Farmers' market showing vegetables for sale in Lhasa, Tibet.

Vegetables in a supermarket in the United States.

The noun vegetable means an edible plant or part of a plant, but usually excludes seeds and most sweet fruit. This typically means the leaf, stem, or root of a plant.

In a non-biological sense, the meaning of this word is largely based on culinary and cultural tradition. Therefore, the application of the word is somewhat arbitrary and subjective. For example, some people consider mushrooms to be vegetables even though they are not biologically plants,^[1][2] while others consider them a separate food category.^[3]

Some vegetables can be consumed raw, some may be eaten cooked, and some must be cooked in order to be edible. Vegetables are most often cooked in savory or salty dishes. However, a few vegetables are often used in desserts and other sweet dishes, such as rhubarb pie and carrot cake. A number of processed food items available on the market contain vegetable ingredients and can be referred to as "vegetable derived" products. These products may or may not maintain the nutritional integrity of the vegetable used to produce them. Examples of vegetable-derived products are ketchup, tomato sauce, and vegetable oils.

Etymology[link]

Vegetables in market

Melon Yard at Heligan Cornwall England

"Vegetable" comes from the Latin vegetabilis (animated) and from vegetare (enliven), which is derived from vegetus (active), in reference to the process of a plant growing.

The word "vegetable" was first recorded in English in the 15th century,^[4] and originally applied to any plant. This is still the sense of the adjective "vegetable" in biological context.^[5] In 1967, the meaning of the term "vegetable" was specified to mean "plant cultivated for food, edible herb or root." The year 1955 noted the first use of the shortened, slang term "veggie".^[6]

As an adjective, the word vegetable is used in scientific and technical contexts with a different and much broader meaning, namely of "related to plants" in general, edible or not — as in vegetable matter, vegetable kingdom, vegetable origin, etc.^[5] The meaning of "vegetable" as "plant grown for food" was not established until the 18th century.^[7]

Terminology[link]

A Venn diagram shows the overlap in the terminology of "vegetables" in a culinary sense and "fruits" in the botanical sense

There are at least four definitions relating to fruits and vegetables:

• Fruit (botany): the ovary of a flowering plant (sometimes including accessory structures),
• Fruit (culinary): any edible part of a plant with a sweet flavor,
• Vegetable (culinary): any edible part of a plant with a savory flavor.
• Vegetable (legal): commodities that are taxed as vegetables in a particular jurisdiction

In everyday, grocery-store, culinary language, the words "fruit" and "vegetable" are mutually exclusive; plant products that are called fruit are hardly ever classified as vegetables, and vice-versa. The word "fruit" has a precise botanical meaning (a part that developed from the ovary of a flowering plant), which is considerably different from its culinary meaning, and includes many poisonous fruits. While peaches, plums, and oranges are "fruit" in both senses, many items commonly called "vegetables" — such as eggplants, bell peppers, and tomatoes — are botanically fruits, while the cereals (grains) are both a fruit and a vegetable, as well as some spices like black pepper and chili peppers. Some plant products, such as corn or peas, may be considered to be vegetables only while still unripe.

The question of whether the tomato is a fruit or a vegetable found its way into the United States Supreme Court in 1893. The court ruled unanimously in Nix v. Hedden that a tomato is correctly identified as, and thus taxed as, a vegetable, for the purposes of the Tariff of 1883 on imported produce. The court did acknowledge, however, that, botanically speaking, a tomato is a fruit.^[8]

Languages other than English often have categories that can be identified with the common English meanings of "fruit" and "vegetable", but their precise meaning often depends on local culinary traditions. For example, in Brazil the avocado is traditionally consumed with sugar as a dessert or in milkshakes, and hence it is regarded as a culinary fruit; whereas in other countries (including Mexico and the United States) it is used in salads and dips, and hence considered to be a vegetable.^{[citation needed]}

Examples of different parts of plants used as vegetables[link]

The list of food items called "vegetable" is quite long, and includes many different parts of plants:

A cilantro leaf

• Flower bud

broccoli, cauliflower, globe artichokes, capers

• Seeds

Sweet corn (maize), peas, beans

• Leaves

kale, collard greens, spinach, arugula, beet greens, bok choy, chard, choi sum, turnip greens, endive, lettuce, mustard greens, watercress, garlic chives, gai lan

• Leaf sheaths

leeks

• Buds

Brussels sprouts

• Stem

Kohlrabi, galangal, and ginger

• Stems of leaves

celery, rhubarb, cardoon, Chinese celery

• Stem shoots

asparagus, bamboo shoots

• Tubers

potatoes, Jerusalem artichokes, sweet potatoes, taro, and yams

• Whole-plant sprouts

soybean (moyashi), mung beans, urad, and alfalfa.

• Roots

carrots, parsnips, beets, radishes, rutabagas, turnips, and burdocks.

• Bulbs

onions, shallots, garlic

• Fruits in the botanical sense, but used as vegetables

tomatoes, cucumbers, squash, zucchinis, pumpkins, peppers, eggplant, tomatillos, christophene, okra, breadfruit and avocado, and also the following:

• Legumes

green beans, lentils, snow peas, soybean

Nutrition[link]

South Asian style stir fry ipomoea aquatica in chili and sambal

Vegetables (and some fruit) for sale on a street in Guntur, India

Vegetables are eaten in a variety of ways, as part of main meals and as snacks. The nutritional content of vegetables varies considerably, though generally they contain little protein or fat,^[9][10] and varying proportions of vitamins such as Vitamin A, Vitamin K and Vitamin B6, provitamins, dietary minerals and carbohydrates. Vegetables contain a great variety of other phytochemicals, some of which have been claimed to have antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral and anticarcinogenic properties.^[11][12] Some vegetables also contain fiber, important for gastrointestinal function. Vegetables contain important nutrients necessary for healthy hair and skin as well. A person who refrains from dairy and meat products, and eats only plants (including vegetables) is known as a vegan.

