- published: 10 May 2013
- views: 2712
- author: FilmsActu
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GIBRALTAR Bande Annonce Teaser (2013)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:03
- Updated: 22 May 2013
GIBRALTAR, avec Gilles Lellouche, Tahar Rahim et Riccardo Scamarcio, au cinéma le 11 septembre 2013. Rejoignez-nous sur Facebook http://FB.com/Filmsactu Afin...
http://wn.com/GIBRALTAR_Bande_Annonce_Teaser_2013
GIBRALTAR, avec Gilles Lellouche, Tahar Rahim et Riccardo Scamarcio, au cinéma le 11 septembre 2013. Rejoignez-nous sur Facebook http://FB.com/Filmsactu Afin...
Dolphin and whale watching Tarifa, Strait of Gibraltar
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:09
- Updated: 23 May 2013
Dolphin and whale watching Tarifa, Strait of Gibraltar http://www.property-management-marbella.com/2013/05/11/dolphin-and-whale-watching-tarifa-strait-of-gib...
http://wn.com/Dolphin_and_whale_watching_Tarifa,_Strait_of_Gibraltar
Dolphin and whale watching Tarifa, Strait of Gibraltar http://www.property-management-marbella.com/2013/05/11/dolphin-and-whale-watching-tarifa-strait-of-gib...
- published: 11 May 2013
- views: 229
- author: Property Management Marbella
Gibraltar Official Trailer #1 (2013) - Julien Leclerq Movie HD
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:03
- Updated: 21 May 2013
Subscribe to TRAILERS: http://bit.ly/sxaw6h Subscribe to COMING SOON: http://bit.ly/H2vZUn Like us on FACEBOOK:http://goo.gl/dHs73. Subscribe to INDIE TRAILE...
http://wn.com/Gibraltar_Official_Trailer_1_2013_Julien_Leclerq_Movie_HD
Subscribe to TRAILERS: http://bit.ly/sxaw6h Subscribe to COMING SOON: http://bit.ly/H2vZUn Like us on FACEBOOK:http://goo.gl/dHs73. Subscribe to INDIE TRAILE...
- published: 09 May 2013
- views: 1686
- author: FilmFestivalVideos
EcoPush Gibraltar - Obama's Clean Energy Investment Speach
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:50
- Updated: 08 May 2013
U.S. President Obama discusses clean energy investment in his weekly national address brought to you by EcoPush Gibraltar & Clean Energy Investment http://ec...
http://wn.com/EcoPush_Gibraltar_Obama's_Clean_Energy_Investment_Speach
U.S. President Obama discusses clean energy investment in his weekly national address brought to you by EcoPush Gibraltar & Clean Energy Investment http://ec...
- published: 08 May 2013
- views: 65
- author: Alex Stephenson
Gibraltar 2012 HD
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:16
- Updated: 29 May 2013
Gibraltar video taken in may 2012 .Beautiful place to visit.Very unique and Iconic Airfild. Nice city.Best way to quick visit is take one of the excoursion f...
http://wn.com/Gibraltar_2012_HD
Gibraltar video taken in may 2012 .Beautiful place to visit.Very unique and Iconic Airfild. Nice city.Best way to quick visit is take one of the excoursion f...
- published: 26 Jul 2012
- views: 24189
- author: Jacek Zarzycki
EcoPush Gibraltar - Clean Enegry boom will help the unemployed
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:40
- Updated: 08 May 2013
Short video brought to you by EcoPush Gibraltar & Clean Energy Investment - How a clean energy boom could provide employment for the long term unemployed. ht...
http://wn.com/EcoPush_Gibraltar_Clean_Enegry_boom_will_help_the_unemployed
Short video brought to you by EcoPush Gibraltar & Clean Energy Investment - How a clean energy boom could provide employment for the long term unemployed. ht...
- published: 08 May 2013
- views: 16
- author: Alex Stephenson
Add Cymbals Without Adding Cymbal Stands: Gibraltar's BRENT'S HANG
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:16
- Updated: 27 May 2013
Adding new cymbals to your set up doesn't mean you have to add more stands and if you have a drum rack you definitely don't want to add stands. In this weeks...
http://wn.com/Add_Cymbals_Without_Adding_Cymbal_Stands_Gibraltar's_BRENT'S_HANG
Adding new cymbals to your set up doesn't mean you have to add more stands and if you have a drum rack you definitely don't want to add stands. In this weeks...
- published: 08 May 2013
- views: 1171
- author: GibraltarDIY
Gibraltar destination guide - Cunard
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:41
- Updated: 02 Jun 2013
A little piece of Britain in the Mediterranean - with its helmeted bobbies, pillar boxes and pubs, you will find Gibraltar a fascinating place to visit. From...
http://wn.com/Gibraltar_destination_guide_Cunard
A little piece of Britain in the Mediterranean - with its helmeted bobbies, pillar boxes and pubs, you will find Gibraltar a fascinating place to visit. From...
- published: 11 Mar 2013
- views: 2155
- author: WeAreCunard
Gibraltar."The Rock" Tunnels, Apes, Caves and Beaches.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 17:04
- Updated: 02 Jun 2013
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. It has an area of 6.8 sq...
http://wn.com/GibraltarThe_Rock_Tunnels,_Apes,_Caves_and_Beaches
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. It has an area of 6.8 sq...
- published: 25 Sep 2012
- views: 6360
- author: Kevin Kilpatrick
DIA DE EUROPA INSTITUTO CERVANTES GIBRALTAR 9 MAYO 2013
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 53:21
- Updated: 10 May 2013
http://wn.com/DIA_DE_EUROPA_INSTITUTO_CERVANTES_GIBRALTAR_9_MAYO_2013
Gibraltar
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:32
- Updated: 24 May 2013
Gibraltar Destination Review from Cruise Today.
http://wn.com/Gibraltar
Gibraltar Destination Review from Cruise Today.
- published: 31 Mar 2012
- views: 22794
- author: Travel Channel International
The Living Daylights Gibraltar Scene
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:54
- Updated: 30 May 2013
The opening title sequence to The Living Daylights (1987) was filmed on Gibraltar. It was the fifteenth entry in the James Bond film series and the first to ...
http://wn.com/The_Living_Daylights_Gibraltar_Scene
The opening title sequence to The Living Daylights (1987) was filmed on Gibraltar. It was the fifteenth entry in the James Bond film series and the first to ...
- published: 02 May 2013
- views: 225
- author: PEAB007
Urgent Question: Spain and Gibraltar border tensions (15Oct12)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:51
- Updated: 25 May 2013
Spain is dicking around with the Gibraltar border by being slow to process people to go through it, or jsut closing it all together, in an attempt for the Gi...
http://wn.com/Urgent_Question_Spain_and_Gibraltar_border_tensions_15Oct12
Spain is dicking around with the Gibraltar border by being slow to process people to go through it, or jsut closing it all together, in an attempt for the Gi...
- published: 15 Oct 2012
- views: 10025
- author: Liarpoliticians
Visita a Gibraltar
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:21
- Updated: 06 May 2013
http://wn.com/Visita_a_Gibraltar
Gangnam Style Gibraltar
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:16
- Updated: 26 May 2013
Gangnam Style Gibraltar was produced by the Explorer Scouts of the 3rd Europa Scout Group and the Senior Section of Girlguiding Gibraltar. Thanks to our spon...
http://wn.com/Gangnam_Style_Gibraltar
Gangnam Style Gibraltar was produced by the Explorer Scouts of the 3rd Europa Scout Group and the Senior Section of Girlguiding Gibraltar. Thanks to our spon...
- published: 16 Dec 2012
- views: 23763
- author: CB Gib
Gibraltar 1988 - 'The Journey Home'
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 46:27
- Updated: 07 Apr 2013
As part of a number of events to mark the 25th anniversary of the execution of 3 unarmed IRA Volunteers, Óglaigh Dan McCann, Mairead Farrell and Sean Savage ...
http://wn.com/Gibraltar_1988_'The_Journey_Home'
As part of a number of events to mark the 25th anniversary of the execution of 3 unarmed IRA Volunteers, Óglaigh Dan McCann, Mairead Farrell and Sean Savage ...
- published: 07 Mar 2013
- views: 1892
- author: Sinn Féin - The Irish Republican Party
Karla Scott shows Gibraltar & Morocco
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:05
- Updated: 05 May 2013
Karla Scott shows two continents from Celebrity Equinox cruise ship-April 2013.
http://wn.com/Karla_Scott_shows_Gibraltar_Morocco
Karla Scott shows two continents from Celebrity Equinox cruise ship-April 2013.
- published: 04 May 2013
- author: Karla Scott
Red Alert 3 Let's Play - Allies - Gibraltar - Enemy of Our Enemy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 32:44
- Updated: 03 May 2013
One mission we're sticking to the russians and then the next we sign some peace treaties with them.
http://wn.com/Red_Alert_3_Let's_Play_Allies_Gibraltar_Enemy_of_Our_Enemy
One mission we're sticking to the russians and then the next we sign some peace treaties with them.
- published: 03 May 2013
- views: 1623
FSX - Gibraltar night landing
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:51
- Updated: 08 May 2013
Just a simple video, enjoy.
Follow me on Twitter: https://twitter.com/dustintran39
At night, there was so dark while approaching, but it was 51 degrees Fahrenheit. If you have any questions or suggestions, leave the comments or send me a YouTube personal message. SUBSCRIBE FOR MORE
http://wn.com/FSX_Gibraltar_night_landing
Just a simple video, enjoy.
Follow me on Twitter: https://twitter.com/dustintran39
At night, there was so dark while approaching, but it was 51 degrees Fahrenheit. If you have any questions or suggestions, leave the comments or send me a YouTube personal message. SUBSCRIBE FOR MORE
- published: 08 May 2013
- views: 2
Gibraltar UK
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:23
- Updated: 31 May 2013
Gibraltar (UK) is on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. It has an area of 6.8 square. The Rock of Gibraltar is t...
http://wn.com/Gibraltar_UK
Gibraltar (UK) is on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. It has an area of 6.8 square. The Rock of Gibraltar is t...
- published: 21 Apr 2013
- views: 341
- author: Paul Budde
Objetivo GIBRALTAR !! "La Operación Félix" de Adolf Hitler. 2/4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:47
- Updated: 17 May 2013
2/4 El 18 de julio, el jefe del Estado español, Francisco Franco reclama Gibraltar. Él no esperaba que los británicos accedieran a la reclamación y estuviera...
http://wn.com/Objetivo_GIBRALTAR_!!_La_Operación_Félix_de_Adolf_Hitler_2_4
2/4 El 18 de julio, el jefe del Estado español, Francisco Franco reclama Gibraltar. Él no esperaba que los británicos accedieran a la reclamación y estuviera...
- published: 28 Apr 2013
- views: 1157
- author: trufault
Objetivo GIBRALTAR !! "La Operación Félix" de Adolf Hitler. 1/4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:59
- Updated: 11 May 2013
1/4 Operación Félix: La Operación Félix era el nombre para un plan hispano-alemán propuesto para tomar Gibraltar durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Fue progr...
http://wn.com/Objetivo_GIBRALTAR_!!_La_Operación_Félix_de_Adolf_Hitler_1_4
1/4 Operación Félix: La Operación Félix era el nombre para un plan hispano-alemán propuesto para tomar Gibraltar durante la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Fue progr...
- published: 28 Apr 2013
- views: 1497
- author: trufault
Rock of Gibraltar Adventure! Cable Cars & Barbary Apes!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:56
- Updated: 29 May 2013
My visit to the Rock of Gibraltar on November 1, 2012. Video starts with the full trip up to the top in the cable car. A visit with the Barbary Apes! Marvel ...
http://wn.com/Rock_of_Gibraltar_Adventure!_Cable_Cars_Barbary_Apes!
My visit to the Rock of Gibraltar on November 1, 2012. Video starts with the full trip up to the top in the cable car. A visit with the Barbary Apes! Marvel ...
- published: 13 Dec 2012
- views: 2731
- author: Deekie Watson
photo: Creative Commons / Miloš Hlávka
05 Jun 2013
By LAURA STEVENS in Frankfurt, LEOS ROUSEK in Prague and MARGIT FEHER in Budapest. Flooding in Central Europe spread Wednesday as swollen waters moved further east along the Danube River, threatening towns in eastern Austria and Slovakia's capital, Bratislava, while the rising Elbe River flooded outlying parts of Dresden in Germany ... Enlarge Image. Close ... Businesses also reported production standstills ... Rösler said at a news conference ... ....(size: 5.2Kb)
photo: AP / Pablo Martinez Monsivais
06 Jun 2013
WASHINGTON, June 5 (Reuters) - The White House on Wednesday condemned the assault on the Syrian border town of Qusair by Syrian government forces, who worked with Lebanese Hezbollah allies to take control from rebel fighters ... "It is clear that the regime could not contest the opposition's control of Qusair on its own, and is depending upon Hezbollah and Iran to do its work for it in Qusair," Carney said ... Also on HuffPost ... (AP Photo) ... ....(size: 11.8Kb)
photo: AP / Lee Jin-man
06 Jun 2013
Zee Media Bureau. Seoul. In what seems to bring calmness over Korean peninsula, the two Koreas have agreed to hold talks on the joint Kaesong industrial zone, weeks after Pyongyang pulled its workers from the factory, shutting it down. The season of harsh rhetoric by North Korea seems to come to an end after Pyongyang proposed talks to Seoul on reopening of Kaesong industrial zone ... The committee handles relations with Seoul ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
photo: AP / SANA
05 Jun 2013
BEIRUT, Lebanon -- Syrian government forces and their allies in Hezbollah, the Lebanese militant group, seized most of the strategic crossroads town of Qusayr early on Wednesday, a painful defeat for outgunned Syria rebels and an advance for President Bashar al-Assad ... The government's advance into Qusayr also suggested that the intervention on Mr ... Assad's insurgent enemies, who are mostly Sunni Muslims ... Mr ... Gen ... ....(size: 10.0Kb)
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noodls
06 Jun 2013
Is the AIFMD applicable to a Gibraltar AIF managed by a non-EU AIFM? ....... Financial Services Commission PO Box 940, Suite 3, Ground Floor, Atlantic Suites, Europort Avenue, Gibraltar ... FSC Gibraltar Financial Services Commission ... AIFMD will be transposed into Gibraltar law on 22 July 2013 ... This is a big change for Gibraltar private funds which have never been required to register with the FSC before ... AIFMs managing Gibraltar AIFs"....(size: 17.1Kb)
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noodls
06 Jun 2013
(Source. Leeds Building Society). 3rd June 2013 For Immediate Release ... Furthermore, the UK's 5th largest building society's gross lending in Q1 was the highest in its history ... Ends ... Leeds Building Society has assets of £10.3bn (as at 31 December 2012) and 67 branches throughout the UK, Gibraltar and Ireland ... (noodl....(size: 1.5Kb)
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Detroit Free Press
06 Jun 2013
The government feared he would flee and he did. Federal prosecutors are seeking a bench warrant for convicted mortgage fraud ringleader Ronnie Duke, who was trusted to self-surrender for his 13-year prison sentence over the government's objection but never showed ... After he didn't show, the U.S ... U.S ... 10 years. ■Nicole Lynn Rothe (formerly Nicole Lynn Turcheck), 34, of Gibraltar 10 years ... ....(size: 2.7Kb)
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Stockhouse
06 Jun 2013
CDT, 2.35 p.m. EDT ... The Company also operates its own lumber distribution, house component assembly, and manufacturing operations. The Company acquires and develops commercial properties through Toll Commercial and its affiliate, Toll Brothers Realty Trust, and purchases distressed loan and real estate asset portfolios through its wholly owned subsidiary, Gibraltar Capital and Asset Management ... CONTACT. Frederick N ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
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PR Newswire
06 Jun 2013
LONDON, June 6, 2013 /PRNewswire/ --. How can you possibly experience Venice, Paris, New York, Egypt, Rome and the French Riviera, all in one day? You can if you go to the 'entertainment capital of the world',Las Vegas ... Notes to Editor. IGT ... GalaBingo.com. GalaBingo.com was re-launched in August 2012 by Gala Interactive (Gibraltar), a division of the Gala Coral Group, the UK's largest bingo operator and third largest gaming firm ... ....(size: 3.4Kb)
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noodls
06 Jun 2013
(Source. Toll Brothers Inc) ... CDT, 2.35 p.m. EDT ... The Company also operates its own lumber distribution, house component assembly, and manufacturing operations. The Company acquires and develops commercial properties through Toll Commercial and its affiliate, Toll Brothers Realty Trust, and purchases distressed loan and real estate asset portfolios through its wholly owned subsidiary, Gibraltar Capital and Asset Management ... CONTACT....(size: 3.4Kb)
Edit
France24
06 Jun 2013
British Foreign Secretary William Hague on Thursday announced a compensation package worth €23.5 million for the thousands of Kenyans who suffered torture and abuse during the Mau Mau uprising against British colonial rule in the 1950s. By Olivia Salazar-Winspear (video). News Wires (text). ... camps. (REUTERS). UNITED KINGDOM. Kenyans tortured under British rule win right to sue ... _ ... Spanish minister in first Gibraltar visit in 300 years....(size: 5.4Kb)
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noodls
06 Jun 2013
(Source. IDT Corporation). NEWARK, NJ - June 6, 2013. IDT Corporation (NYSE ... 3Q13 OVERVIEW. (All comparisons are for 3Q13 to 3Q12) ... · Minutes of use decreased 0.4% to 7.8 billion ... NOTES. ... TPS ... In addition, IDT had an aggregate of $38.5 million of current and long-term restricted cash and cash equivalents, which included $32.0 million in customer deposits and other restricted balances held by IDT's Gibraltar based bank. ....(size: 17.8Kb)
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PR Newswire
05 Jun 2013
GIBRALTAR, June 5, 2013 /PRNewswire/ --. Pacific Poker is celebrating its 11th birthday by providing fans with 11 freerolls in 11 days during June 2013. Pacific Poker turns 11 years old in June 2013 and to commemorate this milestone, it will be launching a new promotion. 11 freerolls in 11 straight days ... About Pacific Poker ... Web Address - http.//www.pacificpoker.com ... ....(size: 1.8Kb)
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PR Newswire
05 Jun 2013
GIBRALTAR, June 5, 2013 /PRNewswire/ --. 888poker, the site where the world plays online, has brought back the very popular Freeroll Frenzy promotion this summer. Everyday players get a chance to play in a $10,000 guaranteed prizepool freeroll. To be part of the Freeroll Frenzy, players register at 888poker during the promotion period and they'll receive two tickets to the $10,000 daily freerolls ... Note ... About 888poker. ... ....(size: 2.1Kb)
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noodls
05 Jun 2013
(Source. Indiana Institute of Technology). June 5, 2013. Fort Wayne, Ind.-Inspired by one student's interest in helping people in Honduras, Indiana Tech has established the Better World Fund to provide grants to students participating in projects or activities that improve the world around us. The first grant of $1,500 will go to John Canterbury, a sophomore computer security and investigation major from Gibraltar, Mich ... distributed by....(size: 2.4Kb)
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The Irish Times
05 Jun 2013
An application to have well-known businessman Philip Marley declared bankrupt has opened before the High Court. Malachy Stephens wants Mr Marley, founder of Ely Properties, adjudicated a bankrupt over failure to satisfy a judgment of €37,142 obtained against the businessman at Dublin Circuit Court in July 2011 ... He works as a consultant involved in a number of different projects and also spends time in Gibraltar and the US ... ‘No debt’ ... ....(size: 3.1Kb)
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noodls
05 Jun 2013
He successfully developed, commissioned, operated and expanded mining operations which include Consolidated Thompson's Bloom Lake iron ore mine, Québec Cartier's Mount Wright iron ore mine, Gibraltar's copper-molybdenum mine in British Columbia, Barrick Gold's Meikle mine in Nevada and Montcalm's nickel mine in Ontario....(size: 9.1Kb)
This article is about the British overseas territory. For other uses, see Gibraltar (disambiguation).
