Gaul on the eve of the Gallic Wars. Roman ethnography divides Gaul into five parts, Gallia Cisalpina, Gallia Narbonensis, Gallia Aquitania, Gallia Celtica (largely corresponding to the later province Gallia Lugdunensis) and Gallia Belgica.

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Gaul (Latin: Gallia, French: Gaule, Dutch: Gallië) was a region of Western Europe during the Iron Age and Roman era, encompassing present day France, Luxembourg and Belgium, most of Switzerland, the western part of Northern Italy, as well as the parts of the Netherlands and Germany on the left bank of the Rhine. The Gauls were the speakers of the Gaulish language (an early variety of Celtic) native to Gaul. According to the testimony of Julius Caesar, the Gaulish language proper was distinct from the Aquitanian language and the Belgic language.^[1] Archaeologically, the Gauls were bearers of the La Tène culture, which extended across all of Gaul, as well as east to Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia and southwestern Germania.

During the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, Gaul fell under Roman rule: Gallia Cisalpina was conquered in 203 BC and Gallia Narbonensis in 123 BC. Gaul was invaded by the Cimbri and the Teutons after 120 BC, who were in turn defeated by the Romans by 101 BC. Julius Caesar finally subdued the remaining parts of Gaul in his campaigns of 58 to 51 BC. Roman control of Gaul lasted for five centuries, until the last Roman rump state, the Domain of Soissons, fell to the Franks in AD 486. During this time, the Celtic culture had become amalgamated into a Gallo-Roman culture and the Gaulish language was likely extinct by the 6th century.

Name[link]

The Greek and Latin names for Gaul are ultimately derived from the Celtic ethnic or tribal names *Kel-to and Gal(a)-to-.^[2] Some modern linguists have suggested that the two variant Greek Keltoi and Galatai have a common origin.

Josephus claimed the Gauls were descended from Gomer, the grandson of Noah. Hellenistic etiology connects the name with Galatia (first attested by Timaeus of Tauromenion in the 4th c. BC), and it was suggested the association was inspired by the "milk-white" skin (γάλα, gala, "milk") of the Gauls (Greek: Γαλάται, Galatai, Galatae).

The English Gaul and French: Gaule, Gaulois are unrelated to Latin Gallia and Galli, despite superficial similarity. They are rather derived from the Germanic term walha, "foreigner, Romanized person", an exonym applied by Germanic speakers to Celts, likely via a Latinization of Frankish *Walholant "Gaul", literally "Land of the Foreigners/Romans", making it partially cognate with the names Wales and Wallachia), the usual word for the non-Germanic-speaking peoples (Celtic-speaking and Latin-speaking indiscriminately).^[3] The Germanic w is regularly rendered as gu / g in French (cf. guerre = war, garder = ward), and the diphthong au is the regular outcome of al before a following consonant (cf. cheval ~ chevaux). Gaule or Gaulle can hardly be derived from Latin Gallia, since g would become j before a (cf. gamba > jambe), and the diphthong au would be unexplained; the regular outcome of Latin Gallia is Jaille in French which is found in several western placenames.^[4][5]

The name Gaul is sometimes erroneously linked to the ethnic name Gael,^{[by whom?]} which is derived from Old Irish Goidel (borrowed, in turn, in the 7th century AD from Primitive Welsh Guoidel - spelled Gwyddel in Middle Welsh and Modern Welsh - likely derived from a Brittonic root *Wēdelos meaning literally "forest person, wild man");^[6] the names are, thus, unrelated. The Irish word gall, on the other hand, did originally mean "a Gaul" i.e. an inhabitant of Gaul, but its meaning was later widened to "foreigner", to describe the Vikings, and later still the Normans.^[7] The words gael and gall are sometimes used together for contrast, for instance in the 12th century book Cogad Gáedel re Gallaib.

History[link]

Pre-Roman Gaul[link]

The early history of the Gauls is predominantly a work in archaeology - there being little written information (save perhaps what can be gleaned from coins) concerning the peoples that inhabited these regions - and the relationships between their material culture, genetic relationships (the study of which has been aided, in recent years, through the field of archaeogenetics), and linguistic divisions rarely coincide.

The major source of materials on the Celts of Gaul was Poseidonios of Apamea, whose writings were quoted by Timagenes, Julius Caesar, the Sicilian Greek Diodorus Siculus, and the Greek geographer Strabo.^[8]

Many cultural traits of the early Celts seem to have been carried northwest up the Danube Valley, although this issue is contested. It seems as if they derived many of their skills (like metal-working), as well as certain facets of their culture, from Balkan peoples. Some scholars think the Bronze Age Urnfield culture represents an origin for the Celts as a distinct cultural branch of the Indo-European-speaking peoples (see Proto-Celtic). The Urnfield culture was preeminent in central Europe during the late Bronze Age, from ca. 1200 BCE until 700 BCE. The spread of iron-working led to the development of the Hallstatt culture (ca. 700 to 500 BCE) directly from the Urnfield. Proto-Celtic, the latest common ancestor of all known Celtic languages, is considered by some scholars to have been spoken at the time of the late Urnfield or early Hallstatt cultures.