However, vegetables often also contain toxins and antinutrients such as α-solanine, α-chaconine,^[13] enzyme inhibitors (of cholinesterase, protease, amylase, etc.), cyanide and cyanide precursors, oxalic acid, and more.^[14] Depending on the concentration, such compounds may reduce the edibility, nutritional value, and health benefits of dietary vegetables. Cooking and/or other processing may be necessary to eliminate or reduce them.

Diets containing recommended amounts of fruits and vegetables may help lower the risk of heart diseases and type 2 diabetes. These diets may also protect against some cancers and decrease bone loss. The potassium provided by both fruits and vegetables may help prevent the formation of kidney stones.

Dietary Recommendations[link]

The USDA Dietary Guidelines for Americans recommends consuming 3 to 5 servings of vegetables daily.^[15] This recommendation can vary based on age and gender, and is determined based upon standard portion sizes typically consumed, as well as general nutritional content.^[16] For most vegetables, one serving is equal to 1/2 cup and can be eaten raw or cooked. For leafy greens, such as lettuce and spinach, a single serving is typically 1 cup. Serving sizes for vegetable-derived products have not been definitively determined, but usually follow the 1/2 cup standard. Examples of vegetable-derived products subject to this standard are ketchup, pizza sauce, and tomato paste. Currently, there is no specific standard for measuring a vegetable serving in regards to its nutrient content, since different vegetables contain a wide variety of nutrients.

International dietary guidelines follow closely to the ones established by the USDA. Japan, for example, recommends the consumption of 5 to 6 servings of vegetables daily.^[17] French dietary guidelines follow similar suit and set the daily goal at 5 servings.^[18]

Color pigments[link]

The green color of leaf vegetables is due to the presence of the green pigment chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is affected by the pH, and it changes to olive green in acid conditions, and to bright green in alkaline conditions. Some of the acids are released in steam during cooking, particularly if cooked without a cover.

The yellow/orange colors of fruits and vegetables are due to the presence of carotenoids, which are also affected by normal cooking processes or changes in pH.

The red/blue coloring of some fruits and vegetables (e.g. blackberries and red cabbage) are due to anthocyanins, which are sensitive to changes in pH. When the pH is neutral, the pigments are purple, when acidic, red, and when alkaline, blue. These pigments are quite water-soluble.

Cultivation and export[link]

This section requires expansion.

Of all the world's nations, China is the leading cultivator of vegetables, with top productions in potato, onions, cabbage, lettuce, tomatoes and broccoli.

Safety[link]

Pulse seeds.

For food safety, the CDC recommends proper fruit handling and preparation to reduce the risk of food contamination and foodborne illness. Fresh fruits and vegetables should be carefully selected. At the store, they should not be damaged or bruised and pre-cut pieces should be refrigerated or surrounded by ice. All fruits and vegetables should be rinsed before eating. This recommendation also applies to produce with rinds or skins that are not eaten. It should be done just before preparing or eating to avoid premature spoilage. Fruits and vegetables should be kept separate from raw foods like meat, poultry, and seafood, as well as any cooking utensils or surfaces that may have come into contact with them (e.g. cutting boards). Fruits and vegetables, if they are not going to be cooked, should be thrown away if they have touched raw meat, poultry, seafood or eggs. All cut, peeled, or cooked fruits and vegetables should be refrigerated within 2 hours. After a certain time, harmful bacteria may grow on them and increase the risk of foodborne illness.^[19]

Storage[link]

Vegetables

Proper post-harvest storage aimed at extending and ensuring shelf life is best effected by efficient cold chain application. All vegetables benefit from proper post harvest care.^[20]

Many root and non-root vegetables that grow underground can be stored through winter in a root cellar or other similarly cool, dark, and dry place to prevent the growth of mold, greening and sprouting. Care should be taken in understanding the properties and vulnerabilities of the particular roots to be stored. These vegetables can last through to early spring and be nearly as nutritious as when fresh.

During storage, leafy vegetables lose moisture, and the vitamin C in them degrades rapidly. They should be stored for as short a time as possible in a cool place, in a sealed container or a plastic bag.

Standards[link]

This section requires expansion.

There is a series of ISO standards regarding fruits and vegetables.^[21]

See also[link]

• Food quality
• Food safety
• Fruit
• List of vegetables
• Perennial vegetable
• Vegetarianism
• Veganism
• Vegetable disease
• Herbivore
• Market gardening
• Vegetable carving
• Post-harvest losses (Fruit and vegetables)

Notes[link]

Further reading[link]

• Munro, Derek B., Small, E. 1997 Vegetables of Canada. NRC Research Press, Ottawa ISBN 978-0-660-19503-2

External links[link]

Wikibooks Cookbook has a recipe/module on Vegetable

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Vegetable

• Photo ID of Vegetables by Capt. Pawanexh Kohli
• UC Vegetable & Research Information Center
• Michigan Vegetable Information Network
• Fruits and Vegetables - Your Reference to Fruits and Vegetables, Veg Recipes, Healthy Diet, Healthy Life and Food Tips, Storage Information, Suppliers Directory.

