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Anosy Region
—  Region  —
Location in Madagascar
Country	Madagascar
Capital	Tôlanaro
Area[1]
• Total	25,731 km2 (9,935 sq mi)
Population (2004)[1]
• Total	544,200
• Density	21.1/km2 (55/sq mi)
Time zone	EAT (UTC3)

Anosy is a region of Madagascar located along the south-eastern coast of the country, with the name "Anosy" meaning island(s) in Malagasy.

Due initially to its strategic importance, Anosy has been a crossroads for the Malagasy and the rest of the world over the last 500 years. In the 1500s it served as a stopping point for European ships traveling to and from India, and in the mid-1600s it was the location of an early French colonial port in the Indian Ocean. The region was part of the Merina Kingdom for much of the 1800s and part of the French colony of Madagascar from the late-1800s to 1960. Its exports have included human slaves (shipped to Réunion, Mauritius and the US in the 1700s), live cattle (exported to Réunion for almost 300 years), natural rubber, graphite, uranothorite, lobster, sapphires, and, in the last five years, ilmenite. Due to its biodiversity and natural beauty, efforts commenced in the 1980s to promote environmental conservation and tourism in the region.

Overview[link]

Anosy is a region in southeastern Madagascar. It borders Androy region in west, Atsimo-Andrefana in north-west, Ihorombe in north and Atsimo-Atsinanana in north-east. This region, covering 25,731 km² (9,935 sq mi),^[1] about the size of the US State of Vermont, the island of Cyprus or the nation of Israel, runs from approximately Manantenina in the northeast corner of the region, west to Ranomafana, west to the Mandrare river. The distance from Manantenina at the northern edge of Anosy to the Mandrare river at the south is almost 150 km. "Anosy" means island or islands in Malagasy. Some^[who?] argue anosy is named after the island in the Fanjahira (now named Efaho) river where the Zafiraminia first settled when they arrived in this region in the 16th century, while others^[who?] argue it means "land of the islands" because of the large amount of water in this region. During the rainy season, the Efaho valley floods, creating many temporary islands.

The capital is Tôlanaro and the population, which is primarily the Antanosy, was estimated to be 544,200 in 2004. There are also Antandroy living in the region, especially in Tolagnaro and in the Amboasary-Sud district, and Malagasy from other parts of the island who live and work in Anosy.

The region is divided into three districts:

• Amboasary Sud District
• Betroka District (added in 2004)
• Tôlanaro District^[2]

Economic Activities[link]

Agriculture[link]

[edit] Rosy Periwinkle

In 1958, Eli Lilly began research of Rosy ("Malagasy") Periwinkle, hoping to find it would help in the administration of insulin. This effort was unsuccessful, but additional research led to the discovery of the chemotherapy agents vinblastine and vincristine, the latter of which is credited with increasing the survival rate for childhood leukemia from 20 to 80 percent.^[3][4][5]

[edit] Sisal

In 1928, the Societe Fonciere du Sud de Madagascar began testing the viability of growing sisal near Ranopiso. While about 1,000 hectares were planted, by 1935 exports were only 65 tons. In 1932, this company obtained a 4,000 hectare concession in the Mandrare river valley where sisal was found to flourish. By 1947, five sisal companies had a total of 3,075 hectares planted and employed 1,470 people. Production grew from 2,500 tons in 1950 to almost 29,000 tons produced in 1964. By 1959, six companies had expanded the area cultivated to 14,528 hectares and employed 4,502 people. Between 1953 and 1958, in part due to additional fees paid by France, these exports were worth 500 millions CFA. In 1962, there were 7,500 people (men and women) producing sisal and the value of sisal exports was just over 1 billion FMG (a year when 99 ships docked in Fort Dauphin) and while it was just over two billion FMG in 1964, by 1966 the value of exports was just under one billion FMG and the number of employees had dropped to 4,500 by 1967. By 1969, there were about 20,000 hectares planted producing about 25,000 tons per year (half of which went to France) which was the limit established for Madagascar by the FAO. However, in three years in the mid-1960s, the value of sisal decreased by more than 50 percent due to synthetic fibers which took sisal's place. In spite of this, production was almost 25,000 tons as late as 1970. Current production is appx. 3,000 tons per year from the Mandrare Valley.^[6][7]

Conservation[link]

Conservation has become an important initiative in the Anosy area in the last 20 years.^[8][9][10]

[edit] Mining

Mining has been occurring in Anosy for at least the last 100 years as Mica has been an export since the early 1900s, Uranothorianite was mined from the 1950s to the mid-1960s, for several years being Madagascar's second most valuable export. Sapphires briefly became a major export in the early- to mid-1990s and today Qit Mining Madagascar (QMM), which is 80 percent Rio Tinto and 20 percent Malagasy government) is exporting 750,000 tons per year of Ilmenite, along with 40,000 tons per year of Rutile and Zircon. There are also major deposits of bauxite and prospecting is ongoing for uranium as well as a variety of rare earth minerals.^[11][12][13]

While quite a bit of mining has been done in Anosy over the last 60 years, a paraphrased translation of a 2002 post in Malagasy on the internet^[14] shared skepticism of the benefits to Malagasy of the mining which has occurred in Anosy to date:
- Is Manantenina, the town near the major Bauxite deposit in Anosy, progressing today?
– How many large stone houses are left in Ambatomika where Uranium was mined?
– How many schools were built in Sarisambo with funds from the Monazite mined there?
– What is left in Andranodambo where Sapphires were mined? Holes are the only souvenirs left here.
– What are the benefits left in the Tranomaro area where Mica was [and continues to be] mined?"

[edit] Bauxite

There are an estimated 100 million tons of bauxite near Manantenina where it has been found over a 40km2 area. While this deposit has been studied for the last 45 years and in 2008 Rio Tinto indicated both a mine and refinery were "development projects," it is not yet being mined, due in large part due to the lack of infrastructure in this part of Madagascar (100 km north of Tolagnaro).^{[15][16][17][18]}

[edit] Ilmenite, Rutile & Zircon

Since 2009, 750,000 tons per year of Ilmenite is being exported by QMM to Canada, with a potential for this to grow to two million tons per year. In addition, 25,000 tons per year of Zircon and 15,000 tons per year of Rutile is being produced as part of their ilmenite mining. The estimated life of this mine is 40 years. Almost $1 billion was spent developing this mine, including a new harbor at Port Ehoala.^[19] per Book chapters, News reports, Research studies, etc.)^{[20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33]}

per the Malagasy government^[34]

per various NGOs^{[35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48]}

per Rio Tinto/QMM & SODEXHO^{[49][50][51][52][53]}

per the GIZ & World Bank^{[54][55][56][57]}

[edit] Mica

Discovered near Tranomaro in 1912 (though it can be found in crystalline schists from Fort Dauphin up to Ihosy), within 6 years 18 tons/yr of phlogopite mica was exported, with over 500 tons/yr by 1928. By 1947 there were 50 different companies mining mica, though the majority of the mining was done by just 10 of them. There were still 15 mines operating in 1962, with active exploration going on at 20 other sites. Mining companies included the Etablissements W. Boetschi, Les Fils de O. Jenny, the Societe des Minerals de la Grande Isle at Benato and th Union des Micas. However, in 1963 the US stopped purchasing mica, resulting in the closure of several mines and the production being cut by 2/3rds. The biggest mine was and still is at Ampandandrava, about 250 km from Tolagnaro, which currently is being mined by Groupe Akesson, exporting 1,000 tons/yr.^[58][59][60]

[edit] Monazite

Was mined from beach sands at and near Tolagnaro by Societe d'Exploitation des Monazites, which had a treatment plant which produced 200 tons/yr, though in 1964 the plant was moved to Vohibarika. The heavy-mineral sands near Tolagnaro still have an estimated 310,000 tons. Monazite de Manantenina

[edit] Monzanite

Heavy-mineral sands near Tolagnaro have an estimated 177,000 tons, with another 64,000 tons with a high Thorium content located 100 km north of Tolagnaro.