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Gibraltar
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| Motto: Nulli Expugnabilis Hosti (Latin) "Conquerable by no enemy."1 |
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| Anthem: God Save the Queen (official anthem), Gibraltar Anthem (local anthem)[1] |
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![Location of Gibraltar (dark green)– in Europe (green & dark grey)– in the European Union (green) — [Legend]](http://web.archive.org./web/20130607013037/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Location_Gibraltar_EU.png) Location of Gibraltar (dark green)
– in Europe (green & dark grey) |
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 Map of Gibraltar
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| Capital | Gibraltar 36°8′N 5°21′W / 36.133°N 5.35°W / 36.133; -5.35 |
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| Largest Most populated district | Westside |
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| Official language(s) | English | |||||
| Spoken Languages | English Spanish Llanito |
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| Ethnic groups | Gibraltarian (of mixed Genoese, Maltese, Portuguese and Spanish descent), other British, Moroccan and Indian | |||||
| Demonym | Gibraltarian | |||||
| Government | British overseas territory (constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democratic dependency) | |||||
| - | Monarch | H.M. Queen Elizabeth II | ||||
| - | Governor | Sir Adrian Johns | ||||
| - | Chief Minister | Fabian Picardo | ||||
| Event | Date | |||||
| - | Captured | 4 August 1704[2] | ||||
| - | Ceded | 11 April 1713[3] (Treaty of Utrecht) | ||||
| - | National Day | 10 September | ||||
| - | Constitution Day | 29 January | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 6.8 km2 (229th) 2.6 sq mi |
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| - | Water (%) | 0% | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2009 estimate | 29,431 (211th) | ||||
| - | Density | 4,328/km2 (3rd) 11,320/sq mi |
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| GDP (PPP) | 2011 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | £1 Billion | ||||
| - | Per capita | £27,468 (n/a) | ||||
| HDI (2011) | 0.863 (very high ˡ) (28th) | |||||
| Currency | Pound Sterling £3 (GBP) |
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| Time zone | CET (UTC+1) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | CEST (UTC+2) | ||||
| Date formats | dd/mm/yyyy | |||||
| Drives on the | right4 | |||||
| ISO 3166 code | GI | |||||
| Internet TLD | .gi5 | |||||
| Calling code | 3506 | |||||
| Patron saint | Bernard of Clairvaux & Our Lady of Europe | |||||
| 1 | HDI of the UK | |||||
| 2 | As a Special Member State territory of the United Kingdom. | |||||
| 3 | Coins and sterling notes are issued by the Government of Gibraltar. | |||||
| 4 | Unlike all other UK dependencies but the BIOT. | |||||
| 5 | The .eu domain is also used, as it is shared with other European Union members. | |||||
| 6 | Before 10 February 2007, 9567 from Spain. | |||||
Gibraltar (
/dʒɨˈbrɒltər/) is a British overseas territory located on the southern end of the Iberian Peninsula at the entrance of the Mediterranean. It has an area of 6.8 square kilometres (2.6 sq mi) and a northern border with Andalusia, Spain. The Rock of Gibraltar is the major landmark of the region. At its foot is the densely populated city area, home to almost 30,000 Gibraltarians and other nationalities.[4]
An Anglo-Dutch force captured Gibraltar from Spain in 1704 during the War of the Spanish Succession. The territory was subsequently ceded to Britain "in perpetuity" under the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713. It was an important base for the Royal Navy; today its economy is based largely on tourism, financial services, and shipping.[5][6]
The sovereignty of Gibraltar is a major point of contention in Anglo-Spanish relations as Spain asserts a claim to the territory.[6] Gibraltarians rejected proposals for Spanish sovereignty in a 1967 referendum and again in 2002. Under the Gibraltar constitution of 2006, Gibraltar governs its own affairs, though some powers, such as defence and foreign relations, remain the responsibility of the UK Government.
Contents |
Etymology[link]
The name Gibraltar is the Spanish derivation of the Arabic name Jabal Tāriq (جبل طارق), meaning "mountain of Tariq."[7] It refers to the geological formation, the Rock of Gibraltar, which in turn was named after the Berber Umayyad general Tariq ibn-Ziyad who led the initial incursion into Iberia in advance of the main Moorish force in 711 under the command of Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I. Earlier, it was known as Mons Calpe, one of the Pillars of Hercules. Today, Gibraltar is colloquially referred to as Gib or the Rock.
History[link]
Main article: History of Gibraltar
Evidence of Neanderthal habitation in Gibraltar between 128,000 and 24,000 BC has been discovered at Gorham's Cave, making Gibraltar the last known holdout of the Neanderthals.[8] Within recorded history, the first inhabitants were the Phoenicians, around 950 BC. Subsequently, Gibraltar became known as one of the Pillars of Hercules, after the Greek legend of the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar by Heracles. The Carthaginians and Romans also established semi-permanent settlements. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, Gibraltar came briefly under the control of the Vandals. The area later formed part of the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania until the Islamic conquest of Iberia in 711 AD. Seven centuries of Moorish control ended when Gibraltar was captured by the Duke of Medina Sidonia in 1462 as part of the Spanish Reconquista.
After the conquest, King Henry IV assumed the title of King of Gibraltar, establishing it as part of the municipal area of the Campo Llano de Gibraltar.[9] Six years later Gibraltar was restored to the Duke of Medina Sidonia who sold it in 1474 to a group of Jewish conversos from Cordova and Seville in exchange for maintaining the garrison of the town for two years, after which time the 4,350 Jews were expelled by the Duke as part of the Inquisition.[10] In 1501 Gibraltar passed back to the hands of the Spanish Crown and Isabella I of Castile issued a Royal Warrant granting Gibraltar the coat of arms that it still uses today.
In 1704, during the War of the Spanish Succession, a combined Anglo-Dutch force captured the town of Gibraltar, leading to a permanent exodus of much of the existing population to the surrounding areas of the Campo de Gibraltar. Under the terms of the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht Gibraltar was ceded to Britain in perpetuity. Spain unsuccessfully attempted to regain control in 1727 and during the Great Siege of Gibraltar which lasted from 1779 to 1783.
Gibraltar became a key base for the British Royal Navy and played an important role prior to the Battle of Trafalgar and during the Crimean War of 1854–56, due to its strategic location. Its strategic value increased with the opening of the Suez Canal as it lay on the sea route between the UK and the British Empire east of Suez. In the later 19th century there were major investments in improving the fortifications and the port.[11]
During World War II, Gibraltar's civilian population was evacuated (mainly to London, England, but also to parts of Morocco, Madeira and Jamaica) and the Rock was strengthened as a fortress. Spanish dictator Francisco Franco's reluctance to allow the German Army onto Spanish soil frustrated a German plan to capture the Rock, codenamed Operation Felix. In the 1950s, Franco renewed Spain's claim to sovereignty over Gibraltar and restricted movement between Gibraltar and Spain. Gibraltarians voted overwhelmingly to remain under British sovereignty in a 1967 referendum which led to the passing of the Gibraltar Constitution Order in 1969. In response, Spain completely closed the border with Gibraltar and severed all communication links.[12] The border with Spain was partially reopened in 1982, and fully reopened in 1985 prior to Spain's accession to the European Community.
In a referendum held in 2002, Gibraltarians rejected by an overwhelming majority (99%) a proposal of shared sovereignty on which Spain and Britain were said to have reached "broad agreement".[13][14] The British government has committed itself to respecting the Gibraltarians' wishes.[15] A new Constitution Order was approved in referendum in 2006. A process of tripartite negotiations started in 2006 between Spain, Gibraltar and the UK, ending some restrictions and dealing with disputes in some specific areas such as air movements, customs procedures, telecommunications, pensions and cultural exchange.[16]
Government and politics[link]
Main articles: Politics of Gibraltar, Disputed status of Gibraltar, and Foreign relations of Spain#Disputes - international
Gibraltar is a British overseas territory. The British Nationality Act 1981 granted Gibraltarians full British citizenship.
Under its current Constitution, Gibraltar has almost complete internal democratic self-government through an elected parliament,[17][18][19][20] elected for a term of up to four years. The unicameral Parliament presently consists of seventeen elected members, and the Speaker who is not elected, but appointed by a resolution of the Parliament.[21] The Government consists of ten elected members. The head of state is Queen Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor of Gibraltar. Defence, foreign policy and internal security are formally the responsibility of the Governor; judicial and other appointments are also made on behalf of the Queen in consultation with the head of the elected government.[22][23][24][25][26][26][27]
The 2011 election was contested by the Gibraltar Social Democrats (GSD), Gibraltar Socialist Labour Party (GSLP)-Gibraltar Liberal Party (GLP) Alliance and the Progressive Democratic Party (PDP). A new party, the PDP, was formed in 2006 and fielded candidates in the 2007 election, but none were elected. The head of Government is the Chief Minister (as of December 2011, Fabian Picardo). All local political parties oppose any transfer of sovereignty to Spain, instead supporting self-determination. The main UK opposition parties also support this policy and it is UK Government policy not to engage in talks about the sovereignty of Gibraltar without the consent of the people of Gibraltar.[28]
Gibraltar is part of the European Union, having joined via the Single European Act 1972 and British Treaty of Accession in 1973, with exemption from some areas such as the Customs union and Common Agricultural Policy. The Treaties relating to coal and steel, agriculture and fisheries do not apply simply because Gibraltar does not produce any of those resources. After a ten-year campaign for the right to vote in European Elections, from 2004, the people of Gibraltar participated in elections for the European Parliament as part of the South West England constituency.[29]
Geography[link]
The territory covers 6.843 square kilometres (2.642 sq mi) and shares a 1.2-kilometre (0.75 mi) land border with Spain. On the Spanish side lies the town of La Línea de la Concepción, a municipality of the province of Cádiz. The Spanish hinterland forms the comarca of Campo de Gibraltar (literally Gibraltar Countryside). The shoreline measures 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) in length. There are two coasts (sides) of Gibraltar – the East Side, which contains the settlements of Sandy Bay and Catalan Bay, and the Westside, where the vast majority of the population lives. Gibraltar has no administrative divisions but is divided into seven Major Residential Areas.
Having negligible natural resources and few natural freshwater resources, limited to natural wells in the north, until recently Gibraltar used large concrete and/or natural rock water catchments to collect rainwater. Fresh water from the boreholes is supplemented by two desalination plants: a reverse osmosis plant, constructed in a tunnel within the rock, and a multi-stage flash distillation plant at North Mole.[30]
Gibraltar's terrain consists of the 426-metre (1,398 ft) high Rock of Gibraltar made of Jurassic limestone, and the narrow coastal lowland surrounding it.[31] It contains many tunnelled roads, most of which are still operated by the military and closed to the general public.
Climate[link]
Main article: Climate of Gibraltar
Gibraltar has a Subtropical-Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa),[32][33] with mild winters and warm summers. Rain occurs mainly in winter, with summer being generally dry. Its average annual temperature is about 21 °C (70 °F) during the day and 15 °C (59 °F) at night. In the coldest month, January, the temperature ranges from 11–18 °C (52–64 °F) during the day and 9–14 °C (48–57 °F) at night, the average sea temperature is 15–16 °C (59–61 °F). In the warmest month, August, the typically temperature ranges from 25–31 °C (77–88 °F) during the day, above 20 °C (68 °F) at night, the average sea temperature is 22 °C (72 °F).[34]
| Climate data for Gibraltar | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Average high °C (°F) | 16 (61) |
17 (63) |
18 (64) |
20 (68) |
23 (73) |
25 (77) |
28 (82) |
29 (84) |
26 (79) |
23 (73) |
19 (66) |
17 (63) |
21.8 (71.2) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | 13 (55) |
14 (57) |
15 (59) |
17 (63) |
19 (66) |
22 (72) |
24 (75) |
25 (77) |
23 (73) |
20 (68) |
17 (63) |
14 (57) |
18.6 (65.4) |
| Average low °C (°F) | 10 (50) |
11 (52) |
12 (54) |
13 (55) |
15 (59) |
18 (64) |
20 (68) |
21 (70) |
19 (66) |
17 (63) |
14 (57) |
11 (52) |
15 (59.1) |
| Precipitation mm (inches) | 152 (5.98) |
98 (3.86) |
106 (4.17) |
59 (2.32) |
25 (0.98) |
4 (0.16) |
1 (0.04) |
3 (0.12) |
23 (0.91) |
55 (2.17) |
114 (4.49) |
127 (5) |
767 (30.2) |
| Avg. rainy days | 10 | 7 | 10 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 7 | 10 | 63 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 186.0 | 196.0 | 217.0 | 240.0 | 310.0 | 330.0 | 341.0 | 341.0 | 270.0 | 217.0 | 180.0 | 186.0 | 3,014 |
| Source: BBC Weather[35] | |||||||||||||
Flora and fauna[link]
See also: List of mammals of Gibraltar, List of birds of Gibraltar, and List of reptiles and amphibians of Gibraltar
Over 500 different species of flowering plants grow on the Rock. One of them, the Gibraltar candytuft (Iberis gibraltarica), is endemic to Gibraltar, being the only place in Europe where it is found growing in the wild. It is the symbol of the Upper Rock nature reserve. Among the wild trees that grow all around the Rock, olive and pine trees are some of the most common.
Most of the Rock's upper area is covered by a nature reserve, which is home to around 230 Barbary Macaques (commonly confused with apes), the only wild monkeys found in Europe.[36] This species, known scientifically as Macaca sylvanus, is listed as endangered by the IUCN Red List and is declining. Three quarters of the world population live in the Middle Atlas mountains of Morocco. Recent genetic studies and historical documents point to their presence on the Rock before its capture by the British. A superstition analogous to that of the ravens at the Tower of London states that if the monkeys ever leave, so will the British. In 1944 British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, was so concerned about the dwindling monkey population that he sent a message to the Colonial Secretary requesting that something be done about the situation.[37]
Other mammals found in Gibraltar include rabbits, foxes and bats. Dolphins and whales are frequently seen in the Bay of Gibraltar. Migrating birds are very common and Gibraltar is home to the only Barbary Partridges found on the European continent.
In 1991 Graham Watson, MEP for Gibraltar, highlighted conservationists' fears that urban development, tourism and invasive plant species were threatening Gibraltar's own plants as well as birds and bat species.[38]
Economy[link]
Main article: Economy of Gibraltar
The British military traditionally dominated Gibraltar's economy, with the naval dockyard providing the bulk of economic activity. This however, has diminished over the last twenty years, and is estimated to account for only 7% of the local economy, compared to over 60% in 1984. Today, Gibraltar's economy is dominated by four main sectors – financial services, internet gaming, shipping and tourism (including retail for visitors).[39]
In the early 2000s, many bookmakers and online gaming operators relocated to Gibraltar to benefit from operating in a regulated jurisdiction with a favourable corporate tax regime. However, this corporate tax regime for non-resident controlled companies was phased out by January 2011 and replaced by an across the board Corporate Tax rate of 10%.[40]
Tourism is also a significant industry. Gibraltar is a popular port for cruise ships and attracts day visitors from resorts in Spain. The Rock is a popular tourist attraction, particularly among British tourists and residents in the southern coast of Spain. It is also a popular shopping destination, and all goods and services are VAT free. Many of the large British high street chains have branches or franchises in Gibraltar including Marks & Spencer and Mothercare. Branches and franchises of international retailers such as Tommy Hilfiger and Sunglass Hut are also present in Gibraltar, as is the Spanish clothing company Mango.
