- published: 02 May 2009
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- author: russianvid99
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- Abbey
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Arkhangelsk
Arkhangelsk (Russian: Архангельск; IPA: [ɐrˈxanɡʲɪlʲsk]), formerly known in English as Archangel, is a city and the administrative center of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Russia. It lies on both banks of the Northern Dvina River near its exit into the White Sea in the north of European Russia. The city spreads for over 40 kilometers (25 mi) along the banks of the river and numerous islands of its delta. Arkhangelsk was the chief seaport of medieval Russia, until 1703. It is served by the Talagi Airport and a smaller Vaskovo Airport. The city is located at the northern end of a 1,133-kilometer (704 mi) long railroad, connecting it to Moscow via Vologda and Yaroslavl. Population: 348,716 (2010 Census preliminary results); 356,051 (2002 Census); 415,921 (1989 Census).
The area where Arkhangelsk is situated was known to the Vikings as Bjarmaland. Ohthere of Hålogaland told from his travels circa 800 of an area by a river and the White Sea with many buildings. This was probably the place later known as Arkhangelsk. According to Snorri Sturluson, there was a Viking raid on this area in 1027, led by Thorir Hund.
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Arzamas
Arzamas (Russian: Арзама́с) is a city in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the Tyosha River (a tributary of the Oka), 410 kilometers (250 mi) east of Moscow. Population: 106,367 (2010 Census preliminary results); 109,432 (2002 Census); 108,951 (1989 Census).
Arzamas was founded in 1578 by Ivan the Terrible in the lands populated at the time by the Mordvin people. By 1737, more than 7,000 people lived in Arzamas and the town became a major transit center on the route from Moscow to eastern parts of Russia. It was known for its geese and onions as well as leather crafts.
Catherine the Great in 1781 granted to Arzamas town status and a coat of arms based on the colors of the Arzamas regiment.[citation needed] In the early 19th century, Arzamas had over twenty churches and cathedrals, the foremost being the Resurrection Cathedral. It was built in the Empire style to commemorate the Russian victory over Napoleon in 1812.
Alexander Stupin art school was located in Arzamas between 1802 and 1862 and many famous Russian artists studied there, including Vasily Perov.
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Astrakhan
Astrakhan (Russian: Астрахань, tr. Astrakhanʹ; IPA: [ˈastrəxənʲ]) is a major city in southern European Russia and the administrative center of Astrakhan Oblast. The city lies on the left bank of the Volga River, close to where it discharges into the Caspian Sea at an altitude of 28 meters (92 ft) below sea level. Population: 520,662 (2010 Census preliminary results); 504,501 (2002 Census); 509,210 (1989 Census).
Astrakhan is situated in the Volga Delta, rich in sturgeon and exotic plants. The fertile area formerly contained the capitals of Khazaria and the Golden Horde. Astrakhan' itself was first mentioned by travellers in the early 13th century as Xacitarxan. Tamerlane burnt it to the ground in 1395. From 1459 to 1556, Xacitarxan was the capital of Astrakhan Khanate. The ruins of this medieval settlement were found by archaeologists 12 km upstream from the modern-day city.
In 1556, the khanate was conquered by Ivan the Terrible, who had a new fortress, or kremlin, built on a steep hill overlooking the Volga. In 1569, Astrakhan was besieged by the Cossack Ottoman army, which had to retreat in disarray. A year later, the Sultan renounced his claims to Astrakhan, thus opening the entire Volga River to Russian traffic. In the 17th century, the city was developed as a Russian gate to the Orient. Many merchants from Armenia, Persia, India and Khiva settled in the town, giving it a multinational and variegated character.
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Austria
Austria (
i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] (
listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: 
Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Beijing
Beijing ( /beɪˈdʒɪŋ/; Chinese: 北京; pinyin: Běijīng, [peɪ˨˩ t͡ɕiŋ˥]), formerly romanized as Peking ( /piːˈkɪŋ/ or /peɪˈkɪŋ/), is the capital of the People's Republic of China and one of the most populous cities in the world, with a population of 19,612,368 as of 2010. The metropolis, located in northern China, is governed as a direct-controlled municipality under the national government, with 14 urban and suburban districts and two rural counties. Beijing Municipality is surrounded by Hebei Province with the exception of neighboring Tianjin Municipality to the southeast.
Beijing is China's second largest city by urban population after Shanghai and is the country's political, cultural, and educational center, and home to the headquarters for most of China's largest state-owned companies. Beijing is a major transportation hub in the national highway, expressway, railway and high-speed rail network. Beijing's Capital International Airport is the second busiest in the world by passenger traffic.
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China
China (i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
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Climate of Moscow
Moscow has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfb) with warm, sometimes hot, somewhat humid summers and long, cold winters. Typical high temperatures in the warm months of June, July and August are around 23 °C (73 °F), but during heat waves, which can occur anytime from May to September, daytime temperature highs often top 30 °C (86 °F) for sometimes one or two weeks. In the winter, temperatures normally drop to approximately −10 °C (14 °F), though there can be periods of warmth with temperatures rising above 0 °C (32 °F). Summer lasts from mid-May to the beginning of September. Winter lasts from the beginning of November to the end of March.
The highest temperature ever recorded was 38.2 °C (100.8 °F) on July 29, 2010, and the lowest ever recorded was −42.2 °C (−44.0 °F) in January 1940. In 2007 three record highs for the month occurred – January + 8.6 °C (47.5 °F), March + 17.5 °C (63.5 °F), and May + 33.2 °C (91.8 °F); in 2008, there were new record highs for December and the entire winter: + 9.6 °C (49.3 °F). On July 23, 2010, the temperature reached 36.7 °C (98.1 °F) and continued to set record highs each following day until it finally reached + 38.2 °C (100.8 °F) on July 29, 2010. In November 2010 a new month record high of +14.5 °C (58.1 °F) occurred (after +12.6 in 1927).
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Cuba
Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, (i/ˈkjuːbə/; Spanish: República de Cuba, pronounced: [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈkuβa] ( listen)) is an island country in the Caribbean. The nation of Cuba consists of the main island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud, and several archipelagos. Havana is the largest city in Cuba and the country's capital. Santiago de Cuba is the second largest city. To the north of Cuba lies the United States (140 km or 90 mi away) and the Bahamas, Mexico is to the west, the Cayman Islands and Jamaica are to the south, and Haiti and the Dominican Republic are to the southeast.
In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on and claimed the island now occupied by Cuba, for the Kingdom of Spain. Cuba remained a territory of Spain until the Spanish–American War ended in 1898, and gained formal independence from the U.S. in 1902. A fragile democracy, increasingly dominated by radical politics eventually evolved, solidified by the Cuban Constitution of 1940, but was definitely quashed in 1952 by former president Fulgencio Batista, and an authoritarian regime was set up, intensifying and catalyzing already rampant corruption, political repression and crippling economic regulations.Batista was ousted in January 1959 by the July 26 movement, and a new administration under Fidel Castro established, which had by 1965 evolved into a single-party state under the revived Communist Party of Cuba, which holds power to date.
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Finland
Coordinates: 65°N 27°E / 65°N 027°E / 65; 027
Finlandi/ˈfɪnlənd/ ( Finnish: Suomi; Swedish: Finland (help·info)), officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.
Around 5.4 million people reside in Finland, with the majority concentrated in the southern region. It is the eighth largest country in Europe in terms of area and the most sparsely populated country in the European Union. Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in Helsinki and local governments in 336 municipalities, and an autonomous region of the Åland Islands. About one million residents live in the Greater Helsinki area, which consists of Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen and Vantaa, and a third of the country's GDP is produced there. Other larger cities include Tampere, Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Lahti and Kuopio.
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Germany
Germany (i/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
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Hungary
Hungaryi/ˈhʌŋɡəri/ (Hungarian: Magyarország [ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ] ( listen)) is a country, which is located in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The country's capital, and largest city, is Budapest. Hungary is a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, and is a Schengen state. The official language is Hungarian, also known as Magyar, which is part of the Finno-Ugric group and is the most widely spoken non-Indo-European language in Europe.
Following a Celt (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (AD 9 - c. 430) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late 9th century by the Hungarian prince Árpád, whose great-grandson Saint Stephen I was crowned with a crown sent by the pope from Rome in 1000 AD. The Kingdom of Hungary lasted for 946 years, and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centres of the Western world. After about 150 years of partial Ottoman occupation (1541–1699), Hungary was integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy, and later constituted half of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy (1867–1918).
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Intel
Coordinates: 37°23′16.54″N 121°57′48.74″W / 37.3879278°N 121.9635389°W / 37.3879278; -121.9635389
Intel Corporation (NASDAQ: INTC) is an American multinational semiconductor chip maker corporation headquartered in Santa Clara, California, United States and the world's largest and highest valued semiconductor chip maker, based on revenue. It is the inventor of the x86 series of microprocessors, the processors found in most personal computers. Intel Corporation, founded on July 18, 1968, is a portmanteau of Integrated Electronics (though a common misconception is that "Intel" is from the word intelligence[citation needed]). Intel also makes motherboard chipsets, network interface controllers and integrated circuits, flash memory, graphic chips, embedded processors and other devices related to communications and computing. Founded by semiconductor pioneers Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore and widely associated with the executive leadership and vision of Andrew Grove, Intel combines advanced chip design capability with a leading-edge manufacturing capability. Though Intel was originally known primarily to engineers and technologists, its "Intel Inside" advertising campaign of the 1990s made it and its Pentium processor household names.
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Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
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Jinan
Coordinates: 36°40′N 116°59′E / 36.667°N 116.983°E / 36.667; 116.983
Jinan (Chinese: 济南; pinyin: Jǐnán; Mandarin pronunciation: [t͡ɕi˧˩nan˧˥];) is the capital of Shandong province in Eastern China. The area of present-day Jinan has played an important role in the history of the region from the earliest beginnings of civilisation and has evolved into a major national administrative, economic, and transportation hub. The city, which holds sub-provincial administrative status, is located in north-western Shandong about 400 kilometres (250 mi) south of the national capital of Beijing, it borders Liaocheng to the southwest, Dezhou to the northwest, Binzhou to the northeast, Zibo to the east, Laiwu to the southeast, and Tai'an to the south.
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Kazan
Kazan (Russian: Каза́нь; IPA: [kɐˈzanʲ]; Tatar Cyrillic: Казан, Latin: Qazan) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Tatarstan, Russia. With a population of 1,161,308, it is the eighth most populous city in Russia, while the metropolitan area has a population of 1.57 million (2011).[citation needed] Kazan lies at the confluence of the Volga and Kazanka Rivers in European Russia.
The Kazan Kremlin is a World Heritage Site. In 2005, the Medal "In Commemoration of the 1000th Anniversary of Kazan" was established by Russia to denote this landmark event. The multi-ethnic city is is honored by UNESCO and famous for Muslims and Christians living side-by-side in peace.
In April 2009, the Russian Patent Office granted Kazan the right to brand itself as the "Third Capital" of Russia. In 2009 it was chosen as the "Sports capital of Russia" and it still is referred to as such. The city will host 2013 Summer Universiade, 2015 World Aquatics Championships, and 2018 FIFA World Cup.
The origin of the name Kazan is uncertain. The most accepted legends derive it from the Bulgar Turkic (and also modern Tatar) word qazan, which means 'boiler' or 'cauldron'.
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Khanate of Kazan
The Khanate of Kazan (Tatar Cyrillic: Казан ханлыгы, Latin: Qazan xanlığı, Arabic: قازان خانليغى; Russian: Казанское ханство, tr: Kazanskoye khanstvo) was a medieval Tatar state which occupied the territory of former Volga Bulgaria between 1438 and 1552. Its khans were the patrilineal descendants of Toqa Temür, the thirteenth son of Jochi and grandson of Genghis Khan. The khanate covered contemporary Tatarstan, Mari El, Chuvashia, Mordovia, parts of Udmurtia and Bashkortostan; its capital was the city of Kazan. It was one of the successor states of the Golden Horde, and it came to an end when it was conquered by the Tsardom of Russia.
The territory of the khanate comprised the Muslim Bolgar-populated lands of Bolğar, Cükätäw, Kazan, Qaşan duchies and other regions that originally belonged to Volga Bulgaria. The Volga, Kama and Vyatka were the main rivers of the khanate, as well as the major trade ways. The majority of the population were Kazan Tatars (i.e. Muslim Bolgars that adopted the Tatar language). Their self-identity was not restricted to Tatars; many identified themselves as simple Muslims or "the people of Kazan". Islam was the state religion.
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Kharkiv
Kharkiv (Ukrainian: Харків, pronounced [ˈxɑrkiw]) or Kharkov (Russian: Ха́рьков) is the second-largest city in Ukraine.
The city was founded in 1654 and was a major centre of Ukrainian culture in the Russian Empire. Kharkiv became the first city in Ukraine where the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic was proclaimed in December 1917 and Soviet government was formed. Kharkiv became and remained the capital of the Ukrainian SSR until 1934, when the administrative capital was moved to Kiev. Currently, it is the administrative centre of the Kharkiv oblast (province), as well as the administrative centre of the surrounding Kharkivskyi Raion (district) within the oblast. The city is located in the northeast of the country. As of 2006, its population was 1,461,300.
Kharkiv is a major cultural, scientific, educational, transport and industrial centre of Ukraine, with 60 scientific institutes, 30 establishments of higher education, 6 museums, 7 theatres and 80 libraries. Its industry specializes primarily in machinery. There are hundreds of industrial companies in the city. Among them are world renown giants like the Morozov Design Bureau and the Malyshev Tank Factory, leaders in tank production since the 1930s; Khartron (aerospace and nuclear electronics); and the Turboatom turbines producer.
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Kotelnich
Kotelnich (Russian: Коте́льнич; Mari: Кäкшäр) is a river port town in Kirov Oblast, Russia, located on the right bank of the Vyatka River near its confluence with the Moloma, along the route of the Trans-Siberian Railway, 124 kilometers (77 mi) southwest of Kirov. Population: 24,979 (2010 Census preliminary results); 28,245 (2002 Census); 36,841 (1989 Census).
The locality of Koksharov (Кокшаров) was first mentioned in 1143 as a Mari town.[citation needed] In 1182, it was occupied by Russians and renamed Kotelnich, from the word kotel (now kotlovina) 'hollow, depression.' Town status was granted to it in 1780.[citation needed]
The strip of the Vyatka's right bank on which Kotelnich stands is a part of a pareiasaur remains site, one of the largest in the world.
Ancient literary monuments and archaeological excavations have demonstrated that the town was founded near the end of the 12th century, at which time it was inhabited by the Maris (Cheremis), according to P. I. Rychkov and N. M. Karamzin. The first documents that prove the city status of Kotelnich date from the middle of the fifteenth century. For a long time the Vyatka region was a strong antagonist of Moscow and its attempts to consolidate all the Russian lands, but eventually resistance was broken, and Kotelnich was conquered in 1459 together with many other towns of the region. By 1489 its rebellious population was resettled to distant places and the city itself became an ordinary fortress on the northeastern border of the Grand Duchy of Moscow, helping protect the rich northern lands from ruinous raids by Tatars. In 1542 a troop of 4,000 Tatars was defeated near Kotelnich.
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Kstovo
Kstovo (Russian: Ксто́во) is a town and the administrative center of Kstovsky District of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the right bank of the Volga River, 22 kilometers (14 mi) southeast of Nizhny Novgorod. Population: 66,641 (2010 Census preliminary results); 66,944 (2002 Census); 62,414 (1989 Census).
The village of Kstovo was mentioned as early as the 14th century. The place name is said to have originated from the Mordvin ksty, meaning "strawberry".
With the construction of Novogorkovsky Oil Refinery (Новогорьковский нефтеперерабатывающий завод; started operations on August 18, 1958) in the 1950s, a new town was built a few kilometers to the southeast of the old village of Kstovo, on the high ground between the Volga and the Kudma Rivers.
Since then, the western part of the town centered around the original village of Kstovo, and, still quite rural in character, has been commonly referred to as the Old Kstovo (Staroye Kstovo), while the newer eastern part, built in the 1950s, and still expanding, is known as the New Kstovo (Novoye Kstovo). As the New Kstovo expanded over the years, it completely or partially displaced several smaller villages.
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Kulebaki
Coordinates: 55°24′48″N 42°31′57″E / 55.4133°N 42.5325°E / 55.4133; 42.5325
Kulebaki (Russian: Кулебаки) is a town and the administrative center of Kulebaksky District of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located 188 kilometers (117 mi) southwest of Nizhny Novgorod. Population: 35,762 (2010 Census preliminary results); 39,072 (2002 Census); 45,727 (1989 Census).
The village of Kulebaki was first mentioned in 1719. Town status was granted to it in 1932. The local metal-working plant, Ruspolymet, founded in 1866 and originally producing equipment for railway industry, is now producing components for aerospace industry as well.
Since 1953, Savasleyka base of Anti-Aircraft Defense Forces is operated near the village of the same name, in Kulebaksky District, some 10 kilometers (6.2 mi) west of Kulebaki.
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Lufthansa
Deutsche Lufthansa AG (FWB: LHA, OTCQX: DLAKY) (German pronunciation: [ˈdɔʏt͡ʃə ˈlʊfthanza]) is the flag carrier of Germany and the largest airline in Europe in terms of overall passengers carried and fleet size. The German government had a 35.68% stake in Lufthansa until 1997, but the company is now owned by private investors (88.52%), MGL Gesellschaft für Luftverkehrswerte (10.05%), Deutsche Postbank (1.03%), and Deutsche Bank (0.4%) and has 37,042 employees (as of March 2007). The name of the company is derived from Luft (the German word for "air"), and Hansa (after the Hanseatic League, a powerful medieval trading group).[citation needed]
The airline is the world's fourth-largest airline in terms of overall passengers carried, operating services to 18 domestic destinations and 203 international destinations in 78 countries across Africa, Americas, Asia and Europe. Together with its partners, Lufthansa services around 410 destinations. With over 710 aircraft it has the second-largest passenger airline fleet in the world when combined with its subsidiaries.
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Lukoyanov
Coordinates: 55°02′07″N 44°29′23″E / 55.0353°N 44.4897°E / 55.0353; 44.4897
Lukoyanov (Russian: Лукоя́нов) is a town and the administrative center of Lukoyanovsky District of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the Tyosha River, 173 kilometers (107 mi) south of Nizhny Novgorod. Population: 14,949 (2010 Census preliminary results); 12,856 (2002 Census); 12,276 (1989 Census).
It was established in the 16th century and was granted town status in 1779.
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Makaryev Fair
Makaryev Fair (Russian: Макарьевская ярмарка) was a fair in Russia held annually every July near Makaryev Monastery on the left bank of the Volga River from the mid-16th century to 1816. Following a massive fire in 1816, it was moved to Nizhny Novgorod, but for some decades thereafter it still was commonly referred to as Makariev Fair. It attracted many foreign merchants from India, Iran, and Central Asia.
This fair was a commerce centre to sell up to half the total production of export goods in Russia. The fair ceased in 1929. A society named Nizhegorodskaya yarmarka (Russian: Нижегородская ярмарка, Nizhny Novgorod fair) was created in 1991 with its headquarters in the former main fair building. However, today it is not actually a fair, but an exhibition center.
