- published: 30 Aug 2010
- views: 19345
- author: Keith Anderson
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- Absolution
- Acolyte
- Adam and Eve
- Adiaphora
- Adventism
- Aegidius Hunnius
- Agenda (liturgy)
- Agnus Dei
- Alb
- Alleluia
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- Anabaptist
- Anaphora (liturgy)
- Anathema
- Andreas Musculus
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- Anglicanism
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- Anton Otto
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- Apostles' Creed
- Arctic Cathedral
- Argula von Grumbach
- Arminianism
- Asperges
- Assurance (theology)
- Aster Ganno
- Athanasian Creed
- Augsburg Confession
- Augsburg Fortress
- Augsburg Interim
- August Kavel
- Australia
- Austria
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- Baptism
- Baptists
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- Benediction
- Bible
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- Bishop
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- Brazil
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- C. F. W. Walther
- Calvinism
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- Carl Olof Rosenius
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- Catechism
- Catherine Winkworth
- Catholic Church
- Chalice (cup)
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- Christ
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- Christian art
- Christian Church
- Christian Cyclopedia
- Christian Keyser
- Christian liturgy
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- Christian mysticism
- Christian revival
- Christian Scientists
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- Christian symbolism
- Christian theology
- Christian tradition
- Christianity
- Christology
- Church Fathers
- Church of England
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- Church tabernacle
- Church union
- Church usher
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- Ciborium (container)
- Clarity of scripture
- Claus Harms
- Closed communion
- Collect
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- Compline
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- Danish language
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- Death
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- Denmark
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- Diet of Speyer 1529
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- Dismissal (liturgy)
- Divine Providence
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- Early Christianity
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- Estonia
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- F. C. D. Wyneken
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- German idealism
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- Germans
- Germany
- Gloria Patri
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- Gottfried Leibniz
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- Gustav Vasa
- Gustav Vasa Bible
- Halle, Saxony-Anhalt
- Hallgrímur Pétursson
- Hans Egede
- Hans Nielsen Hauge
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- Harper and Row
- Harrowing of Hell
- Haugean
- Heinrich Hansen
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- Henrik Steffens
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- Immanuel Kant
- Incense
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- India
- Indifferentism
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- Industrialisation
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- Ite missa est
- Jakob Andreae
- Jakob Böhme
- Jaroslav Vajda
- Jehovah's Witnesses
- Jesper Brochmand
- Jesper Swedberg
- Jesuits
- Jesus
- Jesus Loves Me
- Joachim Lütkemann
- Joachim Stegmann
- Johann Arndt
- Johann Crüger
- Johann Eck
- Johann Ernst Glück
- Johann Flierl
- Johann Franz Buddeus
- Johann Funck
- Johann Georg Hamann
- Johann Gerhard
- Johann Heermann
- Johann Hülsemann
- Johann Pachelbel
- Johann Pfeffinger
- Johann von Rist
- Johann Walter
- Johann Wilhelm Baier
- Johannes Aepinus
- Johannes Agricola
- Johannes Avetaranian
- Johannes Brenz
- Johannes Bugenhagen
- Johannes Marbach
- Johannes Musaeus
- Johannes Zahn
- John Campanius
- Jonas Bretkūnas
- Josquin des Prez
- Jozef Roháček
- Junker
- Jurij Dalmatin
- Justus Jonas
- Justus Menius
- Jákup Dahl
- Karl Graul
- Katharina Luther
- Kazakhstan
- Kingdom of God
- Kjell Magne Yri
- Kneeler
- Koine Greek
- Kyrie
- Laestadianism
- Laity
- Lars Levi Læstadius
- Lars Olsen Skrefsrud
- Latvia
- Laurentius Andreae
- Laurentius Petri
- Law and Gospel
- Lector
- Leipzig Debate
- Lent
- Leonhard Hutter
- Liberal Christianity
- List of hymnals
- Lithuania
- Liturgical book
- Liturgical year
- Liturgy
- Lord's Prayer
- Ludwig Senfl
- Luther Bible
- Luther rose
- Lutheran Orthodoxy
- Lutheran sacraments
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- Madagascar
- Magdeburg Centuries