The Beach Boys
The Beach Boys in 1964 From left to right: Dennis Wilson, Mike Love, Brian Wilson, Carl Wilson, Al Jardine
Background information
Origin	Hawthorne, California, United States
Genres	Rock, pop, surf rock, psychedelic rock
Years active	1961–present
Labels	Capitol, Brother, Reprise, Caribou, CBS
Associated acts	The Honeys
Website	thebeachboys.com
Members
Mike Love Brian Wilson Al Jardine David Marks Bruce Johnston
Past members
Dennis Wilson Carl Wilson Glen Campbell Ricky Fataar Blondie Chaplin

The Beach Boys are an American rock band, formed in 1961 in Hawthorne, California. The group was initially composed of brothers Brian, Dennis and Carl Wilson, their cousin Mike Love, and friend Al Jardine. They were managed early on by the Wilsons' father, Murry. The band's leader, composer, arranger and producer Brian Wilson was responsible for writing most of the band's early singles and albums. After signing with Capitol Records in mid-1962, Wilson wrote or co-wrote more than two dozen Top 40 hits including "Surfin' Safari", "Surfin' USA", "Surfer Girl", "Little Deuce Coupe", "Be True to Your School", "In My Room", "Fun, Fun, Fun", "I Get Around", "Dance Dance Dance", "Help Me Rhonda" and "California Girls". These songs and their accompanying albums were internationally popular, making The Beach Boys one of the biggest acts of their time.^[1] The band's early music gained popularity across the United States for its close vocal harmonies and lyrics reflecting a Southern California youth culture of surfing, cars, and romance. By the mid-1960s, Brian's growing creative ambition and songwriting ability would dominate the group's musical direction. The primarily Brian-composed Pet Sounds album and "Good Vibrations" single (both released in 1966) featured a complex, intricate and multi-layered sound.

However, Brian would soon lose control of the band because of problems with his mental health and substance abuse. This led to the cancellation of the anticipated follow up to Pet Sounds, Smile. Subsequently, although they released a number of highly artistic albums (in various musical styles, with different line-ups) in ensuing years, particularly in the years 1967–1973, the group never managed to reclaim its mid-1960s peak when The Beach Boys challenged The Beatles both in terms of commercial and critical appeal. Since the 1980s, there has been much legal wrangling among the group members over royalties, songwriting credits, and use of the band's name. Following the release of their studio album Stars and Stripes Vol. 1 in 1996, a number of versions of the band, each fronted by a surviving member of the original quintet (Dennis and Carl Wilson died in 1983 and 1998, respectively), continued to tour until the announcement in late 2011 of a full-scale reunion—including Brian—for 2012 along with the band's twenty-ninth studio album That's Why God Made the Radio which is set for release on June 5, 2012.

The Beach Boys have often been called "America's Band",^[2] and Allmusic has stated that "the band's unerring ability... made them America's first, best rock band."^[3] The group has had 36 US Top 40 hits (the most by an American rock band) and 56 Hot 100 hits, including four number-one singles.^[3] Rolling Stone magazine listed The Beach Boys at number 12 on their 2004 list of the "100 Greatest Artists of All Time," the highest ranking for an American rock band.^[4] The group is also one of America's best-selling acts, having sold over 100 million albums worldwide since their debut in 1961.^{[citation needed]} Brian Wilson, Carl Wilson, Dennis Wilson, Mike Love, and Al Jardine were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1988. Since the 1990s many of the group's later albums and singles have been re-evaluated by critics and fans with albums such as Sunflower, Surf's Up and the finally released Smile albums being seen as worthy successors to their earlier output. In particular, Brian Wilson has since become heralded as a musical genius along the lines of Lennon and McCartney.

History[link]

Formative years[link]

At age 16, Brian Wilson shared a bedroom with his brothers, Dennis and Carl, in their family home in Hawthorne. He watched his father, Murry Wilson, play piano and listened intently to the harmonies of vocal groups like The Four Freshmen. One night he taught his brothers a song called "Ivory Tower" and how to sing the background harmonies. "We practiced night after night, singing softly hoping we wouldn't wake our Dad."^[5] For his 16th birthday, Brian was given a reel-to-reel tape recorder. He learned how to overdub, using his vocals and those of Carl and their mother. He would play piano and later added Carl playing the Rickenbacker guitar he got as a Christmas present.^[6]

Soon Brian was avidly listening to Johnny Otis on his KFOX radio show, a favorite station of Carl's. Inspired by the simple structure and vocals of the rhythm and blues songs he heard, he changed his piano-playing style and started writing songs. His enthusiasm interfered with his music studies at school. He failed to complete a twelfth-grade piano sonata, but did submit an original composition, called "Surfin'".^[7]

Family gatherings brought the Wilsons in contact with cousin Mike Love. Brian taught Love's sister Maureen and a friend harmonies. Later, Brian, Mike Love and two friends performed at Hawthorne High School, drawing tremendous applause for their version of doo-wop group The Olympics' "Hully Gully".^[8] Brian also knew Al Jardine, a high school classmate, who had already played guitar in a folk group called The Islanders. One day, on the spur of the moment, they asked a couple of football players in the school training room to learn harmony parts, but it wasn't a success—the bass singer was flat.^[9]