Massalia (modern Marseille) silver coin with Greek legend, 5th-1st century B.C.

The Hallstatt culture was succeeded by the La Tène culture, which developed out of the Hallstatt culture without any definite cultural break, under the impetus of considerable Mediterranean influence from the Greek, Phoenician, and Etruscan civilizations. The La Tène culture developed and flourished during the late Iron Age (from 450 BCE to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BCE) in France, Switzerland, Italy, Austria, southwest Germany, Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia and Hungary. Farther north extended the contemporary pre-Roman Iron Age culture of northern Germany and Scandinavia.

By the 2nd century BCE, France was called Gaul (Gallia Transalpina) by the Romans. In his Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar distinguishes among three ethnic groups in Gaul: the Belgae in the north (roughly between Rhine and Seine), the Celts in the center and in Armorica, and the Aquitani in the southwest, the southeast being already colonized by the Romans. While some scholars believe the Belgae south of the Somme were a mixture of Celtic and Germanic elements, their ethnic affiliations have not been definitively resolved. One of the reasons is political interference upon the French historical interpretation during the 19th century. French historians adopted fully the explanation of Caesar who stated Gaul stretched from the Pyrenees up to the Rhine in the north. This fitted the French expansionist aspirations of the time under Napoleon III. In the north of (modern) France, the Gaul-German language border was situated somewhere between the Seine and the Somme. Northern Belgic tribes like the Nervians, Atrebates or Morini appear to be Germanic tribes who migrated from the Germanic hinterland and adopted Celtic language and customs^{[citation needed]}, as all of the names of their leaders and towns are Celtic. In addition to the Gauls, there were other peoples living in Gaul, such as the Greeks and Phoenicians who had established outposts such as Massilia (present-day Marseille) along the Mediterranean coast.^[9] Also, along the southeastern Mediterranean coast, the Ligures had merged with the Celts to form a Celto-Ligurian culture.

In the 2nd century BCE, Mediterranean Gaul had an extensive urban fabric and was prosperous, while the best known cities in northern Gaul include the Biturigian capital of Avaricum (Bourges), Cenabum (Orleans), Autricum (Chartres) and the excavated site of Bibracte near Autun in Saône-et-Loire, along with a number of hillforts (or oppida) used in times of war. The prosperity of Mediterranean Gaul encouraged Rome to respond to pleas for assistance from the inhabitants of Massilia, who were under attack by a coalition of Ligures and Gauls. The Romans intervened in Gaul in 125 BCE, and by 121 BCE they had conquered the Mediterranean region called Provincia (later named Gallia Narbonensis). This conquest upset the ascendancy of the Gaulish Arverni tribe.

Conquest by Rome[link]

Gauls in Rome

The Roman proconsul and general Julius Caesar pushed his army into Gaul in 58 BC, on the pretext of assisting Rome's Gaullish allies against the migrating Helvetii. With the help of various Gallic tribes (for example, the Aedui) he managed to conquer nearly all of Gaul. But the Arverni tribe, under Chieftain Vercingetorix, still defied Roman rule. Julius Caesar was checked by Vercingetorix at a siege of Gergorvia, a fortified town in the center of Gaul. Caesar's alliances with many Gallic tribes broke. Even the Aedui, their most faithful supporters, threw in their lot with the Arverni, but the ever loyal Remi (best known for its cavalry) and Lingones sent troops to support Caesar. The Germans of the Ubii also sent cavalry, which Caesar equipped with Remi horses. Caesar captured Vercingetorix in the Battle of Alesia, which ended the majority of Gallic resistance to Rome.

As many as a million people (probably 1 in 5 of the Gauls) died, another million were enslaved, 300 tribes were subjugated and 800 cities were destroyed during the Gallic Wars. The entire population of the city of Avaricum (Bourges) (40,000 in all) were slaughtered.^[10] During Julius Caesar's campaign against the Helvetii (present-day Switzerland) approximately 60% of the tribe was destroyed, and another 20% was taken into slavery.

Roman Gallia[link]

Soldiers of Gaul, as imagined by a late 19th century illustrator for the Larousse dictionary, 1898

The Gaulish culture then was massively submerged by Roman culture, Latin was adopted by the Gauls; Gaul, or Gallia, was absorbed into the Roman Empire, all the administration changed, and Gauls eventually became Roman citizens.^[11] From the third to 5th centuries, Gaul was exposed to raids by the Franks. The Gallic Empire, consisting of the provinces of Gaul, Britannia, and Hispania, including the peaceful Baetica in the south, broke away from Rome from 260 to 273.