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- Martin Chemnitz
- Martin Luther
- Martin Moller
- Martin Rinkart
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- Mathias Haffenreffer
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- Means of Grace
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- Michael Praetorius
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- Mikael Agricola
- Millennialism
- Missouri Synod
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- Namibia
- Neo-Lutheranism
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- Nicean Creed
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- Nicolaus Gallus
- Nicolaus Hunnius
- Nicolaus von Amsdorf
- Nikolaus Selnecker
- Nils Vibe Stockfleth
- Nontrinitarianism
- North Sumatra
- Norway
- Norwegian language
- Nunc dimittis
- Obsequium religiosum
- Offertory
- Olaf M. Norlie
- Olaus Petri
- Old Catholic Church
- Old Lutherans
- Old Testament
- Onesimos Nesib
- Open communion
- Oremus
- Oriental Orthodoxy
- Original sin
- Otto Fabricius
- Paavo Ruotsalainen
- Papua New Guinea
- Paradigm
- Paschal candle
- Passion (music)
- Passion Hymns
- Pastor
- Paten
- Patriotism
- Paul Althaus
- Paul Egede
- Paul Gerhardt
- Paul Henkel
- Paul Olaf Bodding
- Paul Speratus
- Paul the Apostle
- Pax (liturgy)
- Peace of Augsburg
- Peace of Passau
- Penitential Rite
- Pentecostalism
- Petrus Särkilahti
- Pew Research Center
- Philip Melanchthon
- Philipp Jakob Spener
- Philipp Melanchthon
- Philipp Nicolai
- Philippists
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- Pope John Paul II
- Portal Christianity
- Portal Lutheranism
- Portals of Prayer
- Porvoo Communion
- Postcommunion
- Postil
- Predestination
- Preface (liturgy)
- Prevenient grace
- Priest
- Primož Trubar
- Processional cross
- Protestant Reformers
- Protestantism
- Psalms
- Quakers
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- Rationalism
- Real Presence
- Reformed
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- Religion in Finland
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- Repentance
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- Sacramental bread
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- Sacramentarians
- Sacraments
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- Vestments
- Victor Danielsen
- Victorinus Strigel
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- Wafer
- Werner Elert
- Western Christianity
- Wikisource
- Wilhelm Sihler
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- Words of Institution
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Arctic Cathedral
The Tromsdalen Church (Tromsdalen Kirke), also known as The Arctic Cathedral (Ishavskatedralen, literally "The Cathedral of the Arctic Sea"), is a church in Tromsø, Norway, built in 1965. The church is a parish church and not, in fact, a cathedral.
The church was designed by Jan Inge Hovig, and its building materials consist mainly of concrete. Because of the church's distinct look and situation, it has often been called "the opera house of Norway", likening it to the famous Sydney Opera House in Sydney, Australia.[citation needed] The church is probably the most famous landmark in Tromsø, although Tromsø does have another church of interest, the Tromsø Cathedral, which is noted for being the only wooden cathedral in Norway.
In 1972 it acquired a glass mosaic added to the eastern side, from the hands of Victor Sparre. The church acquired an organ built by Grönlunds Orgelbyggeri in 2005, with three manuals, pedal, 42 stops and 2940 pipes. It replaced the old opus nr. 12 organ delivered by Vestlandske Orgelverksted, Hareid, which had 22 voices and 124 keys.
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Australia
Australia (
/əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent as well as the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.
For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups. After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.
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Austria
Austria (
i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] (
listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Brazil
Brazili/brəˈzɪl/ (Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil, listen (help·info)), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 km (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas region of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile.
Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal.Independence was achieved in 1822 with the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The country became a presidential republic in 1889, when a military coup d'état proclaimed the Republic, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to the ratification of the first constitution in 1824. Its current Constitution, formulated in 1988, defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.
