The ruins of a Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) Chinese watchtower made of rammed earth at Dunhuang, Gansu province, at the eastern end of the Silk Road

A typical Hmong house-building technique in the tropical climate of Vietnam

Rammed earth, also known as taipa^[1] (Portuguese), tapial (Spanish), and pisé (de terre) (French), is a technique for building walls using the raw materials of earth, chalk, lime and gravel. It is an ancient building method that has seen a revival in recent years as people seek more sustainable building materials and natural building methods. Rammed-earth walls are simple to construct, noncombustible, thermally massive, strong, and durable. They can be labour-intensive to construct without machinery (powered tampers), however, and they are susceptible to water damage if inadequately protected or maintained. Rammed-earth buildings are found on every continent except Antarctica,^{[citation needed]} in a range of environments that includes the temperate and wet regions of northern Europe,^[2] semiarid deserts, mountain areas and the tropics. The availability of useful soil and a building design appropriate for local climatic conditions are the factors that favour its use.

Overview of use[link]

Model showing construction of rammed-earth wall on foundation

Building a rammed-earth wall involves compressing a damp mixture of earth that has suitable proportions of sand, gravel and clay (sometimes with an added stabilizer) into an externally supported frame or mould, creating either a solid wall of earth or individual blocks. Historically, such additives as lime or animal blood were used to stabilize the material, whilst modern construction uses lime, cement or asphalt emulsions. Some modern builders also add coloured oxides or other items, such as bottles, tires, or pieces of timber, to add variety to the structure.

The construction of an entire wall begins with a temporary frame (formwork), usually made of wood or plywood, to act as a mould for the desired shape and dimensions of each wall section. The form must be sturdy and well braced, and the two opposing wall faces clamped together, to prevent bulging or deformation from the large compression forces involved. Damp material is poured in to a depth of 10 to 25 cm (4 to 10 in) and then compacted to around 50% of its original height. The material is compressed iteratively, in batches, gradually building the wall up to the top of the frame. Tamping was historically done by hand with a long ramming pole, and was very labour-intensive; modern construction can be made less labour-intensive by employing pneumatically powered tampers.

Once a wall is complete, it is strong enough that the frames can be removed immediately. This is necessary if a surface texture will be applied (e.g. by wire-brushing), since the walls become too hard to work after about an hour. Construction is best done in warm weather so that the walls can dry and harden. The compression strength of the rammed earth increases as it cures; it takes some time to dry out, as much as two years for complete curing. Exposed walls should be sealed to prevent water damage.

In modern variations of the method, rammed-earth walls are constructed on top of conventional footings or a reinforced concrete slab base.

Where blocks made of rammed earth are used, they are generally stacked like regular blocks but are bonded together with a thin mud slurry instead of cement. Special machines, usually powered by small engines and often portable, are used to compress the earth into blocks.

Characteristics[link]

The compressive strength of rammed earth can be up to 4.3 MPa (620 psi). This is less than that of concrete, but more than strong enough for use in domestic buildings.^[3] Indeed, properly built rammed earth can withstand loads for thousands of years, as many still-standing ancient structures around the world attest.^[4] Rammed earth using rebar, wood or bamboo reinforcement can prevent failure caused by earthquakes or heavy storms. Adding cement to clay-poor soil mixtures can also increase a structure's load-bearing capacity. The USDA has observed that rammed-earth structures last indefinitely and could be built for no more than two-thirds the cost of standard frame houses.^[5]

Soil is a widely available, low-cost and sustainable resource, and utilizing it in construction has minimal environmental impact.^[6] This makes rammed-earth construction highly affordable and viable for low-income builders. Unskilled labour can do most of the necessary work, and today more than 30 percent of the world's population uses earth as a building material.^[3] Rammed earth has been used around the world in a wide range of climatic conditions, from wet northern Europe to dry regions in Africa.

