The Ten Lost Tribes of Israel refers to those tribes of ancient Israel that formed the Kingdom of Israel and which disappeared from Biblical and all other historical accounts after the kingdom was destroyed in about 720 BC by ancient Assyria.[1] Many groups have traditions concerning the continued hidden existence or future public return of these tribes.
In medieval Rabbinic fable the concept of the ten tribes who were taken away from the House of David (who continued the rule of the southern kingdom of Judah) becomes confounded with accounts of the Assyrian deportations leading to the myth of the "Ten Lost Tribes". The recorded history differs from this fable: no record exists of the Assyrians having exiled people from Dan, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun or western Manasseh. Descriptions of the deportation of people from Reuben, Gad, Manasseh in Gilead, Ephraim and Naphtali indicate that only a portion of these tribes were deported and the places to which they were deported are known locations given in the accounts. The deported communities are mentioned as still existing at the time of the composition of the books of Kings and Chronicles and did not wholly disappear by assimilation into the Assyrian populace, although a portion may have.
This is a subject based upon written religious tradition and partially upon speculation. There is a vast amount of literature on the Lost Tribes and no specific source can be relied upon for a complete answer.
According to the Hebrew Bible, Jacob (who was later named Israel; Gen 35:10) had 12 sons and at least one daughter (Dinah) by two wives and two concubines. The twelve sons fathered the twelve Tribes of Israel.
- When the land of Israel was apportioned among the tribes in the days of Joshua, the Tribe of Levi, being chosen as priests, did not receive land (Joshua 13:33, (14:3). However, the tribe of Levi were given cities. Six cities were given to the tribe as refuge cities for all men of Israel which were to be controlled by the Levites. Three of these cities were located on each side of the Jordan River. In addition, 42 other cities (and their respective open spaces) totaling 48 cities were given to the Tribe of Levi. (Numbers 35)
- On the other hand, Jacob elevated the descendants of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons of Joseph by his Egyptian wife Asenath) (Genesis 41:50) to the status of full tribes in their own right, replacing the Tribe of Joseph (Joshua 14:4). Each received its own land and had its own encampment during the 40 years of wandering in the desert.
Thus, the two divisions of the tribes are:
|
Traditional division:
- Reuben
- Simeon
- Levi
- Judah
- Issachar
- Zebulun
- Dan
- Naphtali
- Gad
- Asher
- Joseph
- Benjamin
|
Division according to apportionment of land in Israel:
- Reuben
- Simeon
- Judah
- Issachar
- Zebulun
- Dan
- Naphtali
- Gad
- Asher
- Benjamin
- Ephraim (son of Joseph)
- Manasseh (son of Joseph)
- Levi (no territorial allotment, except a number of cities located within the territories of the other tribes)
|
The Kingdom of Israel (or Northern Kingdom) was one of the successor states to the older United Monarchy (also called the Kingdom of Israel), which came into existence in about the 930s BC after the northern Tribes of Israel rejected Solomon's son Rehoboam as their king. Nine landed tribes formed the Northern Kingdom: the tribes of Reuben, Issachar, Zebulun, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Ephraim and Manasseh. In addition, some members of Tribe of Levi, who had no land allocation, were found in the Northern Kingdom. The Tribes of Judah and Benjamin remained loyal to Rehoboam, and formed the Kingdom of Judah (or Southern Kingdom). Members of Levi and the remnant of Simeon were also found in the Southern Kingdom.
According to 2 Chronicles 15:9, members of the tribes of Ephraim, Manasseh and Simeon "fled" to Judah during the reign of Asa of Judah. Whether these groups were absorbed into the population or remained distinct groups, or returned to their tribal lands is not indicated.
In c. 732 BC, the Assyrian king, Tiglath-Pileser III sacked Damascus and Israel, annexing Aramea[2] and territory of the tribes of Reuben, Gad and Manasseh in Gilead including the desert outposts of Jetur, Naphish and Nodab. People from these tribes including the Reubenite leader, were taken captive and resettled in the region of the Khabur River system in Assyria/Mesopotamia. Tiglath-Pilesar also captured the territory of Naphtali and the city of Janoah in Ephraim and an Assyrian governor was placed over the region of Naphtali. According to 2 Kings 16:9 and 15:29, the population of Aram and the annexed part of Israel was deported to Assyria.
Israel continued to exist within the reduced territory as an independent kingdom subject to Assyria until around 720 BCE, when it was again invaded by Assyria and the rest of the population deported. The Bible relates that the population of Israel was exiled, leaving only the Tribe of Judah, the Tribe of Simeon (that was "absorbed" into Judah), the Tribe of Benjamin and the people of the Tribe of Levi who lived among them of the original Israelites tribes in the southern Kingdom of Judah. However, Israel Finkelstein estimated that only a fifth of the population (about 40,000) were actually resettled out of the area during the two deportation periods under Tiglath-Pileser III and his successor Sargon II.[3] Many also fled south to Jerusalem, which appears to have expanded in size fivefold during this period, requiring a new wall to be built, and a new source of water (Siloam) to be provided by King Hezekiah. Furthermore, 2 Chronicles 30:1-11 explicitly mentions northern Israelites who had been spared by the Assyrians in particular members of Dan, Ephraim, Manasseh, Asher and Zebulun and how members of the latter three returned to worship at the Temple in Jerusalem at that time.