Coordinates: 56°19′42″N 43°57′39″E / 56.32833°N 43.96083°E / 56.32833; 43.96083
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Matanzas
Matanzas is the capital of the Cuban province of Matanzas. It is famed for its poets, culture, and Afro-Cuban folklore.
It is located on the northern shore of the island of Cuba, on the Bay of Matanzas (Spanish Bahia de Matanzas), 90 kilometres (56 mi) east of the capital Havana and 32 kilometres (20 mi) west of the resort town of Varadero.
Matanzas is called the "City of Bridges," of which there are seventeen crossing the three rivers that traverse the city (Rio Yumuri, San Juan, and Canimar). For this reason it was referred to as the "Venice of Cuba." It was also called "La Atenas de Cuba" ("The Athens of Cuba") for its poets.
Matanzas was founded in 1693 as San Carlos y San Severino de Matanzas. This followed a royal decree ("real cédula") issued on September 25, 1690 which decreed that the bay and port of Matanzas be settled by 30 families from the Canary Islands.
Matanzas was one of the regions that saw intensive development of sugar plantations during the colonial era. Consequently, many African slaves were imported to support the sugar industry, particularly during the first half of the nineteenth century. For example, in 1792 there were 1900 slaves in Matanzas, roughly 30% of its population. In 1817, the slave population of Matanzas had grown to 10,773, comprising nearly 50% of the overall population. By 1841, 53,331 slaves made up 62.7% of the population of Matanzas. Census figures for 1859 put the Matanzas slave population at 104,519. Matanzas was the site of several slave insurrections and plots, including the infamous Escalera conspiracy (discovered in late 1843). Due to the high number of both slaves and, importantly, free Afro-Cubans in Matanzas, the retention of African traditions is especially strong there. In 1898, Matanzas became the location of the first action in the Spanish-American War. The city was bombarded by American Navy vessels on April 25, 1898, just after the beginning of the war.
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Moscow
Moscow (
/ˈmɒskaʊ/ or /ˈmɒskoʊ/; Russian: Москва́, tr. Moskva; IPA: [mɐˈskva] (
listen)) is the capital and the most populous federal subject of Russia. The city is a major political, economic, cultural and scientific center of Russia and the continent. Moscow is the northernmost megacity on Earth, the most populous city in Europe, and the 6th largest city proper in the world. Its population, according to the results of the 2010 Census, is 11,503,501. Based on Forbes 2011, Moscow has the largest community of billionaires in the world.
Moscow is situated on the Moskva River in the Central Federal District of European Russia. In the course of its history the city has served as the capital of a progression of states, from the medieval Grand Duchy of Moscow and the subsequent Tsardom of Russia to the Soviet Union. Moscow is the site of the Moscow Kremlin, an ancient fortress that is today the residence of the Russian President and of the executive branch of the Government of Russia. The Kremlin is also one of several World Heritage Sites in the city. Both chambers of the Russian parliament (the State Duma and the Federation Council) also sit in Moscow.
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Murom
Murom (Russian: Му́ром; Old Norse: Moramar) is a historic city in Vladimir Oblast, Russia, which sprawls along the left bank of Oka River. Population: 116,078 (2010 Census preliminary results); 126,901 (2002 Census); 124,229 (1989 Census).
In the 9th century CE, the city marked the easternmost settlement of the East Slavs in the land of the Finno-Ugric people called Muromians. The Primary Chronicle mentions it as early as 862.[citation needed] It is thus one of the oldest cities in Russia. Circa 900 CE, it was an important trading post from Volga Bulgaria to the Baltic Sea.
Between 1010 and 1393, it was a capital of a separate principality, whose rulers included Saint Gleb, assassinated in 1015 and canonized in 1071, Saint Prince Konstantin the Blessed, and Saints Peter and Theuronia, subjects of an opera by Rimsky-Korsakov. It was the home town of the most celebrated East Slavic epic hero, Ilya Muromets. The town has a statue which shows Ilya holding the hilt of his sword in the left hand and a cross in the right.
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Navashino
Coordinates: 55°31′45″N 42°12′01″E / 55.5292°N 42.2003°E / 55.5292; 42.2003
Navashino (Russian: Навашино) is a town and the administrative center of Navashinsky District of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the right bank of the Oka River, 158 kilometers (98 mi) southwest of Nizhny Novgorod. Population: 16,413 (2010 Census preliminary results); 17,810 (2002 Census); 18,946 (1989 Census).
It was founded in 1957 by merging two neighboring settlements of Mordovshchikovo (Мордовщиково) and Lipnya (Липня) and named after the nearby railway station of Navashino.
Railway was built in the area in 1912.
A new road bridge over the Oka River was opened in October 2009 near Navashino.
OAO Okskaya Sudoverf (Russian for 'Oka Shipyard') is headquartered in Navashino. The shipbuilding company, originating from a local shipyard founded in 1907, builds boats for Volga and sea navigations. Some of their tankers are to be sold to customers as far afield as Malaysia's Petronas, which plans to use the vessels at its Caspian subsidiary
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Nizhny Novgorod
Nizhny Novgorod (Russian: Нижний Новгород; IPA: [ˈnʲiʐnʲɪj ˈnovɡərət]), colloquially shortened to Nizhny, is, with the population of 1,250,615, the fifth largest city in Russia.
From 1932 to 1990, the city was known as Gorky (Горький, IPA: [ˈɡorʲkʲɪj]), after the writer Maxim Gorky who was born there.
The city is an important economic, transport and cultural center of the Russian Federation. It is the economic and cultural center of the vast Volga-Vyatka economic region, and also the administrative center of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast and Volga Federal District.
After the destruction of the Mordvin Inäzor Obram, a hillfort named Obran Osh (Ashli) at the site of future stone Kremlin in 1220, a small Russian wooden hillfort was founded by Grand Duke Yury II in 1221. Located at the confluence of two most important rivers of his principality, the Volga (Mordvin "Rav" or "Rava"), and the Oka, and Obran Osh was renamed Nizhny Novgorod. Its name literally means Lower Newtown, to distinguish it from the older Veliky Novgorod. Its independent existence was threatened by the continuous Mordvin attacks against it. The major attempt made by Inäzor Purgaz from Arzamas in January 1229 was repulsed, but after the death of Yuri II on March 4, 1238 at the Battle of Sit River the Mongols occupied the fortress and the remnants of small Nizhny Novgorod settlement which surrendered without any resistance in order to preserve what had been developed since Purgaz's attack nine years earlier. Later a major stronghold for border protection, Nizhny Novgorod fortress took advantage of a natural moat formed by the two rivers.
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Novi Sad
Novi Sad (Serbian Cyrillic: Нови Сад, pronounced [nɔ̝̂v̞iː sâːd] ( listen)) is the second largest city in Serbia, capital of the northern Serbian province of Vojvodina, and the administrative centre of the South Bačka District.
According to preliminary results of the latest census in Serbia conducted in October 2011, the urban area of Novi Sad has a population of 221,854, while its municipal area has a population of 335,701. It is located in the southern part of Pannonian Plain, on the border of the Bačka and Srem regions, on the banks of the Danube river and Danube-Tisa-Danube Canal, facing the northern slopes of Fruška Gora mountain.
The city was founded in 1694, when Serb merchants formed a colony across the Danube from the Petrovaradin fortress, a Habsburg strategic military post. In the 18th and 19th centuries, it became an important trading and manufacturing centre, as well as a centre of Serbian culture of that period, earning the nickname Serbian Athens. The city was heavily devastated in the 1848 Revolution, but it was subsequently restored. During the city's long history, it has maintained its multi-cultural identity, with Serbs, Hungarians and Germans being the main ethnic groups. Today, Novi Sad is an industrial and financial centre of the Serbian economy, as well as a major cultural hub.
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Novosibirsk
Novosibirsk (Russian: Новосибирск; IPA: [nəvəsʲɪˈbʲirsk]) is the third most populous city in Russia after Moscow and Saint Petersburg and the most populous city of Asian Russia, with a population of 1,473,737 (2010 Census preliminary results). It is the administrative center of Novosibirsk Oblast as well as of Siberian Federal District. The city is located in the south-western part of Siberia at the banks of the Ob River and occupies an area of 477.2 square kilometers (184.2 sq mi).
Novosibirsk was founded in 1893 at the future site of a Trans-Siberian Railway bridge crossing the great Siberian river of Ob and was named Novonikolayevsk (Новониколаевск), in honor of both Saint Nicholas and the reigning Tsar Nicholas II. The bridge was completed in the spring of 1897, making the new settlement the regional transport hub. The importance of the city further increased with the completion of the Turkestan-Siberia Railway in the early 20th century. The new railway connected Novosibirsk to Central Asia and the Caspian Sea.
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Oka River
Oka (Russian: Ока́, IPA: [ɐˈka]) is a river in central Russia, the largest right tributary of the Volga. It flows through the regions of Oryol, Tula, Kaluga, Moscow, Ryazan, Vladimir, and Nizhny Novgorod and is navigable over a large part of its total length, as far upstream as to the town of Kaluga. Its length exceeds 1,500 kilometres (930 mi). The Russian capital Moscow sits on one of the Oka's tributaries—the Moskva River.
Max Vasmer connects the name of the river to the Gothic аƕа, Old High German aha, Latin aqua, which all mean either "water" or "river" (cf. Aa River).Oleg Trubachev traces the origin of the name to the Baltic languages: it was the Baltic tribe of Galindians that lived in the western part of the Oka basin prior to the arrival of the Slavs.
Historically, the river gave its name to the Upper Oka Principalities, situated upstream from Tarusa. One of the largest Russian cities, Nizhny Novgorod, was founded to protect the Oka's confluence with the Volga. The Qasim Khanate, a Muslim polity, occupied the middle reaches of the Oka (around the city of Kasimov) in the 15th and 16th centuries.
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Philadelphia
Philadelphia ( /ˌfɪləˈdɛlfiə/) is the largest city in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania and the county seat of Philadelphia County, with which it is coterminous. The city is located in the Northeastern United States along the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers. It is the fifth-most-populous city in the United States, with a population of 1,526,006 as of the 2010 U.S. Census. Philadelphia is also the commercial, cultural, and educational center of the Delaware Valley, home to 6 million people and the country's fifth-largest metropolitan area. The Philadelphia metropolitan division consists of five counties in Pennsylvania and has a population of 4,008,994. Popular nicknames for Philadelphia are Philly and The City of Brotherly Love, the latter of which comes from the literal meaning of the city's name in Greek (Greek: Φιλαδέλφεια ([pʰilaˈdelpʰeːa], Modern Greek: [filaˈðelfia]) "brotherly love", compounded from philos (φίλος) "loving", and adelphos (ἀδελφός) "brother").
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Poland
Polandi/ˈpoʊlənd/ (Polish: Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska; Kashubian: Pòlskô Repùblika; Silesian: Polsko Republika), is a country in Central Europe, bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous post-communist member. Poland is a unitary state made up of 16 voivodeships. Poland is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Economic Area, International Energy Agency, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Atomic Energy Agency, G6, Council of the Baltic Sea States, Visegrád Group, Weimar Triangle and Schengen Agreement.
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Pyongyang
Pyongyang (평양, Korean pronunciation: [pʰjɔŋjaŋ], literally: "Flat Land") is the capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea, commonly known as North Korea, and the largest city in the country. Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River and, according to preliminary results from the 2008 population census, has a population of 3,255,388. The city was split from the South P'yŏngan province in 1946. It is administered as a directly governed city (chikhalsi), on the same level as provincial governments, not a special city (teukbyeolsi) as Seoul is in South Korea.
One of Pyongyang's many historic names is Ryugyong (류경; 柳京), or "capital of willows", as willow trees have always been numerous throughout the city's history, and many poems have been written about these willows. Even today, the city has numerous willow trees, with many buildings and places having "Ryugyŏng" in their names. The most notable of these is the uncompleted Ryugyong Hotel. The city's other historic names include Kisong, Hwangsong, Rakrang, Sŏgyong, Sodo, Hogyong, and Changan.[citation needed] During the colonial period (1910–1945), Pyongyang was named Puto ".
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Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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Russian Empire
The Russian Empire (Pre-reform Russian orthography: Россійская Имперія, Modern Russian: Российская Империя, translit: Rossiyskaya Imperiya) was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the short-lived Russian Republic, which was succeeded by the Soviet Union. It was one of the largest empires in world history, surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires: at one point in 1866, it stretched from eastern Europe across Asia and into North America.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire extended from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea on the south, from the Baltic Sea on the west to the Pacific Ocean and into North America on the east. With 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third largest population of the world at the time, after Qing China and the British Empire. Like all empires, it represented a large disparity in economic, ethnic and religious positions. Its government, ruled by the Emperor, was the last absolute monarchy in Europe at the time of its demise.
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Russian Post
Coordinates: 55°41′18.37″N 37°37′24.69″E / 55.6884361°N 37.623525°E / 55.6884361; 37.623525
Russian Post (Russian: Почта России, Pochta Rossii), is a unitary enterprise which is a national postal operator of Russia. The company is responsible for the delivery of mail in Russia, and the issuing of postage stamps. Russian Post employs about 390,000 people and has over 40,000 postal offices.
Russian Post has partnered with Svyaz-Bank in offering banking services at post offices across Russia.
Russian Post is a founding member of the Universal Postal Union created in 1874. In 1902 Chief Postal Service was made part of the Internal Affairs Ministry and in 1917 under the Provisional Government it became part of Ministry of Post and Telegraph. During the Second World War Soviet postal service part of People's Commissariat of communications was delivering up to 70 million parcels per month to the Soviet army front from the rear under extremely difficult and often very dangerous conditions.
In 1993 Russian Post became a part of Ministry of Communications and in 2002, its status changed from a government ministry to a Unitary enterprise in the framework of the restructuring the federal postal communication agencies. The company's headquarters are located in Moscow.
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Russian Railways
The Russian Railways (RZhD) (Russian: Российские железные дороги (РЖД), Rossiyskie zheleznye dorogi (RZhD)), is the government owned national rail carrier of the Russian Federation, headquartered in Moscow. The Russian Railways operate over 86,000 km (53,000 mi) of common carrier routes as well as a few hundred kilometers of industrial routes, making it the second largest network in the world exceeded only by the United States. The Railways also are one of the largest companies in the world employing 950,000 people and is also a monopoly within Russia.
The Russian Railways were created in 1992, to take over existing lines within Russia from the Soviet Union.
The Soviet Railways ended operations in December 1991, due to the collapse of the Soviet Union. On January 20, 1992, the Ministry of Russian Railways was founded, to operate railways within the Russian Federation. However the Russian Railways were declining rapidly, mainly due to loss of direct government support. Investments were cut and funds were dropped. The railways declined greatly because there weren't enough funds to repair rolling stock, stations and maintain rapidly aging track. In 1992, freight traffic within Russia fell by 60%. Passenger travel also declined greatly. Many trains were taken out of service and the passenger sector was heavily subsidized to the freight industry. The decline greatly affected Russia's economy, since railways were the only reliable transportation system within the country. Since the railways were a vital social importance to Russia, due to low usage of automobiles, heavy usage by low income citizens, lack of roads, great distances and connections to remote parts of Russia, the railways needed to rebuild and modernize the system to meet the demands of the country.
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Saint Petersburg
Saint Petersburg (Russian: Санкт-Петербург, tr. Sankt-Peterburg; IPA: [sankt pʲɪtʲɪrˈburk] ( listen)) is a city and a federal subject (a federal city) of Russia located on the Neva River at the head of the Gulf of Finland on the Baltic Sea. In 1914 the name of the city was changed to Petrograd (Russian: Петроград; IPA: [pʲɪtrɐˈgrat]), in 1924 to Leningrad (Russian: Ленинград; IPA: [lʲɪnʲɪnˈgrat]) and in 1991 back to Saint Petersburg.
In Russian literature, informal documents, and discourse, the "Saint" (Санкт-) is usually omitted, leaving Petersburg (Петербург, Peterburg). In common parlance Russians may drop "-burg" (-бург) as well, leaving only Peter (Питер, Russian: [ˈpʲitʲɪr]).
Saint Petersburg was founded by Tsar Peter the Great on May 27 [O.S. 16] 1703. From 1713 to 1728 and from 1732 to 1918, Saint Petersburg was the Imperial capital of Russia. In 1918 the central government bodies moved from Saint Petersburg (then named Petrograd) to Moscow. It is Russia's second largest city after Moscow with almost 5 million inhabitants. Saint Petersburg is a major European cultural center, and also an important Russian port on the Baltic Sea.
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Sarov
Sarov (Russian: Саро́в) is a closed town in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia. Until 1995 it was known as Kremlyov (Кремлёв), while from 1946 to 1991 it was called Arzamas-16 (Арзама́с-16).[citation needed] The town is closed as it is the Russian center for nuclear research. Population: 92,073 (2010 Census preliminary results); 87,652 (2002 Census).
The history of the town can be divided into two different periods. In the earlier history of Russia it was known as one of the holy places of the Russian Orthodox Church, because of its monastery, that gave Russia one of its greatest saints, St. Seraphim. Since the 1940s, it has gradually become the center for research and production of Soviet and later Russian nuclear weapons.
The history of human settlement in the area around Sarov goes back at least to the 12th–13th centuries, when a large Mordvin settlement was founded on its spot. In 1298, the town was taken over by Tatars.
The modern town took its name from being the site of the Sarova Monastery next to the Sarovka River. In 1664, an Orthodox monk Theodosius first settled on the Sarov Hill. The first Church of Sarov tenement was founded in 1706. Saint Seraphim was living in Sarov from 1778 to 1833. In 1903, the monastery was visited by Tsar Nicholas II and other members of the royal family. At that time the monastery had nine churches, including one underground. Around 320 monks lived in the monastery.
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Serbia
Serbiai/ˈsɜrbiə/, officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija, pronounced [rɛpǔblika sř̩bija]), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; additionally, it borders Albania through Kosovo, whose status as part of Serbia is disputed. Serbia covers an area of 88,361 km2 and has a population of just over 7.1 million, while the capital and largest city is Belgrade.
The arrival of the Serbs to the Balkans in the 7th century, established several states, eventually forming the Serbian Empire in the 14th century. By the 16th century, Serbia was conquered and occupied by the Ottoman Empire, at times interrupted by the Habsburgs. In the early 19th century the Serbian revolution re-established the country as the region's first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory and pioneered the abolition of feudalism in the Balkans. The former Habsburg crownland of Vojvodina united with Serbia in 1918. Following World War I, Serbia formed Yugoslavia with other South Slavic peoples which existed in several forms up until 2006, when the National Assembly of Serbia declared independence and the legal succession to the former State Union. In February 2008 the parliament of UNMIK-governed Kosovo, Serbia's southern province, declared independence, with mixed responses from international governments.