Following the Frankish victory at the Battle of Soissons in 486 AD, Gaul (except for Septimania) came under the rule of the Merovingians, the first kings of France. Gallo-Roman culture, the Romanized culture of Gaul under the rule of the Roman Empire, persisted particularly in the areas of Gallia Narbonensis that developed into Occitania, Gallia Cisalpina and to a lesser degree, Aquitania. The formerly Romanized north of Gaul, once it had been occupied by the Franks, would develop into Merovingian culture instead. Roman life, centered on the public events and cultural responsibilities of urban life in the res publica and the sometimes luxurious life of the self-sufficient rural villa system, took longer to collapse in the Gallo-Roman regions, where the Visigoths largely inherited the status quo in the early 5th century. Gallo-Roman language persisted in the northeast into the Silva Carbonaria that formed an effective cultural barrier, with the Franks to the north and east, and in the northwest to the lower valley of the Loire, where Gallo-Roman culture interfaced with Frankish culture in a city like Tours and in the person of that Gallo-Roman bishop confronted with Merovingian royals, Gregory of Tours.

The Gauls[link]

Social structure and tribes[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

The Dying Gaul, an ancient Roman marble copy of a lost ancient Greek statue, thought to have been executed in bronze, commissioned some time between 230 BC – 220 BC by Attalos I of Pergamon to honor his victory over the Galatians

The Druids were not the only political force in Gaul, however, and the early political system was complex, if ultimately fatal to the society as a whole. The fundamental unit of Gallic politics was the tribe, which itself consisted of one or more of what Caesar called pagi. Each tribe had a council of elders, and initially a king. Later, the executive was an annually-elected magistrate. Among the Aedui, a tribe of Gaul, the executive held the title of Vergobret, a position much like a king, but his powers were held in check by rules laid down by the council.

The tribal groups, or pagi as the Romans called them (singular: pagus; the French word pays, "region", comes from this term), were organized into larger super-tribal groups the Romans called civitates. These administrative groupings would be taken over by the Romans in their system of local control, and these civitates would also be the basis of France's eventual division into ecclesiastical bishoprics and dioceses, which would remain in place – with slight changes — until the French Revolution.

Although the tribes were moderately stable political entities, Gaul as a whole tended to be politically divided, there being virtually no unity among the various tribes. Only during particularly trying times, such as the invasion of Caesar, could the Gauls unite under a single leader like Vercingetorix. Even then, however, the faction lines were clear.

The Romans divided Gaul broadly into Provincia (the conquered area around the Mediterranean), and the northern Gallia Comata ("free Gaul" or "long haired Gaul"). Caesar divided the people of Gaulia Comata into three broad groups: the Aquitani; Galli (who in their own language were called Celtae); and Belgae. In the modern sense, Gaulish tribes are defined linguistically, as speakers of dialects of the Gaulish language. While the Aquitani were probably Vascons, the Belgae would thus probably be counted among the Gaulish tribes, perhaps with Germanic elements.

Julius Caesar, in his book, Commentarii de Bello Gallico, comments:

All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the Aquitani another, those who in their own language are called Celts, in ours Gauls, the third. All these differ from each other in language, customs and laws. The Garonne River separates the Gauls from the Aquitani; the River Marne and the River Seine separate them from the Belgae. Of all these, the Belgae are the bravest, because they are furthest from the civilisation and refinement of (our) Province, and merchants least frequently resort to them, and import those things which tend to effeminate the mind; and they are the nearest to the Germani, who dwell beyond the Rhine, with whom they are continually waging war; for which reason the Helvetii also surpass the rest of the Gauls in valour, as they contend with the Germani in almost daily battles, when they either repel them from their own territories, or themselves wage war on their frontiers. One part of these, which it has been said that the Gauls occupy, takes its beginning at the River Rhone; it is bounded by the Garonne River, the Atlantic Ocean, and the territories of the Belgae; it borders, too, on the side of the Sequani and the Helvetii, upon the River Rhine, and stretches toward the north. The Belgae rises from the extreme frontier of Gaul, extend to the lower part of the River Rhine; and look toward the north and the rising sun. Aquitania extends from the Garonne to the Pyrenees and to that part of the Atlantic (Bay of Biscay) which is near Spain: it looks between the setting of the sun, and the north star.

Religion[link]

Gold coins of the Gaul Parisii, 1st century BC, (Cabinet des Médailles, Paris).

The Gauls practiced a form of animism, ascribing human characteristics to lakes, streams, mountains, and other natural features and granting them a quasi-divine status. Also, worship of animals was not uncommon; the animal most sacred to the Gauls was the boar, which can be found on many Gallic military standards, much like the Roman eagle.

Their system of gods and goddesses was loose, there being certain deities which virtually every Gallic person worshiped, as well as tribal and household gods. Many of the major gods were related to Greek gods; the primary god worshiped at the time of the arrival of Caesar was Teutates, the Gallic equivalent of Mercury. The "father god" in Gallic worship was "Dis Pater" (cf. Dyaus Pitar), who could be assigned the Roman name "Saturn", but etymologically related to Jupiter (mythology). However there is no known unified theology, just a set of related and evolving traditions of worship.