The Book of Tobit additionally records that Sargon had taken other captives from the northern kingdom to the Assyrian capital of Nineveh, in particular Tobit from the town of Tishbe in Naphtali.
The Jewish tradition held until modern times that all the population of the kingdom was deported by Assyria, never to be heard of again. They are considered the Ten Lost Tribes.
Some evidence exists of a continuing identification in later centuries of individual Israelites to the Lost Tribes. For example, in Luke 2:36 of the New Testament, an individual is identified with the tribe of Asher. In recent years many groups have claimed descent from these Lost Tribes, some of which have been upheld by Israel's rabbinic authorities.
The Hebrew Bible does not use the phrase "Ten Lost Tribes", leading some to question the actual number of tribes involved. However, 1 Kings 11:31 states that the kingdom would be taken from Solomon and give ten tribes to Jeroboam:
And he said to Jeroboam, Take thee ten pieces: for thus saith the LORD, the God of Israel, Behold, I will rend the kingdom out of the hand of Solomon, and will give ten tribes to thee.
But I will take the kingdom out of his son's hand, and will give it unto thee, even ten tribes.
However, it is not clear which tribes should be counted as lost. Lost tribes are those that formed the northern Kingdom of Israel after the dissolution of the united Kingdom of Israel in c. 930 BC. The tribes of Reuben, Issachar, Zebulun, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Ephraim, and Manasseh were parts of the northern kingdom, a total of nine.
It has sometimes been said that the Tribe of Simeon was a part of the northern Kingdom of Israel and was therefore part of the "Ten Lost Tribes." However, the Tribe of Simeon was never located in the Northern Kingdom, but was located entirely within the land of Judah. (Joshua 19:1) In addition, the territory of the tribe of Benjamin was part of the kingdom of Judah at the time of the Babylonian Exile and after, and the tribe of Levi continued to serve in the Second Temple in Jerusalem after the Exile, making four tribes (Judah, Simeon, Benjamin and Levi) who were not actually "lost".
The concept of the "Ten Lost Tribes" originally began in a religious context, based on Biblical sources, not as an ethnological idea. Some scientists have researched the topic, and at various times some have made claims of empirical evidence of the Ten Lost Tribes. However, religious and scriptural sources remain the main sources of the belief that the Ten Lost Tribes have some continuing, though hidden, identity somewhere.
There are numerous references in Biblical writings. In Ezekiel 37:16-17, the prophet is told to write on one stick (an ancient reference to scrolls) (quoted here in part) "For Judah..." and on the other (quoted here in part), "For Joseph..." (the main Lost Tribe). The prophet is then told that these two groups shall be someday reunited.
Moreover, thou son of man, take thee one stick, and write upon it, For Judah, and for the children of Israel his companions: then take another stick, and write upon it, For Joseph, the stick of Ephraim, and for all the house of Israel his companions: And join them one to another into one stick; and they shall become one in your hand.
—Ezekiel 37:16-17, HE
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints has extensive teachings regarding the gathering of Israel and the restoration of the ten tribes. One of their main Articles of Faith written by Joseph Smith Jr. is as follows: "We believe in the literal gathering of Israel and in the restoration of the Ten Tribes; that Zion (the New Jerusalem) will be built upon the American continent; that Christ will reign personally upon the earth; and, that the earth will be renewed and receive its paradisiacal glory." (LDS Articles of Faith #10)
Regarding the Ezekiel 37 prophecy, the LDS Church teaches that the Book of Mormon is the stick of Ephraim mentioned and that the Bible is the stick of Judah, thus comprising two witnesses for Jesus Christ. The Book of Mormon is purported to be an ancient record written on plates made of gold by descendants of Joseph, and translated by Joseph Smith Jr. circa 1830. The LDS Church considers the Book of Mormon one of the main tools for the spiritual gathering of Israel.
There are also discussions in the Talmud as to whether the Ten Lost Tribes will eventually be reunited with the Tribe of Judah, that is, with the Jewish people.
Since at least the 17th century both Jews and Christians have proposed theories concerning the Lost Tribes, based to varying degrees on Biblical accounts. An Ashkenazi Jewish tradition speaks of these tribes as Die Roite Yiddelech, "The little red Jews", cut off from the rest of Jewry by the legendary river Sambation "whose foaming waters raise high up into the sky a wall of fire and smoke that is impossible to pass through".[4]
The Portuguese traveller Antonio de Montezinos brought back reports that some of the Lost Tribes were living among the Native Americans of the Andes in South America. In response to this, Menasseh ben Israel, a noted rabbi of Amsterdam, wrote on December 23, 1649:
... I think that the Ten Tribes live not only there ... but also in other lands scattered everywhere; these never did come back to the
Second Temple and they keep till this day still the Jewish Religion...
