that could kill or inhibit the reproduction of particular pathogens without harming the host cells.
Elion's inventions include:
In 1988 Elion received the Nobel Prize in Medicine, together with Hitchings and Sir James Black. Other awards include the National Medal of Science (1991) and the Lemelson-MIT Lifetime Achievement Award (1997). In 1991 she became the first woman to be inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame.
In Tom Brokaw's ''Greatest Generation'', there is a chapter devoted to her.
Gertrude Elion died in North Carolina in 1999, aged 81. She had moved to the Research Triangle in 1970, and for a time served as a research professor at Duke University. She was unmarried.
Category:1918 births Category:1999 deaths Category:American biochemists Category:Jewish American scientists Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine Category:American Nobel laureates Category:American pharmacologists Category:People from New York City Category:National Inventors Hall of Fame inductees Category:National Medal of Science laureates Category:Lemelson-MIT Program Category:American biologists Category:Hunter College alumni Category:New York University alumni Category:Duke University faculty Category:Jewish inventors Category:Women Nobel Laureates Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society Category:Recipients of the Garvan–Olin Medal
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Coordinates | 19°28′58″N99°11′00″N |
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name | Ferid Murad |
birth date | September 14, 1936 |
birth place | Whiting, Indiana |
residence | Washington, D.C. |
citizenship | United States |
nationality | Albanian |
ethnicity | Albanian-American |
religion | Episcopalian |
field | Biochemistry, Pharmacology |
work institutions | University of Virginia (1970-81), Stanford (1981-88), Abbott Laboratories (1988-93), University of Texas (1997-2011), George Washington University (2011-Present) |
alma mater | DePauw University (BS, 1958) and Case Western Reserve University (MD-Ph.D., 1965) |
doctoral advisor | Earl Sutherland, Jr. and Theodore Rall |
known for | Discoveries concerning nitric oxide as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system |
prizes | Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1998) and the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (1996) }} |
Ferid Murad (born September 14, 1936) is an Albanian-American physician and pharmacologist, and a co-winner of the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine. He is also an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences and Arts of Kosovo.
Murad's key research demonstrated that nitroglycerin and related drugs worked by releasing nitric oxide into the body, which acted as a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system, making blood vessels dilate. The missing steps in the signaling process were filled in by Robert F. Furchgott and Louis J. Ignarro, for which the three shared the 1998 Nobel Prize (and for which Murad and Furchgott received the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research in 1996). There was some criticism, however, of the Nobel committee's decision not to award the prize to Salvador Moncada, who had independently reached the same results as Ignarro.
Category:1936 births Category:Living people Category:Case Western Reserve University alumni Category:DePauw University alumni Category:American people of Albanian descent Category:American scientists Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine Category:American Nobel laureates Category:Pharmacologists Category:Albanian scientists Category:Albanian Anglicans Category:George Washington University faculty Category:University of Texas at Austin faculty Category:University of Virginia faculty Category:Stanford University faculty Category:People from Lake County, Indiana Category:University of Virginia alumni
ar:فريد مراد be:Ферыд Мурад ca:Ferid Murad de:Ferid Murad es:Ferid Murad fa:فرید مراد fr:Ferid Murad hr:Ferid Murad id:Ferid Murad it:Ferid Murad nl:Ferid Murad ja:フェリド・ムラド no:Ferid Murad oc:Ferid Murad pnb:فیرد موراد pl:Ferid Murad pt:Ferid Murad ru:Мурад, Ферид sq:Ferid Murati sv:Ferid Murad uk:Ферід Мурад yo:Ferid MuradThis text is licensed under the Creative Commons CC-BY-SA License. This text was originally published on Wikipedia and was developed by the Wikipedia community.
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