[edit] Rutile

A mineral composed primarily of titanium dioxide (TiO2), 15,000 tons/yr are being exported by QMM as a byproduct of its Ilmenite mining in the region. [see Ilmenite above]

[edit] Sapphires

The presence of Sapphires in Anosy was first written about by Etienne de Flacourt in 1658, they were most likely also seen by Barthelemy Hugon in 1808; and sapphire crystals were described by a French geologist working in the mica mines near Tranomaro in the 1950s. However, it wasn't until 1991 that very high quality blue sapphires of up to 35 carats (similar in quality to those from Kashmir) were purchased by gemologist John Darbellay near the Antandroy villages of Andranondambo and Marohoto (20 km from Tranomaro) in the Manambolo valley, just 80 km northwest of Tolagnaro (though it takes a 6-hour drive of almost 210 km to get there).

Thai purchasers arrived in 1993, soon joined by traders from Israel, Sri Lanka and several other countries, and by 1994 almost 10,000 miners had rushed to the area from all parts of Madagascar. However, while the initial finds of sapphires in this area were only 2 to 3 meters below ground, in gravel held by clay, since then most sapphires found are almost randomly embedded in a limestone or marble bedrock. These rocks take extensive work to obtain, requiring sledgehammers, spikes and small fires.

Thus, the number of miners was only about 5,000 a year later; today Andranondambo only has about 1,000 residents, many occasionally continue to search for sapphires, though they also farm, are vendors, etc. Foreigners visit only occasionally, as most middlemen are now Malagasy. Three different companies attempted to mine commercially, but only for a brief time. An Environmental Impact Study conducted in 2004 found the area "highly degraded" and the remaining dry spiny and gallery forest, threatened ecosystems, "fragmented."^{[61][62][63][64][65][66][67]}

[edit] Thorium & Uranium

By the end of World War II, Madagascar was viewed by France as having a "treasure-trove" of minerals, so several of France's nuclear experts told Charles de Gaulle he needed to keep Madagascar as a colony "regardless of political costs." Multiple deposits of Thorium and Uranium, principally in the form of Uranothorianite, were discovered near Tranomaro, in the loop of the Mandrare river, in 1946 (1953?) by a French Geological Survey, just 80 km northwest of Fort Dauphin. However, getting there by road meant driving west almost to Amboasary and then northeast for a total distance from Tolanaro of about 200 kilometres. The local farmers, who raised cattle and goats, and grew rice, manioc and maize, knew of these deposits, calling these rocks "vatovy" to describe their density and black color. They used them as slingshot ammunition and fishing weights.

In 1953 the French Commissariat de l’Energie Atomique (CEA) established their center for mining at Ambatomika ("place of Mica rocks") and brought in mining equipment, built a mill, lab, offices, a small clinic, a store as well as housing and a clubhouse for the expats living there. What they milled was mined from small, open-pit mines, which had a minimum overburden (for a picture of one of these mines see^[68]) within a 20 km radius of this site. Some of these sites were mined by colonial concessionaires who sold their ore to the CEA.

By 1958 there were 44 Europeans working with 440 Malagasy there, a limited number of mid-level Imerina with many more Antandroy and some Betsileo working as guards, porters and miners. Early, artisanal mining was not recorded, but from 1954 to 1963 almost 4,000 tonnes of highly radioactive uranothorianite was mined and exported to France. By 1962, these exports were worth CFAF 389 million, and by 1964 this was Madagascar's second most valuable export. In 1963, the original Ambindandrakemba mine was exhausted, the site at Ambatomika was lost, and all the equipment was moved north 40 km to Betioky, near the Belafa ore body which was thought to have somewhere between 2,000 and 5,000 tons of uranothorianite, embedded within 100,000 to 300,000 tons of ore.

In addition to the CEA, there were 4 private mining companies in 1963 including C.F. Lanouo, Kotovelo (plant at Marovato), Societe des Minerals de la Grand Ile (mine at Ambatoaho, Societe d'Exploitation des Mines d'Andranondambo (mine at Bevalala) and the Societe Miniere et Forestiere at Betanimera. In 1963 these producers were being paid 2,850 to 5,000 CFAF/kg for uranium metal content and CFAF 100 to 350/kg of Thorium. However, due to the French having found much larger deposits in both Gabon and Niger, and the exhausted equipment and the mines, mining ended in 1968. While the higher-grade deposits have been exhausted, there is still a considerable amount of lower-grade material.

In 2005, the Malagasy Government conducted aerial magnetic and radiometric surveys of the area, finding the amounts of Thorium and Uranium increased as one moves west, though this could be due to "transported cover" on the Easter side of the area. In 2007 drilling by the Canadian firm, Pan African Mining Corporation, at one site found "high-grade uranium mineralisation grading 4329 ppm uranium”, with deposits as far down as 60 metres below the surface. In 2009–10 LP HILL began ground traverses for Thorium and Uranium in the Marodambo area (in addition they have permits to search for Cordierite, Garnets and Sapphires).

London-based Bekitoly Resources Ltd. is also involved in the strategic acquisition, exploration and development of uranium, rare earth deposits and other minerals in Madagascar. Their property occurs within includes 8 of the historical open-pit deposits. Their exploration activities have included airborne radiometrics and hyperspectral surveys, ground radiometrics and magnetics, mapping, grab sampling, trenching and drilling which have identified numerous widespread radiometric anomalies with uranium and thorium scintillometer readings of up to 26,257 and 43,215 ppm respectively, as well as the rare earth elements of Cerium, Dysprosium, Erbium, Gadolinium, Lanthanum, Neodymium, Praseodymium, Samarium and Yttrium. Their data also suggests there are numerous additional areas "with good indications" that remain untested.^{[69][70][71][72][73][74][75]}

[edit] Tourmaline

This section is empty. You can help by adding to it.

[edit] Zircon

25,000 tons/yr of Zircon are being exported by QMM as a byproduct of its Ilmenite mining in this region [see Ilmenite above].

Tourism[link]

Given its pleasant climate (average temperature of 20⁰ in July to 27⁰ Celsius in January), magnificint beaches, natural reserves (including several containing lemurs), variety of hotels and that it's only a one hour flight from Antananarivo, some have given Tolagnaro the title of "la cote d'Azur Malgache." Popular places to visit include Evatraha, Libanona beach, Lokaro, Manafiafy, Nahampoana and Vinanibe.^[76][77]

Tourism Agencies[link]

There are a variety of tourist agencies one can work with.^{[78][79][80][81][82][83][84]}

Environment[link]

Biodiversity, Conservation & Ecology[link]

This section is empty. You can help by adding to it.

Geography, Geology & Hydrology[link]

The information in this section is primarily from^[85] and is primarily about the immediate Tolagnaro region. For additional information see^{[61][86][87][88]}

Geography[link]

The eastern and southern boundary of Anosy is the Indian Ocean. Along the ocean are coastal lagoons and then up to 50 or more km of sandy, rolling coastal hills that butt up against the Vohimena mountains. Rainfall is highest on the eastern side of the mountains and decreases as one moves west.

Geology[link]

The Vohimena mountains dominate the Tolagnaro region. They terminate just outside of Tolagnaro at Bezavona (Pic St. Louis) which is 529 m. Bedrock inland is granite. At Point Evatraha and near Mandena it is cordierite gneiss. There is an external barrier dune complex along the coast which runs north, up the entire east coast. Between northern Mandena north to Manafiafy (Saint Luce), there are heavy mineral deposits of ilmenite, zircon, rutile and monazite, with these mineralized sands averaging 18 m. thick in the Mandena region. There are also similar deposits at the south end of Petriky (west of Vinanibe).