Perhaps the most intriguing facet of Gallic religion is the practice of the Druids. The druids presided over human or animal sacrifices that were made in wooded groves or crude temples. They also appear to have held the responsibility for preserving the annual agricultural calendar and instigating seasonal festivals which corresponding to key points of the lunar-solar calendar. The religious practices of druids were syncretic and borrowed from earlier pagan traditions, with probably indo-European roots. Julius Caesar mentions in his Gallic Wars that those Celts who wanted to make a close study of druidism went to Britain to do so. In a little over a century later, Gnaeus Julius Agricola mentions Roman armies attacking a large druid sanctuary in Anglesey, also known as Holyhead, Wales. There is no certainty concerning the origin of the druids, but it is clear that they vehemently guarded the secrets of their order and held sway over the people of Gaul. Indeed they claimed the right to determine questions of war and peace, and thereby held an "international" status. In addition, the Druids monitored the religion of ordinary Gauls and were in charge of educating the aristocracy. They also practiced a form of excommunication from the assembly of worshipers, which in ancient Gaul meant a separation from secular society as well. Thus the Druids were an important part of Gallic society. The nearly complete and mysterious disappearance of the Celtic language from most of the territorial lands of ancient Gaul, with the exception of Brittany, France, can be attributed to the fact that Celtic druids refused to allow the Celtic oral literature or traditional wisdom to be committed to the written letter.^{[citation needed]}

The Celts practiced headhunting as the head was believed to house a person's soul. Ancient Romans and Greeks recorded the Celts' habits of nailing heads of personal enemies to walls or dangling them from the necks of horses.^[12]

See also[link]

Roman silver Denarius with the head of captive Gaul 48 BC, following the campaigns of Julius Caesar.

• Ambiorix
• Asterix - a French comic about Gaul and Rome set in 50 BC
• Bog body
• Braccae - trousers, typical Gallic dress
• Cisalpine Gaul
• Galatia
• Gallia Narbonensis
• Gallo-Roman culture
• Gaulish language
• Gauls
• Lugdunum
• Roman Republic
• Roman Gaul
• Vercingetorix
• Roman Villas in Northwestern Gaul

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Birkhan, H. (1997). Die Kelten. Vienna. 

External links[link]

• The Gallic Wars

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Gallic War
"Vercingetorix Throws Down His Arms at the Feet of Julius Caesar", 1899, by Lionel Noel Royer
Date 58 – 51 BC Location Gaul, Germania and Britannia Result Decisive Roman victory Territorial changes Roman Republic annexes Gaul
Belligerents
Roman Republic	Several Gallic, Belgic, British and Aquitanian tribes as well as portions of Germanic and Iberian tribesmen
Commanders and leaders
Julius Caesar, Titus Labienus, Mark Antony, Quintus Cicero, Publius Crassus	Vercingetorix, Ambiorix, Commius, Ariovistus, Cassivellaunus
Strength
120,000 men: 60,000 legionaries, 60,000 auxiliaries	probably 300,000+ fighting men (mainly irregulars)
Casualties and losses
30,000+ killed, 10,000+ wounded	about 1,000,000 according to Caesar which mainly includes civilians butchered. Modern estimates at least hundreds of thousands.

The Gallic Wars were a series of military campaigns waged by the Roman proconsul Julius Caesar against several Gallic tribes. They lasted from 58 BC to 50 BC and culminated in the decisive Battle of Alesia in 52 BC, in which a complete Roman victory resulted in the expansion of the Roman Republic over the whole of Gaul. The wars paved the way for Julius Caesar to become the sole ruler of the Roman Republic.

Although Caesar portrayed this invasion as being a preemptive and defensive action, most historians agree that the wars were fought primarily to boost Caesar's political career and to pay off his massive debts. Still, Gaul was of significant military importance to the Romans, as these had been attacked several times by native tribes both indigenous to Gaul and farther to the north. Conquering Gaul allowed Rome to secure the natural border of the river Rhine.

The Gallic Wars are described by Julius Caesar as himself in his book Commentarii de Bello Gallico, which is a pertinent and only slightly tendentious and altogether the most important historical source regarding the conflict.^[1]

Political background[link]

In 58 BC, Gaius Julius Caesar ended the consulship in Rome. Due to the costs of consulship, he was heavily in debt. However, as a member of the First Triumvirate—the political alliance composed of himself, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Pompey—Caesar had secured the governorship of two provinces, Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum. When the governor of Transalpine Gaul, Metellus Celer, died unexpectedly, this province was also awarded to Caesar. Caesar's governorships were extended to a five-year period, a novel idea at the time.

Caesar had initially four veteran legions under his direct command: Legio VII, Legio VIII, Legio IX Hispana, and Legio X. As he had been governor of Hispania Ulterior in 61 BC and had campaigned successfully with them against the Lusitanians, Caesar knew personally most (perhaps even all) of these legions. Caesar also had the legal authority to levy additional legions and auxiliary units as he saw fit.

His ambition was to conquer and plunder some territories to get himself out of debt, and it is likely Gaul was not his initial target. It is likely he was planning a campaign against the kingdom of Dacia^[2] located in the Balkans.