While the cost of material is low, rammed-earth construction without mechanical tools can be very time-consuming; however, with a mechanical tamper and prefabricated formwork, it can take as little as two to three days to construct the walls for a 200 to 220 m² (2,200 to 2,400 sq ft) house.^[3]

One of the significant benefits of rammed earth is its high thermal mass; like brick or concrete construction, it can absorb heat during the day and release it at night. This moderates daily temperature variations and reduces the need for air conditioning and heating. For colder climates, rammed earth walls can also be insulated with a Styrofoam or similar insert. It must also be protected from heavy rain and insulated with vapour barriers.^[4][7]

Rammed earth can effectively control humidity where unclad walls containing clay are exposed to an internal space. Humidity is held between 40% and 60%, the ideal range for asthma sufferers and for the storage of such susceptible items as books. The material mass and clay content of rammed earth allows the building to "breathe" more than concrete structures do, avoiding condensation issues without significant heat loss.^[3]

Surface detail of a rammed-earth wall: apart from the patches of damage, the surface shows regular horizontal lines from the wooden formwork used in constructing the wall and subtler horizontal strata from successive layers of compacted earth.

Untouched, rammed-earth walls have the colour and texture of natural earth. Moisture-impermeable finishes, such as cement render, are avoided because they impair the wall's ability to desorb moisture, necessary to preserve its strength. Well-cured walls accept nails and screws easily, and can be effectively patched with the same material used to build them. Blemishes can be repaired using the soil mixture as a plaster and sanded smooth.

The thickness, typically 30 to 35 centimetres (12 to 14 in), and density of rammed-earth walls make them suitable for soundproofing. They are also termite-resistant, non-toxic, inherently fireproof and ultimately biodegradable.

Environmental aspects and sustainability[link]

Rammed-earth trombe wall built by the Design Build Bluff Organization

Because rammed-earth structures use locally available materials, they usually have low embodied energy and generate very little waste. The soils used are typically subsoils low in clay (between 5% and 15%), the topsoil being retained for agricultural use. Where soil excavated in preparing the building's foundation can be used, the cost and energy consumption for transportation are minimal.^[6]

Rammed-earth buildings reduce the need for lumber because the formwork is removable and can be repeatedly reused.^[8]

A Taipa section of the Great Wall of China

When cement is used in the earth mixture, sustainable benefits such as low embodied energy and humidity control will not be realized. Manufacture of the cement itself adds to the global carbon dioxide burden at a rate of 1.25 tonnes per tonne of cement produced.^[9] Partial substitution of cement with alternatives such as ground granulated blast furnace slag has not been shown to be effective, and raises further sustainability questions.^[10]

Rammed earth can contribute to the overall energy-efficiency of buildings. The density, thickness and thermal conductivity of rammed earth make it a particularly suitable material for passive solar heating. Warmth takes almost 12 hours to work its way through a wall 35 cm (14 in) thick.^[3]

Rammed-earth housing has been shown to resolve problems with homelessness caused by otherwise high building costs, also to help address the ecological impacts of deforestation and the toxicity of building materials associated with conventional construction methods.^[11]

History[link]

Rammed-earth walls form part of the entrance building for the Eden Project in Cornwall, England.

Buildings of the Borough House Plantation, Stateburg, South Carolina, built in the 1820s.

Evidence of the early use of rammed earth has been seen in Neolithic archaeological sites of the Yangshao and Longshan cultures along the Yellow River in China, dating back to 5000 BCE. By 2000 BCE rammed-earth architectural techniques (hangtu 夯土) were commonly used for walls and foundations in China.^[12]

In the 1800s rammed earth was popularized in the United States through the book Rural Economy by S.W. Johnson. The method was used to construct the Borough House Plantation^[13] and the Church of the Holy Cross^[14] in South Carolina, both US National Historic Landmarks.

Constructed in 1821, the Borough House Plantation complex contains the oldest and largest collection of 'high style' pise de terre (rammed earth) buildings in the United States. Six of the 27 dependencies and portions of the main house were constructed using this ancient technique, which was introduced to this country in 1806 through the book Rural Economy, by S.W. Johnson.