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Sergach
Coordinates: 55°31′39″N 45°28′11″E / 55.5275°N 45.4697°E / 55.5275; 45.4697
Sergach (Russian: Серга́ч) is a town and the administrative center of Sergachsky District of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the Pyana River (Sura's tributary), 150 kilometers (93 mi) southeast of Nizhny Novgorod. Population: 21,387 (2010 Census preliminary results); 22,887 (2002 Census); 25,231 (1989 Census).
The village of Sergach was first mentioned in 1649. It was granted town status in 1779.
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Shakhunya
Shakhunya (Russian: Шахунья) is a town in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the Nizhny Novgorod–Kirov railroad, 240 kilometers (150 mi) northeast of Nizhny Novgorod. Population: 20,926 (2010 Census preliminary results); 21,724 (2002 Census); 22,337 (1989 Census).
It was founded as a settlement around the railway station of Shakhunya, which was opened in 1927.[citation needed] It was granted work settlement status in 1938 and town status in 1943.[citation needed]
Administratively, along with 134 rural localities, it is incorporated as the town of oblast significance of Shakhunya—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, the town of oblast significance of Shakhunya is incorporated as Shakhunya Urban Okrug.
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Siberia
Coordinates: 60°0′N 105°0′E / 60°N 105°E / 60; 105
Siberia (/saɪˈbɪəriə/; Russian: Сиби́рь, tr. Sibir'; IPA: [sʲɪˈbʲirʲ] ( listen)) is an extensive region constituting almost all of Northern Asia. Comprising the central and eastern portion of the Russian Federation, it was part of the Soviet Union (USSR) from its beginning, as its predecessor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire, conquered it during the 16th to 19th centuries.
Encompassing much of the Eurasian Steppe, the territory of Siberia extends eastward from the Ural Mountains to the watershed between the Pacific and Arctic drainage basins, and southward from the Arctic Ocean to the hills of north-central Kazakhstan and the national borders of Mongolia and China. Siberia makes up about 77% of Russia's territory (13.1 million square kilometres), but has only 28% (40 million people) of Russia's population.
Some sources say that the word Siberia originates from the Turkic for "sleeping land". Another version is that this name was the ancient tribal name of the Sabirs, Turkic nomads later assimilated to Siberian Tatars. The modern usage of the name appeared in the Russian language after the conquest of the Siberian Khanate.
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South Korea
South Korea ( listen), officially the Republic of Korea (Hangul: 대한민국; Hanja: 大韓民國; Daehan Minguk listen), is a sovereign state in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula. The name "Korea" is derived from Goryeo, a dynasty which ruled in the Middle Ages (an initial "G" in Korean is pronounced like an English "K").
Its neighbors are China to the west, Japan to the east, North Korea to the north, and the Korea Strait to the south. South Korea lies in the north temperate zone with a predominantly mountainous terrain. It covers a total area of 99,392 square kilometers and has a population of almost 50 million. The capital and largest city is Seoul, with a population of 9,794,304.
Archaeological findings show that the Korean Peninsula was occupied by the Lower Paleolithic period.Korean history begins with the founding of Gojoseon in 2333 BC by the legendary Dan-gun. Following the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea under Silla 668 AD, Korea went through the Goryeo Dynasty and Joseon Dynasty as one nation until the end of the Korean Empire in 1910, when it was annexed by Japan. After liberation and occupation by Soviet and U.S. forces at the end of World War II, the nation was divided into North and South Korea. The latter was established in 1948 as a democracy, though political turmoil and times of military rule and martial law characterized much of the period until the foundation of the Sixth Republic in 1987.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Spain
Spain (i/ˈspeɪn/ SPAYN; Spanish: España, pronounced: [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a sovereign state and a member of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north and north east by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. Furthermore, the town of Llívia is a Spanish exclave situated inside French territory. With an area of 504,030 square kilometres (194,610 sq mi), it is the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union after France, and the fourth largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine and France.
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Suwon
Suwon (Suwon-si; Korean pronunciation: [suwʌn]) is the provincial capital of Gyeonggi-do, South Korea. A major city of over a million inhabitants, Suwon lies approximately 30 kilometres (19 mi) south of Seoul. It is traditionally known as "The City of Filial Piety".
Suwon has existed in various forms throughout Korea's history, growing from a small settlement in tribal times to a major industrial and cultural city today. Suwon is the only remaining completely walled city in South Korea. As such, the city walls are one of the more popular tourist destinations in Gyeonggi Province. As an industrial centre, Suwon houses a large Samsung Electronics factory. Suwon is served by two motorways, the national railway network and the Seoul Metropolitan Subway, facilitating transport of commuters, tourists and goods alike.
Suwon is a major educational centre, being home to 14 university campuses. This, along with widespread transport links, draws inhabitants from across the country and foreign population of 1.85%.
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Suzdal
Suzdal (Russian: Су́здаль) is a town in Vladimir Oblast, Russia, situated northeast of Moscow, 26 kilometers (16 mi) from the city of Vladimir, on the Kamenka River. Population: 10,535 (2010 Census preliminary results); 11,357 (2002 Census); 12,063 (1989 Census).
The history of the town dates back to at least the year 1024. It is called Sursdalar or Sudrdala (the southern valley) in the Norse Sagas - which probably also is the origin of the town's name. For centuries it functioned as the capital of several Russian principalities. It forms part of the Golden Ring. It was granted city status in 1777.
After a decline in political importance, the town rose in prominence as a religious center with numerous monasteries and a remarkable ratio of churches to citizens: at one point, forty churches for four hundred families. Today, the town operates as an important tourist center, featuring many fine examples of old Russian architecture — most of them churches and monasteries. Walking through the town one might get the feeling that every third building is a church. Although having over ten thousand residents, Suzdal still retains the look and feel of a small village with streams and meadows everywhere nearby, and chicken and livestock a common sight on the city streets, some of which are unpaved. This juxtaposition of stunning medieval architecture with its pastoral setting lends Suzdal a picturesque charm, and in the summer artists and easels are a common sight.
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Tampere
Tampere (Finnish pronunciation: [ˈtɑmpere] ( listen); Swedish: Tammerfors [tamərˈfɔrs] or [tamərˈfɔʂ]) is a city in southern Finland. It is the most populous inland city in any of the Nordic countries. The city has a population of 215,315, growing to approximately 300,000 people in the conurbation and over 340,000 in the metropolitan area. Tampere is the third most-populous municipality in Finland, after the Greater Helsinki municipalities of Helsinki and Espoo. In 2007, the entire Pirkanmaa region had around 470,000 residents, of which 230,000 were employed, and a turnover of 25 billion euros.
Tampere is located between two lakes, Näsijärvi and Pyhäjärvi. Since the two lakes differ in level by 18 metres (59 ft), the rapids linking them, Tammerkoski, have been an important power source throughout history, most recently for generating electricity. Tampere is dubbed the "Manchester of Finland" for its industrial past as the former center of Finnish industry, and this has given rise to its Finnish nickname "Manse" and terms such as "Manserock".
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Tver
Tver (Russian: Тверь; IPA: [tvʲerʲ]) is a city and the administrative center of Tver Oblast, Russia. Population: 403,726 (2010 Census preliminary results); 408,903 (2002 Census); 450,941 (1989 Census).
Located north of Moscow, Tver was formerly the capital of a powerful medieval state and a model provincial town in the Russian Empire, with a population of 60,000 on January 14, 1913. It is situated at the confluence of the Volga and Tvertsa Rivers. The city was known as Kalinin (Кали́нин) from 1931 to 1990.
The first written record of Tver is dated 1135.[citation needed] Originally a minor settlement of Novgorodian traders, it passed to the Grand Prince of Vladimir in 1209. In 1246, Alexander Nevsky granted it to his younger brother Yaroslav Yaroslavich (d. 1271), from whom a dynasty of local princes descended. Four of them were killed by the Golden Horde and were proclaimed saints by the Russian Orthodox church.
Formerly a land of woods and bogs, the Principality of Tver was quickly transformed into one of the richest and most populous Russian states. As the area was hardly accessible for Tatar raids, there was a great influx of population from the recently devastated South. By the end of the century, it was ready to vie with Moscow for supremacy in Russia. Both Tver and Moscow were young cities, so the outcome of their rivalry was far from being certain.
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Ufa
Ufa (Russian: Уфа́; IPA: [ʊˈfa]; Bashkir: Өфө) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia. It is the industrial, economic, scientific and cultural center of the republic. Population: 1,062,300 (2010 Census preliminary results); 1,042,437 (2002 Census); 1,082,052 (1989 Census).
The newspaper English Russia and the President of Bashkortostan coined Ufa as the Muslim centre of Russia.
The city began as a fortress built on the orders of Ivan the Terrible in 1574, and originally bore the name of the hill it stood on, Tura-Tau. It was granted town status in 1586.
In the 18th century Ufa evolved into an administrative, trading, manufacturing and cultural center of Russia. Ufa Municipal Public Bank was established on December 15, 1876.
In 1918, Ufa was the residence of the Provisional All-Russian Government.
On June 14, 1922, the Decree of the All-Union Central Executive Committee abolished Ufa Governorate, and Ufa became the capital of the Bashkir Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Ukraine
Ukraine (i/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Veliky Novgorod
Veliky Novgorod (Russian: Вели́кий Но́вгород; IPA: [vʲɪˈlʲikʲɪj ˈnovɡərət]) is one of the most important historic cities in Russia which serves as the administrative center of Novgorod Oblast. It is situated on the M10 federal highway connecting Moscow and St. Petersburg. The city lies along the Volkhov River just downstream from its outflow from Lake Ilmen. Population: 218,724 (2010 Census preliminary results); 216,856 (2002 Census); 229,126 (1989 Census).
Novgorod is among the oldest cities of Russia, founded in the 9th or 10th century. The Sofia First Chronicle first mentions it in 859; the Novgorod First Chronicle mentions it first under the year 862 when it was allegedly already a major station on the trade route from the Baltics to Byzantium.[citation needed]
Archaeological excavations in the middle to late 20th century, however, have found cultural layers dating back only to the late 10th century, the time of the Christianization of Rus' and a century after it was allegedly founded, suggesting that the chronicle entries mentioning Novgorod in the 850s or 860s are later interpolations.
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Vetluga
Coordinates: 57°51′N 45°47′E / 57.85°N 45.783°E / 57.85; 45.783
Vetluga (Russian: Ветлу́га) is a town and the administrative center of Vetluzhsky District of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the right bank of the Vetluga River. Population: 8,956 (2010 Census preliminary results); 9,641 (2002 Census); 10,190 (1989 Census).
It was founded in 1636 and granted town status in 1778.
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Vladimir
Vladimir (Russian: Влади́мир; IPA: [vlɐˈdʲimʲɪr]) is a city and the administrative center of Vladimir Oblast, Russia, located on the Klyazma River, 200 kilometers (120 mi) to the east of Moscow along the M7 motorway. Population: 345,598 (2010 Census preliminary results); 315,954 (2002 Census); 349,702 (1989 Census).
Vladimir was one of the medieval capitals of Russia, and two of its cathedrals are a World Heritage Site. It is served by the Semyazino Airport, and during the Cold War Vladimir was host to Dobrynskoye air base.
The area occupied by the city of Vladimir has been inhabited by humans (at least intermittently) for approximately 25,000 years (see Sungir). Traditionally, the founding date of Vladimir has been acknowledged as 1108, as the first mention of Vladimir in the Primary Chronicle appears under that year. This view attributes the founding of the city, and its name, to Vladimir Monomakh, who inherited the region as part of the Rostov-Suzdal Principality in 1093. In 1958, the 850th anniversary of the city foundation was celebrated, with many monuments from the celebrations adorning the city squares.
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Vorsma
Coordinates: 55°59′08″N 43°16′18″E / 55.9856°N 43.2717°E / 55.9856; 43.2717
Vorsma (Russian: Ворсма) is a town in Pavlovsky District of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the Kishma River (Oka's tributary), 71 kilometers (44 mi) southwest of Nizhny Novgorod. Population: 11,622 (2010 Census preliminary results); 12,629 (2002 Census); 13,648 (1989 Census).
The village of Vorsma was first mentioned in the 16th century. It was granted town status in 1955.
Vorsma
Kazan Church
Memorial to WWII
Church of John The Baptist
Lake Island S.Trinity Monastery
Primary School
Medical tools factory
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Vyksa
Vyksa (Russian: Выкса) is a town in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Russia, located on the Oka River 186 kilometers (116 mi) southwest of Nizhny Novgorod. Population: 56,196 (2010 Census preliminary results); 61,657 (2002 Census); 61,149 (1989 Census).
It was founded in 1765; town status was granted to it in 1934.
Administratively, along with twenty-nine rural localities, it is incorporated as the town of oblast significance of Vyksa—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.Municipally, the town of oblast significance of Vyksa is incorporated as Vyksa Urban Okrug.
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Yaroslavl
Yaroslavl (Russian: Яросла́вль; IPA: [jɪrɐˈslavlʲ]) is a city and the administrative center of Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia, located 250 kilometers (160 mi) northeast of Moscow. The historic part of the city, a World Heritage Site, is located at the confluence of the Volga and the Kotorosl Rivers. It is one of the Golden Ring cities, a group of historic cities northeast of Moscow that has played an important role in Russian history. Population: 591,486 (2010 Census preliminary results); 613,088 (2002 Census); 632,991 (1989 Census).
The city lies in the eastern portion of Yaroslavl Oblast. The nearest large towns are Tutayev (34 kilometers or 21 miles to the northwest), Gavrilov-Yam (37 kilometers or 23 miles to the south), and Nerekhta (47 kilometers or 29 miles to the southeast). The historic center of Yaroslavl lies to the north of the mouth of the Kotorosl River on the right bank of the larger Volga River. The city's entire urban area covers around 205 square kilometers (79 sq mi)[citation needed] and includes a number of territories south of the Kotorosl and on the left bank of the Volga. With over 600,000 residents, Yaroslavl is, by population, the largest town on the Volga until it reaches Nizhny Novgorod. It is a large transport node, and a great number of important national and regional roads, railways, and waterways pass through the city. In fact many of the roads that connect Yaroslavl to Moscow and beyond are two-lane highways.
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Yekaterinburg
Yekaterinburg (Russian: Екатеринбу́рг; IPA: [jɪkətʲɪrʲɪnˈburk], also romanized Ekaterinburg) is the fourth-largest city in Russia with a population of 1,398,889 (2012). Yekaterinburg is situated in the middle of the Eurasian continent, on the border of Europe and Asia.
Yekaterinburg is the administrative centre of Sverdlovsk Oblast and the main industrial and cultural center of the Ural Federal District. Between 1924 and 1991, the city was named Sverdlovsk (Свердло́вск) after the Communist party leader Yakov Sverdlov.
Internationally Yekaterinburg is best known as a city where the last Russian Tsar Nicholas II and his family were executed in 1918.
The city was founded in 1723 by Vasily Tatischev and Georg Wilhelm de Gennin and named after Tsar Peter the Great's wife Catherine I (Yekaterina). The official date of the city's foundation is November 18, 1723. It was granted town status in 1796.
Soon after the Russian Revolution, on July 17, 1918, Tsar Nicholas II, his wife, Alexandra, and their children Grand Duchesses Olga, Tatiana, Maria, Anastasia, and Tsarevich Alexei were murdered by the Bolsheviks at the Ipatiev House in this city. Other members of the Romanov family were killed at Alapayevsk the day after. In 1977, the Ipatiev House was demolished by order of Boris Yeltsin, to prevent it from being used as a rallying location for monarchists. He later became the first President of Russia and represented the people at the funeral of the Tsar in 1998.
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Andrei Sakharov
Andrei Dmitrievich Sakharov (Russian: Андре́й Дми́триевич Са́харов; May 21, 1921 – December 14, 1989) was a Soviet nuclear physicist, dissident and human rights activist.
He gained renown as the designer of the Soviet Union's Third Idea, a codename for Soviet development of thermonuclear weapons. Sakharov was an advocate of civil liberties and civil reforms in the Soviet Union. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. The Sakharov Prize, which is awarded annually by the European Parliament for people and organizations dedicated to human rights and freedoms, is named in his honor.
Sakharov was born in Moscow on May 21, 1921. His father was Dmitri Ivanovich Sakharov, a private school physics teacher and an amateur pianist. His father later taught at the Second Moscow State University. Dmitri's grandfather Ivan had been a prominent lawyer in Tsarist Russia who had displayed respect for social awareness and humanitarian principles (including advocating the abolition of capital punishment) that would later influence his grandson. Sakharov's mother was Yekaterina Alekseyevna Sakharova (née Sofianos and of Greek ancestry). His parents and his paternal grandmother, Maria Petrovna, largely shaped Sakharov's personality. Although his paternal great-grandfather had been a priest in the Russian Orthodox Church, and his pious mother did have him baptised, his father was an atheist and religion did not play an important role in his life, though he did believe that a non-scientific "guiding principle" governed the universe and human life.
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Austria
Austria (i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] ( listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Bernardo Bellotto
Bernardo Bellotto (ca. 1721/2 – 17 October 1780) was a Venetian urban landscape painter or vedutista, and printmaker in etching famous for his vedutes of European cities (Dresden, Vienna, Turin and Warsaw). He was the pupil and nephew of Canaletto and sometimes used the latter's illustrious name, signing himself as Bernardo Canaletto. Especially in Germany, paintings attributed to Canaletto may actually be by Bellotto rather than by his uncle; in Poland, they are by Bellotto, who is known there as "Canaletto".
Bellotto's style was characterized by elaborate representation of architectural and natural vistas, and by the specific quality of each place's lighting. It is plausible that Bellotto, and other Venetian masters of vedute, may have used the camera obscura in order to achieve superior precision of urban views.
Bellotto was born in Venice, the son of Lorenzo Antonio Bellotto and Fiorenza Canal, sister of the famous Canaletto, and studied in his uncle's workshop.
In 1742 he moved to Rome, where he produced vedute of that city. In 1744 and 1745 he traveled northern Italy, again depicting vedute of each city. Among others, he worked for Charles Emmanuel III of Savoy.
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Boris Kustodiev
Boris Mikhaylovich Kustodiev (Russian: Бори́с Миха́йлович Кусто́диев) (March 7, 1878–May 28, 1927) was a Russian painter and stage designer.
Boris Kustodiev was born in Astrakhan into the family of a professor of philosophy, history of literature, and logic at the local theological seminary. His father died young, and all financial and material burdens fell on his mother's shoulders. The Kustodiev family rented a small wing in a rich merchant's house. It was there that the boy's first impressions were formed of the way of life of the provincial merchant class. The artist later wrote, "The whole tenor of the rich and plentiful merchant way of life was there right under my nose... It was like something out of an Ostrovsky play." The artist retained these childhood observations for years, recreating them later in oils and water-colours.
Between 1893 and 1896, Boris studied in theological seminary and took private art lessons in Astrakhan from Pavel Vlasov, a pupil of Vasily Perov. Subsequently, from 1896 to 1903, he attended Ilya Repin’s studio at the Imperial Academy of Arts in St. Petersburg. Concurrently, he took classes in sculpture under Dmitry Stelletsky and in etching under Vasiliy Mate. He first exhibited in 1896.