Hydrology[link]

The 3 primary hydrologic drainage areas in Anosy are the Mountain Zone (30+% of the total catchment area), with steep slopes causing rapid, high runoff and clearly defined rivers; the Bedrock Plain which has rolling hills with low relief and several large rivers and the Coastal Sands, which can be found in bays ranging in size from more than 20 to only a few km2. These bays are clearly defined and are cut by meandering rivers. Along what are generally coastal dunes at ocean's edge are ribbon lakes from which water discharges into the ocean either through seepage or channels which cut through the dunes.

There are 3 major rivers in Anosy, the Mandrare along the southern border, the Efaho (formerly called the Fanjahira) just west of Tolagnaro and the Manampanihy which drains the Ranomafana valley, emptying into the ocean at Manantenina.^[61]

Weather[link]

The average temperature in Tolagnaro ranges from 26 °C (79 °F) in January and February to 20 °C (68 °F) in July, with the temperature of the ocean ranging from 25 °C (77 °F) in January and February to 19 °C (66 °F) in June and July. The humidity of Tolagnaro ranges from 77 to 84 percent all year long.

In general, Anosy's rainfall ranges from very wet and humid on the northeast to increasingly arid as one moves towards the southwest. In Tolagnaro, the average rainfall is over 150 millimetres (5.9 in) per month for November through the rainiest month of April (which is almost 190 millimetres (7.5 in)) and then dips down to less than 100 millimetres (3.9 in) for the months of September and October. Tolagnaro is a windy town, with Force 6 winds from 6 to13 days per month for five months of the year (including August through November) and Force 4 winds of 11 to 24 days per month for 11 months of the year.^{[2][89][90][91][92]}

Infrastructure[link]

[edit] Community Development

Anosy Development Plans, Projects & Reporting[link]

Integrated Growth Pole Project[link]

^{[93][94][95][96]}

LARO[link]

^[97]

PHBM[link]

^[98][99]

Other[link]

^[100][101]

NGOs & other International Organizations[link]

Presently working in Anosy[link]

^{[102][103][103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117][118][119][120][121][122][123]}

Recently worked in Anosy[link]

^{[124][125][126]}

Poverty[link]

^[127]

Use of Radio[link]

^{[128][129][130][131][132][133][134][135]}

Other[link]

^[136]

Education[link]

As of 1997–98, literacy at the Primary level in Anosy was 22% for boys, 23% for girls. Literacy is less than 20% in some of Anosy's rural areas.

K-12[link]

As of 1997–98, in terms of Public Schools, in the Tolagnaro area there are 109 Primary schools, with an average of 42 students per teacher. There are 5 CEGs and 1 Lycee. The Amboasary region has an additional 73 Primary schools, 4 CEGs, but no Lycees. In terms of private schools, the Tolagnaro region has 33 Primary schools, with an average of 50 students per teacher. There are 3 Secondary (1st cycle) and 3 Secondary (2nd cycle) schools. Amboasary has 30 Primary schools, but just 1 Secondary school (1st cycle). Unfortunately, some of the Primary Schools in rural Anosy are in such poor state of repair they've been closed, with the nearest operating school up to 20 km away. One of the organizations working to increase the number of schools in this area, with the support of external funding, is Azafady. For an explanation of a school they've built in the Mahatalaky area with the support of the Peretti Foundation, see.^[137] For additional information and a very interesting collection of pictures about primary schools in the Anosy region, see.^[138]

Other[link]

^{[139][140][141]}

Electrification[link]

While Tolagnaro historically has had electricity for many years, the growth of the town and poor condition of the town's generators has meant QMM now has taken over the production of the town's electricity. The only other town in Anosy with electricity is Amboasary.

As of 2008, rural electrification in Anosy was only 7%. While a program entitled PEPSE Anosy was proposed to provide electricity from wind generators to 8 towns (Analapatsy, Ifarantsa, Ifotaka, Mahatalaky, Manantenina, Sampona, Soanierana & Tanandava), there is no evidence this project has been started (see^[142] for further information).^[143]

Healthcare[link]

This section is empty. You can help by adding to it.

Hunger[link]

^[144][145]

Malaria[link]

^[139][146]

Needs Assessment[link]

^[147]

Projects[link]

^{[141][148][149]}

Sanitation[link]

^[150]

Traditional Culture & Healing[link]

^{[151][152][153]}

Other Information[link]

^{[2][154][155]}

Maps[link]

There are several different maps of the Anosy area, several of them available online courtesy of the University of Texas' (Austin) map collection.^{[156][157][158]} In terms of maps of Anosy for sale in Madagascar, see FTM's website^[159] including maps No. 12 Tolanaro (eastern coast north of Tolagnaro) and No. 11 Ampanihy (which is actually a map of southern Madagascar, from Tolagnaro across to Toliary). These are a part of their collection of 12 Maps of Madagascar. They also have a map of Southern Madagascar across to Toliary. In addition there is a recent map of Tolagnaro^[160] as well as one of the Andohahela National Park.^[161]

Finally, in terms of much older, European maps of the area which are online, for Fort Dauphin, see Flacourt (mid-1650s).^[162] For a map of the Anosy region done at the same time, see Flacourt (1656).^[163] For Flacourt's map of the community at Tranovato see^[164]

For a map of the coastline of eastern Madagascar (Mananjary south to Fort Dauphin), with detail about both the Fort Dauphin harbor as well as St. Luce (Manafiafy), see.^[165] For several other maps of the Fort Dauphin bay, see^[166]

For an in-depth description of sailing directions (landmarks visible from the ocean for various places to harbor in Anosy), see Great Britain Hydrographic Department. (1891).^[167]

Population[link]

While the people who have historically lived in Anosy are known as the Antanosy, they may be more accurately described as "those from Anosy" given Anosy's history. In addition there are many Antandroy living in Anosy, primarily Tolagnaro, along with Malagasy from the rest of the island, many of them now working for QMM's mining efforts. There are Asians who own many of the shops in town and there are also a few Europeans living in Tolagnaro working in the area(s) of Conservation, Mining, Tourism or for the Catholic Church. While there were many French living and working in the Anosy region during the French occupation of Madagascar, most had left by the mid-1970s. Tolagnaro was also the center for work by American Lutherans, primarily in southern Madagascar, from the 1890s to the mid-1980s (see History of Anosy). Much more recently, there were over 700 Expatriates, primarily from South Africa, who worked on the construction of the new port and mining facilities.

Religions[link]

The majority of those living in Anosy practice traditional Folk religion. The two largest Christian denominations in the Anosy region are the Roman Catholic and the Malagasy Lutheran churches. There is also a small Muslim community.

The Catholic Church was established in what was then still Fort Dauphin in 1896. It currently has 5 parishes, with about 170 congregations and 16 Cures.^{[168][169][170]}

Of the Protestants in Anosy, the vast majority of them Lutheran. There are approximately 20 Malagasy Lutheran pastors working with 134 churches in the Tolagnaro Synod, meaning each pastor works with between 3 and 12 churches.^[171][172]

In addition to the Malagasy Lutheran Church, the Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar (FJKM) has several congregations in the Anosy region.