An outstanding example of rammed-earth construction in Canada is St. Thomas Anglican Church (Shanty Bay, Ontario), built between 1838 and 1841.

Church of the Holy Cross (Episcopal) Stateburg (or Holy Cross Episcopal Church) in Stateburg, South Carolina, built of rammed earth in 1850–1852

The period from the 1920s through the 1940s was active for studies of rammed-earth construction in the US. South Dakota State College carried out extensive research and built almost a hundred weathering walls of rammed earth. Over a period of thirty years the college investigated the use of paints and plasters in relation to colloids in soil. In 1945 Clemson Agricultural College of South Carolina published the results of their rammed-earth research in a pamphlet called "Rammed Earth Building Construction". In 1936, on a homestead near Gardendale, Alabama, the United States Department of Agriculture constructed an experimental community of rammed-earth buildings with architect Thomas Hibben. The houses were built inexpensively, and were sold to the public along with sufficient land for a garden and small livestock plots. The project was a success and provided valuable homes to low-income families.^[3]

The U.S. Agency for International Development is working with undeveloped countries to improve the engineering of rammed-earth houses. They also financed the writing of the Handbook of Rammed Earth by Texas A&M University and the Texas Transportation Institute. The handbook was unavailable for purchase by the public until the Rammed Earth Institute International gained permission to reprint it.^[3]

Interest in rammed earth fell after World War II when the costs of modern building materials dropped. Rammed earth was considered substandard, and still meets opposition from many contractors, engineers, and tradesmen who are unfamiliar with earth construction techniques.^[3]

See also[link]

Sustainable development portal

Rammed earth (pisé) houses in Tabant, Morocco. The technique is called Tabut there.

• Natural Materials
• Adobe
• Building construction
• Cast earth
• Cob (material)
• Compressed earth block
• Earthbag construction
• Dutch brick
• Mudbrick
• Super Adobe
• Green Building
• Sustainable architecture
• Sustainable landscaping
• Sustainable landscape architecture
• Sustainable gardening

References[link]

External sources[link]

• "Earth to Saltspring". Western Living (Vancouver, BC, Canada: Western Living) 23 (10). October 2003. ISSN 0824-0604. OCLC 20108901. 

David Suzuki
Suzuki in 2009
Born	David Takayoshi Suzuki (1936-03-24) March 24, 1936 (age 76) Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
Residence	Kitsilano, Vancouver, Canada
Citizenship	Canada
Nationality	Canadian
Signature

David Suzuki, CC, OBC (born March 24, 1936) is a Canadian academic, science broadcaster and environmental activist. Suzuki earned a Ph.D in zoology from the University of Chicago in 1961, and was a professor in the genetics department at the University of British Columbia from 1963 until his retirement in 2001. Since the mid-1970s, Suzuki has been known for his TV and radio series and books about nature and the environment. He is best known as host of the popular and long-running CBC Television science magazine, The Nature of Things, seen in over forty nations. He is also well known for criticizing governments for their lack of action to protect the environment.

A long time activist to reverse global climate change, Suzuki co-founded the David Suzuki Foundation in 1990, to work "to find ways for society to live in balance with the natural world that sustains us." The Foundation's priorities are: oceans and sustainable fishing, climate change and clean energy, sustainability, and Suzuki's Nature Challenge. He also served as a director of the Canadian Civil Liberties Association from 1982-1987.

Suzuki was awarded the Right Livelihood Award in 2009.

Early life[link]

Suzuki has a twin sister named Marcia, as well as two other siblings, Geraldine (now known as Aiko) and Dawn. They were born to Setsu Nakamura and Kaoru Carr Suzuki in Vancouver, Canada. Suzuki's maternal and paternal grandparents had immigrated to Canada at the beginning of the 20th century from Hiroshima and Aichi Prefecture respectively.^[1]

A third-generation Japanese-Canadian ("Canadian Sansei"), Suzuki and his family suffered internment in British Columbia during the Second World War from when he was there (1942) until after the war ended. In June 1942, the government sold the Suzuki family's dry-cleaning business, then interned Suzuki, his mother, and two sisters in a camp at Slocan in the British Columbia Interior.^[2] His father had been sent to a labour camp in Solsquinternment camp.