The countries of Gaul were civilized and wealthy. Most had contact with Roman merchants and some, particularly those that were governed by Republics such as the Aedui and Helvetii had enjoyed stable political alliances with Rome in the past.

The Romans respected and feared the Gallic tribes. Only fifty years before, in 109 BC, Italy had been invaded from the north and saved only after several bloody and costly battles by Gaius Marius. About 62 BC, when a Roman client state, the Arverni, conspired with the Sequani and the Suebi nation east of the Rhine to attack the Aedui, a strong Roman ally, Rome turned a blind eye. They didn’t appear to be concerned about a conflict between non-client, client and allied states. By the end of the campaign, the non-client Suebi under the leadership of the belligerent Ariovistus, stood triumphant over both the Aedui and their coconspirators. Fearing another mass migration akin to the devastating Cimbrian War, Rome, now keenly invested in the defense of Gaul, was irrevocably drawn into war.

Course[link]

A map of Gaul in the 1st century BC, showing the relative position of the Helvetii and the Sequani

Beginning of the war—campaign against the Helvetii[link]

By 61 BC, the Helvetii were well on their way in the planning and provisioning for a mass migration under the leadership of Orgetorix. The reasons for their migration are mentioned by Caesar in separate passages as either harassment by the Germanic tribes, or not being able to in turn raid for plunder themselves due to their situation in hilly and mountainous territory.

During this time the Romans in Gallia Narbonensis were also gaining and taking political advantages and fomenting trade disputes.^{[citation needed]}

Via council and parley, the Helvetic chieftain Orgetorix made negotiations with the ambitious Sequani and the Roman dominated Aedui.

The Sequani were beginning to resent and regret the abundances of unruly Germanic warbands and their huge encampments of dependents. The Aedui were loath to obey the Roman spur any longer than they must and they were keen to revisit their former days at council.

The parley for the trek was successful and Orgetorix was granted passage, and with the trek ratified by council, an army was called up and provisioned for.

During this process, Orgetorix had also succeeded in making a personal alliance with the Sequanii chieftain Casticus and the Aedui chieftain Dumnorix through marital arrangements and host exchange of family members. For three whole years the Helvetii planned and prepared themselves, and emissaries were sent out to various Gallic tribes assuring safe passages and alliances.

Orgetorix's Gallic rivals alleged that these political successes and displays of diplomacy were intended to benefit Orgetorix alone and their claims were made more convincing by Roman intrigues and impositions. Again the accord was strained as the Aedui were brought to bay by their "protective" overlords.^{[citation needed]}

In 58 BC Orgetorix's ambitions were declared a ruse for personal power and this rumor was celebrated among the enemies of the Helvetii, especially those of Roman clientele. This succeeded in causing confusion and feuds among the tribes, based mainly on the merits of Orgetorix versus his vices.

There was an effort to seize him at council, however he was protected by his retinue and bodyguards.

During the preceding seasons he had called up a sizeable force of men-at-arms and vassals said to have numbered 10,000 men, this in addition to his armed entourage.

Orgetorix was able to escape capture by his rivals and the councils labored at length to resolve the confusions and disputes; however, Orgetorix was murdered or slain during a dispute within his own encampment.

With many conflicts of interest settled, the Helvetii once again returned to their long planned migration to safer pastures among the Santones tribe on the Atlantic seaboard.

Caesar dated their departure to the 28th of March, and mentions that they burned all their towns and their villages so as to discourage thoughts among undecided client tribes or enemies to occupy their vacated realm.

The Helvetii retained and armed their client tribes: the Rauraci, the Tulingi, the Latovici, and the Boii from whom they had hired a contingent of horsemen.

There were two available routes for them: the first one was the difficult and dangerous Pas de l'Ecluse, located between the Jura mountains and the Rhône River. The second, easier one would lead them to the town of Geneva, where the Lake Geneva flows into the Rhone River and where a bridge allowed passage over the river. These lands belonged to the Allobroges, a tribe which had been subdued by Rome, and were under the control of the Roman republic.

Meanwhile, Caesar was in Rome, and only a single legion was in Transalpine Gaul, the endangered province. As he was informed of these developments, he immediately hurried to Geneva and ordered a levy of several auxiliary units and the destruction of the bridge. The Helvetii sent an embassy under the new leadership of Nammeius and Verucloetius, to negotiate a peaceful passage, promising to do no harm. Caesar stalled the negotiations while his troops fortified their positions behind the river with a sixteen foot high rampart and a parallel trench lined with ballistas; his legionaries were backed by mercenary archers and slingers and Caesar had also hired and/or conscripted a contingent of Gallic horseman from the Remi.

Map of the Gallic Wars

As the embassy returned, Caesar officially refused their request and warned them that any forceful attempt to cross the river would be opposed. Several attempts were quickly beaten off. The Helvetii turned back and entered negotiations with the Sequani to let them pass in a peaceful manner.