Timeline of Anosy[link]

The early history of Anosy at this point in time is based primarily on archeological digs in the Efaho valley, just west of Tolagnaro, though there has also been some work done just east and north of town. By far the best source regarding the history of Anosy (especially the Efaho valley) in the last 1,000 years is by Rakotoarisoa (1998).^[173][174] Other excellent sources for the early history of Anosy are by Wright et al.^{[175][176][177]} as well as Dewar and Wright^[178] who also describe the early history of several other parts of Madagascar. Also see^[179][180]

Maliovola phase of the Efaho Valley (11th–13th centuries)[link]

11th–13th centuries[link]

• Earliest sites found by archeologists to date focused on fishing, others possibly on cattle. Gardening (mainly tubers) was done as well as hunting (including lemurs), but no rice cultivation. Iron working was also present.^[7] Trade was limited to the northeast, along the coast, with no indication of imported pottery. Settlement sites were small (0.5ha in size), seasonal in some cases and even temporary, based on the need to move to obtain food. They were concentrated near the coast in dunal areas and were part of what was a very simple economic and social system. One of the sites is located on sand dunes overlooking the Efaho estuary (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).^[173]

Ambinanibe phase of the Efaho Valley (and ZafiRaminia arrival) (14th–15th centuries)[link]

14th century[link]

• China began trade with East Africa.
• In the Ambinanibe Phase, settlements hadn't changed much yet from the Mahivolo Phase, as they were still near the beach, were mostly les than 1 ha in size, with evidence of fishing, cattle raising and bowls imported from the Far East.
• Cultivation of sweet potatoes (bageda), iron working further developed. Signs of connections with broader Indian Ocean exchange networks with little evidence of settlement hierarchy or social differences and little change in population. Settlements were larger and primarily on the flood plains, with those near the coast on lagoons rather than the ocean itself (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).^[173]

• Early 1300s – Wreck of a Gujarat ship off coast of Anosy.
• 1315 – Chu Ssu-pen of China created a nautical map which depicted the location of Madagascar together with its coastline, winds and ocean currents.

15th century[link]

Arrival of the ZafiRaminia[link]

• The ZafiRaminia, a migrant group of Antambahoaka from Mananjary, Fianarantsoa which claimed Arab ("Silamo") origins began moving into the Efaho valley due to the war which the Zafikazimambo was successfully waging on the Antambahoaka (only women and children were being spared). By the time they moved to Anosy they had already lived in the Mananjary region of Madagascar long enough to have become assimilated into the Malagasy population of that area, to the point that did not have mosques or any other Islamic institutions. They had, however, retained Arabic script ("sorabe") and had vague memories of the Qoran as well as several socio-religious practices. They also had both soothsayers ("ombiasa") and scribes ("katibo"), who had the ability to both write and interpret the "sorabe" which were venerated, an Islamic tradition. This was according to Racoube, grand ancestor of Anosy and prince of Mangalore, who had fled to Madagascar in fear of his older brother. This began the start of a time of cultural transformation of those living in the Efaho valley as they established a dynasty that went on for the next 200 years. [For more information on the Zafiraminia, see^[181] and^[182]
• Changes included the establishment of a much more hierarchical society. Previous to the arrival of the ZafiRaminia, the indigenous people, described as a social group which was "black," were divided hierarchically, with the Voajiry (royalty) over the Lahvohitra (aristocrats) over the Ontsoa (commoners) over the Andevo (slaves).
• On the other hand the ZafiRaminia, who moved into this area, coming from the northeast per Flacourt, were described as "white." They established a deeply stratified society at the top of which were the Raondriana, who claimed distant Arabian origins. Next came the Raondriana descendents, then commoners and then slaves. Their men of royalty intermarried with women of the local nobility and so took over the property rights of their wife's family. They formed the Raondriana (generally translated as "princes" in early European writings, these were royalty who were declared "Masters of the Earth" by the remaining Voajiry) who were over the Anakandriana (nobles) and the Onjatsy (commoners). Anosy was divided up into autonomous regions known as "Mahavita tena," with a king, known as the "Andriambahoaka." While were considered to be of a divine lineage, they couldn't amend what were known as the "Basic Laws." Rather they were under the control of their subjects, asked to arbitrate when there were states of emergency (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).^[173]

• 1403–1433 – Seven exploration and trade voyages led by Zheng He from China to East Africa, with fleets as big as several hundred ships. While there's no evidence they ever came near Anosy, porcelain from China was traded there.

• 1478 – Gujarat ship from Cambay (now called Khambhat) in northern India shipwrecked near Sofala.

Tranovato & Portuguese phases of the Efaho Valley (16th – early 17th centuries)[link]

16th century[link]

• Middle and upper Efaho valley settled where communities were still few though larger, many had moved further inland. The larger ones were "centers" which were from 2 to 7.5 ha in size and appear to have been fortified with both ditches and wooden palisades.
• Evidence of imported porcelains from Far East as well as stone and earthenwares and glass bottles from Europe.
• Over time the primary center of the Zafiraminy moved from Efangitse inland to Fanjahirambe, a village of 7.5 ha.
• Population became stratified, with settlement and socioeconomic hierarchy and rise of "Paramount Chiefdoms" as well as subchiefs, and shifting coalitions.
• Time of military campaigns as the Zafiraminia (newly arrived) seized power and implemented strict socio-hierarchical system associated with royalty and the ancestors.
• Rice and cattle were the primary sources of food. Long-distance trade with ceramics imported from China, England, France and Portugal, while cattle were exported (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).^[173]

• 1500 – Diogo Dias, captain of a Portuguese ship which was part of a fleet of 13 ships commanded by Pedro Álvares Cabral, sailing from Lisbon to the East Indies, became separated from the fleet on May 23 west of the Cape of Good Hope (South Africa) and was blown west and south. In sailing back north to rejoin his fleet, on August 10 he and his crew become the first Europeans to see Madagascar, somewhere near what was to become Fort Dauphin in Anosy. Diaz named the island São Lourenço (Saint-Laurent in French) in honor of the Feast of São Lourenço held on that day. Madagascar was called this on European maps for the next several hundred years. For more information about Portuguese exploration efforts at this time, see Portuguese discoveries.
• 1506 – Fernando Soares, a Portuguese explorer sailing back to Portugal from India, sailed past what was to become Fort Dauphin (now Tolagnaro) harbor on February 18, and while his ship was hit by lightening, didn't anchor there.
• 1507 – Five shipwrecks along Madagascar's southern coast since 1504.

Portugal's brief presence in Anosy (1508–1617)[link]

[Much of the information about this period is from Larson (2007)^[183] which is a much more in depth analysis of this time. Also see Pearson (1997),^[184] Canitrot (1921).^[185] and Oliver (1902).^[186]