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Crimean Tatars
Crimean Tatars (sg. Qırımtatar, pl. Qırımtatarlar) or Crimeans (sg. Qırım, Qırımlı, pl. Qırımlar, Qırımlılar) are a Turkic ethnic group that originally resided in Crimea. They speak the Crimean Tatar language. They are not to be confused with the Volga Tatars.
In modern times, in addition to living in Crimea, Ukraine, there is a large diaspora of Crimean Tatars in Turkey, Romania, Bulgaria, Uzbekistan, Western Europe, the Middle East and North America, as well as small communities in Finland, Lithuania, Russia, Belarus and Poland. (See Crimean Tatar diaspora)
Today, more than 240,000 Crimean Tatars live in Crimea and about 150,000 remain in exile in Central Asia, mainly in Uzbekistan. There is an unspecified number of people of Crimean Tatar origin living in Turkey, descendants of those who emigrated in the 19th and early 20th centuries. In the Dobruja region straddling Romania and Bulgaria, there are more than 27,000 Crimean Tatars: 24,000 on the Romanian side, and 3,000 on the Bulgarian side[citation needed].
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Dmitry Pozharsky
Dmitry Mikhaylovich Pozharsky (Russian: Дмитрий Михайлович Пожарский) (October 17, 1577 - April 30, 1642) was a Rurikid prince, who led Russia's struggle for independence against Polish-Lithuanian invasion known as the Time of Troubles. He obtained from Mikhail I of Russia the unprecedented title Saviour of the Motherland.
Pozharsky was descended from a dynasty of sovereign princes which ruled the town of Starodub-on-the-Klyazma near Suzdal. At one point in the 15th century their family patrimony burned to the ground, in consequence of which event they assumed the name of Pozharsky (from pozhar, the Russian word for conflagration). It is interesting to note that Dmitry's mother came from the Beklemishev family, just like the mother of Mikhail Kutuzov, who would be credited with saving Russia precisely two centuries after him.
The family was never particularly prominent, and Pozharsky's early career was not documented until he took part in the Zemsky sobor which elected Boris Godunov to the throne in 1598. Four years later, he was attested as a stolnik. When the Time of Troubles broke out upon Godunov's death, he was present at the defense of Kolomna (1608) and helped Vasily IV during the Siege of Moscow in 1609. Later that year, he routed the Bolotnikov Cossacks at the Pekhorka River. In 1610, Pozharsky was in command at the defense of Zaraysk against the forces of False Dmitry II.
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Edigu
Edigu (or Edigey) (also İdegäy or Edege Mangit) (1352–1419) was a Mongol Muslim Emir of the White Horde who founded the new political entity, which came to be known as the Nogai Horde. Edigu was famous Manghit paternal origin and Jochid maternal origin, who founded the Nogai dynasty.
Edigu was from the Crimean Manghud tribe, the son of Baltychak, a Mongol noble who was defeated and killed by Khan Tokhtamysh of the Golden Horde in 1378. He gained fame as a highly successful general of Tokhtamysh before turning the arms against his master. By 1396, he was a sovereign ruler of a large area stretching between the Volga and Ural (known locally as Yayyk) rivers, which would later be called the Nogai Horde.
In 1397 Edigu allied himself with Timur-Qutlugh and was appointed General and commander-in-chief of the Golden Horde armies. In 1399 he inflicted a crushing defeat on Tokhtamysh and Vytautas of Lithuania at the Vorskla River. Thereupon he managed to unite under his rule all Jochi's lands, albeit for the last time in history.
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Henry Ford
Henry Ford (July 30, 1863 – April 7, 1947) was an American industrialist, the founder of the Ford Motor Company, and sponsor of the development of the assembly line technique of mass production. His introduction of the Model T automobile revolutionized transportation and American industry. As owner of the Ford Motor Company, he became one of the richest and best-known people in the world. Ford spent most of his life making headlines, good, bad, but never indifferent. Celebrated as both a technological genius and a folk hero, Ford was the creative force behind an industry of unprecedented size and wealth that in only a few decades permanently changed the economic and social character of the United States. He is credited with "Fordism": mass production of inexpensive goods coupled with high wages for workers. Ford had a global vision, with consumerism as the key to peace. His intense commitment to systematically lowering costs resulted in many technical and business innovations, including a franchise system that put dealerships throughout most of North America and in major cities on six continents. Ford left most of his vast wealth to the Ford Foundation but arranged for his family to control the company permanently.
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Ivan Aivazovsky
Ivan Konstantinovich Aivazovsky (Armenian: Հովհաննես Այվազովսկի – Hovhannes Aivasovsky, originally Aivazian, Russian: Иван Константинович Айвазовский) July 29, 1817 – May 5, 1900) was a Russian world-renowned painter of Armenian descent living and working in Crimea, most famous for his seascapes, which constitute more than half of his paintings. Aivazovsky is widely considered as one of the greatest seascape painters of all times.
Aivazovsky was born in the town of Feodosiya (Theodosia), Crimea (Russian Empire) to a poor Armenian family. His brother was the Armenian Archbishop Gabriel Aivazovsky. His family moved to the Crimea from Galicia (then in southern Poland, now in Ukraine) in 1812. His parents' family name was Aivazian but in Poland it was written Haivazian. Some of the artist's paintings bear a signature, in Armenian letters, "Hovhannes Aivazian" (Հովհաննես Այվազյան). His father taught him to play the violin and speak Polish and Ukrainian fluently. His talent as an artist earned him sponsorship and entry to the Simferopol gymnasium №1 and later the St.Petersburg Academy of Arts, which he graduated with a gold medal. Earning awards for his early landscapes and seascapes, he went on to paint a series of portraits of Crimean coastal towns before travelling throughout Europe. In later life, his paintings of naval scenes earned him a long-standing commission from the Russian Navy stationed in the Black Sea.
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Ivan Kramskoi
Ivan Nikolaevich Kramskoi (June 8 (O.S. May 27), 1837, Ostrogozhsk – April 6 (O.S. March 24), 1887, Saint Petersburg; Russian: Ива́н Никола́евич Крамско́й) was a Russian painter and art critic. He was an intellectual leader of the Russian democratic art movement in 1860-1880.
Kramskoi came from a poor petty-bourgeois family. From 1857 to 1863 he studied at the St. Petersburg Academy of Arts; he reacted against academic art and was an initiator of the "revolt of fourteen" which ended with the expulsion from the Academy of a group of its graduates, who organized the Artel of Artists ("Артель художников").
Influenced by the ideas of the Russian revolutionary democrats, Kramskoi asserted the high public duty of the artist, principles of realism, and the moral substance and nationality of art. He became one of the main founders and ideologists of the Company of Itinerant Art Exhibitions (or Peredvizhniki). In 1863–1868 he taught at the drawing school of a society for the promotion of applied arts. He created a gallery of portraits of important Russian writers, scientists, artists and public figures (Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy, 1873, Ivan Shishkin, 1873, Pavel Mikhailovich Tretyakov, 1876, Mikhail Saltykov-Shchedrin, 1879, Sergei Botkin, 1880) in which expressive simplicity of composition and clarity of depiction emphasize profound psychological elements of character. Kramskoi's democratic ideals found their brightest expression in his portraits of peasants, which portrayed a wealth of character-details in representatives of the common people.
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Ivan Shishkin
Ivan Ivanovich Shishkin (Russian: Ива́н Ива́нович Ши́шкин; 25 January 1832 – 20 March 1898) was a Russian landscape painter closely associated with the Peredvizhniki movement.
Shishkin was born in Yelabuga of Vyatka Governorate (today Republic of Tatarstan), and graduated from the Kazan gymnasium. Then he studied at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture for 4 years, attended the Saint Petersburg Imperial Academy of Arts from 1856 to 1860,which he graduated with the highest honours and a gold medal. He received the Imperial scholarship for his further studies in Europe. Five years later Shishkin became a member of the Imperial Academy in St. Petersburg and was professor of painting from 1873 to 1898. At the same time, Shishkin headed the landscape painting class at the Highest Art School in St. Petersburg.
For some time, Shishkin lived and worked in Switzerland and Germany on scholarship from the St. Petersburg Imperial Academy of Arts. On his return to Saint Petersburg, he became a member of the Circle of the Itinerants and of the Society of Russian Watercolorists. He also took part in exhibitions at the Academy of Arts, the All Russian Exhibition in Moscow (1882), the Nizhniy Novgorod (1896), and the World Fairs (Paris, 1867 and 1878, and Vienna, 1873). Shishkin's painting method was based on analytical studies of nature. He became famous for his forest landscapes, and was also an outstanding draftsman and a printmaker.
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Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин; born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили; 18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and later held the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While the office of the General Secretary was officially elective and not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state, Stalin managed to use it to consolidate more and more power in his hands after the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 and gradually put down all opposition groups within the Communist Party. This included Leon Trotsky, a socialist theorist and the principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders, who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Whereas Trotsky was an exponent of permanent revolution, it was Stalin's concept of socialism in one country that became the primary focus of Soviet politics.
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Kazimir Malevich
Kazimir Severinovich Malevich (Russian: Казимир Северинович Малевич [kɐzʲɪˈmʲir sʲɪvʲɪˈrʲinəvʲɪt͡ɕ mɐˈlʲevʲɪt͡ɕ], Polish: Kazimierz Malewicz, Ukrainian: Казимир Северинович Малевич [kazɪˈmɪr sɛwɛˈrɪnɔwɪtʃ mɑˈlɛwɪtʃ], German: Kasimir Malewitsch, (February 23, 1879, previously 1878: see below – May 15, 1935) was a Russian painter and art theoretician. He was a pioneer of geometric abstract art and the originator of the Avant-garde Suprematist movement.
Kazimir Malevich was born near Kiev in the Kiev Governorate of the Russian Empire (today Ukraine). His parents, Seweryn and Ludwika Malewicz, were ethnic Poles who had fled to Ukraine in the aftermath of the January Uprising of 1863 and he was baptised in the Roman Catholic Church. His father managed a sugar factory. Kazimir was the first of 14 children, only nine of whom survived into adulthood. His family moved often and he spent most of his childhood in the villages of Ukraine amidst sugar-beet plantations, far from centers of culture. Until age 12 he knew nothing of professional artists, though art had surrounded him in childhood. He delighted in peasant embroidery, and in decorated walls and stoves. He himself was able to paint in the peasant style. He studied drawing in Kiev from 1895 to 1896.
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Kuzma Minin
Kuzma (Kozma) Minin (Russian: Кузьма (Козьма) Минин; full name Kuzma Minich Zakhariev-Sukhoruky, Russian: Кузьма Минич Захарьев Сухорукий;; ? – 1616) was a Russian merchant from Nizhny Novgorod, Russia, who, together with Prince Dmitry Pozharsky, became a national hero for his role in defending the country against the Polish invasion in the early-17th century.
A native of Balakhna, Minin was a prosperous butcher (meat trader) in the city of Nizhny Novgorod. When the popular patriotic movement to organize volunteer corps in his home city was formed, the merchants chose Minin, a trusted and respected member of the guild, to oversee the handling of the public funds donated by them to raise and equip the Second Volunteer Army (Второе народное ополчение).
The army led by prince Dmitry Pozharsky was credited with clearing the Moscow Kremlin of Polish-Lithuanian forces on November 1, 1612. Minin distinguished himself as a skilled commander and was made a nobleman and member of the Boyar Duma under the newly elected Tsar Michael Romanov. He died in 1616 and was interred in the Archangel Cathedral of Nizhny Novgorod. A central square of that city is named after him and Prince Pozharsky.
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Maxim Gorky
Alexei Maximovich Peshkov (Russian: Алексе́й Макси́мович Пешко́в; 28 March [O.S. 16 March] 1868 – 18 June 1936), primarily known as Maxim Gorky (Russian: Макси́м Го́рький), was a Russian and Soviet author, a founder of the Socialist Realism literary method and a political activist.
Gorky was born in Nizhny Novgorod and became an orphan at the age of nine. In 1880, at the age of twelve, he ran away from home in an effort to find his grandmother. Gorky was brought up by his grandmother. Her death deeply affected him, and after an attempt at suicide in December 1887, he travelled on foot across the Russian Empire for five years, changing jobs and accumulating impressions used later in his writing.
As a journalist working for provincial newspapers, he wrote under the pseudonym Иегудиил Хламида (Jehudiel Khlamida). The name is suggestive of "cloak-and-dagger" by the similarity to the Greek chlamys, "cloak"). He began using the pseudonym Gorky (literally "bitter") in 1892, while working in Tiflis for the newspaper Кавказ (The Caucasus). The name reflected his simmering anger about life in Russia and a determination to speak the bitter truth. Gorky's first book Очерки и рассказы (Essays and Stories) in 1898 enjoyed a sensational success and his career as a writer began. Gorky wrote incessantly, viewing literature less as an aesthetic practice (though he worked hard on style and form) than as a moral and political act that could change the world. He described the lives of people in the lowest strata and on the margins of society, revealing their hardships, humiliations, and brutalization, but also their inward spark of humanity.
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Mikhail Larionov
Mikhail Fyodorovich Larionov (Russian: Михаи́л Фёдорович Ларио́нов, Tiraspol June 3, 1881 – Fontenay-aux-Roses May 10, 1964) was an avant-garde Russian painter.
Mikhail Larionov was born at Tiraspol, near Odessa in the Russian Empire. In 1898 he entered the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture under Isaac Levitan and Valentin Serov. He was suspended three times for his radical outlook. In 1900 he met Natalia Goncharova and formed a lifelong relationship with her.
From 1902 his style was Impressionism. After a visit to Paris in 1906 he moved into Post-Impressionism and then a Neo-primitive style which derived partly from Russian sign painting. In 1908 he staged the Golden Fleece exhibition in Moscow, which included paintings by international avant-garde artists such as Matisse, Derain, Braque, Gauguin and Van Gogh. Other group shows promoted by him included Tatlin, Chagall and Malevich.
Larionov was a founding member of two important Russian artistic groups Jack of Diamonds (1909–1911) and the more radical Donkey's Tail (1912–1913). He gave names to both groups. His first solo show was for one day in Moscow in 1911.
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Mátyás Rákosi
Mátyás Rákosi (March 9, 1892 – February 5, 1971) was a Hungarian communist politician. He was born Mátyás Rosenfeld in present-day Serbia. He was the de facto ruler of communist Hungary between 1945 and 1956 — first in his capacity as General Secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party (1945–1948) and later as General Secretary of the Hungarian Working People's Party (1948–1956). His rule was aligned with USSR politics during Joseph Stalin's government.
Rákosi was born in Ada, a village in Bács County in what was then the Austro-Hungarian Empire (now in Vojvodina, Serbia). Born into a Jewish family, the fourth son of a grocer (his mother would give birth to seven more children) he later repudiated religion and totally repudiated Judaism.
He served in the Austro-Hungarian Army during the First World War and was captured on the Eastern Front. After returning to Hungary, he participated in the communist government of Béla Kun; after its fall he fled, eventually to the Soviet Union. After returning to Hungary in 1924 he was imprisoned, and was released to the Soviet Union in 1940, in exchange for the Hungarian revolutionary banners captured by the Russian troops at Világos in 1849. In the Soviet Union, he became leader of the Comintern. He returned to Debrecen, Hungary, on January 30, 1945, sent by Soviet leadership, to organize the Communist Party.
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Natalia Goncharova
Natalia Sergeevna Goncharova (Russian: Ната́лья Серге́евна Гончаро́ва; IPA: [nɐˈtalʲjə sʲɪrˈɡʲejɪvnə ɡənt͡ɕɐˈrovə]; June 16, 1881 - October 17, 1962) was a Russian avant-garde artist (Cubo-Futurism), painter, costume designer, writer, illustrator, and set designer. Her great-aunt was Natalia Pushkina, wife of the poet Alexander Pushkin.
Natalia Goncharova was born in Nagaevo village near Tula, Russia in 1881. She studied sculpture at the Moscow Academy of Art, but turned to painting in 1904. She was deeply inspired by the primitive aspects of Russian folk art and attempted to emulate it in her own work while incorporating elements of fauvism and cubism. Together with her husband Mikhail Larionov she first developed Rayonism. They were the main progenitors of the pre-Revolution Russian avant-garde organising the Donkey's Tail exhibition of 1912 and showing with the Der Blaue Reiter in Munich the same year.
The Donkey's Tail was conceived as an intentional break from European art influence and the establishment of an independent Russian school of modern art. However, the influence of Russian Futurism is much in evidence in Goncharova's later paintings. Initially preoccupied with icon painting and the primitivism of ethnic Russian folk-art, Goncharova became famous in Russia for her Futurist work such as The Cyclist and her later Rayonist works. As leaders of the Moscow Futurists, they organised provocative lecture evenings in the same vein as their Italian counterparts. Goncharova was also involved with graphic design - writing and illustrating a book in Futurist style.
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Nicholas Roerich
Nicholas Roerich, also known as Nikolai Konstantinovich Rerikh (Russian: Никола́й Константи́нович Рéрих; October 9 [O.S. September 27] 1874 – December 13, 1947), was a Russian mystic, painter, philosopher, scientist, writer, traveler, and public figure. A prolific artist, he created thousands of paintings (many of them are exhibited in well-known museums of the world) and about 30 literary works. Roerich was an author and initiator of an international pact for the protection of artistic and academic institutions and historical sites (Roerich's Pact) and a founder of an international movement for the defence of culture. Roerich earned several nominations for the Nobel Prize.
Roerich in translation from the ancient Scandinavian means "rich of fame" (Rö Rich). Members of Roerich's family occupied prominent military and administrative posts in Russia since the reign of Peter I. Nicholas Roerich's father Konstantin Fedorovich was a well-known notary who was born in Courland. N. Roerich's mother Maria Vasilyevna Kalashnikova descended from a long line of merchants and traders. Among friends of the Roerich's family were such famous personalities as D. Mendeleyev, N. Kostomarov, M. Mikeshin, L. Ivanovsky et al.
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Pieter de Grebber
Pieter Fransz de Grebber (c. 1600, Haarlem–1652/3, Haarlem) was a Dutch Golden Age painter.
De Grebber was the oldest son of Frans Pietersz de Grebber (1573–1643), a painter and embroiderer in Haarlem, and the brother of the painters Maria and Albert. He learned to paint from his father and from Hendrick Goltzius. He was descended from a Catholic and artistic family and his sister Maria later became the mother-in-law of Gabriel Metsu. He was a friend of the priest and musicologist Jan Albertszoon Ban, and had a poem set to music by the Haarlem composer Cornelis Padbrué. In 1632 he became a member of the Haarlem Guild of St. Luke, but he had already been active as a painter for 10 years. His pupils were Gerbrand Ban, Nicolaes Pietersz Berchem, Egbert van Heemskerck, and Dirck Helmbreeker.
In 1618, father and son went to Antwerp and negotiated with Peter Paul Rubens over the sale of his painting "Daniel in the lions pit". It was then handed - via the English ambassador in the Republic, Sir Dudley Carleton - to king Charles I. Pieter got important commissions not only in Haarlem, but also from the stadholder Frederik Hendrik. As such, he worked on the decoration of the Huis Honselaarsdijk in Naaldwijk and at the Paleis Noordeinde in Huis ten Bosch in the Hague. He painted altar pieces for churches in Flanders and hidden Catholic churches in the Republic. He may also have worked for Danish clients.