Brian suggested to Jardine that they team up with his cousin and brother Carl. It was at these sessions, held in Brian's bedroom, that "the Beach Boys sound" began to form. Brian says: "Everyone contributed something. Carl kept us hip to the latest tunes, Al taught us his repertoire of folk songs, and Dennis, though he didn't [then] play anything, added a combustible spark just by his presence." Love encouraged Brian to write songs and gave the fledgling band its name: The Pendletones, derived from the Pendleton woolen shirts popular at the time. In their earliest performances, the band wore the heavy wool jacket-like shirts, which were favored by surfers in the South Bay. Although surfing motifs were very prominent in their early songs, Dennis was the only band-member who surfed.^[10] He suggested that his brothers compose some songs celebrating his hobby and the lifestyle which had developed around it in Southern California.^[11]

Jardine and a singer friend, Gary Winfrey, went to Brian's to see if he could help out with a version of a folk song they wanted to record—"Sloop John B". In Brian's absence, the two spoke with Murry, a music industry veteran of modest success. In September 1961, Murry arranged for The Pendletones to meet publishers Hite and Dorinda Morgan at Stereo Masters in Hollywood.^[12] The group performed a slower ballad, "Their Hearts Were Full of Spring", but failed to impress the Morgans. After an awkward pause, Dennis mentioned they had an original song, "Surfin'". Brian was taken aback—he had not finished writing the song—but Hite Morgan was interested and asked them to call back when the song was complete.^[11]

With help from Love, Brian finished the song and the group rented guitars, drums, amplifiers and microphones. They practiced for three days while the Wilsons' parents were on a short vacation. When they auditioned again a few days later, Hite Morgan declared: "That's a smash!"^[13] In October, The Pendletones recorded twelve takes of "Surfin'" in the Morgans' cramped offices. A small number of singles were pressed. When the boys eagerly unpacked the first box of singles, on the Candix Records label, they were shocked to see their band name changed to "Beach Boys". Murry Wilson, now intimately involved with the band's fortunes, called the Morgans. Apparently a young promotion worker, Russ Regan, made the change to more obviously tie the group in with other surf bands of the time. The limited budget meant the labels could not be reprinted.^[14]

Early career[link]

The Beach Boys performing on The Ed Sullivan Show in 1964.

	"I Get Around" noicon An excerpt from the Brian Wilson and Mike Love song "I Get Around", demonstrating Mike Love's lead vocals and Carl Wilson's surf-rock-styled guitar solo.
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Released November 1961, "Surfin'" was soon aired on KFWB and KDAY, two of Los Angeles' most influential radio stations. It was a hit on the West Coast, and peaked at number 75 on the national pop charts. Murry Wilson told the boys he did not like "Surfin'". However, according to Brian, "he smelled money to be made and jumped on the promotional bandwagon, calling every radio station..."^[15] By now the de-facto manager of The Beach Boys, Murry got the group's first paying gig on New Year's Eve, 1961, at the Ritchie Valens Memorial Dance in Long Beach, headlined by Ike & Tina Turner. Brian recalls how he wondered what they were doing there; "five clean-cut, unworldly white boys from a conservative white suburb, in an auditorium full of black kids". Brian describes the night as an "education"—he knew afterwards that success was all about "R&B, rock and roll, and money". The boys went home with $50 apiece.^[16]

In February 1962, Jardine left the band to continue his college studies.^[16] David Marks, a thirteen-year-old neighbour and friend of Carl and Dennis who had been playing electric guitar for years with Carl, replaced him. (Jardine, at Brian's request, rejoined the band in July 1963).^[17] In 1962, The Beach Boys began wearing blue/gray-striped button-down shirts tucked into white pants as their touring "uniforms", the band's signature look through to 1966.^[18]

Though Murry effectively seized managerial control of the band without consultation, Brian acknowledges that he "deserves credit for getting us off the ground... he hounded us mercilessly... [but] also worked hard himself". He was the first to stress the importance of having a follow-up hit.^[19] The band duly recorded four more originals, on June 13 at Western Studios, Los Angeles, including "Surfer Girl", "409" and "Surfin' Safari". The session ended on a bitter note, however: Murry Wilson unsuccessfully suggested and then demanded that The Beach Boys record some of his own songs, saying "My songs are better than yours."^[20]

On July 16, on the strength of the June demo session, The Beach Boys were signed to Capitol Records. By November, their first album was ready—Surfin' Safari.^[21] Their song output continued along the same commercial line, focusing on California youth lifestyle.^[10] The early Beach Boys’ hits helped raise both the profile of the state of California and of surfing. The group also celebrated the Golden State’s obsession with hot-rod racing ("Shut Down", "409" and "Little Deuce Coupe") and the pursuit of happiness by carefree teens ("Be True to Your School", "Fun, Fun, Fun" and "I Get Around").^[22]

Apart from Murry Wilson and the close vocal harmonies of Brian's favorite groups, early inspiration came from the driving rock-and-roll sound of Chuck Berry and Phil Spector's Wall of Sound production.^[23][24] Musically, two of their early songs were influenced by others: "Surfer Girl" shares its rhythmic melody with "When You Wish Upon a Star", while "Surfin' USA" is a variation of Berry's "Sweet Little Sixteen".^[25] A lawsuit officially granted Berry writing credit and royalties from the record.^[26] The Beach Boys' early hits made them major pop stars in the United States, the United Kingdom, and other countries, with sixteen hit singles in 1962–1965. However, with the British Invasion in 1964, some British groups, in particular The Beatles, eclipsed their success.