• 1508 – On August 4, Diogo Lopes de Sequeira and Duarte de Lemos of Portugal, sent to analyze the trade potential of Madagascar (looking for both gold and silver), dropped anchor in Ranofotsy bay where they found 2 crew from the ship Santa Maria da Luz, companions of João Gomes de Abreu. They also met the only 2 survivors of a Ghujarati shipwreck which had happened 30 years earlier. He proceeded on to a bay he was told was named "Touroubaya," named after a captain of a shipwrecked Gudjerati ship who'd settled there (Pearson, 2007). Those living there said they were the descendents of shipwrecked sailors. Antonio, another Portuguese "mousses" and companion of de Gomes de Abreu who was living there, knew Malagasy, so he became the translator for Captain Sequeira when he met with King Andriamony (also named "Diamom" by some), one of the Raondriana in this area. Thus began 500 years and counting of very complex Malagasy-Vazaha ("foreigner") interactions in this area.
• Diogo Lopes took on lots of food and left with another ship captained by Jerónimo Teixeira which had just arrived there as well. However, on August 12 they were separated by a storm, with Captain Lopes ending up at a small peninsula which provided an anchorage well protected by the wind. Here they found cattle, wild boar, yams and rice provided by the local Malagasy, who were very friendly. This site also became known as Taolanara.
• As seen above, by this time Anosy had become a place for European sailors shipwrecked along Madagascar's southern coast to go to until the next European ship dropped anchor in one of its bays and could rescue them.
• 1510 – A Portuguese named João Serrão attempted to set up a trading post in Anosy, location unknown (possibly at the "Tranovato"?).
• 1527 - First of two voyages by the French Parmentier brothers who landed on the western coast of Madagascar.
• Four shipwrecks along Madagascar's southern coast. Pearson (1997) wrote the surviving 70 of 600 Portuguese sailors shipwrecked along the southern coast of Androy (southwest of Tolagnaro), arrived in Anosy, they worked with other shipwrecked Portuguese already there to construct a stone fort, held together by lime, on a seasonal island (which the Portuguese name Ilha de Santa Cruz) on/in the Fanjahira river, which became known as "Tranovato" (House of stone).^[184] It was located about 9 km west of what a century later would become Fort Dauphin. Clarinot (1927) wrote that Father Mariano indicated that Francisco Albuquerque built the fort when he was shipwrecked in 1505. Pearson (1997), along with many other sources, including early Portuguese historians of this era, indicated the Tranovato was built by shipwrecked Portuguese, anxious for their safety. Clarinot (1927) indicates that based on a variety of data, the Tranovato must have been built between 1520 and 1530.
• However, Larson (2007) argued the building is older than that, most likely built as stone structures that were not originally a fort, constructed by Zafiraminia Raondriana when they first arrived in Anosy. This still is as was originally described by Father Mariano in 1613, a 10m square blockhouse made of stone that was 3.5m high with 1m thick walls. It has doors on the western and eastern walls along with a series of rectangular apertures in each of the walls. In 1613 it had a carved sign which said "REX PORTUGALENSIS" and the tomb of a shipwrecked captain who'd died there. There were also several wooden houses outside the fort. It was built on a terraced hill (Pearson, 1997). For a 1656 map of the community at Tranovato created by Flacourt, see.^[164]
• 1529 – French sailor, navigator, cartographer and poet Jean Parmentier described the ocean off eastern Madagascar as "La Mere Sans Raison" ("The Ocean Without Reason").
• While some of the Antanosy who shared about the departure of the Portuguese from Anosy indicated they had not met a violent end, some even leaving on their own (see 1613 below), others indicated some of the Raondriana had in fact killed these foreigners—Pearson (1997) wrote this happened in 1531). On the other hand Larson (2007) argued the story most often told about a massacre at this time which was led by Zafiraminia princes who attacked the Portuguese during a celebration they were having outside the protection of their fort,^[184] killing 70, leaving just the 5 on guard duty in the Tranovato alive (along with a Frenchman who'd been shipwrecked and was awaiting rescue), appears to have been first told by Jesuit missionaries almost 100 years later, frustrated with the king of Fanjahira (who they blamed for this), as he was unwilling to give a second son to them to take to Goa, India for a Catholic education. In either case, Portugal's minimal attempt at setting up a colony ended after the Portuguese either left on their own or were mostly killed, the few survivors rescued.

• 1530 – Several Portuguese ships commanded by two brothers, Duarte and Diogo da Fonseca sent to Madagascar by Portugal's king to search for shipwrecked sailors, but only found one Frenchman and 4 Portuguese (from 3 different shipwrecks). There were rumors of other shipwrecked sailors who had moved inland to Antanosy villages, but these were never proven to be true as a search of the interior was never conducted. However, in 1613 Portuguese visiting (see below) were told by an Antanosy about Portuguese his ancestors had welcomed, teaching them local skills. They had intermarried with local women and had many children. However, they eventually built a ship on which they sent sail to Africa, never to return, even though they had told their wives and children they would come back to get them, bringing good for the locals. According to some Dutch sailors, they had all perished.
• 1531 – The 6 survivors at Tranovato were picked up by a passing ship (Pearson, 1997).
• 1534–38 – 5 shipwrecks along Madagascar's southern coast.

• 1540 - According to Camboué (1910)^[187] a group of Portuguese "emigrants" included one or more "religious who...accompanied the colony of emigrants."
• 1547 – Jean Fonteneau described Anosy as follows:

The people there are negroes and valiant: but they are wicked and do not wish to trade merchandise with any strangers. The Portuguese king had there formerly a factory [at Ranofotsy], where ginger was extracted; but the natives killed them and no longer wished to trade with the Portuguese...The island's coast is very dangerous, especially the south coast and part of the southeast. Shoals run for more than 30 leagues" (as cited in Pearson, 1997).

• 1550 – Portuguese shipwreck off the coast of Vinanibe (just south of Tranovato), by which time few if any Portuguese were still living in Anosy. By this time the Malagasy living in this area had been labelled as "meschans" by the French.

• 1587 - According to Ray (1979), Portuguese Frei João de São Tomás became the first Dominican monk to visit Madagascar.

Ehoala phase of the Efaho Valley & initial French settlement at Fort Dauphin (17th century)[link]

• Ehoala phase of Anosy with focus on irrigated rice, but manioc had also been introduced. Settlements were smaller and located primarily in upper valleys away from coast. Cattle and slaves continued to be exported. By the time of the arrival of French in Anosy, warfare in the region had been happening for so long it was endemic. This was in part because of the multiple chiefdoms and even mini-kingdoms in this area. Most villages were found up to a day's walk from the ocean—possibly a defensive response to the growing number of vazaha (foreigners) anchoring in their bays. The various Raondriana ("princes") power was a function of their alliances with ombiasy (traditional diviner-healers) and scribes (using a form of Arabic script to write Malagasy), as well as how many soldiers they had available for battles with other Raondriana (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).^[173]

17th century[link]

• 1600 – A Dutch ship of 800 tons, armed with 50 cannons, returning to Holland from Java with a very valuable cargo of spices, was shipwrecked somewhere near Sainte-Luce (Manafiafy). [For additional information about Dutch exploration and colonial efforts, see the Dutch Empire.]
• 1604 - Henry IV of France began sending ships irregularly to Madagascar in order to compete with the Dutch.