[5]
Menasseh actually published in Spanish and in Latin in 1649 in Amsterdam a book about Montezinos' narrative. An English translation of it with the title The Hope of Israel was also published in London in 1650. In it Menasseh argued, and for the first time tried to give scholarly support in European thought and printing, to the theory that the native inhabitants of America at the time of the European discovery were actually descendants of the [lost] Ten Tribes of Israel.[6]
In 1655, Menasseh ben Israel petitioned Oliver Cromwell to allow the Jews to return to England. (Since the Edict of Expulsion in 1290, Jews had been prohibited by law from living in England.) One of the reasons for Cromwell's alleged interest in the return of the Jews to England was the abundance at the time of theories relating to the end of the world. Many of these ideas were fixed upon the year 1666 and the Fifth Monarchy Men who were looking for the return of Jesus as the Messiah who would establish a final kingdom to rule the physical world for a thousand years. They supported Cromwell's Republic in the expectation that it was a preparation for the fifth monarchy - that is, the monarchy that should succeed the Babylonia, the Persian, the Greek, and Roman world empires.[citation needed]
Mixed in with all of this was a background of general belief that the Lost Ten Tribes did not represent ethnic Jews who partially formed the ancient Kingdom of Judah, but tribes who maintained a separate capital at Samaria. Some have attempted to dismiss this complicated saga by stating that it is nothing but Supersessionism. However, the ideas behind these various competing theories are far more complicated, especially when Sabbatai Zevi, the "messiah" claimant and his supporters postulated that he represented groups in addition to those identified as being Jews. However, Zevi lost his credibility to all but the Donmeh when he converted to Islam and became an apostate to Judaism in 1666.[citation needed]
During the latter half of the 18th century, variations on this same theory were advocated by some who believed that the British Empire of nations was a manifestation of ancient prophecies recorded in the Book of Genesis predating both the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah.[citation needed]
Others believe that the Lost Tribes simply merged with the local population. For instance, the New Standard Jewish Encyclopedia states "In historic fact, some members of the Ten Tribes remained in Palestine, where apart from the Samaritans some of their descendants long preserved their identity among the Jewish population, others were assimilated, while others were presumably absorbed by the last Judean exiles who in 597-586 BC were deported to Assyria...Unlike the Judeans of the southern Kingdom, who survived a similar fate 135 years later, they soon assimilated..."[7][8]
All Samaritans, in one form or another, see themselves as descendants of the original Hebrews. The Samaritan community in Israel and the Palestinian territories numbers about 600. These people, who still struggle to keep their ancient traditions, live in what was the capital of Samaria - Nablus and the town of Holon. They claim to be authentic descendants of the Israelite tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh that were not exiled.[citation needed]*
Main article:
Beta IsraelThe Beta Israel (also known derogatorily as Falashas) are Ethiopian Jews. Some members of the Beta Israel as well as several Jewish scholars believe that they are descended from the lost Tribe of Dan, as opposed to the traditional story of their descent from the Queen of Sheba.
The Igbo Jews of Nigeria claim descent variously from the tribes of Ephraim, Naphtali, Menasseh, Levi, Zebulun and Gad.
According to recent research based on the dynastic tradition of the Oyo-Yoruba, the ancient kings mentioned in this tradition are Israelite, Assyrian and Babylonian rulers. The deportation of the Ten Lost Tribes is remembered in the tradition preserved by the palace bards of Oyo as the Igboho exile.[9]
Main article:
Lemba peopleThe Lemba people (Vhalemba) from Southern Africa claim to be descendants of a lost tribe that fled from what is now Yemen and journeyed south.[10][11][12] DNA testing has genetically linked the Lemba with modern Jews.[13][14] They have specific religious practices similar to those in Judaism and a tradition of being a migrant people with clues pointing to an origin in West Asia or North Africa. According to the oral history of the Lemba, their ancestors were Jews who came from a place called Sena several hundred years ago and settled in East Africa. Sena is an abandoned ancient town in Yemen, located in the eastern Hadramaut valley, which history indicates Jews inhabited in past centuries. Some research suggests that "Sena" may refer to Wadi Masilah (near Sayhut) in Yemen, often called Sena, or alternatively to the city of Sana'a, also located in Yemen.[13]
Some groups believe that they are descended from one of the Lost Tribes, but don't know which one. These include:
Main article:
Persian JewsPersian Jews claim descent from the Tribe of Ephraim. Persian Jews (also called Iranian Jews) are members of Jewish communities living in Iran and throughout the former greatest extent of the Persian Empire.
The Pashtuns are a predominantly Muslim people, native to Afghanistan and Pakistan, who adhere to their pre-Islamic indigenous religious code of honor and culture Pashtunwali. They started claiming descent from the Lost Tribes in 19th and 20th centuries.