After the war, Suzuki's family, like other Japanese Canadian families, were forced to move east of the Rockies. The Suzukis moved to Islington, Leamington, and London, Ontario. Suzuki, in interviews, has many times credited his father for having interested him in and sensitized him to nature.

Suzuki attended Mill Street Elementary School and Grade 9 at Leamington Secondary School before moving to London, where he attended London Central Secondary School, eventually winning the election to become Students' Council President in his last year there by more votes than all of the other candidates combined.

Academic career[link]

Suzuki received his BA from Amherst College of Massachusetts in 1958, and his Ph.D in Zoology from the University of Chicago in 1961.

Early in his research career he studied genetics, using the popular model organism Drosophila melanogaster (fruit flies). To be able to use his initials in naming any new genes he found, he studied dominant temperature-sensitive phenotypes (DTS). (As he jokingly noted at a lecture at Johns Hopkins University, the only alternative was "damn tough skin".) He was a professor in the genetics department (stated in his book Genethics: The Ethics of Engineering Life, 1988) at the University of British Columbia for almost forty years (from 1963 until his retirement in 2001), and has since been professor emeritus at a university research institute.^[3]

Broadcasting career[link]

Suzuki in 2006

Suzuki began in television in 1970 with the weekly children's show Suzuki on Science. In 1974, he founded the radio program Quirks and Quarks which he also hosted on CBC AM radio (the forerunner of CBC Radio One) from 1975 to 1979. Throughout the 1970s, he also hosted Science Magazine, a weekly program geared towards an adult audience.

Since 1979, Suzuki has hosted The Nature of Things, a CBC television series that has aired in nearly fifty countries worldwide.^[4] In this program, Suzuki's aim is to stimulate interest in the natural world, to point out threats to human well-being and wildlife habitat, and to present alternatives for achieving a more sustainable society. Suzuki has been a prominent proponent of renewable energy sources and the soft energy path.

Suzuki was the host of the critically acclaimed 1993 PBS series The Secret of Life.^[5] His 1985 hit series, A Planet for the Taking, averaged more than 1.8 million viewers per episode and earned him a United Nations Environment Programme Medal. His perspective in this series is summed up in his statement: "We have both a sense of the importance of the wilderness and space in our culture and an attitude that it is limitless and therefore we needn't worry." He concludes with a call for a major "perceptual shift" in our relationship with nature and the wild.

Suzuki's The Sacred Balance, a book first published in 1997 and later made into a five hour mini-series on Canadian public television, was broadcasted in 2002.^[6][7] Suzuki is now taking part in an advertisement campaign with the tagline "You have the power", promoting energy conservation through various household alternatives, such as the use of compact fluorescent lightbulbs.

For the Discovery Channel Suzuki also produced "Yellowstone to Yukon: The Wildlands Project" in 1997. The conservation-biology based documentary focused on Dave Foreman's Wildlands Project, which considers how to create corridors between and buffer-zones around large wilderness reserves as a means to preserve biological diversity. Foreman developed this project after leaving Earth First! (which he co-founded) in 1990. The conservation biologists Michael Soulé and Reed Noss were also directly involved.

Climate change activism[link]

At the 2007 Global Day of Action event in Vancouver, B.C.. The sign in the background refers to the Greater Vancouver Gateway Program.