A number of British and international banks have operations based in Gibraltar. Jyske Bank claims to be the oldest bank in the country, based on Jyske's acquisition in 1987 of Banco Galliano, which began operations in Gibraltar in 1855. An ancestor of Barclays, the Anglo-Egyptian Bank, entered in 1888, and Credit Foncier (now Crédit Agricole) entered in 1920.
In 1967, Gibraltar enacted the Companies (Taxation and Concessions) Ordinance (now an Act), which provided for special tax treatment for international business.[41] This was one of the factors leading to the growth of professional services such as private banking and captive insurance management. Gibraltar has several positive attributes as a financial centre, including a common law legal system and access to the EU single market in financial services. The Financial Services Commission (FSC),[42] which was established by an ordinance in 1989 (now an Act) that took effect in 1991, regulates the finance sector.[43] In 1997, the Department of Trade and Industry established its Gibraltar Finance Centre (GFC) Division to facilitate the development the financial sector development.
The currency of Gibraltar is the Gibraltar Pound, issued by the Government of Gibraltar under the terms of the 1934 Currency Notes Act. These banknotes are legal tender in Gibraltar alongside Bank of England banknotes.[44][45] In a currency board arrangement, these notes are issued against reserves of sterling.[45][46][47] Clearing and settlement of funds is conducted in sterling.[48] Coins in circulation follow British denominations but have separate designs. Most retail outlets in Gibraltar unofficially accept the euro, though some payphones and the Royal Gibraltar Post Office do not.[49]
Demography[link]
Main article: Demographics of Gibraltar
Gibraltar is one of the most densely populated territories in the world, with a population estimated in 2008 of 29,286,[50] equivalent to approximately 4,290 inhabitants per square kilometre (11,100 /sq mi). The growing demand for space is being increasingly met by land reclamation; reclaimed land currently comprises approximately one tenth of the territory's total area.
Ethnic groups[link]
See also: Gibraltarian people
One of the main features of Gibraltar’s population is the diversity of their ethnic origins. The demographics of Gibraltar reflects Gibraltarians' racial and cultural fusion of the many European and other economic migrants who came to the Rock over three hundred years, after almost all of the Spanish population left in 1704.
The main ethnic groups, according to the origin of names in the electoral roll, are Britons (27%), Spanish (24%, mostly Andalusians but also some 2% of Minorcans), Genoese and other Italians (20%), Portuguese (10%), Maltese (8%), and Jews (3%). There are also small (less than 1%) peoples of other groups such as Moroccans, French, Austrians, Chinese, Japanese, Polish and Danish.[51]
The Gibraltar Census 2001[52] recorded the breakdown of nationalities in Gibraltar as being 83.22% Gibraltarian, 9.56% "Other British", 3.50% Moroccan, 1.19% Spanish and 1.00% "Other EU".
Language[link]
Main article: Languages of Gibraltar
The official language of Gibraltar is English, and is used by the Government and in schools. Most locals are bilingual, also speaking Spanish, due to Gibraltar's proximity to Spain. However, because of the varied mix of ethnic groups which reside there, other languages are also spoken on the Rock. Berber and Arabic are spoken by the Moroccan community, as are Hindi and Sindhi by the Indian community of Gibraltar. Hebrew is also spoken by the Jewish community and the Maltese language is still spoken by some families of Maltese descent.
Gibraltarians often converse in Llanito (pronounced: [ʎaˈnito]),[53] a vernacular unique to Gibraltar. It is based on Andalusian Spanish with a strong admixture of British English and some contribution from languages such as Maltese, Portuguese, Italian of the Genoese variety and Haketia (Ladino): for example there are over 500 words of Genoese and Hebrew origin in Llanito.[54] It also often involves code-switching to English.
Gibraltarians often also call themselves Llanitos.
Religion[link]
According to the 2001 Census, approximately 78.1% of Gibraltarians are Roman Catholics [55]. The sixteenth century Saint Mary the Crowned is the cathedral church of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Gibraltar, and also the oldest Catholic church in the territory. Other Christian denominations include the Church of England (7.0%), whose Cathedral of the Holy Trinity is the cathedral of the Anglican Bishop of Gibraltar in Europe; the Gibraltar Methodist Church,[56] Church of Scotland, various Pentecostal and independent churches mostly influenced by the House Church and Charismatic movements, as well as a Plymouth Brethren congregation. Several of these congregations are represented by the Gibraltar Evangelical Alliance. There is also a ward of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, and Jehovah's Witnesses. 2.9% advised that they have no religion.
The third religion in size is Islam (4.0% of the population). There is also an established Hindu population (1.8%), members of the Bahá'í Faith and a long-established Jewish community, which, at 584 persons, accounts for 2.1% of the population.[57] There are four functioning Orthodox synagogues in Gibraltar and several kosher establishments.
Education[link]
Main article: Education in Gibraltar
Education in Gibraltar generally follows the English system operating within a three tier system. Schools in Gibraltar follow the Key Stage system which teaches the National Curriculum. Gibraltar has fifteen state schools, a MOD school, a private school and a College of Further Education. As there are no facilities in Gibraltar for full-time higher education, all Gibraltarian students must study elsewhere at degree level or equivalent and certain non-degree courses,[58] many in the UK.[citation needed] The Government of Gibraltar operates a scholarship/grant system to provide funding for students studying in the United Kingdom. All Gibraltarian students followed the student loans procedure of the UK, where they applied for a loan from the Student Loans Company which was then reimbursed in full by the Government of Gibraltar. In August 2010, this system was replaced by the direct payment by the Government of grants and tuition fees. The overwhelming majority of Gibraltarians continue their studies at University.
Health care[link]
All Gibraltarians are entitled to free health care in public wards and clinics at the hospital and primary health care centre. All other British citizens are also entitled to free of charge treatment on the Rock on presentation of a valid British passport during stays of up to 30 days. Other EU nationals are equally entitled to treatment on presentation of a valid European Health Insurance Card. Dental treatment and prescribed medicines are free of charge for Gibraltarian students and pensioners.[59] First-line medical and nursing services are provided at the Primary Care Centre, with more specialised services available at St Bernard's Hospital. Psychiatric care is provided by King George V Hospital.[60] Patients requiring medical treatment not available on the Rock receive it as private patients paid for by the Government of Gibraltar either in the United Kingdom, or more recently in Spain.[citation needed]
Culture[link]
Main article: Culture of Gibraltar
The culture of Gibraltar reflects Gibraltarians' diverse origins. While there are Spanish (mostly from nearby Andalusia) and British influences, the ethnic origins of most Gibraltarians are not confined to these ethnicities. Other ethnicities include Genoese, Maltese, Portuguese, and German. A few other Gibraltar residents are Jewish of Sephardic origin, Moroccan, or Indians. British influence remains strong, with English being the language of government, commerce, education, and the media.
Gibraltar's first sovereignty referendum is celebrated annually on Gibraltar National Day (10 September). It is a public holiday, during which most Gibraltarians dress in their national colours of red and white and 30,000 similarly coloured balloons are released, to represent the people of Gibraltar. The 300th anniversary of Gibraltar's capture was celebrated in 2004 on Tercentenary Day (4 August), when in recognition of and with thanks for its long association with Gibraltar, the Royal Navy was given the Freedom of the City of Gibraltar and a human chain of Gibraltarians dressed in red, white and blue, linked hands to encircle the Rock.
The Gibraltar Broadcasting Corporation operates a television and radio station on UHF, VHF and medium-wave. The radio service is also Internet-streamed. Special events and the daily news bulletin are streamed in video. The other local radio service is operated by the British Forces Broadcasting Service which also provides a limited cable television network to HM Forces. The largest and most frequently published newspaper is the Gibraltar Chronicle, Gibraltar’s oldest established daily newspaper and the world’s second oldest English language newspaper to have been in print continuously[61] with daily editions six days a week. Panorama is published on weekdays, and 7 Days, The New People, and Gibsport are weekly.
There exists a small amount of literary writings by native Gibraltarians. The first work of fiction was probably Héctor Licudi's 1929 novel Barbarita, written in Spanish.[62] It is a largely autobiographical account of the adventures of a young Gibraltarian man. Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, several anthologies of poetry were published by Leopoldo Sanguinetti, Albert Joseph Patron, and Alberto Pizzarello. The 1960s were largely dominated by the theatrical works of Elio Cruz and his two highly acclaimed Spanish language plays La Lola se va pá Londre and Connie con cama camera en el comedor.[citation needed] In the 1990s, the Gibraltarian man-of-letters Mario Arroyo published Profiles (1994), a series of bilingual meditations on love, loneliness and death. Of late there have been works by the essayist Mary Chiappe such as her volume of essays Cabbages and Kings (2006) and by academic M. G. Sanchez, author of the novel Rock Black 0–10: A Gibraltar fiction (2006).
Musicians from Gibraltar include Charles Ramirez, the first guitarist invited to play with the Royal College of Music Orchestra,[63] successful rock bands like Breed 77, Melon Diesel and Taxi. Albert Hammond,[64] had top 10 hits in the UK and US, and has written many songs for international artists such as Whitney Houston, Tina Turner and Julio Iglesias among many others.
The cuisine of Gibraltar is the result of the rich diversity of civilizations who held the Rock during its history; from the Berbers of North Africa to the Andalusians and British. The culinary influences include those from Malta, Genoa, Portugal and Andalusia. This marriage of tastes has given Gibraltar an eclectic mix of Arabic, Mediterranean and British cuisines. Calentita, a baked bread-like dish made with chickpea flour, water, olive oil, salt and pepper, is considered Gibraltar's national dish.
Sport[link]
Main article: Sport in Gibraltar
 |
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2011) |
In 2007 there were eighteen Gibraltar Sports Associations with official recognition from their respective international governing bodies. Others have submitted applications for recognition which are being considered. The Government supports the many sporting associations financially. Gibraltar also competes in the bi-annual Island Games, which it hosted in 1995. Football is the most popular sport in Gibraltar. The Gibraltar Football Association applied for full membership of UEFA, but their bid was turned down in 2007 in a contentious decision.[65] Cricket enjoys massive popularity in Gibraltar. The Gibraltar national cricket team won the European Cricket Championship Division Two in 2000 and 2002. Rugby union is fairly popular and one of the fastest growing team sports, Gibraltar Rugby Union Football Union has now applied for membership of Europe's governing body for rugby and await a decision. A complaint has been received from the Spanish Federation. The Gibraltar Rifle Association (GRA) were the most successful team for Gibraltar at the 2009 Island Games earning four gold medals. The first was won by Heloise Manasco and Stephanie Piri in the ISSF 10m Air Rifle Team event. Heloise later went on to win a second gold in the individual competition. Wayne Piri and Adrian Lugnani took the gold medal in the ISSF 50m Small Bore Team event with Wayne winning the fourth gold for Gibraltar in the individual competition of the same event.
Darts is also a popular sport, with the Gibraltar Darts Association (full member of World Darts Federation since 1977) running leagues & other regular tournaments. In 2010 Gibraltar hosted the Mediterranean Cup and won Gold, competing against France, Italy, Turkey, Malta & Cyprus.
Communications[link]
Main article: Communications in Gibraltar
Gibraltar has a digital telephone exchange supported by a fibre optic and copper infrastructure; the telephone operator Gibtelecom also operates a GSM network. Internet connectivity is available across the fixed network. Local operator CTS is rolling out WiMAX.
International Direct Dialling (IDD) is provided, and Gibraltar was allocated the access code +350 by the International Telecommunication Union. This has been universally valid since 10 February 2007, when the telecom dispute was resolved.
Transport[link]
Main article: Transport in Gibraltar
Within Gibraltar, the main form of transport is the car. Motorbikes are also very popular and there is a good modern bus service. Unlike in other British territories, traffic drives on the right, as the territory shares a land border with Spain.
There is a Gibraltar Cable Car which runs from ground level to the top of the Rock, with an intermediate station at Apes’ Den.
Restrictions on transport introduced by Spanish dictator Francisco Franco closed the land frontier in 1969 and also prohibited any air or ferry connections. In 1982, the land border was reopened. As the result of an agreement signed in Cordova on 18 September 2006 between Gibraltar, the United Kingdom and Spain,[66] the Spanish government agreed to relax border controls at the frontier that have plagued locals for decades; in return, Britain paid increased pensions to Spanish workers who lost their jobs when Franco closed the border.[67] Telecommunication restrictions were lifted in February 2007 and air links with Spain were restored in December 2006.[68][69]
Gibraltar maintains regular flight connections to London and Manchester. Budget airline easyJet also flies to Liverpool. Scheduled flights to Morocco and Madrid proved unsustainable due to insufficient demand. Bmibaby has announced that they will fly from East Midlands Airport to the Rock as from March 2012, opening an airlink to the Midlands.
GB Airways operated a service between Gibraltar and London and other cities for many years. The airline initially flew under the name "Gibraltar Airways". In 1989, and in anticipation of service to cities outside the UK, Gibraltar Airways changed its name to GB Airways with the belief that a new name would incur fewer political problems. As a franchise, the airline operated flights in full British Airways livery. In 2007 GB Airways was purchased by EasyJet[70] who began operating flights under their name in April 2008 when British Airways re-introduced flights to Gibraltar under their name. Monarch Airlines operate a daily scheduled service between Gibraltar and Luton and Manchester. The Spanish national airline, Iberia, operated a daily service to Madrid which ceased due to lack of demand. In May 2009 Ándalus Líneas Aéreas opened a Spanish service[71] which also ceased operations in March 2010.[72] An annual return charter flight to Malta is operated by Maltese national airline, Air Malta.
Gibraltar Airport is unusual not only due to its proximity to the city centre resulting in the airport terminal being within walking distance of much of Gibraltar but also because the runway intersects Winston Churchill Avenue, the main north-south street, requiring movable barricades to close when aircraft land or depart. New roads and a tunnel, which will end the need to stop road traffic when aircraft use the runway, are planned to coincide with the building of a new airport terminal building with an originally estimated completion date of 2009,[73][74] although due to delays the airport will now fully open in early 2012.
Motorists, and on occasion pedestrians, crossing the border with Spain have been subjected to long delays and searches by the Spanish authorities.[75] Spain has closed the border during disputes or incidents involving the Gibraltar authorities, such as the Aurora cruise ship incident[76] and when fishermen from the Spanish fishing vessel Piraña were arrested for illegal fishing in Gibraltar waters.[77]
The most popular alternative airport for Gibraltar is Málaga Airport in Spain, some 120 kilometres (75 mi) to the east, which offers a wide range of destinations, second to Jerez Airport which is closer to Gibraltar.
Gibraltar receives a large number of visits from cruise ships, and the Strait of Gibraltar is one of the busiest shipping lanes in the world.
Passenger and cargo ships anchor in the Port of Gibraltar. Also, a daily ferry links Gibraltar with Tangier in Morocco. The ferry between Gibraltar and Algeciras, which had been halted in 1969 when Franco severed communications with Gibraltar, was finally reopened on 16 December 2009, served by the Spanish company Transcoma.[78]
The closest train station is San Roque station.
Police[link]
Main article: Royal Gibraltar Police
See also: Gibraltar Defence Police
The Royal Gibraltar Police (RGP) is, along with the Gibraltar Customs, the principal civilian law enforcement agency in Gibraltar. It is the oldest police force in the Commonwealth of Nations outside the United Kingdom, having been formed when Gibraltar was declared a crown colony on 25 June 1830, shortly after the creation of London's Metropolitan Police in 1829.
In general the Gibraltar force follows British police models in its dress and notably male constables and sergeants on foot patrol wear the traditional headgear of the British "bobby on the beat", correctly known as the custodian helmet. The helmet is traditionally made of cork covered outside by felt or serge like material that matches the tunic.
The force, whose name received the prefix "Royal" in 1992, currently numbers over 220 officers, who are divided into a number of units. These include CID, Drug Squad, Special Branch, Firearms Unit, Scene of Crime Examiners, Traffic Department, Marine Section, and Operations Division.
The current headquarters is at New Mole House Police Station, Rosia Road.
Military[link]
Gibraltar's defence is the responsibility of the tri-service British Forces Gibraltar. In January 2007, the Ministry of Defence announced that the private company – SERCO – would provide services to the base. The announcement resulted in the affected trade unions striking.
- The Royal Gibraltar Regiment provides the army garrison, based at Devils Tower Camp.[79] The regiment was originally a part-time reserve force but the British Army placed it on the permanent establishment in 1990. The regiment includes full-time and part-time soldiers recruited from Gibraltar, as well as British Army regulars posted from other regiments.