• 1613 – According to Larson (2007), a Portuguese ship from Goa, India, which was doing a hydrographical survey of Madagascar's coasts (for an early map indicating this information for both Tolagnaro and the St. Luce (Manafiafy) bays, see.^[165] They were also seeking to obtain treaties with Malagasy kings they met while doing this, anchored in Ranofotsy bay, near the town of Italy. Soon after arriving, they were met by King Bruto Chambanga (also called Andriantsiambany), the ruler of that part of Anosy, who lived in Fanjahira. He brought with him 500 armed warriors, as he was concerned these foreigners had come to exact revenge for the Portuguese (rumored? to have been) killed some 80 years earlier. He was relieved when Captain da Costa instead worked on negotiating a treaty of friendship, drafted by Chambanga, which was signed in Chambanga's town of Fanjahira, though was never seen again. While Chambanga gave Father Freire a small booklet of "prayers, litanies and psalms," written by shipwrecked Portuguese in the previous century, some in Latin, others in Portuguese. Soon the local Malagasy were happily trading "rice, yams, beans, lemons, ginger, cattle, sheep, goats, eggs, poultry, cotton cloth and silver bracelets for minted piastres and glass beads," and for several weeks over 2,000 Antanosy came each day to trade or just look at the ship at anchor in the bay.
• This ship was also scouting for new Catholic mission sites (Goa was an ecclesiastical province of the Catholic Church, responsible for missionary work in the Indian Ocean). With the aid of Malagasy interpreters aboard the ship, French and Italian Jesuit missionaries from Goa gave mass on the beach, where they observed some Malagasy wearing pewter crosses around their necks which they'd gotten from Portuguese, while several even had tattoos of crosses. They also found some Portuguese words were being used.
• After several weeks in Ranofotsy Bay, Italian Father Luigi Mariana with 3 Portuguese sailors and quite a few of their slaves, walked over to "Trano Vato" (near Vinanibe) where he wanted to establish a chapel and house that he and Father Freire could use as a base for their missionary efforts. They chose this site as they wanted to focus their efforts on King Chambanga and his people. After several weeks of work, having constructed both buildings, a 10m cross was also raised at Tranovato, with another one planted which overlooked Ranofotsy bay.
• While at Tranovato, Father Mariana asked Andriamanoro, Chief of a village on a neighboring island, who had originally built this stone house?
• As part of the treaty signed by the Portuguese and King Chambanga, the King had agreed to provide one of his sons to the Jesuits so they could take him back to Goa, where he would be taught Catholicism, as well as about "the customs and grandeur" of the Portuguese. Unfortunately, within 6 weeks of the arrival of the Portuguese, what had begun so well deteriorated rapidly as Captain da Costa and the Jesuit priests became increasingly frustrated over King Chambanga's unwillingness to give them his son as he had agreed to in the treaty he'd signed. Chambanga did offer to provide them with a younger, more distant relative instead, but Captain felt this was an "affront" to Portuguese "honor and name" and ordered his crew to go get Chambanga's 12 year old son, Andriandramaka (Drian-Ramaka), and bring him aboard his ship, using force if necessary. It was at this point in time when the Jesuits started to blame King Chambanga for having killed at least a "third" of the Portuguese who had been shipwrecked in Anosy in the previous century. Chambanga's response was to deny he had killed any Europeans or that he'd agreed to send his son with the Portuguese. Captain de Costa then had his soldiers and sailors seize Drian-Ramaka when he showed up with his father at Ranofotsy bay and rowed him out to their ship. Chambanga first had his soldiers try to attack the ship, but when they were driven back by cannon and musket shots fired from the ship, he tried to ransom him, but the Portuguese refused this as well, shouting towards shore they'd return his son in several years, once he had completed his religious studies in Goa.
• 1614–15 – Drian-Ramaka spent 2 years of study at the newly renamed Jesuit Saint Paul's College, Goa (originally named the College of Santa Fe), the largest school in the Portuguese empire, established for what were then over 2,000 boys and young men of a wide variety of races and classes, though many, like Drian-Ramaka were of the highest social strata from the India subcontinent, the Indian Ocean and even several from East Africa, where, while they were trained to assist European clergy, had also been chosen as the Jesuits were hoping they'd also be significant leaders when they returned home. While he most likely at least began to learn to speak Portuguese as well as basic Catholicism on his 5 month voyage to Goa (via Mozambique). In Goa he was taught to read and write Portuguese by priests so he could enroll in the college. He was very intelligent, in a little less than two years learning how to read, write and sing in Portuguese, as well as ride a horse (an animal he'd never seen in Anosy). He was also taught the Latin catechism and could even respond to basic questions in Latin. Eventually Drian-Ramaka was also baptized.
• 1616 – Prince Drian-Ramaka, having been renamed "Dom André de Souza" (Sahavandra?) by the Jesuits, returned to Anosy in April, together with 8 "white companions," 3 of them Jesuit missionaries whose task was to develop a mission at Tranovato by working in collaboration with "Dom Andre" and his Raondriana father. While his parents were very happy when they found out their son who had been forcibly taken from them two years earlier was not only alive and aboard a ship in Ranofotsy bay, when the Jesuits refused to let "Dom Andre" go to shore until his father provided two additional relatives as temporary hostages. King Chambanga was enraged over this and while he did eventually yield to this demand. These temporary hostages were chained up on the ship and then the Jesuits indicated they would take Drian-Ramaka back on board their ship as well unless his father provided them with another son (preferably 2), who would also be taken to Goa for studies. Chambanga refused to give up any of his sons to the Jesuits, including Drian-Ramaka. Furthermore, according to Larson (2007), he told the Jesuit missionaries "he felt the Portuguese had the custom of sending some missionaries first to lands they desired and following later to take possession" of them. This in turn enraged the Jesuits and ship's company, who plotted to mercilessly battle the king and his followers, only giving up on this plan when they realized in so doing they would not be able to do any missionary work in Anosy. Eventually the Jesuits worked out an agreement with Chambanga that in exchange for "just" taking one of what had been two temporary Antanosy hostages to Goa for education, they would be allowed to live and do their missionary work in Anosy. Two of the missionaries settled at Tranovato (for a 1656 map of this community drawn by Flacourt, see.^[164]). However, when members of this new, Portuguese community identified the ombiasa as God's enemies, the ombiasa threatened to poison them. When they openly began searching for gold and silver in the Anosy area, they confirmed King Chambanga's fears that they were involved in much more than just sharing their religion with his people. Soon after this the Portuguese living at Tranovato became ill due to fevers and by the end of the year, very frustrated with how this vazaha endeavor was working out, Chambanga forbid his people to provide anything to the Portuguese in an attempt to starve them into leaving Anosy.
• 1617 – Having baptized only 1 person in the year they'd been there (the Jesuits blamed this on the Islamic aspects of Antanosy beliefs), one of the Jesuit priests having died, the others suffering from hunger and fever due to their enforced isolation from the local population, left Anosy. In the mean time Prince Drian-Ramaka became king at the death of his father. However, instead of embracing the Catholic faith he'd been taught, he took the name of Andriandramaka and continued to respect the local beliefs and customs of that areas folk religion.
• 1618 – Pitre, son of a Dutch captain, washed up on shore in Karembola (west of Androy). He lived with a local king for two years then was brought to Anosy by Dian Tsiambany where he was given a house, wife and slaves. In wasn't until 7 years after being shipwrecked (1625) that a Dutch ship anchored off the shore of Anosy and after Pitre negotiated a trade for the Antanosy he was living with (50 cattle, 50 baskets of rice, 50 fowls, honey, honey wine and edible roots for 100 pieces-of-eight, 6 bolts of cotton, Indian fabrics, porcelain and silk), he went home to Holland (Pearson, 1997).

• 1620 – The Goa-based Jesuits abandoned and never attempted to restart what had only been a very feeble and seriously flawed, 7 year missionary effort in Anosy (less than a year and a half of Jesuit priests living and working there). (For a different perspective on Catholic missionary work in Anosy during the 16th and 17th centuries, see.^[187])
• 1625 – Final Zafindraminia migration into Anosy per Grandidier.

• 1640 – Of 500 Frenchmen shipwrecked in Karembola (Androy), 100 sailed off in a barque. Of the 400 left behind, only 2 manage to reach Anosy, the rest having died of illnesses, were killed or died of privation (Pearson, 1997).
• 1641 – Dutch shipwreck along coast of Androy.

Initial French attempts to set up a Colony in Anosy (1642–1674)[link]

[See Larson (2007)^[183] and Pearson (1997) for where much of the information on this period came. For additional information see^{[188][189][190][191][192][193][194][195][196][197][198]} For additional information about France's colonial efforts, see the French Colonial Empire.)

• An estimated 10,000 Antanosy lived near Fort Dauphin, with the total population of Anosy several times this number.
• For more information on work by the Roman Catholic Church in Anosy during the 16th and 17th centuries, see Roman Catholic Diocese of Tôlagnaro.
• 1643-73 - Several different French Governors of Fort Dauphin, France's first colony in the Indian Ocean, sought to conquer Anosy, mounting multiple military campaigns through the south where they pillaged and then burned hundreds of villages, killed thousands of Malagasy, enslaved others and stole tens of thousands of cattle as they sought to wrest control of the area from the Zafiraminia kings. During this time the French colonialists living there also fought for several of the Malagasy kings in Anosy. Fort Dauphin was a rough place to live. According to one source:

With the exception of some officers who feared God, there was neither order nor justice in the quarter of the Europeans. The most atrocious robberies were committed with impunity. The cattle of the natives was taken by force: they were massacred without mercy, when they did not give it cheerfully: they treated as an outrage upon temporals, the representations and complaints of a conduct so contrary to justice and humanity.