In recent years, Suzuki has been a forceful spokesperson on global climate change, not always without controversy. In February 2008, he urged McGill University students to speak out against politicians who fail to act on climate change, stating "What I would challenge you to do is to put a lot of effort into trying to see whether there's a legal way of throwing our so-called leaders into jail because what they're doing is a criminal act."^[8][9]

Suzuki is unequivocal that climate change is a very real and pressing problem and that an "overwhelming majority of scientists" now agree that human activity is responsible. The David Suzuki Foundation website has a clear statement of this:

The debate is over about whether or not climate change is real. Irrefutable evidence from around the world - including extreme weather events, record temperatures, retreating glaciers, and rising sea levels - all point to the fact climate change is happening now and at rates much faster than previously thought.

The overwhelming majority of scientists who study climate change agree that human activity is responsible for changing the climate. The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is one of the largest bodies of international scientists ever assembled to study a scientific issue, involving more than 2,500 scientists from more than 130 countries. The IPCC has concluded that most of the warming observed during the past 50 years is attributable to human activities. Its findings have been publicly endorsed by the National Academies of Science of all G-8 nations, as well as those of China, India and Brazil.^[10]

Suzuki says that despite this growing consensus, many in the public and the media seemed doubtful about the science for many years. The reason for the confusion about climate change, in Suzuki's view, was due to a well-organized campaign of disinformation about the science involved. "A very small number of critics" denies that climate change exists and that humans are the cause. These climate change “skeptics” or "deniers," Suzuki claims, tend not to be climate scientists and do not publish in peer-reviewed scientific journals but rather target the media, the general public, and policy makers. Their goal: "delaying action on climate change." According to Suzuki, the skeptics have received significant funding from coal and oil companies, including ExxonMobil. They are linked to "industry-funded lobby groups," such as the Information Council on the Environment (ICE),^[11] whose aim is to "reposition global warming as theory (not fact)."^[10]

Carbon footprint[link]

Suzuki himself laments that in traveling constantly to spread his message of climate responsibility, he has ended up "over his [carbon] limit by hundreds of tonnes." He has stopped vacationing overseas and taken to "clustering" his speaking engagements together to reduce his carbon footprint. He would prefer, he says, to appear solely by video conference.^[12]

Publications[link]

Suzuki signing a copy of his works

Suzuki is the author of 52 books (fifteen for children), including David Suzuki: The Autobiography, Tree: A Life Story, The Sacred Balance, Genethics, Wisdom of the Elders, Inventing the Future, and the best-selling Looking At series of children’s science books. This is a partial list of publications^[13] by Suzuki:

• Sciencescape - The Nature of Canada (1986) - with Hans Blohm and Marjorie Harris
• Pebbles to Computers: The Thread (1986) - with Hans Blohm and Stafford Beer
• Metamorphosis: Stages in a life (1987)
• Genethics: The Clash between the New Genetics and Human Values (1990)
• It's a Matter of Survival (1991) ISBN 0-674-46970-4
• [Time to Change] (1994)
• The Japan We Never Knew:A Journey of Discovery (1997) with Keibo Oiwa
• More Good News (2003)^[14]
• David Suzuki: The Autobiography (2006)
• The Sacred Balance (2007)
• David Suzuki's Green Guide (2008) with David Boyd
• The Big Picture: Reflections on Science, Humanity, and a Quickly Changing Planet (2009) with David Taylor
• The Legacy: An Elder's vision for a sustainable future (2010) foreword by Margaret Atwood
• Force of Nature: The David Suzuki Movie (2010) 93 minute documentary DVD (210616DV)^[15][16][17]

Awards and honours[link]

Suzuki receives the Right Livelihood Award from Jakob von Uexkull

Suzuki is the recipient of the Order of Canada, first as an Officer (1976), then upgraded to Companion status in (2006),^[18] the Order of British Columbia (1995),^[19] UNESCO’s Kalinga Prize for science (1986)^[20] and a long list of Canadian and international honours.

In 2004, Suzuki was nominated as one of the top ten "Greatest Canadians" by viewers of the CBC. In the final vote he ranked fifth.^[21] Suzuki said that his own vote was for Tommy Douglas who was the eventual winner.