- The Royal Navy maintains a squadron at the Rock. The squadron is responsible for the security and integrity of British Gibraltar Territorial Waters (BGTW). The shore establishment at Gibraltar is called HMS Rooke after Sir George Rooke who captured the Rock for Archduke Charles (pretender to the Spanish throne) in 1704. The naval air base was named HMS Cormorant. Gibraltar's strategic position provides an important facility for the Royal Navy and Britain's allies. British and U.S. nuclear submarines frequently visit the Z berths at Gibraltar.[80] A Z berth provides the facility for nuclear submarines to visit for operational or recreational purposes, and for non-nuclear repairs. During the Falklands War, an Argentine plan to attack British shipping in the harbour using frogmen (Operation Algeciras) was foiled.[81] The naval base also played a part in supporting the task force sent by Britain to recover the Falklands.
- The Royal Air Force station at Gibraltar forms part of Headquarters British Forces Gibraltar. Although aircraft are no longer permanently stationed at RAF Gibraltar, a variety of RAF aircraft make regular visits to the Rock and the airfield also houses a section from the Met Office.
The Rock is believed to be a SIGINT listening post.[82] Its strategic position provides a key GCHQ and National Security Agency location for Mediterranean and North African coverage.[83]
Town twinnings[link]
- Current
Gibraltar is currently twinned with Funchal, Madeira (2009);[84][85][86] and Ballymena, Northern Ireland (2006),[87] and was once twinned with Goole, England.[88]
See also[link]
- Outline of Gibraltar
- British Overseas Territories
- Gibraltar in popular culture
- Gibraltarian people
- List of Gibraltarians
References[link]
- ^ "Gibraltar: National anthem". CIA World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gi.html. Retrieved 25 September 2011. "National anthem: name: "Gibraltar Anthem" . . . note:adopted 1994; serves as a local anthem; as a territory of the United Kingdom, "God Save the Queen" remains official (see United Kingdom)"
- ^ Gibraltar was captured on 24 July 1704, Old Style, and 4 August 1704, New Style
- ^ The treaty was signed on 31 March 1713, Old Style, and 11 April 1713, New Style – Peace and Friendship Treaty of Utrecht between France and Great Britain
- ^ "Abstract of Statistics 2009, Statistics Office of the Government of Gibraltar". p. 2. http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/images/stories/PDF/statistics/2009/Abstract%20of%20Statistics%20Report%202009%20Website.pdf. The civilian population includes Gibraltarian residents, other British residents (including the wives and families of UK-based servicemen, but not the servicemen themselves) and non-British residents. Visitors and transients are not included. In 2009, this broke down into 23,907 native born, 3,129 UK British, 2,395 Other for a total population of 29,431. On census night there were 31,623 people present in Gibraltar.
- ^ Country Profiles: Gibraltar, Foreign and Commonwealth Office, 6 May 2010; retrieved 15 May 2010
- ^ a b Informe sobre la cuestión de Gibraltar, Spanish Foreign Ministry (Spanish)
- ^ "History of Gibraltar". Government of Gibraltar. http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/gov_depts/port/port_index.htm. Retrieved 20 December 2007. [dead link]
- ^ Choi, Charles (2006). "Gibraltar". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/14817677/. Retrieved 8 January 2010.
- ^ Maurice Harvey (1996). Gibraltar. A History. Spellmount Limited. pp. 50–51. ISBN 1-86227-103-8.
- ^ Maurice Harvey (1996). Gibraltar. A History. Spellmount Limited. pp. 51–52. ISBN 1-86227-103-8.
- ^ William Godfrey Fothergill Jackson (1990). The Rock of the Gibraltarians: A History of Gibraltar. Gibraltar Books. p. 257. ISBN 978-0-948466-14-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=zmKTPwAACAAJ. Retrieved 18 April 2011.
- ^ Cahoon, Ben (2000). "Gibraltar". WorldStatesmen. http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Gibraltar.html. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ "Regions and territories: Gibraltar". British Broadcasting Corporation. 18 July 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3851047.stm. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ Mark Oliver; Sally Bolton, Jon Dennis, Matthew Tempest (4 August 2004). "Gibraltar". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/gibraltar/story/0,,634007,00.html. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ Corrected transcript of evidence taken before the Foreign Affairs Select Committee; 28 March 2008; Answer to Question 257 by Jim Murphy: [T]he UK Government will never – "never" is a seldom-used word in politics – enter into an agreement on sovereignty without the agreement of the Government of Gibraltar and their people. In fact, we will never even enter into a process without that agreement.
- ^ "World Factbook". CIA. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gi.html. Retrieved 15 June 2010.
- ^ Parliament.uk, UK House of Commons Foreign Affairs Committee 2007–2008 Report, pg 16
- ^ Telegraph.co.uk, David Blair, Gibraltar makes plans for self-government, Daily Telegraph, 28 February 2002 "GIBRALTAR'S parliament approved an ambitious package of constitutional reform yesterday designed to give the colony almost complete self-government."
- ^ "Gibraltar". Encyclopædia Britannica. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/233245/Gibraltar. Retrieved 18 August 2009. "Gibraltar is an overseas territory of the United Kingdom and is self-governing in all matters but defence."
- ^ "Laws of Gibraltar – On-line Service". Gibraltarlaws.gov.gi. http://www.gibraltarlaws.gov.gi/constitution.php. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
- ^ "The Gibraltar Parliament". Gibraltar.gov.gi. http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/the-gibraltar-parliament. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
- ^ TheCommonwealth.org, The Secretariat of the Commonwealth: "The governor represents the British monarch who is head of state and retains direct responsibility for all matters not specifically allocated to local ministers: principally external affairs, defence and internal security"
- ^ PriceWaterhouseCoopers, "About Gibraltar"
- ^ GPA.gi, Gibraltar Police Authority, About the Gibraltar Police Authority – Other Duties and Responsibilities – Accountability: "1. to be accountable to the Governor on policing aspects of national security including internal security (section 12); 2. to be accountable to the Government for those parts of the Annual Policing Plan which do not relate to national security (section 15)."
- ^ Gibraltar.gov.gi, Gibraltar Chief Minister’s address at the United Nations Committee of 24 on 5 June 2007: The new Constitution "maximises self Government in all areas of Governance except defence, external affairs and internal security which, under our own Constitution vest in the Governor as a matter of distribution of powers."
- ^ a b BBC News website, Regions and territories: Gibraltar "Gibraltar is self-governing in all areas except defence and foreign policy."
- ^ Legco.gov.hk, Page 6, "Lords of Appeal in Ordinary in the House of Lords are appointed by the Queen on the recommendation of the Prime Minister, but the Lord Chancellor's opinion is generally sought. This method of appointment is a matter of practice and convention, not of written law."
- ^ The Committee Office, House of Commons. "Statement by the Minister for Europe". Publications.parliament.uk. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200708/cmselect/cmfaff/147/8032602.htm. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
- ^ "Gibraltar should join South West for elections to European Parliament". Electoral Commission. 28 August 2003. Archived from the original on 5 December 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071205011910/http://www.electoralcommission.org.uk/media-centre/newsreleasereviews.cfm/news/226. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ "Gibraltar Water Supply". AquaGib. http://www.aquagib.gi/gibraltar_water_supply.html. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ Gibraltar.gov.uk[dead link]
- ^ CIA Factbook – Geographic location
- ^ The Maltese Islands, Department of Information – Malta.
- ^ "Gibraltar Climate Guide". http://www.weather2travel.com/climate-guides/gibraltar/gibraltar.php. Retrieved 5 June 2009.
- ^ "BBC Weather | Gibraltar". BBC News. 2010-01-29. http://news.bbc.co.uk/weather/forecast/46. Retrieved 2011-11-06.
- ^ C. Michael Hogan (2008) Barbary Macaque: Macaca sylvanus, Globaltwitcher.com, ed. Nicklas Stromberg
- ^ Casciani, Dominic (22 July 2004). "Churchill sends telegram to protect apes". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/3917987.stm. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
- ^ Bruno Waterfield Whitehall gaffe 'gives Gibraltar's shores to Spain. The Daily Telegraph, 7 Nov 2009
- ^ Foreign and Commonwealth Office. Europe. Gibraltar (British Overseas Territory) Last reviewed: 6 May 2010. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/europe/gibraltar/?profile=economy
- ^ "Tax Information". Government of Gibraltar. http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/e-business/taxation. Retrieved 9 May 2011.
- ^ "Microsoft Word - 1983-13o.doc" (PDF). http://www.gibraltarlaws.gov.gi/articles/1983-13o.pdf. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
- ^ "Financial Services Commission". Fsc.gi. http://www.fsc.gi/fsc/home.htm. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
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- ^ European Central Bank Monthly Bulletin, April 2006, page 96
- ^ a b "Currency Notes Act, Section 6". Government of Gibraltar. 11 May 1934. http://www.gibraltarlaws.gov.gi/articles/1934-06o.pdf. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ Managing a Global Enterprise, William R. Feist, James A. Heely, Min H. Lu, page 40
- ^ Currency Board Arrangements, Tomás J. T. Baliño, Charles Enoch, International Monetary Fund, page 1
- ^ Madge, A; A. Simons (June 2000). "Gibraltar". Guardian International Currency Corp. Archived from the original on 11 October 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071011135336/http://guardianfx.com/information/europe/gibraltar.html. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ Noble, John; Forsyth, Susan; Hardy, Paula; Hannigan, Des (2005). Andalucía. Lonely Planet. p. 221. ISBN 978-1-74059-676-3.
- ^ Statistics Office, Government of Gibraltar: Abstract of Statistics 2008[dead link]
- ^ Archer, Edward G.: Gibraltar, identity and empire. Routledge Advances in European Politics
- ^ Census of Gibraltar 2001.[dead link]
- ^ "Culture of Gibraltar". Everyculture. http://www.everyculture.com/Ge-It/Gibraltar.html#orientation. Retrieved 5 October 2007.
- ^ "Gibraltar Ethnologue profile". Ethnologue. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=eng#Gibraltar. Retrieved 21 September 2007.
- ^ "Gibraltar Census 2001" [1]
- ^ "Gibraltar Methodist Church". The Methodist Church. http://www.methodist.org.gi/. Retrieved 30 October 2007.
- ^ "2001 Census". Official Government of Gibraltar London website. http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/images/stories/PDF/statistics/Census/census_of_gibraltar_2001.pdf. Retrieved 10 April 2012.
- ^ "Education & Training". Government of Gibraltar. 7 April 2003. http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/gov_depts/education/education_index.htm. Retrieved 20 December 2007. [dead link]
- ^ "Gibraltar Health". TravelPuppy. http://travelpuppy.com/gibraltar/health.htm. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ "Gibraltar Health Authority". Gha.gi. http://www.gha.gi/httpdocs/index.htm. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
- ^ "Gibraltar: Fact File". Birmingham UK International Directory – Gibraltar. http://www.birminghamuk.com/cities/gibinfo.htm. Retrieved 31 August 2007.
- ^ Yborra Aznar, José Juan (2004). "La ciudad perdida: Gibraltar en la obra de Héctor Licudi" (in Spanish). Eúphoros (7): 317–326. ISSN 1575-0205. http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/oaiart?codigo=1973665.
- ^ Mascarenhas, Alice. "Always a Pleasure to Perform in Gibraltar". The Gibraltar Chronicle. Archived from the original on 28 September 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070928050953/http://www.chronicle.gi/Features/Charles+Ramirez/charles+ramirez.htm. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ "Newsletter No". Friends of Gibraltar Heritage Society. 70 November 2004. Archived from the original on 1 December 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071201121115/http://www.foghs.org.uk/nl/70.pdf. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ Munro, Jim (26 January 2007). "UEFA snub the Rock". London: The Sun. http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/sport/football/article29250.ece.
- ^ "Communiqué of the ministerial meeting of the forum of dialogue on Gibraltar". Government of Gibraltar. 18 September 2006. http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/pensions/Ministerial_Statement.pdf. Retrieved 17 October 2008. [dead link]
- ^ Government of Gibraltar (18 September 2006). "Trilateral Forum. Ministerial Statement on Pensions". http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/latest_news/press_releases/2006/Ministerial_Statement_On_Pensions.pdf. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ "Press Release. Airport Agreement". Government of Gibraltar. 18 September 2006. http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/latest_news/press_releases/2006/271-2006.pdf. Retrieved 17 October 2008. [dead link]
- ^ "Spain restores Gibraltar air link". British Broadcasting Corporation. 16 December 2006. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/rss/-/2/hi/europe/6198314.stm. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ Government of Gibraltar. "Press Release: Government of Gibraltar Reaction to GB Sale". http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/latest_news/press_releases/2007/239-2007.pdf. Retrieved 16 October 2008.
- ^ "Regional Andalusia airline begins Gibraltar-Madrid airbridge". MercoPress. http://en.mercopress.com/2009/04/30/regional-andalusia-airline-begins-gibraltar-madrid-airbridge. Retrieved 9 March 2010.
- ^ "Andalus drops Gibraltar". Panorama.gi. http://www.panorama.gi/localnews/headlines.php?action=view_article&article=5758&offset=0. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
- ^ Government of Gibraltar. "Press Release: New Air Terminal, tunnel under the runway and new road leading to all parts of Gibraltar north of the runway". http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/latest_news/press_releases/2007/111-2007.pdf. Retrieved 17 October 2008. and images of the proposals: "Press Release: New Terminal Building". http://www.gibraltar.gov.gi/latest_news/press_releases/2007/111-2007-images.pdf. Retrieved 17 October 2008.
- ^ "The Chief Minister presented the plans for an ambitious new terminal building for Gibraltar Airport". 7 Days Gibraltar. http://www.7daysgibraltar.com/article.php?id=655. Retrieved 21 December 2007.
- ^ The Committee Office, House of Commons. "Frontier restrictions". Publications.parliament.uk. http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199899/cmselect/cmfaff/366/36605.htm. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
- ^ Scotsman.com News: Spanish seal border as virus ship docks, retrieved 16 October 2007
- ^ "Fishermen block frontier". Panorama.gi. http://www.panorama.gi/localnews/headlines.php?action=view_article&article=1615. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
- ^ New ferry 'repairs 40 year gap' says Spanish Diplomat, Gibraltar Chronicle, 17 December 2009
- ^ "HIVE Location overview – Gibraltar". Ministry of Defence. December 2007. http://www.mod.uk/NR/rdonlyres/1B9B3D6A-1D09-49B1-9209-3AE16C1614F8/0/20080201_gibraltar_lo.pdf. Retrieved January 2010.
- ^ "House of Commons Hansard Written Answers". Parliament of the United Kingdom. 9 November 1999. http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm199798/cmhansrd/vo981109/text/81109w21.htm. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ Giles Tremlett in Madrid (24 July 2004). "Guardian.co.uk". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2004/jul/24/gibraltar.falklands. Retrieved 13 May 2011.
- ^ Vest, Jason; Wayne Madsen (1 March 1999). "Foreign-operated accommodation site that provides occasional SIGINT product to the USSS". http://jya.com/nsa-scs.htm. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ "Early 20th century communications interception in Spain: a historical perspective". Statewatch. http://www.statewatch.org/news/2004/aug/10spain-gib-comint.htm. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ Searle, Dominique (12 May 2009). "Gibraltar-Madeira Twinning". Gibraltar Chronicle. http://www.chronicle.gi/headlines_details.php?id=16040. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
- ^ "Gibraltar Twinned". madeira4u. 15 May 2009. http://www.madeira4u.com/blog.html/4163. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
- ^ Searle, Dominique (27 May 2009). "Twinned". Gibraltar Chronicle. http://www.chronicle.gi/headlines_details.php?id=16201. Retrieved 27 May 2009.
- ^ "Mayor set for Gibraltar – Ballymena twinning". Gibraltar News Online. 25 April 2006. http://www.gibraltarnewsonline.com/2006/04/25/mayor-set-for-gibraltar-ballymena-twinning/. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
- ^ "Newsletter No 24". Friends of Gibraltar Heritage Society. October 2005. Archived from the original on 1 December 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071201121105/http://www.foghs.org.uk/nl/74.pdf. Retrieved 20 December 2007.
Bibliography[link]
- Abulafia, David (2011). The Great Sea: A Human History of the Mediterranean. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9934-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=dKcQPBV0UdQC.
- Bond, Peter (2003). "Gibraltar's Finest Hour The Great Siege 1779–1783". 300 Years of British Gibraltar 1704–2004 (1st ed.). Gibraltar: Peter-Tan Publishing Co.. pp. 28–29.
- Chartrand, René (July 2006). Gibraltar 1779–1783: The Great Siege. Patrice Courcelle (1st ed.). Gibraltar: Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-977-6. http://www.ospreypublishing.com/title_detail.php/title=S9770.
- Drinkwater, John: A history of the siege of Gibraltar, 1779–1783: With a description and account of that garrison from the earliest periods London, 1862.
- Falkner, James: FIRE OVER THE ROCK: The Great Siege of Gibraltar 1779–1783, Pen and Sword, 2009
- Harvey, Robert: A Few Bloody Noses: The American War of Independence, London, 2001
- Rodger, N. A. M.: The Command of the Ocean: A Naval History of Britain, 1649–1815, London, 2006
- Norwich, John Julius: The Middle Sea: a history of the Mediterranean, Random House, 2006
- Sugden, John: Nelson: A Dream of Glory, London, 2004
- Syrett, David: Admiral Lord Howe: A Biography, London, 2006.