A thirteenth century Persian book, the Tabaqat-i-Nasiri, states that in the 7th century a people called the Bani Israel settled in Ghor, southeast of Herat, Afghanistan, and then migrated south and east. These Bani Israel references are in line with the commonly held view by Pashtuns that when the twelve tribes of Israel were dispersed, the tribe of Joseph, among other Hebrew tribes, settled in the region.[15] Hence the tribal name 'Yusef Zai' in Pashto translates to the 'sons of Joseph'. This is also described extensively in great detail by Makhzan-i-Afghani, a historical work from the 17th Century by Nehamtullah, an official in the royal court of Mughal Emperor Jehangir. A similar story is told by Iranian historian Ferishta.[16]
The Bani-Israelite theory about the origin of the Pashtun is based on Pashtun traditions; the tradition itself is documented in a source titled Makhzan-i-Afghani, the only written source addressing Pashtun origins. It was written in 1612, by Nematullah Harvi, a scribe at the court of Mughal Emperor Jehangir of Mughal Empire. Nematullah compiled his book on the order of Khan Jehan Lodhi of the Lodhi dynasty, a Pashtun noble and a courtier of the Emperor Jehangir.[17]
Some sources state that the Makhzan-i-Afghani has been discredited by historical and linguistic inconsistencies. The oral tradition is believed to be a myth that grew out of a political and cultural struggle between Pashtuns and the Mughals, which explains the historical backdrop for the creation of the myth, the inconsistencies of the mythology, and the linguistic research that refutes any Semitic origins.[17] Other sources disagree strongly with the hypothesis that the Pashtuns have Israelite origins.[18]
The Yousafzai (Yusafzai) are a large group of Pashtun tribes. Some writers have suggested a variety of cultural and ethnic similarities between Jews and Pashtuns.[19] A visit by a Western journalist in 2007 suggested that many currently active Pashtun traditions may have parallels with Jewish traditions.[20]
Main article:
Bukharian JewsIt has been suggested that the Bukharian Jews are related to the Tribe of Issachar because a common surname among them is Issacharoff.[21]
The Bene Ephraim claim descent from the Tribe of Ephraim
Main article:
Cochin JewsThe Nasranis of Kerala, India, are of Hebrew or Israelite heritage but not much is known of their past, making it difficult to be certain that they are also descended from the 'Lost Tribes'. (Ref. Dr. Asahel Grant's 'The Nestorians or the Lost Tribes of Israel' for more about the Nazarenes and Nestorians). However, recent DNA analysis results suggest significant Middle Eastern / Israelite components among the Nasranis, also known as Mar Thoma (St. Thomas) Syrian (Syriac) Christians, of Kerala (ancient Malabar).[22] Dr. Avigdor Shachan, in his book 'In the Footsteps of the Lost Ten Tribes' (translated from the Hebrew, Devora Publishing, Jeusalem, New York) refers to this ancient Christian community and their faith as follows: "One could label the Christianity which Thomas introduced in Taxila, Malabar and other Israelite communities in central Asia and along the eastern and western coasts of India, "Israelite Christianity", an offshoot of the Jewish religion, for the language, culture, ritual and spirit that prevailed in this ancient church until the western missionaries arrived was a hybrid of Aramaic-Syrian-Eretz Israel and Eastern..." Another theory is that the Middle Eastern DNA found is from traveling Assyrian Nestorian missionaries who were undoubtedly responsible for bringing Christianity to Kerala.[citation needed]. This view, however, is contrary to the generally accepted fact of the missionary work of Apostle Thomas in South-West India (ancient Malabar Coast) in the first century AD; Dr. Avigdor Shachan too refers to this fact in stating "One could label the Christianity which Thomas introduced in Taxila, Malabar and other Israelite communities in central Asia and along the eastern and western coasts of India, "Israelite Christianity", an offshoot of the Jewish religion..."
The Bene Israel (Hebrew: "Sons of Israel") are a group of Jews who live in various Indian cities, Mumbai, Pune, Ahmedabad. Prior to their waves of emigration to Israel and still to this day, the Bene Israel form the largest sector of the subcontinent's Jewish population, and constitute the bulk of those sometimes referred to as Pakistani Jews. The native language of the Bene Israel is Judæo-Marathi, a form of Marathi. Most Bene Israel have now emigrated to Israel.
In 2010, Amir Mizroch in the Jerusalem Post referred to the theory that even Pashtuns in Afghanistan and Pakistan could be descending from the lost tribe of Efraim. Shahnaz Ali, a senior research fellow at the Indian National Institute of Immunohematology in Mumbai, has started studying the blood samples that she collected from Afridi Pathans in Malihabad, in the Lucknow district in Uttar Pradesh, India, to check their putative Israelite origin.[23][24][25][26]
Main article:
Bnei MenasheThe Bnei Menashe (from northeast India) claim descent from the lost Tribe of Manasseh. Their oral traditions depict them as originally going from the Persian Empire into Afghanistan. (They may have been in the Persian Empire because it occupied the lands of Assyria when it conquered Babylonia.) According to their traditions, they then went to China, where they encountered persecution, then pressed on to India and Southern Asia.[27] DNA tests to determine whether or not they originate from the Middle East has yielded mixed results.The Israeli government has recognized them as one of the lost tribes and made them eligible for immigration under the Law of Return.