Leaving his single legion under the command of his second-in-command Titus Labienus, Caesar hurried to Cisalpine Gaul. Upon arrival, he took command of the three legions which were in Aquileia and enrolled two new legions, the Legio XI and the Legio XII. At the head of these five legions, he went the quickest way through the Alps, crossing territories of several hostile tribes and fighting several skirmishes en route.

Meanwhile, the Helvetii had already crossed the territories of the Sequani, and were busy pillaging the lands of the Aedui, Ambarri, and Allobroges. These tribes were unable to oppose them, and as Roman allies asked for Caesar's help. Caesar obliged them and surprised the Helvetii as they were crossing the river Arar (modern Saône River). Three quarters of the Helvetii had already crossed, but one quarter, the Tigurine (a Helvetian clan), was still on the east bank. Three legions, under Caesar's command, surprised and defeated the Tigurine in the Battle of the Arar. The remaining Tigurini fled to neighboring woods.

After the battle, the Romans built a bridge over the Saône to pursue the remaining Helvetii. The Helvetii sent an embassy led by Divico, but the negotiations failed. For a fortnight, the Romans maintained their pursuit until they ran into supply troubles. Caesar in the meantime sent 4,000 Roman and allied Aedui cavalry to track the Helvetii but they were severely beaten by only 500 Helvetii cavalry. Apparently Dumnorix was doing everything in his power to delay the supplies. Accordingly, the Romans stopped their pursuit and headed for the Aedui town of Bibracte. The tables were turned, and the Helvetii began to pursue the Romans, harassing their rear guard. Caesar chose a nearby hill to offer battle and the Roman legions stood to face their enemies.

In the ensuing Battle of Bibracte, the Celts and Romans fought for the better part of the day in a hotly contested battle with the Romans eventually gaining victory after hours of hard fighting. Caesar writes that "the contest long and vigorously carried on with doubtful success." The defeated Helvetii offered their surrender which Caesar accepted. However, 6,000 men of the Helvetian clan of the Verbigeni fled to avoid capture. Upon Caesar's orders, other Gallic tribes captured and returned these fugitives, who were executed. Those who had surrendered were ordered back to their homeland to rebuild it, and the necessary supplies were organized to feed them, as they were far too useful as a buffer between the Romans and other northern tribes, such as the Germans, to let them migrate elsewhere. In the captured Helvetian camp a census written in Greek was found and studied: of a grand total of 368,000 Helvetii, of which 92,000 were able-bodied men, only 110,000 survivors were left to return home.

Campaign against the Suebi[link]

In 71 BC, Ariovistus, chieftain of the Suebi tribe and King of the Germans, resumed the tribe’s migration from eastern Germany to the Marne and Rhine region.^[3] Despite the fact that this migration encroached on Sequani land, the Sequani sought Ariovistus’ allegiance against the Aedui and in 61 BC, the Sequani rewarded Ariovistus with land following his victory in the Battle of Magetobriga.^{[4] [5] [6]} Ariovistus settled the land with 120,000 of his people. When 24,000 Harudes joined his cause, Ariovistus demanded that the Sequani give him more land to accommodate the Harudes people.^{[7] [8]} This demand 'concerned' Rome because if the Sequani conceded, Ariovistus would be in a position to take all of the Sequani land and attack the rest of Gaul.^[9]

Following Caesar’s victory over the Helvetti, the majority of the Gallic tribes congratulated Caesar and sought to meet with him in a general assembly.^[10] Diviciacus, the head of the Aeduan government and spokesmen for the Gallic delegation, expressed concern over Ariovistus’ conquests and the hostages he had taken.^{[11] [12]} Diviciacus demanded that Caesar defeat Ariovistus and remove the threat of a Germanic invasion otherwise they would have to seek refuge in a new land.^[13] Not only did Caesar have a responsibility to protect the longstanding allegiance of the Aedui, but this proposition presented an opportunity to expand Rome’s borders, strengthen the loyalty within Caesar’s army and establish him as the commander of Rome’s troops abroad.^{[14] [15]}

The Senate had declared Ariovistus a “king and friend of the Roman people” in 59 BC so Caesar could not declare war on the Suebi tribe.^[16] Caesar said that he could not ignore the pain the Aedui had suffered and delivered an ultimatum to Ariovistus demanding that no German cross the Rhine, the return of Aedui hostages and the protection of the Aedui and other friends of Rome.^[17] Although Ariovistus assured Caesar that the Aedui hostages would be safe as long as they continued their yearly tribute, he took the position that he and the Romans are both conquerors and that Rome had no jurisdiction over his actions.^[18] With the attack of the Harudes on the Aedui and the report that a hundred clans of Suebi were trying to cross the Rhine into Gaul, Caesar had the justification he needed to wage war against Ariovistus in 58 BC.^[19]