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Purgaz
Purgaz or Inäzor Purgaz (Erzya: Пургаз (Инязор Пургаз), Russian: Пургас, Purgas) was an Erzän leader in the first half of the 13th century. He was a Grand Duke (inäzor) of Erzän Principality of Purgaz. Being an ally of the Volga Bulgaria, he resisted Suzdal Russia's expansion to the region. In later times, he became a symbol of Erzän independence and a figure of legend.
Purgaz was named in the Russian chronicles several times. In January, 1229 his army repulsed a raid of the Russian princes Yaroslav Vsevolodovich, Vasily Konstantinovich and Vsevolod Konstantinovich. Then Purgaz defeated the Mokshan prince, Puresh[citation needed]. In April, 1229 he tried to regain Nizhny Novgorod from the Russians, which was formerly the Erzyan settlement of Obran Osh. His troops burned the settlement, but the citadel stayed safe. Several months later he was defeated by Puresh. It's known that during the rule of Purgaz Russian peasants fled to his principality.
In summer 1237 he successfully resisted the advance of the Mongols, but in autumn-winter 1238-1239 he was defeated.
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Tatars
Tatars (Tatar: Tatarlar / Татарлар, sometimes spelled Tartars) are a Turkic people, numbering around 7 million. The majority of Tatars live in the Russian Federation, with a population of 5.5 million, 2 million of which in the republic of Tatarstan, 1 million in the republic of Bashkortostan and other 2.5 million in different regions of Russia. Significant minority populations are found in Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Ukraine.
The Tatars originated with the Tatar confederation in the north-eastern Gobi desert in the 5th century. After subjugation in the 9th century by the Khitans, they migrated southward. In the 13th century Mongol Empire, they were subjugated under Genghis Khan and reassigned once again particularly by his son Jochi. Under the leadership of his grandson Batu Khan, they moved westwards, forming part of the Golden Horde which dominated the Eurasian steppe during the 14th and 15th centuries. In Europe, they were assimilated by the local populations or their name spread to the conquered peoples: Kipchaks, Kimaks and others; and elsewhere with Uralic-speaking peoples, as well as with remnants of the ancient Greek colonies in the Crimea and Caucasians in the Caucasus.
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Vasili IV of Russia
Vasili IV of Russia (Russian: Василий IV Иванович Шуйский, Vasíliy Ivánovich Shúyskiy, other transliterations: Vasiliy, Vasily, Vasilii) (22 September 1552 – 12 September 1612) was Tsar of Russia between 1606 and 1610 after the murder of False Dmitriy I. His reign fell during the Time of Troubles.
Born Prince Vasily Ivanovich Shuisky, he was descended from sovereign princes of Nizhny Novgorod and a 20th generation male line descendant of the Varangian prince Rurik. He was one of the leading boyars of Tsardom of Russia during the reigns of Feodor I and Boris Godunov. In all the court intrigues of the Time of Troubles, Vasily and his younger brother Dmitry Shuisky usually acted together and fought as one.
It was he who, in obedience to the secret orders of Tsar Boris, went to Uglich to inquire into the cause of the death of the Tsarevich Dmitry Ivanovich, the youngest son of Ivan the Terrible, who had perished there in mysterious circumstances. Shuisky reported that it was a case of suicide, though rumors abounded that the Tsarevich had been assassinated on the orders of the regent Boris Godunov. Some suspected that Dmitry escaped the assassination and that another boy was killed in his place, providing impetus for the repeated appearance of impostors (See False Dmitry I, False Dmitry II, and False Dmitry III). On the death of Boris, who had become tsar, and the accession of his son Feodor II, Shuisky went back upon his own words in order to gain favour with the pretender False Dmitriy I, who was attempting to gain the throne by impersonating the dead Tsarevich. Shuisky recognized the pretender as the "real" Dmitry despite having earlier determined the boy had committed suicide, thus bringing about the assassination of the young Feodor.
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Vasily Surikov
Vasily Ivanovich Surikov (Васи́лий Ива́нович Су́риков) (January 24, 1848 (Julian calendar: January 12) – March 19, 1916 (Julian calendar: March 6)) was the foremost Russian painter of large-scale historical subjects. His major pieces are among the best-known paintings in Russia.
Surikov was born in Krasnoyarsk, Siberia, where a monument to him was recently opened by his great-grandsons, Nikita Mikhalkov and Andrei Konchalovsky. In 1869-1871 he studied under Pavel Chistyakov at the Imperial Academy of Arts.
In 1877, Surikov settled in Moscow, where he contributed some imposing frescoes to the Cathedral of Christ the Savior. In 1878 he married Elizabeth Charais, a granddaughter of the Decembrist Svistunov. In 1881 he joined the Peredvizhniki movement. From 1893 he was a full member of the St.Petersburg Academy of Arts. Surikov was interred at the Vagankovskoye Cemetery in Moscow.
Morning of Streltsy's execution
Feodosia Morozova
Bronze horseman
Menshikov in Berezov
Storm of Snow Fortress
March of Suvorov through the Alps
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Viktor Vasnetsov
Viktor Mikhaylovich Vasnetsov (Russian: Ви́ктор Миха́йлович Васнецо́в; Lop'jal near Vyatka, May 15 (N.S.), 1848 — Moscow, July 23, 1926) was a Russian artist who specialized in mythological and historical subjects. He was described as co-founder of folklorist/romantic modernism in the Russian painting and a key figure of the revivalist movement in Russian art.
Viktor Vasnetsov was born in a remote village Lopyal of Vyatka guberniya in 1848, the second of the six children. His father Mikhail Vasilievich Vasnetsov, a village priest, was a well-educated 'philosophy-inclined' man interested in natural science, astronomy and painting. His grandfather was an icon painter. Two of Mikhail Vasnetsov's three sons, Viktor and Apollinary, became remarkable painters, the third one becoming a schoolteacher. It was in Lopyal that Viktor started to paint, mostly landscapce and village life scenes. Recalling his childhood in a letter to Vladimir Stasov, Vasnetsov remarked that he "had lived with peasant children and liked them not as a narodnik but as a friend".
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Vladimir Shukhov
Vladimir Grigoryevich Shukhov (Russian: Влади́мир Григо́рьевич Шу́хов; August 28 [O.S. August 16] 1853 – February 2, 1939) was a Russian engineer-polymath, scientist and architect renowned for his pioneering works on new methods of analysis for structural engineering that led to breakthroughs in industrial design of world's first hyperboloid structures,lattice shell structures,tensile structures,gridshell structures,oil reservoirs, pipelines, boilers, ships and barges.
Besides the innovations he brought to the oil industry and the construction of numerous bridges and buildings, Shukhov was the inventor of a new family of doubly curved structural forms. These forms, based on non-Euclidean hyperbolic geometry, are known today as hyperboloids of revolution. Shukhov developed not only many varieties of light-weight hyperboloid towers and roof systems, but also the mathematics for their analysis. Shukhov is particularly reputed for his original designs of hyperboloid towers such as the Shukhov Tower.
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Walter Reuther
Walter Philip Reuther (September 1, 1907 – May 9, 1970) was an American labor union leader, who made the United Automobile Workers a major force not only in the auto industry but also in the Democratic Party in the mid 20th century. He was a socialist in the early 1930s becoming a leading liberal and supporter of the New Deal coalition.
Reuther was born in Wheeling, West Virginia on September 1 ,1907, the son of a socialist brewery worker who had immigrated from Germany. Throughout his career he was close to his brothers and co-workers Victor Reuther and Roy Reuther. Reuther joined the Ford Motor Company in 1927 as an expert tool and die maker but was laid off in 1932 as the Great Depression worsened. His Ford employment record states that he quit voluntarily, but Reuther himself always maintained that he was fired for his increasingly visible socialist activities. He and his brothers went to Europe and then worked 1933-35 in an auto plant at Gorky in the Soviet Union. While a committed socialist, he never became a Communist. At the end of the trip he wrote, "the atmosphere of freedom and security, shop meetings with their proletarian industrial democracy; all these things make an inspiring contrast to what we know as Ford wage slaves in Detroit. What we have experienced here has reeducated us along new and more practical lines." Unhappy with the lack of political freedom in Russia, Reuther returned to the United States where he found employment at General Motors and became an active member of the United Automobile Workers (UAW).
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Wassily Kandinsky
Wassily Wassilyevich Kandinsky /kænˈdɪnski/ (Russian: Васи́лий Васи́льевич Канди́нский, Vasilij Vasil'evič Kandinskij, Russian pronunciation: [vaˈsʲilʲɪj kɐnˈdʲinskʲɪj]; 16 December [O.S. 4 December] 1866 – 13 December 1944) was an influential Russian painter and art theorist. He is credited with painting the first purely abstract works. Born in Moscow, Kandinsky spent his childhood in Odessa. He enrolled at the University of Moscow, studying law and economics. Successful in his profession—he was offered a professorship (chair of Roman Law) at the University of Dorpat—he began painting studies (life-drawing, sketching and anatomy) at the age of 30.
In 1896 Kandinsky settled in Munich, studying first at Anton Ažbe's private school and then at the Academy of Fine Arts. He returned to Moscow in 1914, after the outbreak of World War I. Kandinsky was unsympathetic to the official theories on art in Moscow, and returned to Germany in 1921. There, he taught at the Bauhaus school of art and architecture from 1922 until the Nazis closed it in 1933. He then moved to France where he lived the rest of his life, becoming a French citizen in 1939. He died at Neuilly-sur-Seine in 1944.
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Yuri II of Vladimir
Yuri II (Russian: Ю́рий–II), also known as George II of Vladimir or Georgy II Vsevolodovich (1189 – 4 March 1238), was the fourth Grand Prince of Vladimir (1212–1216, 1218–1238) who presided over Vladimir-Suzdal at the time of the Mongol invasion of Russia.
He was the third and best-loved son of Vsevolod III and Maria Shvarnovna.
He first distinguished himself in the battles against Ryazan in 1208. His father wanted Yuri to inherit Rostov and his elder brother Konstantin to succeed him in Vladimir. The latter, however, declared that he would rule both towns or nothing at all. Thereupon Vsevolod disinherited Konstantin and passed the throne to Yuri.
After Vsevolod's death, Konstantin allied himself with Mstislav the Bold and defeated Yuri and his other brothers on the Lipitsa River. Having gained Vladimir, Konstantin sent Yuri to rule Rostov and Yaroslavl. Two years later Konstantin died, and Yuri was allowed to return to Vladimir.
During his reign in Vladimir, Yuri waged several wars against Volga Bulgaria and founded the fortress of Nizhny Novgorod on the Volga River to secure the area from Bulgarian attacks. He installed his younger brother Yaroslav in Novgorod. When the Mongols first approached Russia in 1223, he sent a small unit against them, but it arrived too late to take part in the disastrous Battle of the Kalka River.
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Nizhny Novgorod, My City Нижний Новгород, Мой Город
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:46
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
This is a video dedicated to Nizhny Novgorod! It is my hometown and a beautiful place too! The music I chose for this video is Kino - Dozhd' Dlya Nas, which ...
http://wn.com/Nizhny_Novgorod,_My_City_Нижний_Новгород,_Мой_Город
This is a video dedicated to Nizhny Novgorod! It is my hometown and a beautiful place too! The music I chose for this video is Kino - Dozhd' Dlya Nas, which ...
Nizhny Novgorod
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:17
- Updated: 19 Feb 2013
Nizhny Novgorod ( Old Soviet Name: Gorky ) is the Capital of the Volga Federal District of the Russian Federation, it is one of the oldest cities of Russia ,...
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Nizhny Novgorod ( Old Soviet Name: Gorky ) is the Capital of the Volga Federal District of the Russian Federation, it is one of the oldest cities of Russia ,...
- published: 14 Dec 2009
- views: 11114
- author: RussianDefender100
Nizhny Novgorod, Russia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:27
- Updated: 15 Feb 2013
Nizhny Novgorod, Russia.
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Nijni Novgorod
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:25
- Updated: 14 Oct 2012
Voyage à Nijni Novgorod, une jolie ville située à l'est de Moscou.
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Voyage à Nijni Novgorod, une jolie ville située à l'est de Moscou.
- published: 25 Apr 2012
- views: 1366
- author: LaRussieTV
Nizhny novgorod party!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:55
- Updated: 22 Feb 2013
nice time :3.
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Nizhniy Novgorod Airport landing
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:09
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
Landing in Nizhniy Novgorod Airport Strigino (UWGG). Aeroflot Airbus 320.
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Landing in Nizhniy Novgorod Airport Strigino (UWGG). Aeroflot Airbus 320.
- published: 12 Dec 2011
- views: 2041
- author: Evgeny K
Nizhny Novgorod & Moscu Tour
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:49
- Updated: 15 Feb 2013
Video fotografico de Moscu y Nizhny Novgorod realizado por Jose Antonio Lozano Rodriguez. Asociacion de amigos de Gorki. www.facebook.com/amicsdegorki (Entra...
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Video fotografico de Moscu y Nizhny Novgorod realizado por Jose Antonio Lozano Rodriguez. Asociacion de amigos de Gorki. www.facebook.com/amicsdegorki (Entra...
- published: 31 Jul 2006
- views: 28435
- author: Jose Antonio
Sukhoi Super Jet landing in Nizhny Novgorod (GOJ), 18.06.2011 Aeroflot RA-89001
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:35
- Updated: 16 Jan 2013
Sukhoi Super Jet landing in Nizhny NovgorodGOJ 18.062011 Aeroflot RA89001. rulavan83 videos. Subscribe Subscribed Unsubscribe 206. 11615. Like 50 Dislike 1. Like .... Sukhoi Super Jet bumpy takeoff from Nizhny NovgorodGOJ 19.062011 Aeroflot RA89001by rulavan 4826 views · 226. Watch Later Superjetby Flightglobal 3096 views · 111. Watch Later Sukhoi Superjet landing at GOJby Nikmsu 3297 views · 300. Watch Later Я летаю Суперджет 100by vladis6812 21412 views · 506. Watch Later ...
http://wn.com/Sukhoi_Super_Jet_landing_in_Nizhny_Novgorod_GOJ,_18062011_Aeroflot_RA-89001
Sukhoi Super Jet landing in Nizhny NovgorodGOJ 18.062011 Aeroflot RA89001. rulavan83 videos. Subscribe Subscribed Unsubscribe 206. 11615. Like 50 Dislike 1. Like .... Sukhoi Super Jet bumpy takeoff from Nizhny NovgorodGOJ 19.062011 Aeroflot RA89001by rulavan 4826 views · 226. Watch Later Superjetby Flightglobal 3096 views · 111. Watch Later Sukhoi Superjet landing at GOJby Nikmsu 3297 views · 300. Watch Later Я летаю Суперджет 100by vladis6812 21412 views · 506. Watch Later ...
- published: 19 Jun 2011
- views: 11502
- author: RuLavan
Nizhny Novgorod - Russia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:24
- Updated: 27 Jan 2013
Nizhny Novgorod in Russia. This ancient town lies at the confluence of two rivers,the mighty Volga and her tributary, the Oka. During the Soviet years, the c...
http://wn.com/Nizhny_Novgorod_Russia
Nizhny Novgorod in Russia. This ancient town lies at the confluence of two rivers,the mighty Volga and her tributary, the Oka. During the Soviet years, the c...
- published: 01 Apr 2009
- views: 11982
- author: Nigel Fowler Sutton
Nizhny Novgorod Region
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:01
- Updated: 12 Jan 2013
The Nizhny Novgorod Region is located in central Russia on the Volga River and its confluents. The region's capital, Nizhny Novgorod , is rightfully consider...
http://wn.com/Nizhny_Novgorod_Region
The Nizhny Novgorod Region is located in central Russia on the Volga River and its confluents. The region's capital, Nizhny Novgorod , is rightfully consider...
- published: 18 Apr 2012
- views: 3009
- author: RUSTOURISM
Group A AA Individuals European Championship Nizhny Novgorod 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 138:49
- Updated: 18 Feb 2013
http://recintomoxo.net.
http://wn.com/Group_A_AA_Individuals_European_Championship_Nizhny_Novgorod_2012
Group A AA Individuals European Championship Nizhny Novgorod 2012 GOOD QUALITY
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 124:16
- Updated: 05 Feb 2013
http://recintomoxo.net.
http://wn.com/Group_A_AA_Individuals_European_Championship_Nizhny_Novgorod_2012_GOOD_QUALITY
Omnia @ INDI Club, Nizhny Novgorod (30 November 2012)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:04
- Updated: 17 Feb 2013
Music: Omnia & Ira - The Fusion (Original Mix) http://www.omnia.dj http://facebook.com/omniasounds http://twitter.com/omniamusic http://youtube.com/omniaoffi...
http://wn.com/Omnia_@_INDI_Club,_Nizhny_Novgorod_30_November_2012
Music: Omnia & Ira - The Fusion (Original Mix) http://www.omnia.dj http://facebook.com/omniasounds http://twitter.com/omniamusic http://youtube.com/omniaoffi...
- published: 05 Dec 2012
- views: 2583
- author: OmniaOfficial
Sergei Ivanov 2011 Nizhny Novgorod promo
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:19
- Updated: 27 Feb 2013
Мастер класс Сергея Иванова 2011 в Нижнем Новгороде. Организация МК в Нижнем Новгороде Антон Геполов http://vkontakte.ru/antongepolov Всю подробную информаци...
http://wn.com/Sergei_Ivanov_2011_Nizhny_Novgorod_promo
Мастер класс Сергея Иванова 2011 в Нижнем Новгороде. Организация МК в Нижнем Новгороде Антон Геполов http://vkontakte.ru/antongepolov Всю подробную информаци...
- published: 11 Mar 2011
- views: 26161
- author: Antonio Gepolove
Nizhny Novgorod Metrobridge
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:05
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
The Metrobridge in Nizhny Novgorod that has been constructed for 20 years was opened to trains on the 4th of November 2012. "Gorkovskaya" is the first metro ...
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The Metrobridge in Nizhny Novgorod that has been constructed for 20 years was opened to trains on the 4th of November 2012. "Gorkovskaya" is the first metro ...
- published: 13 Nov 2012
- views: 923
- author: MercatorInfogr
Russia 5 balls Final European Championship Nizhny Novgorod 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:29
- Updated: 19 Jan 2013
http://recintomoxo.net.
http://wn.com/Russia_5_balls_Final_European_Championship_Nizhny_Novgorod_2012
Metrotrip, Nizhny Novgorod Metro
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:14
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
Metrotrip, 4 metros of Russia in one trip. Russia, Nizhny Novgorod Metro. August 2011 Music: Josh Woodward -- I Hate You (joshwoodward.com)
http://wn.com/Metrotrip,_Nizhny_Novgorod_Metro
Metrotrip, 4 metros of Russia in one trip. Russia, Nizhny Novgorod Metro. August 2011 Music: Josh Woodward -- I Hate You (joshwoodward.com)
- published: 01 Sep 2011
- views: 582
- author: Vokabre
Evgenia Kanaeva-Ball-AA Final-EC Nizhny Novgorod 2012-RUS 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:51
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
http://zhenyakanaevagymnasium.wordpress.com/ score: 29.700.
http://wn.com/Evgenia_Kanaeva-Ball-AA_Final-EC_Nizhny_Novgorod_2012-RUS_2
http://zhenyakanaevagymnasium.wordpress.com/ score: 29.700.