Main article:
Kaifeng JewsAccording to some historical sources, a Jewish community has existed in Kaifeng, China from medieval times until the present day.[28] In 2009, Chinese Jews from Kaifeng arrived in Israel as immigrants.[29]
According to historical records, a Jewish community with a synagogue built in 1163 existed at Kaifeng from at least the Southern Song Dynasty until the late nineteenth century. A stone monument in the city suggests that they were there since at least 231 BC.
Several theories claim that the Scythians and/or Cimmerians were in whole or in part the Lost Tribes of Israel. The theories are generally based on the belief that the Northern Kingdom of Israel, which had been deported by the Assyrians, became known in history as the Scythians and/or Cimmerians. Various points of view exist as to which modern nations these people became.
The Behistun Inscription is often cited as a link between the deported Israelites, the Cimmerians and the Scythians (Saka).
George Rawlinson wrote:
We have reasonable grounds for regarding the Gimirri, or Cimmerians, who first appeared on the confines of Assyria and Media in the seventh century B.C., and the Sacae of the Behistun Rock, nearly two centuries later, as identical with the Beth-Khumree of Samaria, or the Ten Tribes of the
House of Israel.
[30]
Adherents point out that the Behistun Inscription connects the people known in Old Persian and Elamite as Saka, Sacae or Scythian with the people known in Babylonian as Gimirri or Cimmerian.
It should be made clear from the start that the terms '
Cimmerian' and '
Scythian' were interchangeable: in
Akkadian the name Iskuzai (Asguzai) occurs only exceptionally. Gimirrai (Gamir) was the normal designation for 'Cimmerians' as well as 'Scythians' in Akkadian.
[31]
The British Israelite E. Raymond Capt claimed similarities between King Jehu's pointed headdress and that of the captive Saka king seen to the far right on the Behistun Inscription.[32] He also posited that the Assyrian word for the House of Israel, "Khumri", which was named after Israel's King Omri of the 8th century BC, is connected phonetically to "Gimirri"[32] (Cimmerian).
Critics of the Israel / Scythian theory argue that the customs of the Scythians and Cimmerians differ from those of the Ancient Israelites[33][34] and that the similarities and theories proposed by adherents stand in contradiction to the greater body of research on the history of ancient populations, which does not provide support for the purported links between these ancient populations.[35]
British Israelism (also known as 'Anglo-Israelism') is the theory that people of Western European descent, especially Britain and the United States, are descended from the lost tribes of Israel. Adherents argue that the deported Israelites became Scythians / Cimmerians who are ancestors of the Celts / Anglo-Saxons of Western Europe.[36] The theory arose in England, whence it spread to the United States.[37] During the 20th Century, British Israelism was promoted by Herbert W. Armstrong, founder of the Worldwide Church of God.[38] Armstrong argued that this theory provided a 'key' to understanding biblical prophecy, and that he was called to proclaim these prophecies to the 'lost tribes' of Israel before the coming of the 'end-times'.[39] The Worldwide Church of God no longer teaches the theory,[40] but some offshoot churches such as the Philadelphia Church of God, the United Church of God, and the Living Church of God continue to teach it even though British Israelism is inconsistent with the findings of modern genetics.
Brit-Am, sometimes confused with British Israelism, is an organization centered in Jerusalem, and composed of Jews and non-Jews. Brit-Am, like British Israel, identifies the Lost Ten Tribes with peoples of West European descent, but does so from a Jewish perspective quoting both Biblical and Rabbinical sources. The evidence that Brit-Am relies upon is Biblical in the light of Rabbinical Commentary but is supplemented by secular theories that posit the Lost Tribes / Scythian / Cimmerian connection, which they then believe to have become various Western European nations.[41] An example of Brit-Am scholarship may be seen from its treatment of Obadiah 1:20[42] where the original Hebrew as understood by Rabbinical Commentators such as Rashi and Abarbanel is referring to the Lost Ten Tribes in France and England.[43] Brit-Am also believes that "Other Israelite Tribes gave rise to elements within Finland, Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, Ireland, Wales, France, Holland, and Belgium" and that "The Tribe of Dan is to be found amongst part of the Danish, Irish, and Welsh." Brit-Am also believes that the Khazars were descended from the Ten Tribes and quotes Jewish and non-Jewish sources that were contemporaneous with them.[44]
Other organizations teach other variants of the theory, such as that the Scythians / Cimmerians represented in whole or in part the Lost Ten Tribes. One such theory posits that the lost Israelites can be defined by the Y-DNA haplogroup R, which consists of much of Europe and Russia,[45] which is in contrast to British Israelism and Brit-Am, which believe the Israelites became only Western Europeans. It should be noted that the genetic findings postulated by this and other theories are typically inconsistent with the findings of generally accepted research in archeology, anthropology and population genetics.