- Maria Monti, Ángel: Historia de Gibraltar: dedicada a SS. AA. RR., los serenisimos señores Infantes Duques de Montpensier, Imp. Juan Moyano, 1852
- Maria Montero, Francisco: Historia de Gibraltar y de su campo, Imprenta de la Revista Médica, 1860
- Uxó Palasí, José: Referencias en torno al bloqueo naval durante los asedios, Almoraima. n.º 34, 2007
External links[link]
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Coordinates: 36°08′35″N 5°21′11″W / 36.143°N 5.353°W / 36.143; -5.353lez:Гибралтар
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gibraltar
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Hitler" redirects here. For other uses, see Hitler (disambiguation).
| Adolf Hitler | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Hitler in 1937 | |
| Führer of Germany | |
| In office 2 August 1934 – 30 April 1945 |
|
| Preceded by | Paul von Hindenburg (as President) |
| Succeeded by | Karl Dönitz (as President) |
| Chancellor of Germany | |
| In office 30 January 1933 – 30 April 1945 |
|
| President | Paul von Hindenburg |
| Deputy |
|
| Preceded by | Kurt von Schleicher |
| Succeeded by | Joseph Goebbels |
| Reichsstatthalter of Prussia | |
| In office 30 January 1933 – 30 January 1935 |
|
| Prime Minister | |
| Preceded by | Office created |
| Succeeded by | Office abolished |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1889-04-20)20 April 1889 Braunau am Inn, Austria–Hungary |
| Died | 30 April 1945(1945-04-30) (aged 56) Berlin, Germany |
| Nationality |
|
| Political party | National Socialist German Workers' Party (1921–1945) |
| Other political affiliations |
German Workers' Party (1920–1921) |
| Spouse(s) | Eva Braun (29–30 April 1945) |
| Occupation | Politician, soldier, artist, writer |
| Religion | See Adolf Hitler's religious views |
| Signature |  |
| Military service | |
| Allegiance |  German Empire |
| Service/branch |  Reichsheer |
| Years of service | 1914–1918 |
| Rank | Gefreiter |
| Unit | 16th Bavarian Reserve Regiment |
| Battles/wars | World War I |
| Awards |
|
Adolf Hitler (German: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ] (
listen); 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is commonly associated with the rise of fascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust.
A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup d'état, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anticommunism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. After his appointment as chancellor in 1933, he transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. His aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe.
Hitler's foreign and domestic policies had the goal of seizing Lebensraum ("living space") for the Germanic people. He directed the rearmament of Germany and the invasion of Poland by the Wehrmacht in September 1939, leading to the outbreak of World War II in Europe. Under Hitler's rule, in 1941 German forces and their European allies occupied most of Europe and North Africa. These gains were gradually reversed, and in 1945 the Allied armies defeated the German army. Hitler's supremacist and racially motivated policies resulted in the systematic murder of eleven million people, including nearly six million Jews.
In the final days of the war, during the Battle of Berlin in 1945, Hitler married his long-time mistress, Eva Braun. On 30 April 1945, less than two days later, the two committed suicide to avoid capture by the Red Army, and their corpses were burned.
Contents |
Early years[link]
Ancestry[link]
Hitler's father, Alois Hitler (1837–1903), was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber. Alois's birth certificate did not name the father, so the child bore his mother's surname. In 1842 Johann Georg Hiedler married Anna. After she died in 1847 and he in 1856, Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedler's brother, Johann Nepomuk Hiedler.[2] It was not until 1876 that Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest before three witnesses.[3] While awaiting trial at Nuremberg in 1945, Nazi official Hans Frank suggested the existence of letters claiming that Alois' mother was employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz and that the family's 19-year-old son, Leopold Frankenberger, had fathered Alois.[4] However, no Frankenberger, Jewish or otherwise, was registered in Graz during that period.[5] Historians doubt the claim that Alois' father was Jewish.[6][7]
At age 39, Alois assumed the surname "Hitler", also spelled as "Hiedler", "Hüttler", or "Huettler". The origin of the name is either "one who lives in a hut" (Standard German Hütte), "shepherd" (Standard German hüten "to guard", English "heed"), or is from the Slavic words Hidlar and Hidlarcek.[8]
Childhood[link]
Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 at the Gasthof zum Pommer, an inn in Ranshofen,[9] a village annexed in 1938 to the municipality of Braunau am Inn, Austria-Hungary. He was the fourth of six children to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl (1860–1907). Adolf's older siblings – Gustav, Ida, and Otto – died in infancy.[10] When Hitler was three, the family moved to Passau, Germany.[11] There he acquired the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect, rather than Austrian German, which marked his speech all of his life.[12][13][14] In 1894 the family relocated to Leonding (near Linz), and in June 1895, Alois retired to a small landholding at Hafeld, near Lambach, where he tried his hand at farming and beekeeping. Adolf attended school in nearby Fischlham. Hitler became fixated on warfare after finding a picture book about the Franco-Prussian War among his father's belongings.[15][16]
The move to Hafeld coincided with the onset of intense father-son conflicts caused by Adolf's refusal to conform to the strict discipline of his school.[17] Alois Hitler's farming efforts at Hafeld ended in failure, and in 1897 the family moved to Lambach. Hitler attended a Catholic school in an 11th-century Benedictine cloister, the pulpit of which bore a stylized swastika symbol on the coat of arms of Theodorich von Hagen, a former abbot.[18] The eight-year-old Hitler took singing lessons, sang in the church choir, and even entertained thoughts of becoming a priest.[19] In 1898 the family returned permanently to Leonding. The death of his younger brother, Edmund, from measles on 2 February 1900 deeply affected Hitler. He changed from being confident and outgoing and an excellent student, to a morose, detached, and sullen boy who constantly fought with his father and teachers.[20]
Alois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps.[21] Hitler later dramatised an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a customs office, depicting it as an event that gave rise to an unforgiving antagonism between father and son, who were both strong-willed.[22][23][24] Ignoring his son's desire to attend a classical high school and become an artist, in September 1900 Alois sent Adolf to the Realschule in Linz.[25] (This was the same high school that Adolf Eichmann would attend some 17 years later.)[26] Hitler rebelled against this decision, and in Mein Kampf revealed that he did poorly in school, hoping that once his father saw "what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream."[27]
Hitler became obsessed with German nationalism from a young age.[28] He expressed loyalty only to Germany, despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically-variegated empire.[29][30] Hitler and his friends used the German greeting "Heil", and sang the German anthem "Deutschland Über Alles" instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem.[31]
After Alois' sudden death on 3 January 1903, Hitler's performance at school deteriorated. His mother allowed him to quit in autumn 1905.[32] He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904; his behaviour and performance showed some slight and gradual improvement.[33] In the autumn of 1905, after passing a repeat and the final exam, Hitler left the school without showing any ambitions for further schooling or clear plans for a career.[34]
Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich[link]
File:The Courtyard of the Old Residency in Munich - Adolf Hitler.jpg
The Alter Hof in Munich. Watercolour by Adolf Hitler, 1914
From 1905, Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna, financed by orphan's benefits and support from his mother. He worked as a casual labourer and eventually as a painter, selling watercolours. The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna rejected him twice, in 1907 and 1908, because of his "unfitness for painting". The director recommended that Hitler study architecture,[35] but he lacked the academic credentials.[36] On 21 December 1907, his mother died aged 47. After the Academy's second rejection, Hitler ran out of money. In 1909 he lived in a homeless shelter, and by 1910, he had settled into a house for poor working men on Meldemannstraße.[37] At the time Hitler lived there, Vienna was a hotbed of religious prejudice and 19th-century racism.[38] Fears of being overrun by immigrants from the East were widespread, and the populist mayor, Karl Lueger, exploited the rhetoric of virulent antisemitism for political effect. Georg Schönerer's pan-Germanic antisemitism had a strong following and base in the Mariahilf district, where Hitler lived.[39] Hitler read local newspapers, such as the Deutsches Volksblatt, that fanned prejudice and played on Christian fears of being swamped by an influx of eastern Jews.[40] Hostile to what he saw as Catholic "Germanophobia", he developed an admiration for Martin Luther.[41]
The origin and first expression of Hitler's antisemitism have been difficult to locate.[42] Hitler states in Mein Kampf that he first became an antisemite in Vienna.[43] His close friend, August Kubizek, claimed that Hitler was a "confirmed antisemite" before he left Linz.[44] Kubizek's account has been challenged by historian Brigitte Hamann, who writes that Kubizek is the only person to have said that the young Hitler was an antisemite.[45] Hamann also notes that no antisemitic remark has been documented from Hitler during this period.[46] Historian Ian Kershaw suggests that if Hitler had made such remarks, they may have gone unnoticed because of the prevailing antisemitism in Vienna at that time.[47] Several sources provide strong evidence that Hitler had Jewish friends in his hostel and in other places in Vienna.[48][49] Historian Richard J. Evans states that "historians now generally agree that his notorious, murderous anti-Semitism emerged well after Germany’s defeat [in World War I], as a product of the paranoid 'stab-in-the-back' explanation for the catastrophe".[50]
Hitler received the final part of his father's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich.[51] Historians believe he left Vienna to evade conscription into the Austrian army.[52] Hitler later claimed that he did not wish to serve the Habsburg Empire because of the mixture of "races" in its army.[51] After he was deemed unfit for service—he failed his physical exam in Salzburg on 5 February 1914—he returned to Munich.[53]
World War I[link]
Main article: Military career of Adolf Hitler
At the outbreak of World War I, Hitler applied to serve in the German army. He was accepted in August 1914, likely as the result of a clerical oversight—he was still an Austrian citizen.[54] Posted to the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 (1st Company of the List Regiment),[55][54] he served as a dispatch runner on the Western Front in France and Belgium,[56] spending nearly half his time well behind the front lines.[57][58] He was present at the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of Arras, and the Battle of Passchendaele, and was wounded at the Somme.[59]
He was decorated for bravery, receiving the Iron Cross, Second Class, in 1914.[59] Recommended by Hugo Gutmann, he received the Iron Cross, First Class, on 4 August 1918,[60] a decoration rarely awarded to one of Hitler's rank (Gefreiter). Hitler's post at regimental headquarters, providing frequent interactions with senior officers, may have helped him receive this decoration.[61] Though his rewarded actions may have been courageous, they were probably not highly exceptional.[62] He also received the Black Wound Badge on 18 May 1918.[63]
During his service at the headquarters, Hitler pursued his artwork, drawing cartoons and instructions for an army newspaper. During the Battle of the Somme in October 1916, he was wounded either in the groin area[64] or the left thigh by a shell that had exploded in the dispatch runners' dugout.[65] Hitler spent almost two months in the Red Cross hospital at Beelitz, returning to his regiment on 5 March 1917.[66] On 15 October 1918, he was temporarily blinded by a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk.[67] While there, Hitler learnt of Germany's defeat,[68] and—by his own account—on receiving this news, he suffered a second bout of blindness.[69]
Hitler became embittered over the collapse of the war effort, and his ideological development began to firmly take shape.[70] He described the war as "the greatest of all experiences", and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery.[71] The experience reinforced his passionate German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany's capitulation in November 1918.[72] Like other German nationalists, he believed in the Dolchstoßlegende (Stab-in-the-back legend), which claimed that the German army, "undefeated in the field," had been "stabbed in the back" on the home front by civilian leaders and Marxists, later dubbed the "November criminals".[73]
The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany must relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the Rhineland. The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied heavy reparations on the country. Many Germans perceived the treaty—especially Article 231, which declared Germany responsible for the war—as a humiliation.[74] The Versailles Treaty and the economic, social, and political conditions in Germany after the war were later exploited by Hitler for political gains.[75]
Entry into politics[link]
Main article: Adolf Hitler's political views
After World War I Hitler returned to Munich.[76] Having no formal education and career plans or prospects, he tried to remain in the army for as long as possible.[77] In July 1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann (intelligence agent) of an Aufklärungskommando (reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr, to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers' Party (DAP). While monitoring the activities of the DAP, Hitler became attracted to the founder Anton Drexler's antisemitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist, and anti-Marxist ideas.[78] Drexler favoured a strong active government, a "non-Jewish" version of socialism, and solidarity among all members of society. Impressed with Hitler's oratory skills, Drexler invited him to join the DAP. Hitler accepted on 12 September 1919,[79] becoming the party's 55th member.[80]
At the DAP, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of its early founders and a member of the occult Thule Society.[81] Eckart became Hitler's mentor, exchanging ideas with him and introducing him to a wide range of people in Munich society.[82] To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party – NSDAP).[83] Hitler designed the party's banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background.[84]
Hitler was discharged from the army in March 1920 and began working full time for the NSDAP. In February 1921—already highly effective at speaking to large audiences—he spoke to a crowd of over 6,000 in Munich.[85] To publicise the meeting, two truckloads of party supporters drove around town waving swastika flags and throwing leaflets. Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy, polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles, rival politicians, and especially against Marxists and Jews.[86] At the time, the NSDAP was centred in Munich, a major hotbed of anti-government German nationalists determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic.[87]
In June 1921, while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin, a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich. Members of the its executive committee, some of whom considered Hitler to be too overbearing, wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party (DSP).[88] Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July 1921 and angrily tendered his resignation. The committee members realised that his resignation would mean the end of the party.[89] Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman, and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich.[90] The committee agreed; he rejoined the party as member 3,680. He still faced some opposition within the NSDAP: Hermann Esser and his allies printed 3,000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party.[90][a] In the following days, Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself, to thunderous applause. His strategy proved successful: at a general membership meeting, he was granted absolute powers as party chairman, with only one nay vote cast.[91]
Hitler's vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting regular audiences. He became adept at using populist themes targeted at his audience, including the use of scapegoats who could be blamed for the economic hardships of his listeners.[92][93][94] Historians have noted the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly ... Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal. The word shows up again and again; Hitler is said to have mesmerized the nation, captured them in a trance from which they could not break loose."[95] Historian Hugh Trevor-Roper described "the fascination of those eyes, which had bewitched so many seemingly sober men."[96] He used his personal magnetism and an understanding of crowd psychology to his advantage while engaged in public speaking.[97][98] Alfons Heck, a former member of the Hitler Youth, describes the reaction to a speech by Hitler: "We erupted into a frenzy of nationalistic pride that bordered on hysteria. For minutes on end, we shouted at the top of our lungs, with tears streaming down our faces: Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil, Sieg Heil! From that moment on, I belonged to Adolf Hitler body and soul".[99] Although his oratory skills and personal traits were generally received well by large crowds and at official events, some who had met Hitler privately noted that his appearance and demeanour failed to make a lasting impression on them.[100][101]
Early followers included Rudolf Hess, former air force pilot Hermann Göring, and army captain Ernst Röhm. The latter became head of the Nazis' paramilitary organisation, the Sturmabteilung (SA, "Stormtroopers"), which protected meetings and frequently attacked political opponents. A critical influence on his thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung,[102] a conspiratorial group formed of White Russian exiles and early National Socialists. The group, financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists like Henry Ford, introduced him to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy, linking international finance with Bolshevism.[103]
Beer Hall Putsch[link]
Main article: Beer Hall Putsch
Hitler enlisted the help of World War I General Erich Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the "Beer Hall Putsch" (also known as the "Hitler Putsch" or "Munich Putsch"). The Nazi Party had used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies. Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini's "March on Rome" (1922) by staging his own coup in Bavaria, to be followed by challenging the government in Berlin. Hitler and Ludendorff sought the support of Staatskommissar (state commissioner) Gustav von Kahr, Bavaria's de facto ruler. However, Kahr, along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser (Seißer) and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow, wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler.[104]