Caesar, learning that Ariovistus intended to seize Vesontio, the largest town of the Sequani, commenced marching his troops toward Vesontio. Some of Caesar’s officers held their posts for political reasons only and had no war experience. Consequently they suffered from poor morale which threatened Caesar’s campaign. Caesar challenged the officers and their legions saying that the only legion he could trust was the 10th. With their pride on the line, the other legions followed the 10th’s lead determined not to be out done. Consequently, Caesar arrived in Vesontio before Ariovistus.^{[20] [21]}

Ariovistus sent emissaries to Caesar requesting a meeting. They met under a truce at a knoll in the plain. The truce was violated when Caesar learned that German horsemen were edging towards the knoll and throwing stones at his mounted escort.^[22] Two days later, Ariovistus requested another meeting. Hesitant to send senior officials, Caesar dispatched Valerius Procillus, his trusted friend and Caius Mettius, a merchant who had successfully traded with Ariovistus. Insulted, Ariovistus threw the envoys in chains.^{[23] [24]} Ariovistus marched for two days and made camp two miles behind Caesar thus cutting off Caesar’s communication and supply lines with the allied tribes. Unable to entice Ariovistus into battle, Caesar ordered a second smaller camp to be built near Ariovistus’ position.^[25] After the camp was completed Caesar again challenged Ariovistus and was rewarded when Ariovistus attacked the smaller camp and was repulsed.

The next morning Caesar assembled his allied troops in front of the second camp and advanced his legions in triplex acies (three lines of troops) towards Ariovistus. Each of Caesar’s five legates and his quaestor were given command of a legion. Caesar lined up on the right flank.^[26] Ariovistus countered by lining up his seven tribal formations. Caesar was victorious in the battle that ensued due in large part to the charge made by Publius Crassus. As the Germans began to drive back the Roman left flank, Crassus led his cavalry in a charge to restore balance and ordered up the cohorts of the third line. As a result, the whole German line broke and began to flee.^{[27] [28]} Most of Ariovistus’ hundred and twenty thousand men were killed. He and what remained of his troops escaped and crossed the Rhine never to engage Rome in battle again. The Suebi camped near the Rhine returned home. Caesar was victorious.^{[29] [30]}

Campaign against the Belgae[link]

In 57 BC Caesar once again intervened in an intra-Gallic conflict, marching against the Belgae, who inhabited the area roughly bounded by modern-day Belgium and had recently attacked a tribe allied with Rome. His army suffered a surprise attack in the battle of the Sabis while it was making camp near the river Sambre and came close to being defeated.

The swiftness of Boduognatus' sudden massed attack, the speed of his allied native footmen ( Atrebates and Virumandui) together with the ferocity and skill at arms of his heavily armed Nerviians had completely routed Caesar's skirmishers and cavalry, overwhelmed his front and very nearly succeeded in taking the Roman camp and capturing Caesar himself. Caesar admits to losing all of his standards and most his centurions dead or felled by wounds. He himself was forced to take up a shield and personally rally his forces which were then threatened with envelopment and massacre. The strong stand by the adjoining X legion and the prompt arrival of the reinforcements enabled Caesar to regroup, redeploy and eventually envelop the Nervii once the Atrebates and Viromandui were stopped, worn down and put to flight.

Caesar remarked that the warlike Nervii refused to yield their ground even after the Atrebates and Virumandui had been put into disarray. When finally surrounded by Roman reinforcements the Nerviians continued fighting as a pitiless hail of missiles rained down on them from the many archers and peltasts Caesar had brought from overseas. The peltasts, slingers and archers were brought for the specific purpose of confounding the Gallic proclivity for shield wall tactics, mass attack and/or individual close combat.

The Nervii were especially renowned for skills at warfare. They ruled and subsisted by warfare and by taxing their dependent and client tribes while adhering to a heroic hoplitic tradition. These Gallic conventions were something Caesar exploited as often as he could.

Together with Caesar's prudent and unabashed use of fixed projectile weapons like the 'scorpian' and light ballista, the archers and peltasts took a heavy toll on the densely packed Nervii who themselves shunned all projectile weapons but the lance. It is recorded in Caesar's war commentaries that as the battle raged, the Nervii caught Roman javelins in flight and hurled them back at legionnaires and that although all were eventually slain, not one of the Nervii was seen to flee. As the grim fighting wore on, the Nervii refused to yield and mounds of the fallen formed ramparts and Boduognatus' fighters fought from atop these hills of dead, clashing with the pressing Roman ranks again and again.

The skill with which the veteran Roman legions executed their well practiced 'pilum' barrage and gladius and scutum counter-attacks together with the prudent use of missile weapons was instrumental in defeating the skillful and daring Nervii and associated Belgae.

The Belgae suffered heavy losses and eventually surrendered when faced with the destruction of their towns. The Nervii were severely mauled and forced to flee; thereby all former client tribes surrendered to Caesar or likewise fled. Their absence gave Caesar control of most of what is now Belgium.

Punitive expeditions[link]

A map of Gaul showing all the tribes and cities mentioned in the Gallic Wars.