Some have promoted the notion that the Kurds represent a Lost Tribe. Some claims have been made regarding a genetic relationship between the Kurds and the Jews on the basis of a similarity between Kurdish Y-DNA and a Y haplotype that is associated with the Jewish priesthood. However, in genetic testing of the Y chromosome of 95 Muslim Kurds, only one sample (1.05% of the Kurds tested) matched the so-called Cohen Modal Haplotype (CMH), consisting of six specific Y-STR values.[46]
Various misleading statements have associated typical Kurdish Y-DNA with that of the Jews. However, these attempts are based on several sources of confusion:
- The Cohen Modal Haplotype in its original form includes only six Y-STR markers, which with the scientific advances since that time, are now understood to be far too few to adequately identify a unique, closely related group that shares common descent from one relatively recent paternal ancestor. The same six marker values can be found by random mutations in other populations that are only remotely related. They are thus identical by state, but not identical by descent. The 6-marker CMH cannot be used as a clear indicator of Cohen genetic ancestry, without additional data. Thus its presence should not be used as grounds for probable Jewish ancestry in a population.
- It is touted as a fact of great significance that the most common (modal) 6-marker haplotype of the Kurds is only one step from the CMH, but in fact, these same six marker values that were found to be the "Kurdish modal haplotype" can be seen in the data, in numerous sources, to be the most common haplotype amongst a wide variety of J2 Y chromosomes, wherever they may be found, in ethnic groups of the Middle East or in Europe[47][48] -- thus, it is hardly an indication of a close relationship with the Cohanim priesthood, or with the Jews.
- The fact that the 2001 paper by Nebel found a somewhat greater similarity between the Y-DNA of the Kurds and the Jews than between the Jews and the Palestinians does not point to a uniquely close relationship between the Jews and the Kurds. This study did not compare Jews with other non-Kurdish Iraqis, or with the people of Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, or other nearby lands. The available data indicates that these peoples are all closely related, with the Jews and Kurds making up just two per cent of a diverse family of Middle Eastern peoples in this region.
Some writers have speculated that the Japanese people themselves may be direct descendants of part of the Ten Lost Tribes. There are some parallels between Japanese and Israelite rituals, culture, traditions, and language, which provide some evidence for this possibility.[49] [50] An article that has been widely circulated and published, entitled "Mystery of the Ten Lost Tribes: Japan" by Arimasa Kubo[51] (a Japanese writer living in Japan who studied the Hebrew Bible), concludes that many traditional customs and ceremonies in Japan are very similar to the ones of ancient Israel and that perhaps these rituals came from the religion and customs of the Jews and the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel who might have come to ancient Japan.
Joseph Eidelberg's "The Biblical Hebrew Origin of the Japanese People" makes a similar case:
Late in his life, Joseph Eidelberg began analyzing ancient traditions, religious ceremonies, historical names,
haiku poems,
Kana writings and Japanese folk songs, discovering thousands of words with similar pronunciations, sounds and translations between
Hebrew and
Japanese. These discoveries are history in the making, giving credible new information on the meanings of many unknown Japanese words, numbers, songs and cultural traditions – and this book is the first time that these remarkable similarities are combined into a single consistent theory.
[52]
There is a theory that the Irish, or that Insular Celts as a whole, are descended from the Ten Lost Tribes. Proponents of this theory state that there is evidence that the prophet Jeremiah came to Ireland with Princess Tea Tephi, a member of the Israelite royal family.[53] Proponents of this theory point to various parallels between Irish and ancient Hebrew culture. For example, they note that the harp, the symbol of Ireland, also plays a role in Jewish history, as the musical instrument of King David. Some maintain that the Tribe of Dan conducted sea voyages to Ireland and colonized it as early as the period of the Judges under the name Tuatha Dé Danann.
Aspects of this theory are also sometimes cited by adherents of British Israelism, as one possible explanation of how the Ten Lost Tribes might have reached the British Isles. However, British Israelism takes many forms, and does not always use this hypothesis as its main narrative.[54][55]
Several explorers, especially during the 17th and 18th centuries, claimed to have collected evidence that some of the American Indian tribes might be descended from the Ten Lost Tribes. Several recent books and articles have focused on these theories.[56][57][58]
The belief that some American Indians were a Lost tribe of Israel goes back centuries and includes individuals like the 1782 President of the Continental Congress Elias Boudinot[59][60] and Mordecai Noah, the most influential Jew in the United States in the early 19th Century.[61][62]
The Book of Mormon, one of the religious texts of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormons), claims that early residents of the Americas included descendants of the tribe of Joseph, particularly through Manasseh.
Some sources suggest that DNA evidence, linguistic research, and other research indicates links between the Cherokee Nation and the Jewish people.[63]
This theory begins with the notion that the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh are the sons of Joseph, who had been in captivity (Genesis 37 through 45) and bore them with the daughter of the Pharaoh's Priest, Asenath (Genesis 41:45-52). The Tribe of Levi was set apart to serve in the Holy Temple (Numbers 1:47-54 2:33 3:6-7). The arrangement of the Tribes was given in Numbers 2.
There is also Biblical and Talmudic testimony that much of the population of the "lost" tribes was simply reunited with the rest of the Israelites when they, too, were exiled and, later, returned to the Land of Israel. However, many over the years, to hide their Jewish or Israelite identities during tribulations, crusades, and continual exiles, have scattered around the whole earth and are believed to have assimilated into the much larger non-Jewish population.