Hitler wanted to seize a critical moment for successful popular agitation and support.[105] On 8 November 1923 he and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3,000 people that had been organised by Kahr in the Bürgerbräukeller, a large beer hall in Munich. Hitler interrupted Kahr's speech and announced that the national revolution had begun, declaring the formation of a new government with Ludendorff.[106] Retiring to a backroom, Hitler, with handgun drawn, demanded and got the support of Kahr, Seisser, and Lossow.[106] Hitler's forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters; however, Kahr and his consorts quickly withdrew their support and neither the army nor the state police joined forces with him.[107] The next day, Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government, but police dispersed them.[108] Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup.[109]
Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl, and by some accounts contemplated suicide.[110] He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason.[111] His trial began in February 1924 before the special People's Court in Munich,[112] and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP. On 1 April Hitler was sentenced to five years' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison.[113] He received friendly treatment from the guards; he was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades. The Bavarian Supreme Court issued a pardon and he was released from jail on 20 December 1924, against the state prosecutor's objections.[114] Including time on remand, Hitler had served just over one year in prison.[115]
While at Landsberg, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf (My Struggle; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies, Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy, Rudolf Hess.[115] The book, dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and an exposition of his ideology. Mein Kampf was influenced by The Passing of the Great Race by Madison Grant, which Hitler called "my Bible".[116] The book laid out Hitler's plans for transforming German society into one based on race. Some passages implied genocide.[117] Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926, it sold 228,000 copies between 1925 and 1932. One million copies were sold in 1933, Hitler's first year in office. [118]
Rebuilding the NSDAP[link]
File:Hitler 1928.jpg
Hitler (left), standing behind Hermann Göring at a Nazi rally in Nuremberg (c. 1928)
At the time of Hitler's release from prison, politics in Germany had become less combative, and the economy had improved. This limited Hitler's opportunities for political agitation. As a result of the failed Beer Hall Putsch, the NSDAP and its affiliated organisations were banned in Bavaria. In a meeting with Prime Minister of Bavaria Heinrich Held on 4 January 1925, Hitler agreed to respect the authority of the state: he would only seek political power through the democratic process. The meeting paved the way for the ban on the NSDAP to be lifted.[119] However, Hitler was barred from public speaking, [120] a ban that remained in place until 1927.[121] To advance his political ambitions in spite of the ban, Hitler appointed Gregor Strasser, Otto Strasser, and Joseph Goebbels to organise and grow the NSDAP in northern Germany. A superb organiser, Gregor Strasser steered a more independent political course, emphasising the socialist element of the party's programme.[122]
Hitler ruled the NSDAP autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip ("Leader principle"). Rank in the party was not determined by elections—positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank, who demanded unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader.[123]
The stock market in the United States crashed on 24 October 1929. The impact in Germany was dire: millions were thrown out of work and several major banks collapsed. Hitler and the NSDAP prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party. They promised to repudiate the Versailles Treaty, strengthen the economy, and provide jobs.[124]
Rise to power[link]
Main article: Adolf Hitler's rise to power
| Date | Total votes |
Votes, percentage |
Reichstag seats |
Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 01924-05-01May 1, 1924May 1924 | &100000000019183000000001,918,300 | &100000000000000065000006.5 | &1000000000000003200000032 | Hitler in prison |
| 01924-12-01December 1, 1924December 1924 | &10000000000907300000000907,300 | &100000000000000030000003.0 | &1000000000000001400000014 | Hitler released from prison |
| 01928-05-01May 1, 1928May 1928 | &10000000000810100000000810,100 | &100000000000000026000002.6 | &1000000000000001200000012 | |
| 01930-09-01September 1, 1930September 1930 | &100000000064096000000006,409,600 | &1000000000000001830000018.3 | &10000000000000107000000107 | After the financial crisis |
| 01932-07-01July 1, 1932July 1932 | &1000000001374500000000013,745,000 | &1000000000000003729999937.3 | &10000000000000230000000230 | After Hitler was candidate for presidency |
| 01932-11-01November 1, 1932November 1932 | &1000000001173700000000011,737,000 | &1000000000000003310000033.1 | &10000000000000196000000196 | |
| 01933-03-01March 1, 1933March 1933 | &1000000001727718000000017,277,180 | &1000000000000004389999943.9 | &10000000000000288000000288 | During Hitler's term as chancellor of Germany |
Brüning administration[link]
The Great Depression in Germany provided a political opportunity for Hitler. Germans were ambivalent to the parliamentary republic, which faced strong challenges from right- and left-wing extremists. The moderate political parties were increasingly unable to stem the tide of extremism, and the German referendum of 1929 had helped to elevate Nazi ideology.[126] The elections of September 1930 resulted in the break-up of a grand coalition and its replacement with a minority cabinet. Its leader, chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Centre Party, governed through emergency decrees from the president, Paul von Hindenburg. Governance by decree would become the new norm and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government.[127] The NSDAP rose from obscurity to win 18.3% of the vote and 107 parliamentary seats in the 1930 election, becoming the second-largest party in parliament.[128]
Hitler made a prominent appearance at the trial of two Reichswehr officers, Lieutenants Richard Scheringer and Hans Ludin, in the autumn of 1930. Both were charged with membership in the NSDAP, at that time illegal for Reichswehr personnel.[129] The prosecution argued that the NSDAP was an extremist party, prompting defence lawyer Hans Frank to call on Hitler to testify in court.[130] On 25 September 1930 Hitler testified that his party would pursue political power solely through democratic elections,[131] a testimony that won him many supporters in the officer corps.[132]
Brüning's austerity measures brought little economic improvement and were extremely unpopular.[133] Hitler exploited this by targeting his political messages specifically at people who had been affected by the inflation of the 1920s and the Depression, such as farmers, war veterans, and the middle class.[134]
Hitler had formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925, but at the time did not acquire German citizenship. For almost seven years Hitler was stateless, unable to run for public office, and faced the risk of deportation.[135] On 25 February 1932 the interior minister of Brunswick, who was a member of the NSDAP, appointed Hitler as administrator for the state's delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin, making Hitler a citizen of Brunswick,[136] and thus of Germany.[137]
In 1932 Hitler ran against von Hindenburg in the presidential elections. The viability of his candidacy was underscored by a 27 January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in Düsseldorf, which won him support from many of Germany's most powerful industrialists.[138] However, Hindenburg had support from various nationalist, monarchist, Catholic, and republican parties, and some social democrats. Hitler used the campaign slogan "Hitler über Deutschland" ("Hitler over Germany"), a reference to both his political ambitions and to his campaigning by aircraft.[139] Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election, garnering more than 35% of the vote in the final election. Although he lost to Hindenburg, this election established Hitler as a strong force in German politics.[140]
Appointment as chancellor[link]
The absence of an effective government prompted two influential politicians, Franz von Papen and Alfred Hugenberg, along with several other industrialists and businessmen, to write a letter to von Hindenburg. The signers urged Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as leader of a government "independent from parliamentary parties", which could turn into a movement that would "enrapture millions of people".[141][142]
Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after two further parliamentary elections—in July and November 1932—had not resulted in the formation of a majority government. Hitler was to head a short-lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and Hugenberg's party, the German National People's Party (DNVP). On 30 January 1933 the new cabinet was sworn in during a brief and simple ceremony in Hindenburg's office. The NSDAP held three of the eleven posts: Hitler was named chancellor, Hermann Göring was named minister without portfolio, and Wilhelm Frick was appointed minister of the interior.[143]
Reichstag fire and March elections[link]
As chancellor, Hitler worked against attempts by the NSDAP's opponents to build a majority government. Because of the political stalemate, he asked President Hindenburg to again dissolve the Reichstag, and elections were scheduled for early March. On 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was set on fire. Göring blamed a communist plot, because Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe was found in incriminating circumstances inside the burning building.[144] At Hitler's urging, Hindenburg responded with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February, which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial. Activities of the German Communist Party were suppressed, and some 4,000 communist party members were arrested.[145] Researchers, including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock, are of the opinion that the NSDAP itself was responsible for starting the fire.[146][147]
In addition to political campaigning, the NSDAP engaged in paramilitary violence and the spread of anti-communist propaganda in the days preceding the election. On election day, 6 March 1933, the NSDAP's share of the vote increased to 43.9%, and the party acquired the largest number of seats in parliament. However, Hitler's party failed to secure an absolute majority, necessitating another coalition with the DNVP.[148]
Day of Potsdam and the Enabling Act[link]
On 21 March 1933 the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam. This "Day of Potsdam" was held to demonstrate unity between the Nazi movement and the old Prussian elite and military. Hitler appeared in a morning coat and humbly greeted President von Hindenburg.[149][150]
To achieve full political control despite not having an absolute majority in parliament, Hitler's government brought the Ermächtigungsgesetz (Enabling Act) to a vote in the newly elected Reichstag. The act gave Hitler's cabinet full legislative powers for a period of four years and (with certain exceptions) allowed deviations from the constitution.[151] The bill required a two-thirds majority to pass. Leaving nothing to chance, the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to keep several Social Democratic deputies from attending; the Communists had already been banned.[152]
On 23 March, the Reichstag assembled at the Kroll Opera House under turbulent circumstances. Ranks of SA men served as guards inside the building, while large groups outside opposing the proposed legislation shouted slogans and threats toward the arriving members of parliament.[153] The position of the Centre Party, the third largest party in the Reichstag, turned out to be decisive. After Hitler verbally promised party leader Ludwig Kaas that President von Hindenburg would retain his power of veto, Kaas announced the Centre Party would support the Enabling Act. Ultimately, the Enabling Act passed by a vote of 441–84, with all parties except the Social Democrats voting in favour. The Enabling Act, along with the Reichstag Fire Decree, transformed Hitler's government into a de facto legal dictatorship.[154]
Removal of remaining limits[link]
At the risk of appearing to talk nonsense I tell you that the National Socialist movement will go on for 1,000 years! ... Don't forget how people laughed at me 15 years ago when I declared that one day I would govern Germany. They laugh now, just as foolishly, when I declare that I shall remain in power!
— Adolf Hitler to a British correspondent in Berlin, June 1934[155]
Having achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government, Hitler and his political allies embarked on a systematic suppression of the remaining political opposition. The Social Democratic Party was banned and all its assets seized.[156] While many trade union delegates were in Berlin for May Day activities, SA stormtroopers demolished trade union offices around the country. On 2 May 1933 all trade unions were forced to dissolve and their leaders were arrested; some were sent to concentration camps.[157] The German Labour Front was formed to represent all workers, administrators, and company owners together as one group. This new labour organisation reflected the concept of national socialism in the spirit of Hitler's "Volksgemeinschaft" (German racial community).[158]
By the end of June, the other parties had been intimidated into disbanding. With the help of the SA, Hitler pressured his nominal coalition partner, Hugenberg, into resigning. On 14 July 1933 Hitler's Nazi Party was declared the only legal political party in Germany.[158][156] The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused much anxiety among military, industrial, and political leaders. Hitler responded by purging the entire SA leadership in what became known as the Night of the Long Knives, which took place from 30 June to 2 July 1934.[159] Hitler targeted Ernst Röhm and other political adversaries (such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher). Röhm and other SA leaders, along with a number of Hitler's political enemies, were rounded up, arrested, and shot.[160] While the international community and some Germans were shocked by the murders, many in Germany saw Hitler as restoring order.[161]
On 2 August 1934 President von Hindenburg died. The previous day, the cabinet had enacted a law to take effect upon Hindenburg's death which abolished the office of president and combined its powers with those of the chancellor. Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government, and was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor).[162] This law actually violated the Enabling Act. While the Enabling Act allowed Hitler to deviate from the constitution, it explicitly barred him from passing any law that tampered with the presidency. In 1932, the constitution had been amended to make the president of the High Court of Justice, not the chancellor, acting president pending new elections.[163] With this law, Hitler removed the last legal remedy by which he could be removed from office.
As head of state, Hitler became Supreme Commander of the armed forces. The traditional loyalty oath of soldiers and sailors was altered to affirm loyalty to Hitler personally, rather than to the office of supreme commander.[164] On 19 August, the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by a plebiscite with support of 90% of the electorate.[165]
In early 1938 Hitler forced his War Minister, Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, to resign when a police dossier was discovered showing that Blomberg's new wife had a record for prostitution.[166][167] Hitler removed army commander Colonel-General Werner von Fritsch after the Schutzstaffel (SS) produced allegations that he had taken part in a homosexual relationship.[168] Both men had already fallen into disfavour when they objected to his demand that they have the Wehrmacht ready to go to war as early as 1938.[169] Hitler used this incident, known as the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, to consolidate his hold over the military. He assumed Blomberg's title of Commander-in-Chief, thus taking personal command of the armed forces. He replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht (High Command of the Armed Forces, or OKW), headed by General Wilhelm Keitel. On the same day, sixteen generals were stripped of their commands and 44 more were transferred; all were suspected of not being sufficiently pro-Nazi.[170] By early February 1938, twelve other generals had been removed.[171]
Having consolidated his political powers, Hitler suppressed or eliminated his opposition by a process termed Gleichschaltung ("bringing into line"). He attempted to gain additional public support by vowing to reverse the effects of the Depression and the Versailles Treaty.
Third Reich[link]
Main article: Nazi Germany
Economy and culture[link]
In 1935 Hitler appointed Hjalmar Schacht as Plenipotentiary for War Economy, in charge of preparing the economy for war. Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills, printing money, and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State, including Jews.[172] Unemployment fell substantially, from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936.[173] Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history, leading to the construction of dams, autobahns, railroads, and other civil works. Wages were slightly reduced in the pre–World War II years over those of the Weimar Republic, while the cost of living increased by 25%.[174]
Hitler's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale. Albert Speer, instrumental in implementing Hitler's classicist reinterpretation of German culture, was placed in charge of the proposed architectural renovations of Berlin.[175] In 1936 Hitler opened the summer Olympic games in Berlin.
Rearmament and new alliances[link]
In a meeting with German military leaders on 3 February 1933, Hitler spoke of "conquest for Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation" as his ultimate foreign policy objectives.[176] In March, Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow, secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt (Foreign Office), issued a major statement of German foreign policy aims: Anschluss with Austria, the restoration of Germany's national borders of 1914, rejection of military restrictions under the Treaty of Versailles, the return of the former German colonies in Africa, and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe. Hitler found Bülow's goals to be too modest.[177] In his speeches of this period, he stressed the peaceful goals of his policies and willingness to work within international agreements.[178] At the first meeting of his Cabinet in 1933, Hitler prioritised military spending over unemployment relief.[179]
File:Hitlermusso2 edit.jpg
On 25 October 1936 an Axis was declared between Italy and Germany.