The following year, 56 BC, Caesar turned his attention to the tribes of the Atlantic seaboard, notably the Veneti tribe in Armorica (modern Brittany), who had assembled a confederacy of anti-Roman tribes. The Veneti were a seafaring people and had built a sailing fleet in the Gulf of Morbihan, requiring the Romans to build galleys and undertake an unconventional land and sea campaign. Eventually Caesar was able to subdue these tribes after a protracted land and sea campaign.

Caesar took his forces across the Rhine in 55 BC in a punitive expedition against the Germans, though the Suebi, against whom the expedition was mounted, were never engaged in battle. That same year, he then crossed the English Channel with two legions on his ships to mount a similar expedition against the Britons. The British adventure nearly ended in disaster when bad weather wrecked much of his fleet and the unfamiliar sight of massed chariots caused confusion among his forces. Caesar did manage to secure a promise of hostages, though only two of them were actually sent. He withdrew but returned in 54 BC with a much larger force that successfully defeated the powerful Catuvellauni and forced them to pay tribute to Rome. The expeditions had little lasting effect, but were great propaganda victories for Caesar, keeping him in the public eye at home.

The campaigns of 55 BC and early 54 BC have caused controversy for many centuries. They were controversial even at the time among Caesar's contemporaries, and especially among his political opponents, who decried them as a costly exercise in personal aggrandizement. In modern times, commentators have been sharply divided between critics of Caesar's nakedly imperialist agenda and defenders of the benefits that the expansion of Roman power subsequently wrought in Gaul.

Consolidation and Gallic offensives[link]

Roman silver Denarius with the head of captive Gaul 48 BC, following the campaigns of Caesar.

Discontent among the subjugated Gauls prompted a major uprising in the winter of 54–53 BC, when the Eburones of north-eastern Gaul rose in arms under their leader Ambiorix. Fifteen Roman cohorts were wiped out at Atuatuca Tungrorum (modern Tongeren in Belgium) and a garrison commanded by Quintus Tullius Cicero narrowly survived after being relieved by Caesar in the nick of time. The rest of 53 BC was occupied with a punitive campaign against the Eburones and their allies, who were said to have been all but exterminated by the Romans.

The uprising was, however, merely the prelude to a much bigger campaign led by Vercingetorix, chief of the Arverni tribe of central Gaul, who successfully united many Gallic tribes and states under his leadership. Recognizing that the Romans had an upper hand on the battlefield due to their panoply and training, he declined to give battle against them and instead fought a "scorched earth" campaign to deprive them of supplies. Caesar hurriedly returned from Italy to take charge of the campaign, pursuing the Gauls and capturing the town of Avaricum (modern city of Bourges) but suffering a defeat at Gergovia. Vercingetorix, instead of staying mobile and in the open, chose to hold out at Alesia (see Battle of Alesia). Caesar successfully besieged him and beat off a huge Gallic relief force who ran out of food and had to disperse. This effectively marked the end of the Gallic Wars, although mopping-up actions took place throughout 51 BC. A number of lesser rebellions took place subsequently, but Roman control of Gaul wasn't seriously challenged again until the 2nd century AD.

The Gallic Wars in literature and culture[link]

The primary historical source for the Gallic Wars is Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico in Latin, which is one of the best surviving examples of unadorned Latin prose. It has consequently been a subject of intense study for Latinists, and is one of the classic prose sources traditionally used as a standard teaching texts in modern Latin education.

The Gallic Wars have become a popular setting in modern historical fiction, especially that of France and Italy. Claude Cueni wrote a semi-historical novel "The Caesar's Druid" about a fictional Celtic druid, servant of Caesar and recorder of Caesar's campaigns. Similarly, Norman Spinrad's The Druid King follows the campaigns from Vercingetorix's perspective.^[31] In addition, the comic Astérix is set shortly after the Gallic Wars, where the titular character's village is the last holdout in Gaul against Caesar's legions.

The historical novel Caesar by Colleen McCullough gave a thorough, popular account of the Gallic Wars.

The concept album Helvetios by Swiss Folk Metal band Eluveitie tells the story of the Gallic Wars through the eyes of the Helvetii.

Notes[link]

References[link]

• The conquest of Gaul, ISBN 0-14-044433-5, by Gaius Julius Caesar, translated by S. A. Handford and revised by Jane F. Gardner
• "De Bello Gallico" and Other Commentaries at Project Gutenberg.
• Fuller, J. F. C. Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant. London, England: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1965.
• Gilliver, Kate. Caesar's Gallic Wars 58–50 BC. London: Osprey Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-415-96858-5
• Goldsworthy, Adrian. Caesar. London, England: Orion Books Ltd, 2007.
• Goldsworthy, Adrian. In the name of Rome. ISBN 0-7538-1789-6
• Grant, Michael. Julius Caesar. London, England: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969.
• Holland, Tom. Rubicon. ISBN 0-385-50313-X
• Matyszak, Philip. The enemies of Rome. ISBN 0-500-25124-X
• Walter, Gérard. Caesar: A Biography. Translated by Emma Craufurd. New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1952.
• Wyke, Maria .Caesar: A Life in Western Culture. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.