Genetic testing is being conducted on representatives of at least two groups, the Lemba in Africa and the Bnei Menashe in India, in attempts to verify claims of descent from the "lost ten tribes". So far, there is nothing conclusive, though in the case of the Lemba, there is a definite link[64] to Levite Hebrew ancestry, specifically Kohen.
Nathan Ausubel wrote:
There are quite a number of peoples today who cling to the ancient tradition that they are descended from the Jewish Lost Tribes: the tribesmen of
Afghanistan, the
Mohammedan Berbers of
West Africa, and the six million
Christian Igbo people of
Nigeria. Unquestionably, they all practice certain ancient Hebraic customs and beliefs, which lends some credibility to their fantastic-sounding claims.
[65][importance?]
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints believes in the literal gathering of Israel, and the LDS Church is actively gathering people from the twelve tribes.
- Bruder, Édith: Black Jews of Africa, Oxford 2008.
- Lange, Dierk: "Yoruba origins and the 'Lost Tribes of Israel'", Anthropos 106 (2011), 579-595.
- Parfitt, Tudor: The Lost Tribes of Israel: The History of a Myth, London 2002.
- Weil, Shalva: Beyond the Sabatyon: the Myth of the Ten Tribes, Tel Aviv 1991.
- ^ Lost Tribes of Israel program on NOVA, Original broadcast date: 02/22/2000
- ^ Lester L. Grabbe, Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It? (New York: T&T Clark, 2007): 134
- ^ Finkelstein & Silberman 2001, The Bible Unearthed.
- ^ Moses Rosen. "The Recipe" (published as epilogue to The Face of Survival, 1987).
- ^ Moses Rosen. "The Recipe" (published as epilogue to The Face of Survival, 1987). Nathan Ausubel. Pictorial History of the Jewish People, Crown, 1953.
- ^ Méchoulan, Henry, and Nahon, Gérard (eds.), Menasseh Ben Israel. The Hope of Israel, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1987 - ISBN 0-19-710054-6, p. 101 and passim.
- ^ The Lost Tribes of Israel as a Problem in History and Sociology, Stanford M Lyman, International Journal of Politics, Culture, and Society, Volume 12, Number 1 / September, 1998
- ^ Part of this article and a similar article can be read online at Roads to Dystopia
- ^ Lange "Yoruba origins and the 'Lost Tribes of Israel'", Anthropos 106 (2011), 579-595.
- ^ Transcript, INSIDE AFRICA: Current Events on the African Continent, CNN, September 11, 2004.
- ^ The Lemba, The Black Jews of Southern Africa, NOVA episode, PBS.
- ^ The Story of the Lemba People by Dr. Rudo Mathivha, 15th October 1999.
- ^ a b Tudor Parfitt's Remarkable Journey Part 2, NOVA, PBS website.
- ^ Lemba of South African Jews, - San Diego Jewish Journal March 2004.
- ^ Afghanistan, The Virtual Jewish History Tour (retrieved 10 January 2007).
- ^ Introduction: Muhammad Qāsim Hindū Šāh Astarābādī Firištah, History Of The Mohamedan Power In India, The Packard Humanities Institute Persian Texts in Translation (retrieved 10 January 2007).
- ^ a b Bani-Israelite Theory of Paktoons Ethnic Origin Afghanology.com (retrieved 10 January 2007).
- ^ Afghanistan and Israel, britam.org
- ^ Tribal groups, NOVA episode, PBS.
- ^ Is One of the Lost Tribes the Taliban?, by Ilene Prusher, Moment Magazine, April 2007.
- ^ Ehrlich, M. Avrum Encyclopedia of the Jewish Diaspora: Origins, Experiences, and Culture ABL-CIO October 2008 ISBN 978-1-85109-873-6 p.84 [1]
- ^ http://www.familytreedna.com/public/SyrianChristiansOfIndia/default.aspx
- ^ Amir Mizroch (2010-01-09). "Are Taliban descendants of Israelites?". The Jerusalem Post. http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull&cid=1262339436797.
- ^ "Israelites fund scholarship to study DNA link to Taliban"
- ^ Sachin Parashar (2010-01-11). "Lucknow Pathans have Jewish roots?". Times of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Lucknow-Pathans-have-Jewish-roots/articleshow/5431654.cms.
- ^ Rory McCarthy (2010-01-17). "Pashtun clue to lost tribes of Israel". The Observer. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2010/jan/17/israel-lost-tribes-pashtun.
- ^ Bnei Menashe.com History page, A Long-Lost Tribe is Ready to Come Home, by Stephen Epstein, 1997, accessed 4/23/07.
- ^ The Lost Jews of Kaifeng
- ^ http://wn.com/chinese_jews_from_kaifeng_arrive_in_israel_2009__a_moving_documentary
- ^ George Rawlinson, noted in his translation of History of Herodotus, Book VII, p. 378
- ^ Maurits Nanning Van Loon. "Urartian Art. Its Distinctive Traits in the Light of New Excavations", Istanbul, 1966. p. 16
- ^ a b E. Raymond Capt, Missing Links Discovered in Assyrian Tablets Artisan Pub, 1985 ISBN 0-934666-15-6
- ^ (Greer, 2004. p57-60)Greer, Nick (2004). The British-Israel Myth. pp. 55.