Germany withdrew from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference in October 1933.[180] In March 1935 Hitler announced an expansion of the Wehrmacht to 600,000 members—six times the number permitted by the Versailles Treaty—including development of an Air Force (Luftwaffe) and increasing the size of the Navy (Kriegsmarine). Britain, France, Italy, and the League of Nations condemned these plans as violations of the Treaty.[181] The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (AGNA) of 18 June 1935 allowed German tonnage to increase to 35% of that of the British navy. Hitler called the signing of the AGNA "the happiest day of his life", as he believed the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo-German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf.[182] France and Italy were not consulted before the signing, directly undermining the League of Nations and putting the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance.[183]
Germany reoccupied the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in March 1936, in violation the Versailles Treaty. Hitler sent troops to Spain to support General Franco after receiving an appeal for help in July 1936. At the same time, Hitler continued his efforts to create an Anglo-German alliance.[184] In response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament efforts, Hitler issued a memorandum ordering Göring to carry out a Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within the next four years.[185] The "Four-Year Plan Memorandum" of August 1936 envisaged an all-out struggle between "Judeo-Bolshevism" and German national socialism, which in Hitler's view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs.[186]
Count Galeazzo Ciano, foreign minister of Benito Mussolini's government, declared an axis between Germany and Italy, and on 25 November, Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan. Britain, China, Italy, and Poland were also invited to join the Anti-Comintern Pact, but only Italy signed in 1937. Hitler abandoned his dream of an Anglo-German alliance, blaming "inadequate" British leadership.[187] At a secret meeting in the Reich Chancellery with his foreign ministers and military chiefs that November, Hitler stated his intention of acquiring Lebensraum ("living space") for the German people. He ordered preparations for war in the east, to begin as early as 1938 and no later than 1943. He stated that the conference minutes, recorded as the Hossbach Memorandum, were to be regarded as his "political testament" in the event of his death.[188] He felt the German economic crisis had reached a point that a severe decline in living standards in Germany could only be stopped by a policy of military aggression—seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia.[189][190] Hitler urged quick action, before Britain and France obtained a permanent lead in the arms race.[189] In early 1938, in the wake of the Blomberg–Fritsch Affair, Hitler asserted control of the military-foreign policy apparatus, dismissing Neurath as Foreign Minister and appointing himself Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht (supreme commander of the armed forces).[185] From early 1938 onwards, Hitler was carrying out a foreign policy ultimately aimed at war.[191]
The Holocaust[link]
Main article: The Holocaust
If the international Jewish financiers outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war, then the result will not be the bolshevisation of the earth, and thus the victory of Jewry, but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe![192]
— Adolf Hitler addressing the German Reichstag, 30 January 1939
A main Nazi concept was the notion of racial hygiene. On 15 September 1935, Hitler presented two laws—known as the Nuremberg Laws—to the Reichstag. The laws banned marriage between non-Jewish and Jewish Germans, and forbade the employment of non-Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households. The laws deprived so-called "non-Aryans" of the benefits of German citizenship.[193] Hitler's early eugenic policies targeted children with physical and developmental disabilities in a programme dubbed Action Brandt, and later authorized a euthanasia programme for adults with serious mental and physical handicaps, now usually referred to as Action T4.[194]
Hitler's idea of Lebensraum, espoused briefly in Mein Kampf, focused on acquiring new territory for German settlement in Eastern Europe.[195] The Generalplan Ost ("General Plan for the East") called for the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to be deported to West Siberia, used as slave labour, or murdered;[196] the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or "Germanised" settlers.[197] The original plan called for this process to begin after the conquest of the Soviet Union, but when that failed to happen, Hitler moved the plans forward.[196][198] By January 1942 the decision had been taken to kill the Jews and other deportees considered undesirable.[199]
The Holocaust (the "Endlösung der jüdischen Frage" or "Final Solution of the Jewish Question") was organised and executed by Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich. The records of the Wannsee Conference—held on 20 January 1942 and led by Heydrich, with fifteen senior Nazi officials participating—provide the clearest evidence of systematic planning for the Holocaust. On 22 February Hitler was recorded saying to his associates, "we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews".[200] Approximately thirty Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps were used for this purpose.[201] By summer 1942 Auschwitz concentration camp was rapidly expanded to accept large numbers of deportees for killing or enslavement.[202]
Although no specific order from Hitler authorising the mass killings has surfaced,[203] he approved the Einsatzgruppen—killing squads that followed the German army through Poland, the Baltic, and the Soviet Union[204]—and he was well informed about their activities.[205] During interrogations by Soviet intelligence officers, the records of which were declassified over fifty years later, Hitler's valet, Heinz Linge, and his adjutant, Otto Günsche, stated that Hitler had a direct interest in the development of gas chambers.[206]
Between 1939 and 1945, the SS, assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries, were responsible for the deaths of eleven to fourteen million people, including about six million Jews, representing two-thirds of the Jewish population in Europe,[207][208] and between 500,000 and 1,500,000 Roma.[209] Deaths took place in concentration and extermination camps, ghettos, and through mass executions. Many victims of the Holocaust were gassed to death, whereas others died of starvation or disease while working as slave labourers.[210]
Hitler's policies also resulted in the killings of Poles[211] and Soviet prisoners of war, communists and other political opponents, homosexuals, the physically and mentally disabled,[212][213] Jehovah's Witnesses, Adventists, and trade unionists. Hitler never appeared to have visited the concentration camps and did not speak publicly about the killings.[214]
World War II[link]
Early diplomatic successes[link]
Alliance with Japan[link]
Main article: Germany–Japan relations
In February 1938, on the advice of his newly appointed Foreign Minister, the strongly pro-Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop, Hitler ended the Sino-German alliance with the Republic of China to instead enter into an alliance with the more modern and powerful Japan. Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo, the Japanese-occupied state in Manchuria, and renounced German claims to their former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan.[215] Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to China and recalled all German officers working with the Chinese Army.[215] In retaliation, Chinese General Chiang Kai-shek cancelled all Sino-German economic agreements, depriving the Germans of many Chinese raw materials, though they did continue to ship tungsten, a key metal in armaments production, through to 1939.[216]
Austria and Czechoslovakia[link]
On 12 March 1938 Hitler declared unification of Austria with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss.[217][218] Hitler then turned his attention to the ethnic German population of the Sudetenland district of Czechoslovakia.[219]
On 28–29 March 1938 Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten Heimfront (Home Front), the largest of the ethnic German parties of the Sudetenland. The men agreed that Henlein would demand increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans from the Czechoslovakian government, thus providing a pretext for German military action against Czechoslovakia. In April 1938 Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that "whatever the Czech government might offer, he would always raise still higher demands ... he wanted to sabotage an understanding by all means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia quickly".[220] In private, Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant; his real intention was a war of conquest against Czechoslovakia.[221]
In April 1938 Hitler ordered the OKW to prepare for Fall Grün ("Case Green"), the code name for an invasion of Czechoslovakia.[222] As a result of intense French and British diplomatic pressure, on 5 September 1938 Czechoslovakian President Edvard Beneš unveiled the "Fourth Plan" for constitutional reorganisation of his country, which agreed to most of Henlein's demands for Sudeten autonomy.[223] Henlein's Heimfront responded to Beneš' offer with a series of violent clashes with the Czechoslovakian police that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts.[224][225]
Germany was dependent on imported oil; a confrontation with Britain over the Czechoslovakian dispute could curtail Germany's oil supplies. Hitler called off Fall Grün, originally planned for 1 October 1938.[226] On 29 September 1938 Hitler, Neville Chamberlain, Édouard Daladier, and Benito Mussolini attended a one-day conference in Munich that led to the Munich Agreement, which handed over the Sudetenland districts to Germany.[227][228]
Chamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference, calling the outcome "peace for our time", while Hitler was angered about the missed opportunity for war in 1938;[229][230] he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9 October 1938 in Saarbrücken.[231] In Hitler's view, the British-brokered peace, although favourable to the ostensible German demands, was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany.[232][233] As a result of the summit, Hitler was selected Time magazine's Man of the Year for 1938.[234]
In late 1938 and early 1939, the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts.[235] In his "Export or die" speech of 30 January 1939, he called for an economic offensive to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high-grade iron needed for military weapons.[235]
On 15 March 1939, in violation of the Munich accord and possibly as a result of the deepening economic crisis requiring additional assets,[236] Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to invade Prague, and from Prague Castle proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate.[237]
Start of World War II[link]
In private discussions in 1939, Hitler described Britain as the main enemy to be defeated. In his view, Poland's obliteration as a sovereign nation was a necessary prelude to that goal. The eastern flank would be secured and land would be added to Germany's Lebensraum.[238] Hitler wanted Poland to become either a German satellite state or be otherwise neutralised to secure the Reich's eastern flank, and to prevent a possible British blockade.[239] Initially, Hitler favoured the idea of a satellite state; this was rejected by the Polish government. Therefore, Hitler decided to invade Poland; he made this the main German foreign policy goal of 1939.[240] Hitler was offended by the British "guarantee" of Polish independence issued on 31 March 1939, and told his associates that "I shall brew them a devil's drink".[241] In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship Tirpitz on 1 April 1939, Hitler threatened to denounce the Anglo-German Naval Agreement if the British persisted with their guarantee of Polish independence, which he perceived as an "encirclement" policy.[241] On 3 April 1939 Hitler ordered the military to prepare for Fall Weiss ("Case White"), the plan for an invasion of Poland on 25 August 1939.[240] In a speech before the Reichstag on 28 April he renounced both the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and the German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact. In August Hitler told his generals that his original plan for 1939 was to "... establish an acceptable relationship with Poland in order to fight against the West". Since Poland refused to become a German satellite, Hitler stated his only option was the invasion of Poland.[242] Historians such as William Carr, Gerhard Weinberg, and Ian Kershaw have argued that one reason for Hitler's rush to war was his morbid and obsessive fear of an early death, and hence his feeling that he did not have long to accomplish his work.[243][244][245]
Hitler was concerned that a military attack against Poland could result in a premature war with Britain.[239][246] However, Hitler's foreign minister—and former Ambassador to London—Joachim von Ribbentrop assured him that neither Britain nor France would honour their commitments to Poland, and that a German–Polish war would only be a limited regional war.[247][248] Ribbentrop claimed that in December 1938 the French foreign minister, Georges Bonnet, had stated that France considered Eastern Europe as Germany's exclusive sphere of influence;[249] Ribbentrop showed Hitler diplomatic cables that supported his analysis.[250] The German Ambassador in London, Herbert von Dirksen, supported Ribbentrop's analysis with a dispatch in August 1939, reporting that Chamberlain knew "the social structure of Britain, even the conception of the British Empire, would not survive the chaos of even a victorious war", and so would back down.[248] Accordingly, on 21 August 1939 Hitler ordered a military mobilisation against Poland.[251]
Hitler's plans for a military campaign in Poland in late August or early September required tacit Soviet support.[252] The non-aggression pact (the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact) between Germany and the Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin,[253] included secret protocols with an agreement to partition Poland between the two countries. In response to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact—and contrary to the prediction of Ribbentrop that the newly-formed pact would sever Anglo-Polish ties—Britain and Poland signed the Anglo-Polish alliance on 25 August 1939. This, along with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honour the Pact of Steel, caused Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25 August to 1 September.[254] In the days before the start of the war, Hitler tried to manoeuvre the British into neutrality by offering a non-aggression guarantee to the British Empire on 25 August and by having Ribbentrop present a last-minute peace plan with an impossibly short time limit in an effort to then blame the war on British and Polish inaction.[255][256]
As a pretext for a military aggression against Poland, Hitler claimed the Free City of Danzig and the right to extraterritorial roads across the Polish Corridor, which Germany had ceded under the Versailles Treaty.[257] Despite his concerns over a possible British intervention, Hitler was ultimately not deterred from his aim of invading Poland,[258] and on 1 September 1939 Germany invaded western Poland. In response, Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September. This surprised Hitler, prompting him to turn to Ribbentrop and angrily ask "Now what?"[259] France and Britain did not act on their declarations immediately, and on 17 September, Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland.[260]
Poland never will rise again in the form of the Versailles treaty. That is guaranteed not only by Germany, but also ... Russia.
The fall of Poland was followed by what contemporary journalists dubbed the "Phoney War" or Sitzkrieg ("sitting war"). Hitler instructed the two newly-appointed Gauleiters of north-western Poland, Albert Forster of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia and Arthur Greiser of Reichsgau Wartheland, to "Germanise" their areas, and promised them "There would be no questions asked" about how this was accomplished.[262] To Himmler's chagrin, Forster had local Poles sign forms stating that they had German blood, and required no further documentation.[263] On the other hand, Greiser carried out a brutal ethnic cleansing campaign on the Polish population in his purview.[262] Greiser complained to Hitler that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as "racial" Germans and thus, in Greiser's view, endangering German "racial purity". Hitler told Himmler and Greiser to take up their difficulties with Forster, and not to involve him.[262] Hitler's handling of the Forster–Greiser dispute has been advanced as an example of Kershaw's theory of "working towards the Führer": Hitler issued vague instructions and expected his subordinates to work out policies on their own.
Another dispute broke out between different factions. One side, represented by Himmler and Greiser, championed carrying out ethnic cleansing in Poland, and another side, represented by Göring and Hans Frank, Governor-General of the General Government territory of occupied Poland, called for turning Poland into the "granary" of the Reich.[264] At a conference held at Göring's Karinhall estate on 12 February 1940, the dispute was initially settled in favour of the Göring–Frank view of economic exploitation, which ended the economically disruptive mass expulsions.[264] On 15 May 1940, however, Himmler presented Hitler with a memo entitled "Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East", which called for expulsion of the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and reducing the remainder of the Polish population to a "leaderless class of labourers".[264] Hitler called Himmler's memo "good and correct";[264] and, ignoring Göring and Frank, implemented the Himmler–Greiser policy in Poland.
File:Adolf Hitler in Paris 1940.jpg
Hitler visits Paris with architect Albert Speer (left) and sculptor Arno Breker (right), 23 June 1940
Hitler began a military build-up on Germany's western border, and in April 1940, German forces invaded Denmark and Norway. On 9 April Hitler proclaimed the birth of the "Greater Germanic Reich" to his associates; this was his vision of a united empire of the Germanic nations of Europe, where the Dutch, Flemish, Scandinavians, and other peoples would join into a single, racially-pure polity under German leadership.[265] In May 1940, Hitler's forces attacked France, and conquered Luxembourg, the Netherlands, and Belgium. These victories prompted Mussolini to have Italy join forces with Hitler on 10 June 1940. France surrendered on 22 June 1940.[266]
Britain, whose forces were forced to leave France by sea from Dunkirk,[267] continued to fight alongside other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic. Hitler made peace overtures to the British, now led by Winston Churchill, and when these were rejected he ordered bombing raids on the United Kingdom. Hitler's prelude to a planned invasion of the UK was a series of aerial attacks in the Battle of Britain on Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations in South-East England. However, the German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force.[268]
On 27 September 1940 the Tripartite Pact was signed in Berlin by Saburō Kurusu of Imperial Japan, Hitler, and Italian foreign minister Ciano.[269] The agreement was later expanded to include Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. They were collectively known as the Axis powers. The purpose of the pact was to deter the United States from supporting the British. By the end of October 1940, air superiority for the invasion of Britain—Operation Sea Lion—could not be achieved, and Hitler ordered nightly air raids of British cities, including London, Plymouth, and Coventry.[270]
In the Spring of 1941, Hitler was distracted from his plans for the East by military activities in North Africa, the Balkans, and the Middle East. In February, German forces arrived in Libya to bolster the Italian presence. In April, Hitler launched the invasion of Yugoslavia, quickly followed by the invasion of Greece.[271] In May, German forces were sent to support Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete. On 23 May, Hitler released Führer Directive No. 30.[272]
Path to defeat[link]
On 22 June 1941, contravening the Hitler-Stalin non-aggression pact of 1939, three million German troops attacked the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa.[273] The invasion seized a huge area, including the Baltic states, Belarus, and Ukraine. However, the German advance was stopped outside Moscow in December 1941 by the Russian Winter and fierce Soviet resistance.[274]
Soviet troop concentrations on Germany's eastern border in the spring of 1941 may have prompted Hitler to engage in a Flucht nach vorn ("flight forward") to get in front of an inevitable conflict.[275] Viktor Suvorov, Ernst Topitsch, Joachim Hoffmann, Ernst Nolte, and David Irving have argued that the official reason for Barbarossa given by the German military was the real reason—a preventive war to avert an impending Soviet attack scheduled for July 1941. This theory, however, has been faulted; American historian Gerhard Weinberg once compared the advocates of the preventive war theory to believers in "fairy tales".[276]
The Wehrmacht invasion of the Soviet Union reached its peak on 2 December 1941, when the 258th Infantry Division advanced to within 15 miles (24 km) of Moscow, close enough to see the spires of the Kremlin.[274] However, they were not prepared for the harsh conditions of the Russian winter, and Soviet forces drove back the German troops over 320 kilometres (200 mi).
On 7 December 1941 Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, Hawaii. Four days later, Hitler's formal declaration of war against the United States engaged Germany in war against a coalition that included the world's largest empire (the British Empire), the world's greatest industrial and financial power (the United States), and the world's largest army (the Soviet Union).[277]
When Himmler met Hitler on 18 December 1941 and posed the question "What to do with the Jews of Russia?", Hitler replied "als Partisanen auszurotten" ("exterminate them as partisans").[278] Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark is probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the genocide carried out during the Holocaust.[278]
In late 1942 German forces were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein,[279] thwarting Hitler's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East. In February 1943 the Battle of Stalingrad ended with the destruction of the German Sixth Army. Thereafter came a decisive defeat at the Battle of Kursk.[280] Hitler's military judgment became increasingly erratic, and Germany's military and economic position deteriorated along with Hitler's health. Kershaw and others believe that Hitler may have suffered from Parkinson's disease.[281]
Following the allied invasion of Sicily in 1943, Mussolini was deposed by Pietro Badoglio,[282] who surrendered to the Allies. Throughout 1943 and 1944, the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler's armies into retreat along the Eastern Front. On 6 June 1944 the Western Allied armies landed in northern France in what was one of the largest amphibious operations in history, Operation Overlord.[283] As a result of these significant setbacks for the German army, many of its officers concluded that defeat was inevitable and that Hitler's misjudgement or denial would drag out the war and result in the complete destruction of the country.[284] Several high-profile assassination attempts against Hitler occurred during this period.
Between 1939 and 1945 there were many plans to assassinate Hitler, some of which proceeded to significant degrees.[285] The most well-known came from within Germany and was at least partly driven by the increasing prospect of a German defeat in the war.[286] In July 1944, in the 20 July plot, part of Operation Valkyrie, Claus von Stauffenberg planted a bomb in one of Hitler's headquarters, the Wolf's Lair at Rastenburg. Hitler narrowly survived because someone had unknowingly pushed the briefcase that contained the bomb behind a leg of the heavy conference table. When the bomb exploded, the table deflected much of the blast away from Hitler. Later, Hitler ordered savage reprisals resulting in the execution of more than 4,900 people.[287]
Defeat and death[link]
Main article: Death of Adolf Hitler
By late 1944, the Red Army had driven the German army back into Western Europe, and the Western Allies were advancing into Germany. After being informed of the failure of his Ardennes Offensive, Hitler realised that Germany was going to lose the war. His hope, buoyed by the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April 1945, was to negotiate peace with America and Britain.[288] Acting on his view that Germany's military failures had forfeited its right to survive as a nation, Hitler ordered the destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied hands.[289] Execution of this scorched earth plan was entrusted to arms minister Albert Speer, who quietly disobeyed the order.[289]
On 20 April, his 56th birthday, Hitler made his last trip from the Führerbunker ("Führer's shelter") to the surface. In the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery, he awarded Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth.[290] By 21 April, Georgy Zhukov's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the last defences of German General Gotthard Heinrici's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow Heights and advanced into the outskirts of Berlin.[291] In denial about the increasingly dire situation, Hitler placed his hopes on the units commanded by Waffen SS General Felix Steiner, the Armeeabteilung Steiner ("Army Detachment Steiner"). Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the salient and the German Ninth Army was ordered to attack northward in a pincer attack.[292]
During a military conference on 22 April, Hitler asked about Steiner's offensive. After a long silence, he was told that the attack had never been launched and that the Russians had broken through into Berlin. This news prompted Hitler to ask everyone except Wilhelm Keitel, Alfred Jodl, Hans Krebs, and Wilhelm Burgdorf to leave the room.[293] Hitler then launched a tirade against the treachery and incompetence of his commanders, culminating in his declaration—for the first time—that the war was lost. Hitler announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself.[294]
Goebbels made a proclamation on 23 April urging the citizens of Berlin to courageously defend the city.[293] That same day, Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden in Bavaria, arguing that since Hitler was cut off in Berlin, he, Göring, should assume leadership of Germany. Göring set a time limit, after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated.[295] Hitler responded angrily by having Göring arrested, and when writing his will on 29 April, he removed Göring from all his positions in the government.[296][297]
Berlin became completely cut off from the rest of Germany.[298] On 28 April, Hitler discovered that Himmler was trying to discuss surrender terms with the Western Allies.[299] He ordered Himmler's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein (Himmler's SS representative at Hitler's HQ in Berlin) shot.[300]
After midnight on 29 April, Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in a map room within the Führerbunker. After a modest wedding breakfast with his new wife, he then took secretary Traudl Junge to another room and dictated his last will and testament.[301][b] The event was witnessed and documents signed by Hans Krebs, Wilhelm Burgdorf, Joseph Goebbels, and Martin Bormann.[302] Later that afternoon, Hitler was informed of the assassination of Italian dictator Benito Mussolini, which presumably increased his determination to avoid capture.[303]
On 30 April 1945, after intense street-to-street combat, when Soviet troops were within a block or two of the Reich Chancellery, Hitler and Braun committed suicide; Braun bit into a cyanide capsule[304] and Hitler shot himself with his 7.65 mm (0.3 in) Walther PPK pistol.[305] The lifeless bodies of Hitler and Eva Braun were carried up the stairs and through the bunker's emergency exit to the bombed-out garden behind the Reich Chancellery, where they were placed in a bomb crater[306] and doused with petrol. The corpses were set on fire[307] and the Red Army shelling continued.[308]
Berlin surrendered on 2 May. Records in the Soviet archives—obtained after the fall of the Soviet Union—showed that the remains of Hitler, Braun, Joseph and Magda Goebbels, the six Goebbels children, General Hans Krebs, and Hitler's dogs, were repeatedly buried and exhumed.[309] On 4 April 1970 a Soviet KGB team with detailed burial charts secretly exhumed five wooden boxes which had been buried at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg. The remains from the boxes were thoroughly burned and crushed, after which the ashes were thrown into the Biederitz river, a tributary of the nearby Elbe.[310]
Legacy[link]
Further information: Consequences of Nazism and Neo-Nazism
Hitler's suicide was likened by contemporaries to a "spell" being broken.[311][312] According to Toland, without its leader, National Socialism "burst like a bubble".[313]
Hitler's actions and Nazi ideology are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral.[314] His political programme had brought about a world war, leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe. Germany itself suffered wholesale destruction, characterised as "Zero Hour".[315] Hitler's policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale;[316] the Nazi regime was responsible for the deaths of an estimated 21 million civilians and prisoners of war.[317] In addition, 29 million soldiers were killed in the European theater of World War II.[317] Historians, philosophers, and politicians often apply the word "evil" in describing the Nazi regime.[318] In Germany and Austria, Holocaust denial and the display of Nazi symbols such as the swastika are prohibited by law.