Brian Wilson's innovations and personal difficulties[link]

	"Help Me, Rhonda" noicon This single version of the song is a slightly quicker rocker which features Al Jardine on lead vocals and a guitar solo performed by Carl Wilson.
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By 1964, the stress of road travel, composing, producing and maintaining a high level of creativity became too much to bear for Brian Wilson. In December that year, while on a flight to Houston, Brian suffered an anxiety attack and left the tour. Shortly afterward, he announced his withdrawal from touring to concentrate entirely on songwriting and record production. This wasn't the first time Brian had stopped touring. In 1963, when Jardine returned, Brian left the road; but when Marks quit, Brian had to return in his place. For the rest of 1964 and into 1965, Glen Campbell served as Wilson's replacement in concert, until his own career success required him to leave the group.^[27] Bruce Johnston was asked to locate a replacement for Campbell; having failed to find one, Johnston himself subsequently became a full-time member of the band, first replacing Wilson on the road and later contributing his own talents in the studio beginning with the sessions for "California Girls".^[28]

Jan and Dean, close friends with the band and their opening act in 1963 and 1964, encouraged Brian to use session musicians in the studio. This, along with Brian's withdrawal from touring, permitted him to expand his role as a producer. Wilson also wrote "Surf City" for the Jan & Dean opening act. Their recording hit number one on the US charts in the summer of 1963, a development that pleased Brian but angered Murry, who felt his son had "given away" what should have been the Beach Boys' first chart-topper. A year later, The Beach Boys would notch their first number-one single with "I Get Around."

Soon, traces of Brian Wilson's increasing studio productivity and innovation were noticeable: "Drive-In", an album track from All Summer Long (1964) features bars of silence between two verses while "Denny's Drums", the last track on Shut Down, Vol. II (1964), is a two-minute drum solo.^[29] As Wilson's musical efforts became more ambitious, the group relied more on nimble session players, on tracks such as "I Get Around" and "When I Grow Up (To Be a Man)". "Help Me, Rhonda" became the band's second number-one single in the spring of 1965.

1965 led to greater experimentation behind the soundboard with Wilson. The album Today! featured guitar orientated songs such as "Dance, Dance, Dance", "Do You Wanna Dance?", "Don't Hurt My Little Sister" and "Good To My Baby", as well as volume experiments and increased lyrical maturity with "Please Let Me Wonder" and "She Knows Me Too Well".^[30][31] Side A of the album was devoted to upbeat tunes, with darker and melancholic ballads on the reverse side.^[32] This pattern was also evident on some of the band's singles; songs such as "Kiss Me, Baby" released on the B-side to "Help Me, Rhonda" and "Let Him Run Wild" on the B-side to "California Girls", each featured Brian Wilson on lead vocals, and foreshadowed the youthful angst that would later pervade Wilson's upcoming efforts.

In November 1965, the group followed up their number-three summer smash "California Girls" with another top 20 single, "The Little Girl I Once Knew". It is considered to be the band's most experimental statement thus far, using silence as a pre-chorus, clashing keyboards, moody brass, and vocal tics. Perhaps too extreme an arrangement to go much higher than its modest number 20 peak, it was only the band's second single not to reach the top 10 since their 1962 breakthrough. In December they would score an unexpected number two hit (number three in the UK) with the single "Barbara Ann", which Capitol released as a single without input from any of The Beach Boys. A cover of a 1961 song by The Regents, it became one of The Beach Boys' most recognized hits over the years.

The peak years and psychedelia[link]

During the mid sixties, The Beach Boys left surfing behind and began to write surreal, melodramatic and revolutionary songs. The group was exploring similar musical tastes to other contemporaneous acts, such as The Byrds and The Yardbirds.^[34][35] During their psychedelic period, The Beach Boys started to use unconventional instruments and elaborate layers of vocal harmonies on their groundbreaking record Pet Sounds.^[36][37] A heralding album in the emerging psychedelic rock style, Pet Sounds has been championed and emulated for its experimental and revolutionary baroque instrumentation.^[38][39] In the same year, they released "Good Vibrations", one of their greatest and most well known songs.^[40] The song made use of a Tannerin (an easier-to-manipulate version of a Theremin) which helped them claim a new hippie audience.^[41][42] However, as with Brian Jones and Syd Barrett, Brian Wilson's use of psychedelic drugs, especially LSD, led to a nervous breakdown.^[43] This resulted in the shelving of the intended follow up to Pet Sounds, Smile (the project would finally emerge in 2004 and 2011).^[44]

[edit] Pet Sounds

"God Only Knows" from Pet Sounds (1966) noicon God Only Knows broke new ground in many ways. It was one of the first commercial songs to use the word 'God' in its title. The song was also far more technically sophisticated than anything the Beach Boys, or arguably any group, had ever attempted before. "Wouldn't It Be Nice" from Pet Sounds (1966) noicon Wouldn't It Be Nice is one of the most well known songs in the group's canon. Unlike the majority of songs on Pet Sounds, "Wouldn't It Be Nice" is a whimsical track; but still manages to incorporate a mature and poignant sound.