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Canada
Canada ( /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Spanning over 9,900,000 km2 (3,800,000 sq mi), Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common border with the United States is the longest land border in the world.
The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French colonial expeditions explored, and later settled, along the region's Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy; the Canada Act 1982 severed the vestiges of legal dependence on Britain.
wn.com/Canada -
Church of Sweden
The Church of Sweden (Swedish: Svenska kyrkan) is the largest Christian church in Sweden. The church professes the Lutheran faith and is a member of the Porvoo Communion. With 6,589,769 baptized members, it is the largest Lutheran church in the world, although combined, there are more Lutherans in the member churches of the Evangelical Church in Germany (10 million). Until 2000 it held the position of state church. Approximately 2% of the church's members regularly attend Sunday services.
The Church of Sweden, by law, is organized in the following manner:
The Primate of the Church of Sweden is the Archbishop of Uppsala, currently Anders Wejryd.
King Gustav I Vasa instigated the Church of Sweden in 1526 during his reign as King of Sweden. This act separated the church from the Roman Catholic Church and its canon law. In 1572, the Swedish Church Ordinance became the first Swedish church order following the Reformation.
The Church of Sweden became Lutheran at the Uppsala Synod in 1593 when it adopted the Augsburg Confession to which most Lutherans adhere. At this synod, it was decided that the church would retain the three original Christian creeds: the Apostles', the Athanasian, and the Nicene.
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Croatia
Croatia (i/kroʊˈeɪʃə/ kroh-AY-shə; Croatian: Hrvatska pronounced [xř̩ʋaːtskaː]), officially the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska listen (help·info)), is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of Central Europe, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles) and has diverse, mostly continental and Mediterranean climates. Croatia's Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The country's population is 4.29 million, most of whom are Croats, with the most common religious denomination being Roman Catholicism.
In the early 7th century the Croats arrived in area of present-day Croatia. They organised the state into two dukedoms by the 9th century. Tomislav became the first king by 925 AD, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Peter Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir. Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs that declared independence from Austria–Hungary and co-founded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. A Croatian state briefly existed during World War II as a fascist puppet state. After the war, Croatia became a founding member and a federal constituent of the Second Yugoslavia, a socialist state. In June 1991, Croatia declared independence, which came into effect on 8 October of the same year. The Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration.
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Denmark
The Kingdom of Denmark (Danish: Kongeriget Danmark, pronounced [ˈkɔŋəʁiːəð ˈdanmɑɡ̊] ( listen)) is a constitutional monarchy and sovereign state consisting the country of Denmark in northern Europe and two autonomous constituent countries, the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic and Greenland in North America. The kingdom is a unitary state with some power being devolved from Denmark proper to Greenland and the Faroe Islands; this polity is referred to as the Danish Realm. Denmark proper is the hegemonial area, where judicial, executive, and legislative power resides. The Faroe Islands are defined to be a community of people within the kingdom, and the Greenlandic people are defined as a separate people with the right to self-determination.
Denmark is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, located southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. The country consists of a large peninsula, Jutland and many islands, most notably Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster and Bornholm, as well as hundreds of minor islands often referred to as the Danish Archipelago.
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Estonia
Estonia
i/ɨsˈtoʊniə/ (Estonian: Eesti), officially the Republic of Estonia (Estonian: Eesti Vabariik), is a state in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by the Gulf of Finland, to the west by the Baltic Sea, to the south by Latvia (343 km), and to the east by Lake Peipus and the Russian Federation (338.6 km). Across the Baltic Sea lies Sweden in the west and Finland in the north. The territory of Estonia covers 45,227 km2 (17,462 sq mi), and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. The Estonians are a Finnic people, and the official language, Estonian, is closely related to Finnish.