The German Liberal historian Friedrich Meinecke described Hitler as "one of the great examples of the singular and incalculable power of personality in historical life".[319] The English historian Hugh Trevor-Roper saw him as "among the 'terrible simplifiers' of history, the most systematic, the most historical, the most philosophical, and yet the coarsest, cruellest, least magnanimous conqueror the world has ever known."[320] For the historian John M. Roberts, Hitler's defeat marked the end of a phase of European history dominated by Germany.[321] In its place emerged the Cold War, a global confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States.[322]
Religious views[link]
Main article: Religious views of Adolf Hitler
Hitler saw the church as important politically, as a conservative influence on society. He felt that if the church were eliminated the faithful would turn to mysticism, which he thought would be a step backwards politically and culturally. Though he never officially left the Catholic church, he had no real attachment to it.[323] After leaving home he never attended Mass or received the sacraments.[324] He favoured aspects of Protestantism that suited his own views, and adopted some elements of the Catholic Church's hierarchical organisation, liturgy, and phraseology in his politics.[325][326] Historian Richard Steigmann-Gall concludes that he "can be classified as Catholic",[327] but that "nominal church membership is a very unreliable gauge of actual piety in this context."[328]
In public, Hitler often praised Christian heritage and German Christian culture, and professed a belief in an "Aryan" Jesus Christ—a Jesus who fought against the Jews.[329] He spoke of his interpretation of Christianity as a central motivation for his antisemitism, stating that "As a Christian I have no duty to allow myself to be cheated, but I have the duty to be a fighter for truth and justice."[330][331] In private, he was more critical of traditional Christianity, considering it a religion fit only for slaves; he admired the power of Rome but maintained a severe hostility towards its teaching.[332] Historian John S. Conway states that Hitler held a "fundamental antagonism" towards the Christian churches.[333]
In political relations with the church, Hitler adopted a strategy "that suited his immediate political purposes".[333] According to a US Office of Strategic Services report, Hitler had a general plan, even before his rise to power, to destroy the influence of Christian churches within the Reich.[334][335] The report titled "The Nazi Master Plan" stated that the destruction of the church was a goal of the movement right from the start, but that it was inexpedient to express this extreme position publicly.[336] His intention, according to Bullock, was to wait until the war was over to destroy the influence of Christianity.[332]
Hitler admired the Muslim military tradition, but considered Arabs as "racially inferior".[337] He believed that the racially-superior Germans, in conjunction with Islam, could have conquered much of the world during the Middle Ages.[338] During a meeting with a Japanese professor in 1931, Hitler praised the Shinto religion and Japanese culture.[339] Although Himmler was interested in the occult, the interpretation of runes, and tracing the prehistoric roots of the Germanic people, Hitler was more pragmatic, and his ideology centred on more practical concerns.[340][341]
Health[link]
Researchers have suggested that Hitler suffered from irritable bowel syndrome, skin lesions, irregular heartbeat, Parkinson's disease,[342][281] syphilis,[342] and tinnitus.[343] In a report prepared for the Office of Strategic Services in 1943, Walter C. Langer of Harvard University described Hitler as a "neurotic psychopath."[344] Theories about Hitler's medical condition are difficult to prove, and according them too much weight may have the effect of attributing many of the events and consequences of the Third Reich to the possibly impaired physical health of one individual.[345] Kershaw feels that it is better to take a broader view of German history by examining what social forces led to the Third Reich and its policies rather than to pursue narrow explanations for the Holocaust and World War II based on only one person.[346]
Hitler followed a vegetarian diet.[347] At social events he sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his dinner guests shun meat.[348] A fear of cancer (from which his mother died)[349] is the most widely cited reason for Hitler's dietary habits. An antivivisectionist, Hitler may have followed his selective diet out of a profound concern for animals.[350] Bormann had a greenhouse constructed near the Berghof (near Berchtesgaden) to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruit and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war. Hitler despised alcohol[351] and was a non-smoker. He promoted aggressive anti-smoking campaigns throughout Germany.[352] Hitler began using amphetamine occasionally after 1937 and became addicted to the drug in the fall of 1942.[353] Albert Speer linked this use of amphetamines to Hitler's increasingly inflexible decision making (for example, never to allow military retreats).[354]
Prescribed ninety different medications during the war years, Hitler took many pills each day for chronic stomach problems and other ailments.[355] He suffered ruptured eardrums as a result of the 20 July plot bomb blast in 1944, and two hundred wood splinters had to be removed from his legs.[356] Newsreel footage of Hitler shows tremors of his hand and a shuffling walk, which began before the war and worsened towards the end of his life. Hitler's personal physician, Theodor Morell, treated Hitler with a drug that was commonly prescribed in 1945 for Parkinson's disease. Ernst-Günther Schenck and several other doctors who met Hitler in the last weeks of his life each formed a diagnosis of Parkinson's disease.[355][357]
Family[link]
Main articles: Hitler family and Sexuality of Adolf Hitler
To the public, Hitler promoted his own image as that of a celibate man without a domestic life, dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation.[135][358] He met his mistress, Eva Braun, in 1929,[359] and married her in April 1945.[360] In September 1931 his niece, Geli Raubal, committed suicide with Hitler's gun in his Munich apartment. It was rumoured among contemporaries that Geli was in a romantic relationship with him, and her death was a source of deep, lasting pain.[361] Paula Hitler, the last living member of the immediate family, died in 1960.[362]
Hitler in media[link]
File:Adolf Hitler at Berchtesgaden.ogg
Video of Hitler at Berchtesgaden (c. 1941)
Hitler used documentary films as a propaganda tool. He was involved and appeared in a series of films by the pioneering filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl via Universum Film AG (UFA):[363]
- Der Sieg des Glaubens (Victory of Faith, 1933)
- Triumph des Willens (Triumph of the Will, 1934), co-produced by Hitler
- Tag der Freiheit: Unsere Wehrmacht (Day of Freedom: Our Armed Forces, 1935)
- Olympia (1938)
See also[link]
- Führermuseum
- Hitler: A Film from Germany
- Julius Schaub – chief aide
- Karl Mayr – Hitler's superior in army Intelligence 1919–1920
- Karl Wilhelm Krause – personal valet
- List of books by or about Adolf Hitler
- Mein Kampf (online versions)
- Poison Kitchen
- Streets named after Adolf Hitler
- Vorbunker
 |
See more Wikipedia articles related to Adolf Hitler. |
Footnotes[link]
- ^ Hitler also won settlement from a libel suit against the socialist paper the Münchener Post, which had questioned his lifestyle and income. Kershaw 2008, p. 99.
- ^ MI5, Hitler's Last Days: "Hitler's will and marriage" on the website of MI5, using the sources available to Trevor Roper (a WWII MI5 agent and historian/author of The Last Days of Hitler), records the marriage as taking place after Hitler had dictated his last will and testament.
References[link]
- ^ NS-Archiv, 7 April 1925.
- ^ Maser 1973, p. 4.
- ^ Maser 1973, p. 15.
- ^ Rosenbaum 1999.
- ^ Hamann 2010, p. 50.
- ^ Toland 1992, pp. 246–47.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, pp. 8–9.
- ^ Jetzinger 1976, p. 32.
- ^ BBC News, 2011.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 9.
- ^ Rosmus 2004, p. 33.
- ^ Keller 2010, p. 15.
- ^ Hamann 2010, pp. 7–8.
- ^ Kubizek 2006, p. 37.
- ^ Kubizek 2006, p. 92.
- ^ Hitler 1999, p. 6.
- ^ Fromm 1977, pp. 493–498.
- ^ Hauner 1983, p. 2.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 10–11.
- ^ Payne 1990, p. 22.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 9.
- ^ Hitler 1999, p. 8.
- ^ Keller 2010, pp. 33–34.
- ^ Fest 1977, p. 32.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 8.
- ^ Lipstadt 2011, p. 272.
- ^ Hitler 1999, p. 10.
- ^ Evans 2003, p. 163.
- ^ Bendersky 2000, p. 26.
- ^ Ryschka 2008, p. 35.
- ^ Hamann 2010, p. 13.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 10.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 19.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 20.
- ^ Bullock 1962, pp. 30–31.
- ^ Hitler 1999, p. 20.
- ^ Bullock 1999, pp. 30–33.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 26.
- ^ Hamann 2010, pp. 243–246.
- ^ Hamann 2010, pp. 341–345.
- ^ Hamann 2010, p. 350.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 60–67.
- ^ Hitler 1999, p. 52.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 25.
- ^ Hamann 1999, p. 176.
- ^ Hamann 2010, pp. 348.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 66.
- ^ Hamann 2010, pp. 347–359.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 64.
- ^ Evans 2011.
- ^ a b Shirer 1960, p. 27.
- ^ Weber 2010, pp. 13.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 27, footnote.
- ^ a b Kershaw 1999, p. 90.
- ^ Weber 2010, pp. 12–13.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 53.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 54.
- ^ Weber 2010, p. 100.
- ^ a b Shirer 1960, p. 30.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 59.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 52.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 96.
- ^ Steiner 1976, p. 392.
- ^ Jamieson 2008.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 57.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 58.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 59, 60.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 97.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 102.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 61, 62.
- ^ Keegan 1987, pp. 238–240.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 60.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 61–63.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 96.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 80, 90, 92.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 61.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 109.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 82.
- ^ Stackelberg 2007, p. 9.
- ^ Mitcham 1996, p. 67.
- ^ Fest 1970, p. 21.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 94, 95, 100.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 87.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 88.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 89.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 89–92.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 81.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 100, 101.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 102.
- ^ a b Kershaw 2008, p. 103.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 83, 103.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 376.
- ^ Frauenfeld 1937.
- ^ Goebbels 1936.
- ^ Kressel 2002, p. 121.
- ^ Trevor-Roper 1987, p. 116.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 105–106.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 377.
- ^ Heck 2001, p. 23.
- ^ Larson 2011, p. 157.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 367.
- ^ Kellogg 2005, p. 275.
- ^ Kellogg 2005, p. 203.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 126.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 125.
- ^ a b Kershaw 2008, p. 128.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 129.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 130–131.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 73–74.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 132.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 131.
- ^ Munich Court, 1924.
- ^ Fulda 2009, pp. 68–69.
- ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 239.
- ^ a b Bullock 1962, p. 121.
- ^ Spiro 2008.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 148–149.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 80–81.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 158, 161, 162.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 162, 166.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 129.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 166, 167.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 170, 172.
- ^ Shirer 1960, pp. 136–137.
- ^ Kolb 2005, pp. 224–225.
- ^ Kolb 1988, p. 105.
- ^ Halperin 1965, p. 403 et. seq.
- ^ Halperin 1965, pp. 434–446 et. seq.
- ^ Wheeler-Bennett 1967, p. 218.
- ^ Wheeler-Bennett 1967, p. 216.
- ^ Wheeler-Bennett 1967, pp. 218–219.
- ^ Wheeler-Bennett 1967, p. 222.
- ^ Halperin 1965, p. 449 et. seq.
- ^ Halperin 1965, pp. 434–436, 471.
- ^ a b Shirer 1960, p. 130.
- ^ Hinrichs 2007.
- ^ Halperin 1965, p. 476.
- ^ Halperin 1965, pp. 468–471.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 201.
- ^ Halperin 1965, pp. 477–479.
- ^ Letter to Hindenburg, 1932.
- ^ Fox News, 2003.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 184.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 262.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 194.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 192.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 262.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 265.
- ^ City of Potsdam.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 196–197.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 198.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 196.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 269.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 199.
- ^ Time, 1934.
- ^ a b Shirer 1960, p. 201.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 202.
- ^ a b Evans 2003, pp. 350–374.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 309–314.
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- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 229.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 309.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 230.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 392, 393.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 312.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. 393–397.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 308.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 318–319.
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- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 258.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 262.
- ^ Speer 1971, pp. 118–119.
- ^ Weinberg 1970, pp. 26–27.
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- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 816–818.
- ^ Shirer 1960, §29.
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- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 791.
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- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 795.
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- ^ Joachimsthaler 1999, pp. 217–220.
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- ^ Toland 1977, p. 892.
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- ^ Welch 2001, p. 2.
- ^ Shirer 1960, p. 6.
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- ^ Lichtheim 1974, p. 366.
- ^ Speer 1971, pp. 141–142.
- ^ Rißmann 2001, pp. 94–96.
- ^ Rißmann 2001, p. 96.
- ^ Bullock 1962, p. 219.
- ^ Steigmann-Gall 2003, p. XV.
- ^ Steigmann-Gall 2007.
- ^ Steigmann-Gall 2003, pp. 27, 108.
- ^ Hitler 1942, p. 20.
- ^ Hitler 1973, p. 23.
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- ^ a b Conway 1968, p. 3.
- ^ Sharkey 2002.
- ^ Bonney 2001.
- ^ Office of Strategic Services, 1945.
- ^ Speer 1971, p. 142–143.
- ^ Payne 2008, p. 171.
- ^ Hanfstaengl 1994, p. 174.
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- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 729.
- ^ a b Bullock 1962, p. 717.
- ^ Redlich 2000, pp. 129–190.
- ^ Langer 1972, p. 126.
- ^ Kershaw 2000a, p. 72.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, pp. xxxv–xxxvi.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 388.
- ^ Wilson 1998.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 380.
- ^ Dietrich 2010, p. 172.
- ^ Dietrich 2010, p. 171.
- ^ Toland 1992, p. 741.
- ^ Heston & Heston 1980, pp. 125–142.
- ^ Heston & Heston 1980, pp. 11–20.
- ^ a b Kershaw 2008, p. 782.
- ^ Linge 2009, p. 156.
- ^ O'Donnell 2001, p. 37.
- ^ Bullock 1999, p. 563.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 378.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 947–948.
- ^ Bullock 1962, pp. 393–394.
- ^ Kershaw 2008, p. 4.
- ^ The Daily Telegraph, 2003.
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Online
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External links[link]
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- Works by or about Adolf Hitler in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Adolf Hitler at the Internet Movie Database – real life footage in documentaries
- Adolf Hitler (Character) at the Internet Movie Database – as portrayed in film and TV
- "Adolf Hitler". The Vault. FBI Records. http://vault.fbi.gov/adolf-hitler.
- "Hitler and his officers". World War II Movies in Color. WW2inColor. http://www.ww2incolor.com/gallery/movies/hitler_color.
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Office created |
Reichsstatthalter of Prussia 1933–1935 |
Succeeded by Office abolished |
| Preceded by Kurt von Schleicher |
Chancellor of Germany(1) 1933–1945 |
Succeeded by Joseph Goebbels |
| Preceded by Paul von Hindenburg As President |
Führer of Germany(1) 1934–1945 |
Succeeded by Karl Dönitz As President |
| Party political offices | ||
| Preceded by Anton Drexler |
Leader of the NSDAP 1921–1945 |
|
| Military offices | ||
| Preceded by Franz Pfeffer von Salomon |
Leader of the SA 1930–1945 |
|
| Preceded by Walther von Brauchitsch |
Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres (Army Commander) 1941–1945 |
Succeeded by Ferdinand Schörner |
| Honorary titles | ||
| Preceded by Chiang Kai-shek and Soong May-ling |
Time Person of the Year 1938 |
Succeeded by Joseph Stalin |
| Notes and references | ||
| 1. The positions of Head of State and Government were combined 1934–1945 in the office of Führer and Chancellor of Germany | ||
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hitler, Adolf |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Führer of the National Socialist German Workers Party; Reichskanzler of Germany |
| Date of birth | 20 April 1889 |
| Place of birth | Braunau am Inn, Austria |
| Date of death | 30 April 1945 |
| Place of death | Berlin, Germany |
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