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In December 1965, The Beatles released Rubber Soul, an album which enthralled Brian Wilson. Until then, each Beach Boys album (like most rock albums) contained a few "filler tracks" like cover songs or even stitched-together comedy bits. Wilson found Rubber Soul filled with all-original songs and, more importantly, all good ones, none of them filler. Inspired, he rushed to his wife and proclaimed, "Marilyn, I'm gonna make the greatest album! The greatest rock album ever made!"^[45]

The result was Pet Sounds (1966), where Wilson's growing mastery of studio recording and his increasingly sophisticated songs and complex arrangements would reach a creative peak. Influenced by psychedelic drugs, Brian Wilson turned his attention inward and probed his deep-seated self-doubts and emotional longings.^[38] The Beach Boys didn't look at the problems in the world around them, unlike other psychedelic rock groups.^[38] The album's meticulously layered harmonies and inventive instrumentation (performed by the cream of Los Angeles session musicians known as The Wrecking Crew) set a new standard for pop and rock music.^[46] It remains one of the most evocative releases of the decade, with distinctive strains of lushness, melancholy, and nostalgia for youth. The tracks "Wouldn't It Be Nice" and "God Only Knows" showcased Wilson's growing mastery as a composer, arranger, and producer,^[10] as did "Caroline, No", which was issued as a Brian Wilson solo single, the only time he was credited as a solo artist during the early Capitol years. The album also included two sophisticated instrumental tracks, the quiet and wistful "Let's Go Away for Awhile" and the brittle brassy surf of the title track, "Pet Sounds". Despite the critical praise it received, Pet Sounds was indifferently promoted by Capitol, and failed to become the major hit Wilson had hoped it would be.^[47] Its failure to gain wider recognition hurt him deeply.^[48] Although it only reached number 10 in the US, it was a much better seller in the UK.

Because of his withdrawal from touring, Wilson was able to complete almost all the backing tracks for the album while The Beach Boys were on tour in Japan. They returned to find a substantially complete album, requiring only their vocals to finish it off. There was some resistance from within the band to this new direction. Lead singer Mike Love is reported to have been strongly opposed to it, calling it "Brian's ego music", and warning the composer not to "fuck with the formula".^[49] Other group members also fretted that the band would lose its core audience if they changed their successful musical blueprint. Another likely factor in Love's antipathy to Pet Sounds was that Wilson worked extensively on it with outside lyricist Tony Asher rather than with Love himself, who had co-written the lyrics for, and sung lead on, many of their early hits.^[50]

[edit] Good Vibrations

Seeking to expand on the advances made on Pet Sounds, Wilson began an even more ambitious project, originally dubbed Dumb Angel; in due course the project would become known as Smile.^[52] Its first fruit was "Good Vibrations", which Brian described as a "pocket symphony".^[38] The song became the Beach Boys' biggest hit to date and a US and UK number-one single in 1966; many critics consider it to be one of the best rock singles of all time. It was one of the most complex pop productions ever undertaken, and was reputed to have been the most expensive American single ever recorded at that time. Costing a reported $16,000, more than most albums, sessions for the song stretched over several months in at least three major studios. According to Wilson, the electro-theremin work itself cost $15,000.^[53]

In contrast to his work on Pet Sounds, Wilson adopted a modular approach to "Good Vibrations": he broke the song into sections and taped multiple versions of each at different studios to take advantage of the different sound and ambience of each facility.^[54] He then assembled his favorite sections into a master backing track and added vocals. The song's innovative instrumentation included drums, Hammond organ, piano, tack piano, two basses, guitars, electro-theremin, harmonica, and cello. The group members recall the "Good Vibrations" vocal sessions as among the most demanding of their career.^[48]

[edit] Smile

While putting the finishing touches on Pet Sounds, and just beginning work on "Good Vibrations", Brian Wilson met musician and songwriter Van Dyke Parks.^[55] In mid-1966, Brian and Parks began an intense collaboration that resulted in a suite of challenging new songs for the Beach Boys' next album, which was eventually named Smile.^[56] Using the same techniques as on "Good Vibrations", recording began in August 1966 and carried on into early 1967. Although the structure of the album and the exact running order of the songs have been the subjects of endless speculation, it is known that Wilson and Parks intended Smile to be a continuous suite of songs that were linked both thematically and musically, with the main songs being linked together by small vocal pieces and instrumental segments that elaborated upon the musical themes of the major songs.

But some of the other Beach Boys found the new music too difficult and too far removed from their established style.^{[citation needed]} Another serious concern was that the new music was simply not feasible for live performance by the current Beach Boys lineup. Love was opposed to most of Parks' lyrics; he has also since stated that he was deeply concerned about Wilson's escalating drug intake.^{[citation needed]} The problems came to a head during the recording of "Cabin Essence", when Love asked that Parks explain the meaning of the closing refrain of the song, "Over and over the crow cries uncover the cornfield." After a heated debate, Parks walked out of the session, and shortly thereafter his partnership with Wilson came to an end.

Many factors combined to put intense pressure on Brian Wilson as Smile neared completion: his own mental instability, the pressure to create against fierce internal opposition to his new music, the relatively unenthusiastic public response to Pet Sounds, Carl Wilson's draft resistance, and a major dispute with Capitol Records. Further, Wilson's reliance on both prescription and illegal drugs, amphetamines in particular, only exacerbated his underlying mental health problems. In May 1967, Smile was shelved, and over the next thirty years, the legends surrounding Smile grew until it became the most famous unreleased album in the history of popular music.^[57]

	"Good Vibrations" noicon One of the Beach Boys' defining songs and their most well known psychedelic track. It was The Beach Boys' third U.S. number-one hit.
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However, some of the tracks were salvaged and re-recorded at Brian's new home studio, albeit in drastically scaled-down versions. These were released, along with the single version of "Good Vibrations" and a re-recorded "Heroes and Villains", on the 1967 LP Smiley Smile. The album proved to be a critical and commercial disaster for the group, peaking at only number 41 in the US.^[58] By this time The Beach Boys' management (Nick Grillo and David Anderle) had created the band's own record label, Brother. One of the first labels to be owned by a rock group, the purpose of Brother Records was for releases by Beach Boys side projects, and an invitation for new talent. The output of the label, however, was limited to Smiley Smile and two resulting singles from the album; the failure of "Gettin' Hungry" made the band shelve the Brother label until 1970. Compounding these setbacks, the group's public image took another hit following their withdrawal from the 1967 Monterey Pop Festival.