- published: 04 Jun 2012
- views: 12834
- author: cosmos0117
Bulgaria 5 balls Final European Championship Nizhny Novgorod 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:29
- Updated: 24 Jan 2013
http://recintomoxo.net.
http://wn.com/Bulgaria_5_balls_Final_European_Championship_Nizhny_Novgorod_2012
5 balls and 3 ribbons and 2 hoops Final Groups European Championship Nizhny Novgorod 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 79:15
- Updated: 04 Feb 2013
http://recintomoxo.net.
http://wn.com/5_balls_and_3_ribbons_and_2_hoops_Final_Groups_European_Championship_Nizhny_Novgorod_2012
Russia 3 ribbons and 2 hoops Final European Championship Nizhny Novgorod 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:45
- Updated: 18 Feb 2013
http://recintomoxo.net.
http://wn.com/Russia_3_ribbons_and_2_hoops_Final_European_Championship_Nizhny_Novgorod_2012
RIZATDINOVA Ganna ballon EC 2012 NIZHNY NOVGOROD
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:59
- Updated: 07 Jun 2012
RIZATDINOVA Ganna ballon EC 2012 NIZHNY NOVGOROD. missdu06753 videos. Subscribe Subscribed Unsubscribe 310. 272 views. Like 3 Dislike 0. Like ... 5 balls and 3 ribbons and 2 hoops Final Groups European Championship Nizhny Novgorod 2012by recintomoxo2012 19169 views · 149. Watch Later RIZATDINOVA Ganna massue EC 2012 NIZHNY NOVGORODby missdu06 251 views · 20416. Watch Later Group A AA Individuals European Championship Nizhny Novgorod 2012 GOOD ...
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RIZATDINOVA Ganna ballon EC 2012 NIZHNY NOVGOROD. missdu06753 videos. Subscribe Subscribed Unsubscribe 310. 272 views. Like 3 Dislike 0. Like ... 5 balls and 3 ribbons and 2 hoops Final Groups European Championship Nizhny Novgorod 2012by recintomoxo2012 19169 views · 149. Watch Later RIZATDINOVA Ganna massue EC 2012 NIZHNY NOVGORODby missdu06 251 views · 20416. Watch Later Group A AA Individuals European Championship Nizhny Novgorod 2012 GOOD ...
- published: 04 Jun 2012
- views: 272
- author: missdu06
Прогулка по Нижнему Новгороду / Tour of Nizhny Novgorod (2012)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 58:56
- Updated: 08 Feb 2013
В облике этого города есть особая величавость. Он стоит на высоких лесистых холмах, которые издавна называют Дятловыми горами. Здесь возвышается древний Крем...
http://wn.com/Прогулка_по_Нижнему_Новгороду_Tour_of_Nizhny_Novgorod_2012
В облике этого города есть особая величавость. Он стоит на высоких лесистых холмах, которые издавна называют Дятловыми горами. Здесь возвышается древний Крем...
- published: 13 Nov 2012
- views: 193
- author: milfUAA23
photo: AP / David Guttenfelder
07 Mar 2013
Posted. March 7, 2013. North Korea threatened a preemptive nuclear attack against the United States ahead of an upcoming vote on additional UN sanctions against Pyongyang. The country also accused the United States of performing military drills in South Korea as a launching pad for nuclear war. North Korea adds that it plans to scrap the armistice that ended Korean War hostilities ... The statement read. ... Category. Asia. Tags ... Posted ... ....(size: 2.5Kb)
photo: AP / Aaron Favila
05 Mar 2013
Manila. Members of a major Philippine Muslim rebel force who were meant to have disarmed in the 1990s as part of a peace pact are involved in deadly battles in Malaysia, the group’s leader said on Tuesday. Nur Misuari, who founded the Moro National Liberation Front in the late 1960s, confirmed “freedom fighters” from his group were part of the militia sent by a self-proclaimed sultan to claim the Malaysian state of Sabah....(size: 2.6Kb)
photo: US Army / Edward N. Johnson
06 Mar 2013
North Korea has threatened to cancel the 1953 ceasefire that ended the Korean War, citing a US-led push for punishing UN sanctions over its recent nuclear test and ongoing US-South Korean joint military drills. The threat came on Tuesday as the United States, with Chinese backing, introduced a draft UN resolution to punish North Korea for its nuclear test on February 12 ... 415 Source.. Agencies. Share. Send Feedback ... China ... News ... ....(size: 7.2Kb)
photo: AP / Ronald Zak
06 Mar 2013
6 March 2013 –. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon today urged an end to violence and encouraged dialogue among all parties to peacefully resolve the situation in Sabah, Malaysia ... Mr ... News Tracker. past stories on this issue ... Source....(size: 1.3Kb)
photo: AP / Bullit Marquez
07 Mar 2013
The conflict has wreaked political havoc for both Malaysia and the neighboring Philippines ... Ismail said at least 52 Filipinos have now been killed in the past week since hostilities in the Sabah security crisis escalated ... World news....(size: 1.3Kb)
Independent online (SA)
07 Mar 2013
The Aeroflot operated aircraft had taken off from Moscow's Sheremetyevo Airport and was on its way to the Volga River city of Nizhny Novgorod when it was forced to return. No one was injured during the landing, the ministry said on its website ... - Reuters). ....(size: 1.6Kb)
Reuters
07 Mar 2013
The Aeroflot operated aircraft had taken off from Moscow's Sheremetyevo Airport and was on its way to the Volga River city of Nizhny Novgorod when it was forced to return. No one was injured during the landing, the ministry said on its website ... ....(size: 1.6Kb)
Novosti
07 Mar 2013
MOSCOW, March 7 (RIA Novosti) - A Russian Sukhoi Superjet 100 (SSJ-100) airliner made an emergency landing shortly after takeoff from Moscow’s Sheremetyevo airport due to an undercarriage door problem, the Civil Defense and Emergency Situations Ministry said on Thursday. The airplane, with 77 passengers and seven crew members onboard on a Moscow-Nizhny Novgorod route, returned to the airport having burned up its fuel in midair ... ....(size: 2.0Kb)
noodls
07 Mar 2013
(Source. FIFA - Fédération Internationale de Football Association). The Russian Premier League resumes on Friday after its winter break with leaders CSKA Moscow out to defy injury worries and see off a challenge from Zenit and Anzhi in what appears to be a three-way race for the title ... "He's currently undergoing treatment in Barcelona and will unlikely play against Samara." ... Friday. Volga Nizhny Novgorod v Kuban Krasnodar....(size: 4.0Kb)
Newstrack India
06 Mar 2013
Tweet. Moscow, March 6 (IANS/RIA Novosti) The Russian Navy will refit, modernise and recommission two Sierra class (Project 945) titanium-hull nuclear-powered attack submarines by 2017 ... In addition to the Karp and the Kostroma, the Pskov and the Nizhny Novgorod were built in the early 1990s and are currently in service with the Northern Fleet ... ) .. ). ... . . . . . .. . . .. ....(size: 1.8Kb)
noodls
06 Mar 2013
(Source. OAO Rostelecom) 05.03.2013. Moscow, Russia - March 5, 2013 - Rostelecom OJSC (the "Group") (MICEX - RTS. RTKM, RTKMP; OTCQX ... Construction is currently nearing an end and the service will be operational in the coming months. In the coming months, additional 3G networks are expected to be launched in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, Samara Oblast, Penza Oblast, Saratov Oblast, Orenburg Oblast and the Republic of Tatarstan ... distributed by....(size: 2.6Kb)
noodls
06 Mar 2013
(Source. Deutsche Lufthansa AG). 06.03.13 16 new connections / 5 new destinations / Business Class retrofit speeded up. Lufthansa is continuing to expand its services to popular leisure travel destinations. The new summer timetable includes five new attractive holiday destinations ... 216 destinations in 83 countries) ... At the same time, however, the airline is increasing frequencies on its routes to Nizhny Novgorod and Samara. ... -Antalya....(size: 8.0Kb)
Novosti
05 Mar 2013
Business Wire
05 Mar 2013
Integrates Lens Antenna with Siklu’s E-band Radio . MOSCOW--(BUSINESS WIRE)--Radio Gigabit, a leading developer of innovative antenna technologies for millimeter-wave communication systems introduced a lens antenna for E-band backhaul applications ... About Radio Gigabit ... With its operation started in April 2012, Radio Gigabit has its offices in Moscow and Nizhny Novgorod, Russia. About Siklu ... Learn more at www.siklu.com. Contacts ... ....(size: 4.6Kb)
noodls
05 Mar 2013
(Source. Skoda Auto as). › New Octavia Combi continues the ŠKODA model offensive ... › The 'heart of the brand' sets standards in the compact segment ... › 2012 ... In Russia, the ŠKODA Yeti compact SUV has been coming off the production line of the Russian automobile plant in Nizhny Novgorod for the past several weeks. In the future, the new ŠKODA Octavia will also be manufactured for the Russian market in Nizhny Novgorod ... Motor sports....(size: 13.4Kb)
noodls
05 Mar 2013
(Source. DB - Deutsche Bahn AG). One container next to another. At its plant in Kaluga Volkswagen produces automobiles for Russia's booming market. The job of supplying the necessary materials falls to DB Schenker - a complex task ... In general, the new plant in Nizhny Novgorod, located some 500 kilometers east of Moscow, receives a weekly supply of all the necessary assembly components from all EU locations belonging to the VW Group....(size: 6.3Kb)
Novosti
05 Mar 2013
Moskovsky Komsomolets. Miss Russia Falls Victim to Ethnic Abuse Online. Siberian beauty Elmira Abdrazakova, crowned Miss Russia last weekend, came under unexpected fire for having a Tatar father and “non-Russian” looks ... Or maybe she is beautiful but stupid? This happens ... Maybe the jury was hoping for bribe money? Unlikely ... This may be the issue ... The heads of state discussed the upcoming inter-regional forum in Nizhny Novgorod ... ....(size: 7.3Kb)
noodls
04 Mar 2013
(Source. The President of Russia). Vladimir Putin met with President of Ukraine Viktor Yanukovych who is in Russia on a working visit. * * *. PRESIDENT OF RUSSIA VLADIMIR PUTIN. Mr President, I am very happy to see you! ... I am very happy to see you ... And of course, we must discuss preparations for the summit or interregional forum, which, as you decided, will be held in Nizhny Novgorod ... You chose Nizhny Novgorod, so Nizhny Novgorod it is....(size: 4.5Kb)
For other cities named Novgorod, see Novgorod (disambiguation).
| Nizhny Novgorod (English) Нижний Новгород (Russian) |
|
|---|---|
| - City[1] - | |
 Views of Nizhny Novgorod |
|
.svg) Location of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast in Russia |
|
.svg)
 Nizhny Novgorod
|
|
| Coordinates: 56°20′N 44°00′E / 56.333°N 44°E / 56.333; 44Coordinates: 56°20′N 44°00′E / 56.333°N 44°E / 56.333; 44 | |
 |
 |
|
|
|
| City Day | Second Sunday of September[2] |
| Administrative status (as of November 2011) | |
| Country | Russia |
| Federal subject | Nizhny Novgorod Oblast[1] |
| Administratively subordinated to | city of oblast significance of Nizhny Novgorod[1] |
| Administrative center of | Nizhny Novgorod Oblast,[1] city of oblast significance of Nizhny Novgorod[1] |
| Municipal status (as of February 2011) | |
| Urban okrug | Nizhny Novgorod Urban Okrug[3] |
| Administrative center of | Nizhny Novgorod Urban Okrug[3] |
| Head[5] | Oleg Sorokin[4] |
| Representative body | City Duma[6] |
| Statistics | |
| Area | 410.68 km2 (158.56 sq mi)[7] |
| Population (2010 Census, preliminary) |
1,250,615 inhabitants[8] |
| - Rank in 2010 | 5th |
| Population (2002 Census) | 1,311,252 inhabitants[9] |
| - Rank in 2002 | 4th |
| Density | 3,045 /km2 (7,890 /sq mi)[10] |
| Time zone | MSK (UTC+04:00)[11] |
| Founded | 1221[12] |
| City status since | 1221[7] |
| Previous names | Nizhny Novgorod (until September 1932),[12] Gorky (until October 22, 1990)[13] |
| Postal code(s) | in the 603000–603998 range[14] |
| Dialing code(s) | +7 831[7] |
| Official website | |
Nizhny Novgorod (Russian: Нижний Новгород; IPA: [ˈnʲiʐnʲɪj ˈnovɡərət]), colloquially shortened to Nizhny, is, with the population of 1,250,615, the fifth largest city in Russia.[8]
From 1932 to 1990, the city was known as Gorky (Горький, IPA: [ˈɡorʲkʲɪj]),[13] after the writer Maxim Gorky who was born there.
The city is an important economic, transport and cultural center of the Russian Federation. It is the economic and cultural center of the vast Volga-Vyatka economic region, and also the administrative center of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast and Volga Federal District.
Contents |
History[link]
Seat of medieval princes[link]
After the destruction of the Mordvin Inäzor Obram, a hillfort named Obran Osh (Ashli) at the site of future stone Kremlin in 1220, a small Russian wooden hillfort was founded by Grand Duke Yury II in 1221. Located at the confluence of two most important rivers of his principality, the Volga (Mordvin "Rav" or "Rava"), and the Oka, and Obran Osh was renamed Nizhny Novgorod. Its name literally means Lower Newtown, to distinguish it from the older Veliky Novgorod. Its independent existence was threatened by the continuous Mordvin attacks against it. The major attempt made by Inäzor Purgaz from Arzamas in January 1229 was repulsed, but after the death of Yuri II on March 4, 1238 at the Battle of Sit River the Mongols occupied the fortress and the remnants of small Nizhny Novgorod settlement which surrendered without any resistance in order to preserve what had been developed since Purgaz's attack nine years earlier. Later a major stronghold for border protection, Nizhny Novgorod fortress took advantage of a natural moat formed by the two rivers.
Along with Moscow and Tver, Nizhny Novgorod was among several newly-founded towns that escaped Mongol devastation on account of their insignificance, but grew into (great) centers in vassalic Russian political life during the period of the Tatar Yoke. With the agreement of the Mongol Khan, Nizhny Novgorod was incorporated into the Vladimir - Suzdal Principality in 1264. After 86 years its importance further increased when the seat of the powerful Suzdal Principality was moved here from Gorodets in 1350. Grand Duke Dmitry Konstantinovich (1323–1383) sought to make his capital a rival worthy of Moscow; he built a stone citadel and several churches and was a patron of historians. The earliest extant manuscript of the Russian Primary Chronicle, the Laurentian Codex, was written for him by the local monk Laurentius in 1377.
Strongest fortress of Muscovy[link]
After the city's incorporation into Muscovy (1392), the local princes took the name Shuisky and settled in Moscow, where they were prominent at the court and briefly ascended the throne in the person of Vasili IV. After being burnt by the powerful Crimean Tatar chief Edigu in 1408, Nizhny Novgorod was restored and regarded by the Muscovites primarily as a great stronghold in their wars against the Tatars of Kazan. The enormous red-brick kremlin, one of the strongest and earliest preserved citadels in Russia, was built in 1508–1511 under the supervision of Peter the Italian. The fortress was strong enough to withstand Tatar sieges in 1520 and 1536.
In 1612, the so-called national militia, gathered by a local merchant, Kuzma Minin, and commanded by Knyaz Dmitry Pozharsky expelled the Polish troops from Moscow, thus putting an end to the "Time of Troubles" and establishing the rule of the Romanov dynasty. The main square before the kremlin is named after Minin and Pozharsky, although it is locally known simply as "Minin Square." Minin's remains are buried in the citadel. (In commemoration of these events, on October 21, 2005, an exact copy of the Red Square statue of Minin and Pozharsky was placed in front of St John the Baptist Church, which is believed to be the place from where the call to the people had been proclaimed.)
In the course of the following century, the city prospered commercially and was chosen by the Stroganovs (the wealthiest merchant family of Russia) as a base for their operations. A particular style of architecture and icon painting, known as the Stroganov style, developed there at the turn of the 19th[citation needed] and 20th[citation needed] centuries.
The historical coat of arms of Nizhny Novgorod in 1981 was a red deer with black horns and hooves on a white field. The modern coat of arms circa 1992 is the same, but the shield can be adorned with golden oak leaves tied with a ribbon with colours of the Russian national flag.
Great trade center[link]
In 1817, the Makaryev Fair, one of the liveliest in the world, was transferred to Nizhny Novgorod, which thereupon started to attract millions of visitors annually. By the mid-19th century, the city on the Volga was firmly established as the trade capital of the Russian Empire. The world's first radio receiver of engineer Alexander Popov and the world's first hyperboloid tower and lattice shells-coverings of engineer Vladimir Shukhov were demonstrated at the All-Russia industrial and art exhibition in Nizhny Novgorod in 1896. According to official Imperial Russian statistics the population of Nizhny Novgorod as of 14 January 1913 was 97,000.
The largest industrial enterprise was the Sormovo Iron Works which was connected by the company's own railway to Moscow station in the upper part of Nizhny Novgorod. The private Moscow — Kazan Railway Company's station served the lower part of the town. Other industries gradually developed, and by the dawn of the 20th century it was a first-rank industrial hub as well. Henry Ford helped build a large truck and tractor plant (GAZ) in the late 1920s, sending along engineers and mechanics, including future labour leader Walter Reuther.
Soviet era[link]
There were no permanent bridges over the Volga or Oka before the October Revolution in 1917. Temporary bridges were built during the trade fair. The first bridge over the Volga was started by the Moscow-Kazan Railway Company in 1914, but only finished in the Soviet Era when the railway to Kotelnich was opened for service in 1927.
Maxim Gorky was born in Nizhny Novgorod in 1868 as Alexey Maximovich Peshkov. In his novels he described the dismal life of the city proletariat.
Even during his lifetime, the city was renamed Gorky following his return to the Soviet Union in 1932 on the invitation of Joseph Stalin. The city bore Gorky's name until 1991. His childhood home is preserved as a museum, known as the Kashirin House, after Alexey's grandfather who owned the place.
During much of the Soviet era, the city was closed to foreigners to safeguard the security of Soviet military research and production facilities, even though it was a popular stopping point for Soviet tourists traveling up and down the Volga in tourist boats. Unusually for a Soviet city of that size, even street maps were not available for sale until the mid-1970s.
Mátyás Rákosi, communist leader of Hungary, died there in 1971. The physicist and Nobel laureate Andrei Sakharov was exiled there during 1980-1986 to limit his contacts with foreigners.