In 2006, Suzuki was the recipient of the Bradford Washburn Award presented at the Museum of Science in Boston, Massachusetts.^[22]

In 2007, Suzuki was honoured by Global Exchange, with the International Human Rights Award.

In 2009 Suzuki was awarded the Honorary Right Livelihood Award.^[23]

Honorary degrees[link]

Suzuki has received numerous honorary degrees from universities around the world.^[24]

• University of Prince Edward Island in Charlottetown (LL.D) in 1974
• University of Windsor in Windsor, Ontario (D.Sc) in 1979
• Acadia University in Wolfville, Nova Scotia (D.Sc) in 1979
• Trent University in Peterborough, Ontario (LL.D) in 1981^[25]
• University of Calgary in Calgary, Alberta (LL.D) in 1986
• Governors State University in University Park, Illinois (DHL) in 1986
• Lakehead University in Thunder Bay, Ontario (D.Sc) in 1986
• McMaster University in Hamilton, Ontario (D.Sc) in 1987
• Queen's University in Kingston, Ontario (LL.D) in 1987
• Carleton University in Ottawa, Ontario (D.Sc) in 1987
• Amherst College in Amherst, Massachusetts, (D.Sc) in 1988
• Griffith University in Queensland, Australia (D.Sc) in 1997
• Open University, Milton Keynes, UK DDL in 1998
• Whitman College in Walla Walla, Washington, (D.Sc) in 1999
• Unity College in Unity, Maine, (Doctor of Environmental Science) in 2000
• Simon Fraser University in Burnaby, British Columbia DDL in 2001
• York University in Toronto, Ontario (D.Sc) in 2005
• UQAM in Montreal, Quebec (D.Sc) in 2005
• Flinders University in Adelaide, South Australia (D.Sc) in 2006
• Ryerson University in Toronto, Ontario (Doctor of Communication) in 2007
• University of Montreal in Montreal, Quebec (D.Sc) in 2007
• University of Western Ontario in London, Ontario (D.Sc) in 2007
• Lambton College in Sarnia, Ontario (Diploma in Alternative Energy Engineering Technology) in 2008^[26]
• Memorial University of Newfoundland in St. John's, Newfoundland (D.Sc) in 2009
• Université Sainte-Anne in Church Point, Nova Scotia, Nova Scotia (Honorary Doctorate) in 2010 ^[27]
• Université Laval in Quebec City, Quebec, Canada (Doctor of Communication) in 2011

See also[link]

	Environment portal
	Global Warming portal

• Conservation biology
• Environmentalism
• Soft energy path
• David Suzuki Foundation

Footnotes[link]

Notations[link]

• John C. Phillipson. "David Takayoshi Suzuki" in The Canadian Encyclopedia: Year 2000 Edition, James Marsh, ed. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 1999. p. 2277. ISBN 0-7710-2099-6
• David Suzuki. Metamorphosis. Toronto: Stoddart, 1991. ISBN 0-7737-5509-8

Further reading[link]

• Suzuki, David (2007), David Suzuki: The Autobiography, Greystone Books, ISBN 9781553652816, http://books.google.ca/books?id=UrUIUZ9Fkg8C&lpg=PP1&dq=David%20Suzuki&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true 
• Suzuki, David; David R. Boyd (2008), David Suzuki's Green Guide, Greystone Books, ISBN 9781553652939, http://books.google.ca/books?id=FgGcvxC0YpkC&lpg=PP1&dq=David%20Suzuki&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true 
• Gazlay, Suzy (2009), David Suzuki: Doing Battle with Climate Change, Crabtree, ISBN 9780778746652, http://books.google.ca/books?id=uEu7DeEBE1sC&lpg=PP1&dq=David%20Suzuki&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=true 

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: David Suzuki

• Order of Canada citation
• The David Suzuki Foundation
• Nature of Things official website
• video: "David Suzuki - "Force of Nature", Dec. 14, 2010, with Allan Gregg, 28 minutes,
• Right Livelihood Award
• David Suzuki at the Internet Movie Database

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