Despite the cancellation of Smile, interest in the work remained high and versions of several major tracks—including "Our Prayer", "Cabin Essence", "Cool, Cool Water", and "Surf's Up"—continued to trickle out. Many were assembled by Carl Wilson over the next few years and included on later albums. The band was still expecting to complete and release Smile as late as 1972, before it became clear that Brian had been the only one who could have made sense out of the endless fragments that were recorded. The full Smile project did not surface until the 2000s, when Wilson reunited with Parks to complete its writing. Subsequently, Wilson released the re-recorded Smile in 2004 as a solo album.^[44]

Mid-career changes[link]

The 1967 album Wild Honey, regarded by some as another classic, features songs written by Wilson and Love, including the hit "Darlin'" and a rendition of Stevie Wonder's "I Was Made to Love Her". The album fared better than its predecessor in the charts, reaching number 24 in the US. The following album Friends (1968) was partly influenced by the group's (especially Love's) adoption of the practice of Transcendental Meditation. The title song "Friends" was their least successful single since 1962, charting at number 47. This was followed by the hard rocking single "Do It Again", a return to the formula of their early years.^[59] Moderately successful in the US at number 20, the single went to top of the UK single charts in 1968 for one week. The album, however, bombed; Friends could only peak at number 126 in the US.

As Brian's mental and physical health deteriorated in the late 1960s and early 1970s, his song output diminished; he eventually became withdrawn and detached from the band. To fill his creative void, the other members began writing and producing songs. Carl Wilson gradually took over leadership of the band, developing into an accomplished producer. To complete their contract with Capitol, they produced one more album. 20/20 (1969) was one of the group's most diverse albums ranging from waltz-based songs like "Time to Get Alone" to its remake of The Ronettes' "I Can Hear Music" to hard rock songs such as "Do It Again", "Bluebirds Over the Mountain", and "All I Want to Do"; the nearest thing to heavy metal in the group's canon with its blazing and savage guitars.^[60][61] The diversity and heaviness of some of the songs on the album were a sign that the group were trying to establish their identity.^[62] Another flop, it still fared better than Friends, reaching number 68 on the Billboard charts.

In 1969, The Beach Boys reactivated their Brother Records label and signed with Reprise Records. With the new contract, the band appeared rejuvenated, releasing the album Sunflower to critical acclaim. Sunflower is recognized as a complete group effort, with all band members contributing significant material, such as "Add Some Music to Your Day", Brian's "This Whole World", Dennis's "Forever" and Bruce Johnston's "Tears in the Morning". However, the band experienced their worst chart performance ever, peaking at number 151, although the single "Cottonfields"—which appeared on European releases of Sunflower—hit the top five in the UK. Brian, who had shown signs of mental and physical recovery during this period, was devastated by the lack of success and once again slowly began to withdraw.

After Sunflower, the band hired Jack Rieley as their manager. Rieley chose a different direction for the group, emphasizing, among other things, political and social awareness. The result was Surf's Up, featuring Brian's Smile centerpiece, "Surf's Up". The song was virtually the same arrangement as Brian's 1966 version, with Carl adding vocals and overdubs. Carl's "Long Promised Road" and "Feel Flows" with lyrics by Rieley are also standouts on the record. The track "A Day In The Life Of A Tree" was sung by Rieley. Brian contributed one of his best songs,^{[citation needed]} "'Til I Die", which almost did not make the album sequencing. Johnston produced the classic "Disney Girls (1957)", a throwback to the easier, simpler times they remembered. Johnston ended his first stint with the band shortly after the record's release, reportedly because of friction with Rieley. The album was moderately successful, reaching the US top 30, a marked improvement over their recent releases. While the record charted, The Beach Boys added to their re-found fame by performing a near-sellout set at Carnegie Hall, and followed that with a famous appearance with the Grateful Dead at Fillmore East on April 27, 1971.

The addition of Ricky Fataar and Blondie Chaplin in February 1972, led to a dramatic departure in sound for the band. The album Carl and the Passions – "So Tough" was an uncharacteristic mix that included several songs drawn from Fataar and Chaplin's previous group, Flame, considered by many listeners nearly unrecognizable as Beach Boys songs. Although it has its supporters, the album is widely considered to be one of the group's most unfocused and inconsistent.^[63] It did not make an impact on the charts.

The Beach Boys came up with an ambitious plan for their next project. The band, their families, assorted associates, and technicians moved to the Netherlands for the summer of 1972, renting a farmhouse to convert into a makeshift studio. By the end of their sessions the band felt they had come up with one of their best efforts yet. Reprise, however, felt that the album was weak. After some wrangling, the band asked Brian to come up with commercial material. This resulted in the song "Sail On, Sailor", a collaboration between Brian Wilson and Van Dyke Parks, which became one of the most emblematic Beach Boys songs. Reprise approved and the resulting album Holland was released early in 1973, peaking at number 37 on the Billboard album chart. Brian's storytale Mount Vernon and Fairway (A Fairy Tale), narrated by Rieley, which was directly influenced by Randy Newman's Sail Away LP, was included as a "bonus" extended play (EP). Holland proved that the band could still produce contemporary songs with wide (if not mass) appeal.