An end to the "closed" status of the city accompanied the reinstatement of the city's original name in 1990.[13]
Administrative and municipal status[link]
Administratively, along with twelve rural localities, it is incorporated as the city of oblast significance of Nizhny Novgorod—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts.[1] Municipally, the city of oblast significance of Nizhny Novgorod is incorporated as Nizhny Novgorod Urban Okrug.[3]
City layout and divisions[link]
Nizhny Novgorod is divided by the Oka River into two distinct parts. The Upper City (Russian: Нагорная часть, Nagornaya chast) is located on the hilly eastern (right) bank of the Oka. It includes three of the eight city districts into which the city is administratively divided:
- Nizhegorodsky (the historical and administrative center of the city);
- Prioksky;
- Sovetsky.
The Lower City (Russian: Заречная часть, Zarechnaya chast) occupies the low (western) side of the Oka, and includes five city districts:
- Kanavinsky (the site of the Nizhny Novgorod Fair and the location of the main train station);
- Moskovsky (home of the Sokol Aircraft Plant and its airfield);
- Sormovsky (where Krasnoye Sormovo and the Volga Shipyard are located);
- Avtozavodsky (built around the GAZ automotive plants);
- Leninsky.
All of today's lower city was annexed by Nizhny Novgorod in 1929–1931.
Demographics[link]
- Population: 1,250,615 (2010 Census preliminary results);[8] 1,311,252 (2002 Census);[9] 1,438,133 (1989 Census).[15]
- Births (2008): 12,969
- Deaths (2008): 20,757
Nizhny Novgorod is the fifth largest city in Russia, ranking after Moscow, St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, and Yekaterinburg.
Climate[link]
The climate in the region is continental, specifically humid continental (Dfb) and it is similar to the climate in Moscow, although colder in winter, which lasts from late November until late March with a permanent snow cover. Average temperatures ranges from +19 °C (66 °F) in July to −10 °C (14 °F) in January.
| Climate data for Nizhny Novgorod (1971-2000) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 5.5 (41.9) |
7.0 (44.6) |
17.3 (63.1) |
26.3 (79.3) |
32.5 (90.5) |
36.3 (97.3) |
38.3 (100.9) |
38.0 (100.4) |
31.0 (87.8) |
24.2 (75.6) |
13.2 (55.8) |
8.5 (47.3) |
38.3 (100.9) |
| Average high °C (°F) | −6.6 (20.1) |
−5.7 (21.7) |
0.7 (33.3) |
10.5 (50.9) |
17.4 (63.3) |
22.5 (72.5) |
23.4 (74.1) |
21.2 (70.2) |
14.8 (58.6) |
6.9 (44.4) |
−1.1 (30.0) |
−4.6 (23.7) |
8.3 (46.9) |
| Average low °C (°F) | −13 (8.6) |
−12.2 (10.0) |
−6.3 (20.7) |
2.3 (36.1) |
7.6 (45.7) |
12.5 (54.5) |
14.1 (57.4) |
11.9 (53.4) |
6.8 (44.2) |
1.2 (34.2) |
−5.8 (21.6) |
−10.3 (13.5) |
0.7 (33.3) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −41.2 (−42.2) |
−37.2 (−35.0) |
−28.3 (−18.9) |
−19.7 (−3.5) |
−6.9 (19.6) |
−1.8 (28.8) |
5.1 (41.2) |
0.9 (33.6) |
−5.4 (22.3) |
−16 (3.2) |
−29.4 (−20.9) |
−41.4 (−42.5) |
−41.4 (−42.5) |
| Precipitation mm (inches) | 40 (1.57) |
33 (1.3) |
28 (1.1) |
36 (1.42) |
52 (2.05) |
64 (2.52) |
76 (2.99) |
67 (2.64) |
57 (2.24) |
59 (2.32) |
56 (2.2) |
50 (1.97) |
618 (24.33) |
| Source: Pogoda.ru.net[16] | |||||||||||||
Economy[link]
Information technology[link]
Nizhny Novgorod is one of the centers of the IT Industry in Russia. It ranks among the leading Russian cities in terms of the quantity of software R&D providers. Intel has a big software R&D center with more than 500 engineers in the city, as well as a major datacenter. In Nizhny Novgorod there is also a number of offshore outsourcing software developers, including Tecom, Luximax Systems Ltd., MERA Networks, RealEast Networks, Auriga, SoftDrom, and Teleca, and many other smaller ones that specialize in delivering services to telecommunication vendors.
There are 25 scientific R&D institutions focusing on telecommunications, radio technology, theoretical and applied physics, and 33 higher educational institutions, among them are Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy, Nizhny Novgorod State University, Nizhny Novgorod Technical University, as well as Nizhny Novgorod Institute of Information Technologies (former MERA Networks training center), that focuses on information technologies, software development, system administration, telecommunications, cellular networks, Internet technologies, and IT management.
Nizhny Novgorod has also been chosen as one of four sites for building an IT-oriented technology park—a special zone that has an established infrastructure and enjoys a favorable tax and customs policy.
Engineering industry[link]
The engineering industry is the leading industry of Nizhny Novgorod economy. It is mainly oriented towards transportation, i.e., the auto industry, shipbuilding, diesel engines, aircraft manufacture, and machine tools, with the auto industry being the leading sector (50%). Largest plants include:
- JSC "Gorky Automobile Plant" - personal cars, trucks, armored personnel carriers, and other autos;
- JSC "Krasnoye Sormovo" - river and sea ships, submarines;
- JSC "Sokol" - airplanes, jets;
- JSC "Hydromash"- hydraulic actuators, landing gears
- JSC "Nitel" - TV sets;
- JSC "RUMO" - diesel generators;
- JSC "Krasny yakor" - anchor chains;
Transportation[link]
_(1).jpg)
Railway transport[link]
Russian Railways department - Gorkovskaya Railroad, which operates some 5,700 km of rail lines throughout the Middle Volga region (of which some 1,200 are in Nizhny Novgorod Oblast), is headquartered in Nizhny Novgorod. Overnight trains provide access to Nizhny Novgorod from Moscow, Saint Petersburg, Kazan, Yaroslavl and others. Since December 2002, a fast train transports passengers between Nizhny Novgorod and Moscow in less than five hours. One can continue from Nizhny Novgorod eastward along the Trans-Siberian Railway, with direct trains to major cities in the Urals and Siberia, as well as to Beijing, Pyongyang, and Ulan-Bator.
The first high-speed rail Sapsan train to Moscow (Kursky Rail Terminal) and Saint Petersburg (Moskovsky Rail Terminal) was launched on July 30, 2010.[17]
Suburban commuter trains (elektrichka) connect Nizhny Novgorod with Vladimir, Dzerzhinsk, Murom, Kirov, Arzamas, Zavolzhye, Balakhna and others.
Airport[link]
Nizhny Novgorod Strigino Airport has direct flights to major Russian cities, as well as to Frankfurt (five flights a week by Lufthansa), Dubai, Prague. The air base Sormovo was an important military airlift facility, and Pravdinsk air base was an interceptor aircraft base during the Cold War. S7 Airlines, UTair Aviation goes to Moscow Domodedovo airport and Vnukovo airport daily.
Waterways[link]
Nizhny Novgorod is an important center of Volga cargo and passenger shipping. In the summer, cruise vessels operate between Nizhny Novgorod, Moscow, Saint Petersburg, and Astrakhan. In 2006 a small number of Meteor-class hydrofoils resumed operations on the Volga river.
Highway[link]
The city is served by Russian highway M-7 (Moscow – Nizhny Novgorod – Kazan – Ufa), and is a hub of the regional highway network.
Public transport[link]
Public transport within the city is provided by a small subway system - 13 stations, currently building 14th(Nizhny Novgorod Metro), tramways, marshrutkas or minibuses, buses and trolleybuses. Electric and diesel commuter trains run to suburbs in several directions.
Free shuttle buses run from several points in the city to the MEGA shopping complex, which opened in October 2006 in Fedyakovo, a few kilometers to the east of the Nizhny Novgorod city line.[18]
Aerial tramway[link]
The Nizhny Novgorod Volga Aerial Tramway from Nizhny Novgorod to Bor across Volga river, was opened in 2012.
Main sights[link]
Much of the city downtown is built in the Russian Revival and Stalin Empire styles. The dominating feature of the city skyline is the grand Kremlin (1500–1511), with its red-brick towers. After Bolshevik devastation, the only ancient edifice left within the kremlin walls is the tent-like Archangel Cathedral (1624–31), first built in stone in the 13th century.
Cultural features[link]
There are more than six hundred unique historic, architectural, and cultural monuments in the city.
There are about two hundred municipal and regional art and cultural institutions within Nizhny Novgorod. Among these institutions there are eight theaters, five concert halls, ninety-seven libraries (with branches), seventeen movie theaters (including five movie theaters for children), twenty-five institutions of children optional education, eight museums (sixteen including branches), and seven parks.
Nizhny Novgorod art gallery[link]
The art gallery in Nizhny Novgorod is a large and important art gallery and museums of human history and culture.
Nizhny Novgorod has a great and extraordinary art gallery with more than 12,000 exhibits, an enormous collection of works by Russian artists such as Viktor Vasnetsov, Karl Briullov, Ivan Shishkin, Ivan Kramskoi, Ilya Yefimovich Repin, Isaak Iljitsch Lewitan, Vasily Surikov, Ivan Aivazovsky, there are also greater collections of works by Boris Kustodiev and Nicholas Roerich, not only Russian art is part of the exhibition it include also a vast accumulation of Western European art like works by David Teniers the Younger, Bernardo Bellotto, Lucas Cranach the Elder, Pieter de Grebber, Giuseppe Maria Crespi, Giovanni Battista Piranesi, and lot more.
Finally what makes this gallery extremely important is the amazing collection Russian avant-garde with works by Kazimir Malevich, Wassily Kandinsky, Natalia Goncharova, Mikhail Larionov and so on. There is also collection of East Asian art.
Houses of worship[link]
_Cathedral.jpg)
Other notable landmarks are the two great medieval abbeys. The Pechersky Ascension Monastery features the austere five-domed cathedral (1632) and two rare churches surmounted by tent roofs, dating from the 1640s. The Annunciation monastery, likewise surrounded by strong walls, has another five-domed cathedral (1649) and the Assumption church (1678). The only private house preserved from that epoch formerly belonged to the merchant Pushnikov.
There can be little doubt that the most original and delightful churches in the city were built by the Stroganovs in the nascent Baroque style. Of these, the Virgin's Nativity Church (1719) graces one of the central streets, whereas the Church of Our Lady of Smolensk (1694–97) survives in the former village of Gordeevka (now, part of the city's Kanavinsky District), where the Stroganov palace once stood.
Other notable churches include:
- the Saviour Cathedral, also known as the Old Fair Cathedral, a huge domed edifice built at the site of the great fair to an Empire style design by Agustín de Betancourt and Auguste de Montferrand in 1822;
- the so-called New Fair Cathedral, designed in the Russian Revival style and constructed between 1856 and 1880 at the confluence of the Oka and the Volga;
- the recently reconstructed Church of the Nativity of John the Precursor (1676–83), standing just below the Kremlin walls; it was used during the Soviet period as an apartment house;
- the parish churches of the Holy Wives (1649) and of Saint Elijah (1656);
- the Assumption Church on St Elijah's Hill (1672), with five green-tiled domes arranged unorthodoxly on the lofty cross-shaped barrel roof;
- the shrine of the Old Believers at the Bugrovskoe cemetery, erected in the 1910s to a critically acclaimed design by Vladimir Pokrovsky;
- the wooden chapel of the Intercession (1660), transported to Nizhny Novgorod from a rural area.
There is also a mosque in Sennaya Square, where the Muslim populations of the city go for Friday prayers, Islamic activities and activities which are organized by the mosque. There is also a small shop to buy halal meats. Most of the Muslims in this city are Tatars.
The centrally located Nizhny Novgorod Synagogue was built in 1881-1883; disused during the Soviet era, it was renovated and reopened ca. 1991.
Other[link]
A singular monument of industrial architecture is a 128-meter-high open-work hyperboloid tower built on the bank of the Oka near Dzerzhinsk as part of a powerline river crossing by the eminent engineer and scientist Vladimir Shukhov in 1929.
A staircase connecting the Kremlin with the Volga river offers a panoramic view of the surroundings. The staircase itself was constructed in the late 1940s by German prisoners of war forced to labor around Gorky.
Education[link]
Nizhny Novgorod is home to the following educational facilities:
- N. I. Lobachevsky State University of Nizhny Novgorod
- R.Y. Alekseev Nizhny Novgorod State Technical University[19]
- Nizhny Novgorod State University of Architecture and Civil Engineering
- Nizhny Novgorod State Linguistic University
- Nizhny Novgorod Commercial Institute
- Nizhny Novgorod State Pedagogical University
- Nizhny Novgorod State Medical Academy
- Nizhny Novgorod State Agricultural Academy
- Volgo-Vyatsky Region Civil Service Academy[20]
There are also twenty research institutes located in the city.
Sports[link]
The city ice hockey team Torpedo Nizhny Novgorod play in the KHL. The city is represented at football by FC Volga Nizhny Novgorod which plays in the Russian Premier League. FC Nizhny Novgorod which plays in the Russian First Division. The other football team from Nizhny Novgorod, FC Lokomotiv Nizhny Novgorod which had played in the Russian Premier League and Intertoto Cup became defunct in 2006. The city field hockey team are HC Start. The city bandy team Start plays in the highest division of the Russian Bandy League.[21] In 2002 they reached the final against Vodnik. Both matches were played in Arkhangelsk due to warm weather. After that an artificial ice was built.
World Cup[link]
Russia became the host for the 2018 FIFA World Cup, and it has been decided that some matches will be played in Nizhny Novgorod in a stadium yet to be built. The stadium will be built on an island in the Volga river and will have a capacity of 44 899 people.[22]
Notable people[link]
Main article: List of people from Nizhny Novgorod
International relations[link]
File:Volga riverside view.jpg
Volga riverside view
Twin towns and sister cities[link]
Nizhny Novgorod is twinned with:
References[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ a b c d e f Law #184-Z
- ^ Charter of Nizhny Novgorod, Article 2.2
- ^ a b c Law #205-Z
- ^ Official website of Nizhny Novgorod. Vadim Yevgenyevich Bulavinov, Head of the Administration of Nizhny Novgorod (Russian)
- ^ Charter of Nizhny Novgorod, Article 26.1.2
- ^ Charter of Nizhny Novgorod, Article 26.1.1
- ^ a b c Official website of Nizhny Novgorod. Overview of the city (Russian)
- ^ a b c Федеральная служба государственной статистики (Federal State Statistics Service) (2011). "Предварительные итоги Всероссийской переписи населения 2010 года (Preliminary results of the 2010 All-Russian Population Census)" (in Russian). Всероссийская перепись населения 2010 года (2010 All-Russia Population Census). Federal State Statistics Service. http://www.perepis-2010.ru/results_of_the_census/results-inform.php. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
- ^ a b Федеральная служба государственной статистики (Federal State Statistics Service) (May 21, 2004). "Численность населения России, субъектов Российской Федерации в составе федеральных округов, районов, городских поселений, сельских населённых пунктов – районных центров и сельских населённых пунктов с населением 3 тысячи и более человек (Population of Russia, its federal districts, federal subjects, districts, urban localities, rural localities—administrative centers, and rural localities with population of over 3,000)" (in Russian). Всероссийская перепись населения 2002 года (All-Russia Population Census of 2002). Federal State Statistics Service. http://www.perepis2002.ru/ct/doc/1_TOM_01_04.xls. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
- ^ The value of density was calculated automatically by dividing the 2010 Census population by the area specified in the infobox. Please note that this value may not be accurate as the area specified in the infobox does not necessarily correspond to the area of the entity proper or is reported for the same year as the population.
- ^ Правительство Российской Федерации. Постановление №725 от 31 августа 2011 г. «О составе территорий, образующих каждую часовую зону, и порядке исчисления времени в часовых зонах, а также о признании утратившими силу отдельных Постановлений Правительства Российской Федерации». Вступил в силу по истечении 7 дней после дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Российская Газета", №197, 6 сентября 2011 г. (Government of the Russian Federation. Resolution #725 of August 31, 2011 On the Composition of the Territories Included into Each Time Zone and on the Procedures of Timekeeping in the Time Zones, as Well as on Abrogation of Several Resolutions of the Government of the Russian Federation. Effective as of after 7 days following the day of the official publication.).
- ^ a b Charter of Nizhny Novgorod, Article 1.2
- ^ a b c Decree of October 22, 1990, Article 1
- ^ Russian Post. Postal Code Search (Russian)
- ^ "Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 г. Численность наличного населения союзных и автономных республик, автономных областей и округов, краёв, областей, районов, городских поселений и сёл-райцентров. (All Union Population Census of 1989. Present population of union and autonomous republics, autonomous oblasts and okrugs, krais, oblasts, districts, urban settlements, and villages serving as district administrative centers.)" (in Russian). Всесоюзная перепись населения 1989 года (All-Union Population Census of 1989). Demoscope Weekly (website of the Institute of Demographics of the State University—Higher School of Economics. 1989. http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/rus89_reg.php. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
- ^ "Pogoda.ru.net" (in Russian). http://pogoda.ru.net/climate/27459.htm. Retrieved September 8, 2007.
- ^ "Russian Railways Sapsan to Nizhny Novgorod press release". http://press.rzd.ru/isvp/public/press?STRUCTURE_ID=654&layer_id=4069&refererVpId=1&refererPageId=704&refererLayerId=4065&id=74920.
- ^ How to get to MEGA
- ^ http://www.nntu.sci-nnov.ru/nstu.html
- ^ http://www.vvags.ru/
- ^ Video from a game in the Russian Cup against Zorky from Krasnogorsk: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EhwJxkrosd4
- ^ http://www.russia2018-2022.com/en/the-bid/host-cities/nizhny-novgorod.aspx
- ^ "List of Twin Towns in the Ruhr District". © 2009 Twins2010.com. http://www.twins2010.com/fileadmin/user_upload/pic/Dokumente/List_of_Twin_Towns_01.pdf?PHPSESSID=2edd34819db21e450d3bb625549ce4fd. Retrieved 2009-10-28. [dead link]
Sources[link]
- Munro-Butler-Johnstone, Henry Alexander, A trip up the Volga to the fair of Nijni-Novgorod, Oxford: J. Parker and co., 1876.
- Fitzpatrick, Anne Lincoln, The Great Russian Fair: Nizhnii Novgorod, 1840-90, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan, in association with St. Antony’s College, Oxford, 1990. ISBN 0-333-42437-9
- Городская Дума города Нижнего Новгорода. №91 23 ноября 2005 г. «Устав города Нижнего Новгорода», в ред. №54 от 27 мая 2009 г. Вступил в силу с 1 января 2006 г., но не ранее официального опубликования после государственной регистрации, за исключением подпункта 13 пункта 10 статьи 43, вступающего в силу в сроки, установленные федеральным законом, определяющим порядок организации и деятельности муниципальной милиции. Опубликован: "Нижегородский рабочий", №234/15894, 30 декабря 2005 г. (City Duma of the City of Nizhny Novgorod. #91 November 23, 2005 Charter of the City of Nizhny Novgorod, as amended by the #54 of May 27, 2009. Effective as of January 1, 2006, but not earlier than the official publication date following the state registration, and with the exception of subitem 13 of item 10 of Article 43, which takes effect during the timeframe to be set by a federal law legislating the organization and functioning of the municipal militsiya.).