• 1642–43 – First French colonial settlement in Anosy established by Jacques de Pronis Foucquenbourg the French East India Company at Manafiafy, 40 km. northeast of Tolagnaro, with 8 shipwrecked Frenchmen and 70 colonists (for a map of the harbors of Manafiafy and what was soon to become Fort Dauphin, see.^[165]) However, after 26 of the 40 settlers died within the first several months there (many most likely due to Malaria and/or Dysentary) and due to it being a hostile environment, the settlement was moved southwest to what became Fort Dauphin, which they built on the peninsula there. They began exporting ebony, hide and beeswax.^[25] Initially they found the local Antanosy, ruled by Dian Ramaka (who had learned Portuguese and been baptized during 3 years studying at a Jesuit College in Goa), friendly, in part because many of the local inhabitants were descendents of shipwrecked sailors. In settling first in Manafiafy and then moving to Fort Dauphin, both these attempted French settlements were at the edge of the Zafiraminia's world.
• 1648 - Flacourt takes over as Governor. His plan was to establish 9 different colonies in Madagascar, each of them able to be a supply for ships. In addition they would sell indigo, tobacco, sugar-can, hides, etc. to various markets around the world, the income from this used to support the colonies. As there was plenty of food being grown in the area surrounding Fort Dauphin, it could be obtained either through trade or if necessary, by force.
• 1649 – 15 of Flacourt's troops fought for a Mahafaly king against one of his rivals, capturing 10,000 cattle and 500 slaves. Returning to Anosy with 600 cattle, they were ambushed by Ramaka and several other roandria. However, all but one soldier arrived safely back at the Fort (due to reinforcements which accompanied them back).

• mid-1600s – Rise of Zafiraminia rule of the Efaho valley as they become key connection between French and the rest of Anosy.
• Extensive destruction of villages close to Fort Dauphin led by Flacourt. For a map of Fort Dauphin at this time, see^[199] For a map of the Anosy region at this time, see^[163]
• 1650 – While 77 people had been baptized, two missionaries had died, at least one from fever.
• As the European ships anchoring in the bays along the Anosy coast were heavily armed with cannons, muskets and pistols and the people in Anosy at that time had only a total of 9 flintlocks, they remained dominant as long as they didn't go very far inland.
• 1651 – After Flacourt was able to drive off thousands of Antanosy, led by Ramaka, who attacked the fort, he killed Ramaka and burned down his village of Fanjahirambe, which was the center of the Zafiraminy. An archeological dig conducted in the early 1990s found European stonewares, earthenwares, glass bottles, Far Eastern green glaze and blue and white porcelain (Wright et al., 1993).
• 1653 – Flacourt reinscribed the marble stone the Portuguese had used to mark their captain's grave at the Trano Vato and brought it to Fort Dauphin. On the marble he reinscribed, "Oh newcomer, read our advice: it will be useful for you, yours and your life: beware of the locals. Farewell."
• 1655 – Flacourt returned to France for 5 years, but died enroute bak to Madagascar in 1660.
• 1656 – Champmargou, Flacourt's replacement, arrived at Fort Dauphin to find the French had executed two roandria, but the Fort was burnt and Pronis was dead. In response Champmargou leads a ruthless attempt to conquer the local Antanosy, which only left those living in Fort Dauphin more isolated.
• La Case (Le Rochelais Le Vacher), Champmargou's subordinate, having married the daughter of a roandriana and became a local ruler. After successfully fighting in wars against both the Mahafaly and the Karembola, he organized an army of Antanosy soldiers who saved Campmargou and his troops in a revenge attack they were trying to do because of the death of one of the Catholic priests who had insulted Dian Manana, a powerful local roandria.
• 1660 – Flacourt died enroute back to Madagascar.
• 1663 – On Christmas Day, 4 Malagasy adults and 15 children were baptized into the Catholic faith, but another missionary died soon thereafter.
• 1665 – As part of the new Compagnie des Indes Orientales efforts to rebuild Fort Dauphin, four ships arrive from France with almost 500 settlers who were "to establish there a civil society with original inhabitants". The settlers included carpenters, shoe-smiths, cabinet makers, masons and stone-cutters, cartwrights, gardeners, labourers, wine growers, bakers, butchers, tanners, candle workers, etc. (Ray, p. 85, 1979). Due to an unclarity of roles, there was much internal fighting among the French settlers.
• Worsening relationship with the local Malagasy resulted in it becoming quite difficult for the French living in Fort Dauphin to obtain rice or meat, their staple foods. As a result they took possession of 3 different "posts" elsewhere in Madagascar to supply rice to Fort Dauphin. These included Fort Gaillard in Fenerive which at one point shipped 158 barrels of rice and 500 birds to Fort Dauphin. Antongil was a second one. Cattle, on the other hand, were obtained by raiding the countryside surrounding Anosy, which only worsened relationships with the people of Anosy.
• Thousands of new colonists and troops arrive, many who died from warfare with the people of Anosy or fever.
• The Compagnie's poor profits result in the Crown taking it over.
• 1665–67 – By the time nine new missionaries, 4 lay brothers and 2 Recollet farmers arrived in Fort Dauphin, it had a chapel, monastery and library.
• A letter from
• 1668 – Fort described as having two "bastions" on the north side which commanded the harbor, was 50 feet long by 26 feet wide with a main door which overlooked s small meadow to the west while the other door looked east towards the sea.
• 1670 – 200 remaining colonists left at Fort Dauphin living in a war-torn, hostile part of Anosy.
• 1671 – Death of La Case. Both his daughter and widow soon married other Frenchmen.
• A letter from Roguet, one of the Lazarist community, back to France reports:

War continues, famine has not left, our weakness increases.... As our enemies, they increase their forces every day in number and in force...we are not in a position to defend ourselves, not having the arms, men, munitions of war nor the guns."

• Admiral de la Haye told King Louis XIV he should abandon Fort Dauphin.
• Dubois, a visitor to Anosy, described local graves as being covered with gold or silver arm rings, along with coral and cloth in preparation for the deceased's next life (as cited in Pearson, 1997).
• 1674 – Father Etienne poisoned, having served in Fort Dauphin for 8 years.
• Wreck of a ship in the Fort Dauphin harbor which was on its way to Bourbon (Reunion) with quite a few young French women aboard who convinced the governor they should marry his colonists instead of going on to Bourbon. The governor orders the colonists to do this and renounce their Malagasy wives. Feeling betrayed, these colonists' former Malagasy wives betrayed Fort Dauphin to local Malagasy fores who viewed this as a breaking of the colonists' alliances with them and killed over half (about 100) of the colonists while they were celebrating their marriages to the recently arrived French women.
• Fort Dauphin was evacuated and the fort and settlement closed (remaining stores burned and cannons spiked). They left behind about 4,000 French colleagues who had died there in the last 30 years, a bitter French perspective of this region and a colonial failure, as the Antanosy had successfully forced them out. This was a source of French embarrassment for the next 200 years until France successfully took control of Madagascar in 1895.
• While only 2 of a total of 37 French Catholic missionaries sent to Fort Dauphin by that time were able to return to France, by the time they left there were hundreds of baptized Antanosy, a French-Antanosy dictionary and a Catechism in the Antanosy language left behind.
• Fort Dauphin considered by the French to be too dangerous a port to use for the next 60 years.

[edit] Hoala phase of the Efaho Valley (18th–19th centuries)

18th century[link]

^{[200][201][202]}

• Continued conflict as the Zafiraminia attempted to regain control, without success. Size and number of settlements decreased and moved further inland from the floodplains and rivers towards the mountains. New crops introduced and a great deal of imports from China. Towards the end of this phase the traditional clay cooking ware were replaced by imported pots made of iron (Rakotoarisoa, 1998).^[173]

• 1707? – About 30 surviving members of the shipwrecked British ship Degrave, having been able to escape from Androy, leave on a Dutch ship.

• 1740s – Another unsuccessful attempt by French to settle Fort Dauphin. As trade through Fort Dauphin began to increase again, the primary exports were cattle hides, salt beef or live livestock exported to Mauritius. Slavery was not an important trade.