Despite record-label indifference, the band's concert audience started to grow. The Beach Boys in Concert, a double album documenting the 1972 and 1973 US tours, was another top 30 hit and became the band's first gold record for Reprise. It was during this period that The Beach Boys became widely known as one of America's most popular live acts. Chaplin and Fataar orchestrated the concerts in order to obtain a high quality live performance act, and The Beach Boys could draw upon over a decade of high quality music with which to supplement their current material off Surf's Up, Carl and the Passions and Holland. It was this very well-orchestrated concert arrangement which would soon send them back into American public recognition.

[edit] Endless Summer

In the summer of 1974, Capitol, in consultation with Love, released a double album compilation of The Beach Boys' pre-Pet Sounds hits. Endless Summer, helped by a sunny, colorful graphic cover, caught the mood of the nation and surged to the top of the Billboard album charts, a first for the band. It was the group's first multi-million selling record since "Good Vibrations", and remained on the album chart for three years.^[64] The following year, Capitol released another compilation, Spirit of America, which also sold well. With these compilations, The Beach Boys became relevant again, propelling themselves from being the opening act for Crosby, Stills, Nash and Young to headliners selling out basketball arenas. Rolling Stone magazine named The Beach Boys the "Band of the Year" for 1974, solely for their juggernaut touring schedule and material written over a decade earlier.

Manager Jack Rieley, who remained in the Netherlands after Holland's release, was relieved of his managerial duties in late 1973. Blondie Chaplin also left the band in late 1973 after an argument with Steve Love, the band's business manager (and Mike's brother). Ricky Fataar stayed until fall 1974, when he was offered a chance to join a new group led by future Eagles member Joe Walsh. Chaplin's replacement, James William Guercio, started offering the group career advice that turned out to be so smart and sensible that eventually he became the band's new manager. Under Guercio, The Beach Boys staged a highly successful 1975 joint concert tour with Chicago, with each group performing some of the other's songs, including their previous year's collaboration on Chicago's hit "Wishing You Were Here". Beach Boys vocals were also heard on Elton John's 1974 hit "Don't Let the Sun Go Down on Me".

Nostalgia had settled into The Beach Boys' hype; the group had not officially released any albums of new material since 1973's Holland. While their concerts continuously sold out, the stage act slowly changed from contemporary presentation/oldies encores to an entire show composed of mostly pre-1967 music.

Brian Wilson's return[link]

15 Big Ones (1976) marked the return of Brian Wilson as a major force in the group in that it was the first album he produced since Pet Sounds. This album included several new songs composed by Brian, and several of his arrangements of favorite old songs by other artists, including "Rock and Roll Music" (which made number five), "Blueberry Hill", and "In the Still of the Night". Brian and Love's "It's OK" was yet another return to their earlier "summertime fun" style, and was a moderate hit. The album was publicized by an NBC TV special, telecast in August 1976, simply titled "The Beach Boys", which was produced by Saturday Night Live creator Lorne Michaels and featured appearances by SNL cast members John Belushi and Dan Aykroyd.

For the remainder of 1976 to early 1977, Brian Wilson spent his time making sporadic public appearances and producing the band's next LP Love You, a quirky collection of 14 songs mostly written by Brian alone, including more "fun" songs ("Honkin' Down the Highway"), a mature love song ("The Night Was So Young")—a mix ranging from infectious to touching to downright silly. Despite its flaws, Love You is one of the more popular offerings in The Beach Boys' later oeuvre. Many sources cited the album as a return to the group's roots.

After Love You, Brian's contributions began to decline over the next several albums until he again virtually withdrew from the group. The follow up album to Love You, known by its working title "Adult/Child" never materialised despite being mostly recorded. Some of the tracks from Adult/Child subsequently made it onto later Beach Boys albums. His appearances with the band in concert diminished. His performances became erratic, his recordings uninspired. Despite the much-publicized "Brian's Back" campaign in the late 1970s, most critics believed the group was past its prime, and that Brian Wilson would be the latest in a long line of celebrity drug casualties. The Beach Boys' last release on Reprise, M.I.U. Album (1978), was recorded at Maharishi International University in Iowa at the insistence of Love. Dennis and Carl made limited contributions to the project; the album was mostly produced by Jardine and Ron Altbach, with Brian appearing as "Executive Producer". Regardless, despite a handful of interesting tracks, M.I.U. was largely a contractual obligation to finish out their association with Reprise, who likewise did not promote the album. The record also proved to be a strongly dividing element in the group and split it between Mike Love and Al Jardine on one side desiring to focus on oldies material with Carl and Dennis on the other hand wishing to resume the progressive roots rock focus they had created with the albums Carl And The Passions and Holland in the early 1970s. This division resulted in Dennis effectively retiring from the group in order to focus on his second solo album and follow-up to Pacific Ocean Blue entitled Bambu. However alcohol abuse and collapsing marital problems overcame the Wilson brothers with Bambu being shelved and Carl appearing drunk at live concerts in their disastrous 1978 Australia tour. Meanwhile Brian again fell into deep mental illness and retired completely from recording and live performances with the group.