- Законодательное собрание Нижегородской области. Закон №184-З от 16 ноября 2005 г. «Об административно-территориальном устройстве Нижегородской области», в ред. Закона №21-З от 12 марта 2012 г «О внесении изменений в отдельные законодательные акты Нижегородской области». Вступил в силу по истечении десяти дней со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Нижегородские новости", №218(3390), 23 ноября 2005 г. (Legislative Assembly of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast. Law #184-Z of November 16, 2005 On the Administrative-Territorial Structure of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast, as amended by the Law #21-Z of March 12, 2012 On Amending Various Legislative Acts of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast. Effective as of after ten days from the day of the official publication.).
- Законодательное Собрание Нижегородской области. Закон №205-З от 22 декабря 2005 г. «О утверждении границ, состава территории городского округа город Нижний Новгород», в ред. Закона №16-З от 7 февраля 2011 г «О внесении изменений в отдельные Законы Нижегородской области». Вступил в силу по истечении десяти дней со дня официального опубликования. Опубликован: "Нижегородские новости", №2(3414), 11 января 2006 г. (Legislative Assembly of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast. Law #205-Z of December 22, 2005 On Establishing the Borders, Territorial Composition of the Urban Okrug of the City of Nizhny Novgorod, as amended by the Law #16-Z of February 7, 2011 On Amending Various Laws of Nizhny Novgorod Oblast. Effective as of after ten days from the day of the official publication.).
- Президиум Верховного Совета РСФСР. Указ от 22 октября 1990 г. «О переименовании города Горького в город Нижний Новгород и Горьковской области в Нижегородскую области». (Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR. Decree of October 22, 1990 On Changing the Name of the City of Gorky to the City of Nizhny Novgorod and the Name of Gorky Oblast to Nizhny Novgorod Oblast. ).
External links[link]
- Official website of Nizhny Novgorod
- Nizhny Novgorod City Guide
- Sights of the city
- About the city
- www.hist.nnov.ru/architect/ (Russian)
- Official website of Nizhny Novgorod State Art Museum (Russian)
- Art Museum of Nizhny Novgorod
- http://www.nne.ru The Nizhny Novgorod and Arzamas Archdiocese (Russian)
- VisitNizhny.com Information about tourism and entertainment in Nizhny Novgorod
- Nizhny Novgorod Video Created by José Antonio Lozano Rodriguez.
- Nizhny Novgorod Video 2 Created by José Antonio Lozano Rodriguez.
- Hovercraft "Hivus" in Nizhny Novgorod (Russian)
- Nizhny Novgorod Bus and Transport Service (Russian)
- Nizhny Novgorod Online (Russian)
- Heather DeHaan. "Nizhnii Novgorod: History in the Landscape"
- Photographic community in Nizhny Novgorod "Photo Gorky" (Russian)
- Entertainment portal in Nizhny Novgorod (Russian)
- Reviews, articles, town legends "The Nizhny Novgorod Cronicles" (Russian)
- Jewish Community of Nizhny Novgorod" (English)
- Archangel's Cathedral, Cathedral of St. Michael the Archangel (Nizhny Novgorod)"
Web-cameras[link]
- 100+ webcams on the Nizhny Novgorod (Russian)
- Web-camera, Gorkogo sq. (Russian)
- Web-camera, Lyadova sq. You could see Okskiy s'ezd, Gagarina prospect, Timiryazeva str. (Russian)
- Web-camera, Gorkogo sq. You could see Novaya str., B.Pokrovskaya str. (Russian)
- Web-camera, Kovalihinskaya and Proviantskaya streets crossing (Russian)
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For other people named Sergei or Sergey Ivanov, see Sergei Ivanov (disambiguation).
| Sergei Borisovich Ivanov Серге́й Бори́сович Ивано́в |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| Sergei Ivanov in May 2010 | |
| Chief of Staff Presidential Administration of Russia | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office December 2011 |
|
| President | Dmitry Medvedev |
| Prime Minister | Vladimir Putin |
| Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Federation | |
| In office 12 May 2008 – December 2011 |
|
| First Deputy Prime Minister of the Russian Federation | |
| In office 15 February 2007 – 12 May 2008 Serving with Dmitry Medvedev |
|
| President | Vladimir Putin Dmitry Medvedev |
| Prime Minister | Mikhail Fradkov Viktor Zubkov Vladimir Putin |
| Preceded by | Dmitry Medvedev |
| Succeeded by | Viktor Zubkov Igor Shuvalov |
| In office 28 March 2001 – 15 February 2007 |
|
| Preceded by | Igor Sergeyev |
| Succeeded by | Anatoliy Serdyukov |
| Defence Minister of the Russian Federation | |
| Secretary of the Security Council of the Russian Federation | |
| In office 15 November 1999 – 28 March 2001 |
|
| Preceded by | Vladimir Putin |
| Succeeded by | Vladimir Rushailo |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1953-01-31) 31 January 1953 (age 59) |
| Spouse(s) | Natalia Ivanova |
Sergei Borisovich Ivanov (Russian: Серге́й Бори́сович Ивано́в; born 31 January 1953) is a Russian senior official and statesman. He was Minister of Defence from March 2001 to February 2007, Deputy Prime Minister from November 2005 to February 2007, and the First Deputy Prime Minister from February 2007 to May 2008. Previously, as secretary of the Russian Security Council, Ivanov served as an adviser to President Boris Yeltsin and later President Vladimir Putin (November 1999-March 2001) on matters of national security. After the election of Dmitry Medvedev as President of Russia, Ivanov was reappointed a deputy prime minister in Vladimir Putin's second government. In December, 2011 he was appointed Chief of Staff Presidential Administration of Russia.
Before joining the federal administration in Moscow, Ivanov, a fluent speaker of English—served in the Soviet and later Russian foreign intelligence service as a specialist in law and foreign languages, both at home and abroad (in Europe and Africa) from the late 1970s to the late 1990s. In 1975, Ivanov graduated from the Department of Philology at Leningrad State University, where he studied English and Swedish, and later completed postgraduate studies in counterintelligence and law in Minsk.
In 1976 he started his service for Leningrad and Leningrad Oblast KGB Directorate, where he became a friend of his colleague Vladimir Putin.[1] From July 1998 through August 1999 Ivanov served as a deputy to Vladimir Putin, then director of the Federal Security Service. In November 1999, Yeltsin appointed Ivanov secretary of the Security Council of Russia, a body charged with advising the president on matters of national security. Ivanov became Russia's defence minister, becoming the first civilian to hold that post, in March 2001. On 15 February 2007, Ivanov resigned as defence minister following his elevation to the post of deputy prime minister.
Ivanov is widely considered to be a member of Vladimir Putin's inner circle and a member of the Kremlin's Silovik faction.[2] He was previously seen as the most likely candidate to replace Mikhail Fradkov as Prime Minister in September 2007.
Contents |
Youth, education, and early career[link]
Ivanov was born in Leningrad. In 1975 he graduated from the English translation branch of the Department of Philology at Leningrad State University, where he majored in English and Swedish. In the late 1970s Ivanov began a two decades career on the staff of the external intelligence service. In 1976 he completed postgraduate studies in counterintelligence, graduating from Higher Courses of the KGB in Minsk.
Upon graduating in 1976, Ivanov was sent to serve for the Leningrad and Leningrad Oblast KGB Directorate, where he became a friend of Vladimir Putin, then a colleague of his.[1][3][4] In the late 1970s Ivanov began working in foreign intelligence, holding various posts in Africa and Europe. In 1981 Ivanov graduated from KGB First Chief Directorate's 101st School (now the Andropov Red-Banner Institute).[5]
In the 1980s Ivanov served as the Second Secretary at the Soviet Embassy in Helsinki, working directly under the KGB resident Felix Karasev.[6]
In the mid-1990s, Ivanov became one of the youngest generals in the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service.[5]
Career in Moscow[link]
In August 1998, Vladimir Putin became head of the Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation, and appointed Ivanov his deputy. As deputy director of the Federal Security Service, Ivanov solidified his reputation in Moscow as a competent analyst in matters of domestic and external security.[7] On 15 November 1999 Ivanov was appointed secretary of the Security Council of the Russian Federation, an advisory body charged with formulating presidential directives on national security, by Boris Yeltsin. In that position, Ivanov replaced Putin as Yeltsin's national security adviser upon Putin's promotion to the premiership.
As secretary, Ivanov was responsible for coordinating the daily work of the council, led by the president. But Ivanov's role as secretary was initially unclear to media observers. At the time of his appointment, the Security Council was a relatively new institution. (The council was set up by Yeltsin's tutelage in 1991-1992).[8] Between 1992 and Ivanov's appointment in 1999, Yeltsin used the council as political expediency had dictated, but had not allow it to emerge as a relatively strong and autonomous institution.[8] Ivanov's predecessors in that post, including Putin, according to Western analysts, were either the second most powerful political figure in Russia or the just another functionary lacking close access to the center of state power, depending on their relationship with Yeltsin.[8]
Defence Minister[link]
Ivanov was named by Vladimir Putin, who had succeeded Yeltsin as President on 31 December 1999, as Russia's Minister of Defence in March 2001. That month Ivanov stepped down as secretary of the Security Council, but remained a member. Ivanov had resigned from military service around a year earlier, and was a civilian while serving as secretary of the Security Council. Ivanov therefore became Russia's first civilian defence minister.[9] Putin called the personnel changes in Russia's security structures coinciding with Ivanov's appointment as defence minister "a step toward demilitarizing public life." Putin also stressed Ivanov's responsibility for overseeing military reform as defence minister.[10]
Unsurprisingly to specialists on Russia, Ivanov became bogged down in the sheer difficulty of his duties as Defence Minister. But despite bureaucratic inertia and corruption in the military, Ivanov did preside over some changes the form of a shift towards a more professional army. Although Ivanov was not successful in abandoning the draft, he did downsize it.[10]
As Defence Minister, Ivanov worked with U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld to expand Russian-U.S. cooperation against international terrorist threats to both states.[11]
On May 2001, Ivanov was elected chairman of the Council of Commonwealth of Independent States Defence Ministers.
In October 2003 Sergei Ivanov claimed that Russia did not rule out a pre-emptive military strike anywhere in the world if the national interest demands it.[12]
In 2004, Sergei Ivanov, then acting Defence Minister, pledged state support to the suspects in Chechen leader Zelimkhan Yandarbiyev's assassination detained in Qatar and declared that their imprisonment was illegal.[13] Later Qatari prosecutors concluded that the suspects had received the order to eliminate Zelimkhan Yandarbiev from Sergei Ivanov personally.[14]
In January 2006, Ivanov received criticism for his downplaying response to the public outcry over a particularly brutal hazing incident at a military base in the Urals, which involved Andrey Sychyov as a victim, whose legs and genitals were amputated due to the vicious beatings and abuse.[15][16][17][18]
From time to time Ivanov has disconcerted Western audiences with the bluntness of his remarks on international military and political issues, though his political orientation is moderate and generally liberal on economic issues. In a series of public comments on the 2003-2004 elections, for instance, he unequivocally stated his opposition to rolling back the Western-style economic reforms and privatizations of the 1990s.[10]
On 15 December 2006, in Moscow, Sergei Ivanov said to foreign correspondents about Alexander Litvinenko, murdered in London in November, which made headlines in the West: "For us, Litvinenko was nothing. We didn't care what he said and what he wrote on his deathbed."[19]
Deputy Prime Minister[link]
In November 2005 Ivanov was appointed to the post of Deputy Prime Minister in Mikhail Fradkov's Second Cabinet, with added responsibility for the defence industry and arms exports. On 15 February 2007 Putin elevated Ivanov to the post of First Deputy Prime Minister and relieved him of his duties as Defence Minister;[20] he was appointed as First Deputy Prime Minister with responsibility over defense industry, aerospace industry, nanotechnology and transport. In June 2007 Ivanov was appointed chairman of the Government Council for Nanotechnology.[21]
2008 presidential election[link]
[2] Because of his popularity with voters, Putin's endorsement was expected to help his preferred candidate, according to opinion polls and Russian political analysts.[citation needed] This speculation was intensified in November 2005 by Ivanov's promotion to the rank of Deputy Prime Minister.[10] The speculation was further intensified in February 2007 by Ivanov's promotion to the post of First Deputy Prime Minister,[9] but they ceased after his colleague Dmitry Medvedev was nominated to run for presidency with Putin's backing. Ivanov expressed his support for Medvedev's candidacy as well.[22]
Russian opinion polls suggested that Ivanov enjoys wide name recognition among the Russian public with relatively strong approval ratings.[23][24]
Ivanov's career, in terms of his background and rise through Russia's state structures, has often been compared to Putin's, fueling speculation that Ivanov might run for president in 2008. Three months younger than Putin, Ivanov had been a student contemporary of Putin's in their hometown of Leningrad. Both completed competitive specialized secondary education programs (Putin in chemistry, Ivanov in English language) in Leningrad before attending Leningrad State University.[5] Both completed postgraduate studies in counterintelligence; and both joined the foreign intelligence service shortly afterward. However, according to Ivanov's recollections, he did not become acquainted with Putin during their years as students, but rather when both were assigned to work in the same foreign intelligence division in Leningrad.[5]
Chief of Staff Presidential Administration of Russia[link]
In December, 2011 Ivanov was appointed Chief of Staff Presidential Administration of Russia.[25]
Personal[link]
Ivanov is an FSB colonel-general in reserve. He is fluent in English and Swedish as well as speaking Norwegian, and some French. Ivanov's hobbies include fishing and reading detective novels in the original English.[5]
Sergei Ivanov supports CSKA Moscow, he can often be seen at PFC CSKA and PBC CSKA matches.
He married in 1976 and has two sons: Alexander Sergeyevich Ivanov (b. 1978), works at Vneshekonombank and Sergei Sergeyevich Ivanov (b. 1982), a vice president at Gazprombank since 2006.
On 20 May 2005, a Volkswagen driven by Ivanov's eldest son Alexander struck and killed a 68-year-old woman, Svetlana Beridze, on a zebra crossing. Charges against him were, however, dropped.[26]
References[link]
- ^ a b Ivanov, Sergei, Lenta.ru (in Russian).
- ^ Резидент Россииской Федерации — "Московский Комсомолец"
- ^ Biography by Vladimir Pribylovsky (in Russian).
- ^ Russia Profile - Who's Who?
- ^ a b c d e http://www.russiaprofile.org/resources/whoiswho/alphabet/i/Ivanovsb.wbp
- ^ Who remembers 2nd Secretary Ivanov? - Helsingin Sanomat 1 April 2007
- ^ Aleksei Makarkin and Valeria Sycheva, "Putin's Electoral Staff Opens Inside Security Council" Segodnya, p. 2 Russian Press Digest, 16 November 1999
- ^ a b c http://www.bu.edu/iscip/vol12/staar.html
- ^ a b Finn, Peter. "Russian Leader Expands Powers of a Possible Successor". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/15/AR2007021501526_pf.html.
- ^ a b c d http://www.ufg.com/pr/press_kit/ufg_russia_index_2006_en.pdf
- ^ http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/sept_11/rumsfeld_015.htm
- ^ Russia bares its military teeth, BBC News, 2 October 2003.
- ^ Sergei Ivanov has promised to strive for discharge of the Russian prisoners in Qatar. Lenta.ru, 3 March 2004 (in Russian).
- ^ Sergei Ivanov Tied to the Case of the Russians in Qatar by Mikhail Zygar. Kommersant, 13 April 2004.
- ^ Russian Soldier Brutally Hazed CBS News
- ^ Washington Post (30 January 2006) — Violent Bullying of Russian Conscript Exposed
- ^ Hazing Trial Bares Dark Side of Russia's Military, The New York Times, 11 August 2006
- ^ [1]
- ^ Poisoned Spy’s Wife Says He Feared Kremlin’s Long Reach by Alan Cowell, The New York Times, 17 December 2006.
Sergei Ivanov told about Litvinenko’s "bad reputation", Lenta.ru, 16 December 2006 (in Russian). - ^ "Putin Promotes Sergei Ivanov to First Deputy Premier (Update3)". Bloomberg. 15 February 2007. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20670001&refer=&sid=a1zc52DSAVr8.
- ^ http://top.rbc.ru/politics/14/06/2007/106457.shtml
- ^ Ivanov had prior knowledge of Medvedev’s nomination
- ^ Ivanov Leads, Zubkov Negligible in Russia
- ^ Levada Center poll: 2008 elections (in Russian)
- ^ Andrew E. Kramer (December 28, 2011). "Political Promotions in Russia Appear to Belie President’s Promise of Reform". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/29/world/europe/medvedev-promotes-members-of-hard-line-faction-in-russia.html. Retrieved December 30, 2011.
- ^ Russian motorists enraged by elite's flashing blue lights by Adrian Blomfield, The Daily Telegraph, 13 February 2006.
Son of Defence Minister Cleared, The St. Petersburg Times, 25 November 2005.
Sergei Ivanov. Biography by Vladimir Pribylovsky (in Russian).
External links[link]
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Sergei Ivanov |
- Interview with Sergei Ivanov, in Hardtalk (BBC).
- Ivanov, Sergei, Lenta.ru (in Russian).
- Biography by Vladimir Pribylovsky (in Russian).
- Russia Profile of Sergei Ivanov
- Sergei Ivanov Biography at spb.ru
- "Russian Defense Minister Arrives In Kyrgyzstan"
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Vladimir Putin |
Secretary of the Security Council of Russia 1999–2001 |
Succeeded by Vladimir Rushailo |
| Preceded by Igor Sergeyev |
Defence Minister of the Russian Federation 2001–2007 |
Succeeded by Anatoliy Serdyukov |
| Preceded by Dmitry Medvedev |
Deputy Prime Minister of Russia with Alexander Zhukov 2005–2007 |
Succeeded by Alexander Zhukov Sergey Naryshkin |
| Preceded by Dmitry Medvedev |
First Deputy Prime Minister of Russia with Dmitry Medvedev 2007–2008 |
Succeeded by Viktor Zubkov Igor Shuvalov |
| Preceded by Dmitry Medvedev |
Deputy Prime Minister of Russia with Alexander Zhukov, Alexei Kudrin, Igor Sechin and Sergey Sobyanin 2008–present |
Incumbent |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Ivanov, Sergei |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 31 January 1953 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Sergei_Ivanov
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Sergej Borisovič Ivanov
http://es.wn.com/Serguéi Ivanov
http://ru.wn.com/Иванов, Сергей Борисович
http://nl.wn.com/Sergej Ivanov (politicus)
http://pt.wn.com/Sergei Ivanov
http://pl.wn.com/Siergiej Iwanow (polityk)
http://fr.wn.com/Sergueï Ivanov (homme politique)
http://de.wn.com/Sergei Borissowitsch Iwanow
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Ivanov
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