• 1768 – Frenchman Count Louis Laurent de Maudave, a friend of Voltaire, former soldier in India and Mauritius planter, attempted to rebuild Fort Dauphin, signing 30 treaties with local kings as he didn't want to gain land through conquest. By this point, at least some of the local Malagasy viewed the French as allies, who because they provided them with muskets and amunition, allowed them to gain wealth and power.
• [some write so it could be a supply base for the French colonies on the Mascarene Islands (Réunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues)].
• Between 1768 and 1769, French traders from Mauritius sold 10,000 guns, 50 tons of gunpowder, 120,000 lead shot bullets, 300,000 gunflints, 24,000 knives and 10,000 small mirrors. At this point in time a slave could be purchased in some parts of Madagascar for 2–3 muskets. It is quite possible that at least some of these guns were traded by Antanosy with the Tandroy for cattle which the Antanosy then traded with Europeans.
• 1769 – Prickly pear cactus from Mexico introduced to southern Madagascar, where ove the next 100 years it spread over 50,000 square miles of the arid south from the Mandrare river and west, providing fruit to eat, a source of water and improved ground cover and ground water.
• French Navy stopped this project in 1770 and Fort Dauphin was again abandoned by Maudave in 1771, who took Malagasy slaves with him back to his Mauritius plantation.
• About the time of their departure, the Zafiriminia kingdom also fell.

• 1798 – HMS Garland wrecked near Manafiafy.

19th century[link]

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• 1811 – Jean Rene, son of a French settler of Fort Dauphin and an Antanosy mom, became Governor of Toamasina, first under British and then under the Imerina king Radama I's rule. He took a blood oath with Radama in 1817 and was a powerful ally, even against the Antanosy, until his death in 1826.
• 1819 – Albrand reopened Fort Dauphin in the name of King Louis the 18th of France, having negotiated with the Zafiraminia king Rabefania who reassured Albrand the past was forgotten and who was interested in French protection from the Imerina monarchy, led by king Radama I, who had declared "the ocean is the limit of our rice fields" and was seeking to conquer the whole of Madagascar. The Antanosy people were also seeking a way to respond to their increasingly despotic princes ("Rohandriana").

[edit] Imerina control of Fort Dauphin area (1825–1895)

(Rakotoarisoa, 1998).^[206][207]

• 1825 – Anosy, including Fort Dauphin, conquered by 3,000 Imerina soldiers, led by Ramananolona, cousin of King Radama I, after a battle at Masihanaka, near Eboboka. The Imerina entered the French fort, subdued De Grasse, the French Commandant, replaced the French flag with that of the Imerina kingdom and Ramananolona was suddenly head the commercial establishment at Fort Dauphin (the French fled to an island off of Manafiafy, from which they were picked up and sailed to Bourbon). Having confiscated the Antanosy guns, the Imerina demanded cattle, taxes, slaves and forced labor (adults were forced to create and farm rice fields while children were required to protect rice crop from birds and sugar cane from rats). From this point on there was Antanosy resistance by Rabefania's soldiers, which was brutally suppressed by Rafito, who commanded the Imerina troops. This resistance continued till the French conquered the Imerina, meaning most of Anosy was not controlled by the Imerina kingdom, but rather only Fort Dauphin, its neighboring town of Andrahomana and Manafiafy, where they collected duty on exports and imports.
• 1827 – Jean Laborde's ship runs aground north of Fort Dauphin during a cyclone. He makes it ashore and is captured by Antanosy, at the same time becoming, per Queen Ranavalona I's royal decree, a royal slave. He made his way north and ended up significantly impacting the Imerina kingdom of that time.

• 1845 – First wave of 30,000 Antanosy moved west, eventually to the Onilahy River valley near Betioky and Bezaha to escape Imerina rule.

• 1850 – Unsuccessful Imerina attempt to invade Androy by means of a coastal attack near Faux Cap ends with a retreat to Fort Dauphin.
• mid-1850s – Leather craft skills introduced by artisan missionaries of the London Missionary Society in the highlands spread to Anosy when those Imerina skilled in this area fled Imerina "fanompoana" (forced labor). At this time some Antanosy also become part of the specialized porterage system of the Imerina kingdom, returning to Anosy with their earnings after completing their contracts.

• 1852 – Six month siege of Fort Dauphin by the Antanosy which was finally broken by Imerina reinforcements sent by Lambert who broke through to the town. In response to unceasing repression and atrocities by the Imerina, an estimated 80,000 Antanosy, led by king Zaomanery, first moved to Androy (which the Imerina hadn't been able to conquer), but faced with thefts of cattle, wives and children by the Antandroy, eventually moved further west to join the previous Antanosy in the Onilahy river valley. Unfortunately, these Antanosy were faced with raid of their livestock by the Bara and Mahafaly people of that area. They felt further threatened when the Imerina were able to conquer Toliary. They also struggled regarding ethnicity, resulting in separate leaders for the Zafitomany versus the Zafiramania peoples.

• 1869 – Ranavalona II, Queen of the Imerina, became a Christian, requiring her representatives around the country to build churches. Some time after this a church was built in Fort Dauphin by the Imerina living there, who eventually made attendance mandatory for those living in Fort Dauphin.

• 1872 – Marchal, a Mauritian settler, established a combination botanical garden and experimental cash crop plantation which he named the Jardin de Nahampoana, just north of Fort Dauphin.

• 1880 – Two Malagasy Christian evangelists were sent by the London Mission Society to Anosy and began to work with the church there, eventually taking over leadership of it.
• 1883 – Beginning of war against the Imerina kingdom in the Antananarivo region.
• 1884 – king Tsiamanana, who had replaced king Zaomanery, as head of some of the Antanosy living in the Onilahy river valley, refused to submit to the Imerina general Rainimavo.
• year? – French Bocard brothers established a coffee and rubber plantation at Manantantely.
• 1887 – Imerina lose control of Antananarivo, resulting in the Antanosy no longer respecting their rule
• 1888 – Having spent over 6 weeks walking down from Antananarivo, American Rev. John and Lena Hogstad arrived in Fort Dauphin, accompanied by the Rev. Nilsen-Lund of the Norwegian Missionary Society, for whom Hogstads worked, who helped them with their journey and to settle there. Rev. Hogstad and his wife began work on establishing a Lutheran church in Anosy, work which eventually expanded to encompass all of Anosy, Androy and the Mahafaly regions, with significant numbers of American Lutheran pastors, evangelists, educators and medical staff working in southern Madagascar for the next 100 years. However, having been sent with the blessing of the Queen of Imerina, they were asked to start working with an existing Imerina congregation located just outside the Fort in the midst of where the Imerina lived. While they were supported by the Imerina Governor in these efforts, this support meant they were viewed as collaborators with the hated Imerina by the Antanosy.^{[27][208][209]}
• 1889 – First 7 Antanosy youth baptized by Rev. Hogstad. Shortly thereafter the Hogstads began a Lutheran school especially for Antanosy youth, purchasing the liberation of Rabenjamina, a young local slave who'd been taught how to read and write in Antananarivo, who became the first teacher. Before long Hogstad had also started an evangelist training school, though 8 of the 10 first students were either Betsileo or Imerina.

• 1891 – Wild rubber discovered in western Anosy and within one year 1680 tons were exported.
• 1892 – London Mission Society ended their work in southern Madagascar, having handed over leadership of the Fort Dauphin congregation to Rev. Hogstad.
• 1894? – Tandroy drove Europeans out of two small coastal trading-stations (Andrahombe, 20 km southwest of Fort Dauphin and Antanambazaha, at the mouth of the Mandrare), stealing their stores. These sites were probably trading for rubber and a lichen from which red or violet dye could be obtained, but neither was ever reestablished by Europeans after this.
• 1894 – John Waller, an African American who'd just retired as the American Consul in Tamatave, was given 225 square miles of land near Fort Dauphin for a rubber plantation by the Imerina Prime Minister Rainalivarony. While he advertised for settlers to come to this site, he never actually visited it himself, having been arrested by the French when they took over Madagascar in 1895, eventually giving up his claim to this land.
• 1895 – Central and northern Madagascar conquered by France.
• In March, a European trading station which had existed at the mouth of the Mandrare river for the past 3 years, was overrun by Antandroy who plundered all the stores there, including Procter Brothers'.
• Permanent Catholic Missions started in Fort Dauphin, led by Paulist priests and the Sisters of Charity.