- ^ Dimont, C (1933). The Legend of British-Israel. http://www.theologicalstudies.org.uk/article_legend_dimont.html.
- ^ (Greer, 2004. p57-60)Greer, Nick (2004). The British-Israel Myth. pp. 62.
- ^ "The United States and Britain in Bible Prophecy". http://www.ucg.org/booklets/US/archaelogical.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-14.
- ^ Parfitt, T: The Lost Tribes of Israel: The history of a myth, London, 2002, p. 52-65.
- ^ Parfitt, T: The Lost Tribes of Israel: The history of a myth, London, 2002, p. 57.
- ^ [2] Orr, R: "How Anglo-Israelism Entered Seventh-day Churches of God: A history of the doctrine from John Wilson to Joseph W.Tkach."
- ^ [3] "Transformed by Christ: A Brief History of the Worldwide Church of God"
- ^ Davidiy, Yair (1996). "The Cimmerians, Scythians, and Israel". http://www.britam.org/cimmerians-scythians.html. Retrieved 2009-02-04.
- ^ Brit-Am Commentary by Yair Davidiy, britam website, accessed 10/3/08.
- ^ Biblical Locations of the Lost Ten Tribes: Scriptural Proof, by Yair Davidiy, britam website, accessed 7/15/08.
- ^ The Khazars and the Scottish, by Yair Davidiy, britam website, accessed 10/3/08.
- ^ Hanok. "Israelite and Noahic Haplogroup Hypotheses". http://jewsandjoes.com/israelite-and-noahic-haplogroup-hypotheses.html. Retrieved 2009-02-04.
- ^ Almut Nebel et al., The Y Chromosome Pool of Jews as Part of the Genetic Landscape of the Middle East, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 69:1095–1112, 2001
- ^ Cinnioglu et al., Excavating Y-chromosome haplotype strata in Anatolia, Hum Genet (2004) 114 : 127–148
- ^ Di Giacomo et al., Y chromosomal haplogroup J as a signature of the post-neolithic colonization of Europe, Hum Genet (2004) 115: 357–371
- ^ Kubo, Arimasa. Israelites Came to Ancient Japan., chapters: 2 3 4
- ^ Japan article, Nova episode: Lost tribes of Israel, PBS website.
- ^ Israelites Came To Ancient Japan , Arimasa Kubo.
- ^ isralbooks.com listing
- ^ Judah's Sceptre and Joseph's Birthright by J.H. Allen (the Lost Ten Tribes of Israel)
- ^ Lost Tribes article at BritAm.org
- ^ United States and Britain in Prophecy article at Trumpet Magazine website
- ^ Nova Episode: The Ten Lost Tribes, PBS.
- ^ The Myth of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, at bh.org.il
- ^ UNC Press web page for book Sacred Tongue: Hebrew and the American Imagination by Shalom L. Goldman 2004 by the University of North Carolina Press.
- ^ Elias Boudinot (1816, 2003). Star in the West Or a Humble Attempt to Discover the Long Lost Ten Tribes of Israel Preparatory to Their Return to Their Beloved City, Jerusalem. Kessinger Publishing. http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=0HAIX0fkMSoC&dq=Elias+Boudinot+Israel&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=Ss0QDUYN3T&sig=ONA1byYKcz2ynjgOoFQkF7IkdAI&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
- ^ Amariel, Yeshiyah, Howshua. "Amariel Family Oral History". Amariel Family Publishing. http://amarielfamily.com/7.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-03. "Boudinot seems to have felt that the popular identification of the Indians as the lost Israelites would bring with it a widespread realization that the Bible and its prophecies were true"
- ^ Mordecai Manuel Noah. "DISCOURSE ON THE EVIDENCES OF THE AMERICAN INDIANS BEING THE DESCENDANTS OF THE LOST TRIBES OF ISRAEL". Oliver's Bookshelf. http://olivercowdery.com/texts/noah1837.htm. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
- ^ "Mordecai Manuel Noah". Jewish Virtual Library. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/MNoah.html. Retrieved 2008-09-03. "Mordecai Manuel Noah was the most influential Jew in the United States in the early 19th Century."
- ^ Frenkel, Sheera Clair (2005-02-16). "A headdress of many colors. Would-be Black Hebrew traces 'Jewish heritage' via Cherokee roots". The Jerusalem Post: p. 05. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/jpost/access/793889351.html?dids=793889351:793889351&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Feb+16%2C+2005&author=SHEERA+CLAIRE+FRENKEL&pub=Jerusalem+Post&edition=&startpage=05&desc=A+headdress+of+many+colors.+Would-be+Black+Hebrew+traces+%27Jewish+heritage%27+via+Cherokee+roots. Retrieved 2008-09-08. "[Amariel] translates ancient Hebrew into English"
- ^ www.aish.com
- ^ cited on p. 217, Pictorial History of the Jewish People by Nathan Ausubel, Crown, 1953
- Michael Riff. The Face of Survival: Jewish Life in Eastern Europe Past and Present. Valentine Mitchell, London, 1992. ISBN 0-85303-220-3
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