Estonia is a democratic parliamentary republic divided into 15 counties. The capital and largest city is Tallinn. With a population of 1.29 million, it is one of the least-populous members of the European Union, Eurozone and NATO. Estonia has the highest GDP per person among former Soviet republics. Estonia is listed as a "High-Income Economy" by the World Bank and as an "advanced economy" by the International Monetary Fund; the country is an OECD member. The United Nations lists Estonia as a developed country with a Human Development Index of "Very High". The country is also ranked highly for press freedom, economic freedom, democracy and political freedom and education.
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Ethiopia
Ethiopia (
/ˌiːθiˈoʊpiə/) (Ge'ez: ኢትዮጵያ ʾĪtyōṗṗyā), officially known as the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa. It is the second-most populous nation in Africa, with over 82 million inhabitants, and the tenth largest by area, occupying 1,100,000 km2. Ethiopia is bordered by Eritrea to the north, Djibouti and Somalia to the east, Sudan and South Sudan to the west, and Kenya to the south. With its capital at Addis Ababa, it is also the most populous landlocked nation in the world.
Ethiopia was a monarchy for most of its history, and the Ethiopian dynasty traces its roots to the 2nd century BC. Ethiopia is also one of the oldest sites of human existence known to scientists today, having yielded some of humanity's oldest traces. It may be the region from which Homo sapiens first set out for the Middle East and points beyond. Alongside Rome, Persia, China and India, the Ethiopian Aksum Empire was considered one of the great world powers of the 3rd century. During the Scramble for Africa, Ethiopia was the only African country beside Liberia that retained its sovereignty as a recognized independent country, and was one of only four African members of the League of Nations. After a brief period of Italian occupation, Ethiopia became a charter member of the United Nations. When other African nations received their independence following World War II, many of them adopted the colors of Ethiopia's flag, and Addis Ababa became the location of several international organizations focused on Africa.
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Faroe Islands
Coordinates: 62°00′N 06°47′W / 62°N 6.783°W / 62; -6.783
The Faroe Islands (Faroese: Føroyar pronounced [ˈfœɹjaɹ], Danish: Færøerne Danish pronunciation: [ˈfæɐ̯øːˀɐnə]) are an island group situated between the Norwegian Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, approximately halfway between Norway and Iceland. The islands form a self-governing country under the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Denmark. The total area is approximately 1,400 km² (540 sq mi) with a 2010 population of almost 50,000 people.
The Faroe Islands has been a self-governing dependency of Denmark since 1948. Over the years, the Faroese have taken control of most domestic matters. Areas that remain the responsibility of Denmark include military defence, police, justice, currency and foreign affairs. The Faroe Islands also has representatives in the Nordic Council as members of the Danish delegation.
The Faroe Islands were associated with and taxed by Denmark and Norway up to 1814, when Norway fell under the rule of Sweden. Scandinavia was in political turmoil following the Sixth Coalition of the Napoleonic Wars, when the Treaty of Kiel granted Denmark control over the Faroes, Iceland and Greenland in 1814. The Danish trade monopoly ended in 1856.
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Finland
Coordinates: 65°N 27°E / 65°N 027°E / 65; 027
Finlandi/ˈfɪnlənd/ ( Finnish: Suomi; Swedish: Finland (help·info)), officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.
Around 5.4 million people reside in Finland, with the majority concentrated in the southern region. It is the eighth largest country in Europe in terms of area and the most sparsely populated country in the European Union. Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in Helsinki and local governments in 336 municipalities, and an autonomous region of the Åland Islands. About one million residents live in the Greater Helsinki area, which consists of Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen and Vantaa, and a third of the country's GDP is produced there. Other larger cities include Tampere, Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Lahti and Kuopio.
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Germany
Germany (i/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
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Greenland
Greenland (Kalaallisut: Kalaallit Nunaat, "Land of the Kalaallit";Danish: Grønland) is an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe (specifically Norway and later Denmark) for more than a millennium. Greenland is, by area, the world's largest island. With a population of 56,615 (January 2011 estimate) it is the least densely populated dependency or country in the world.
Greenland has been inhabited, though not continuously, by Arctic peoples via Canada for 4500–5000 years. In the 10th century, Norsemen settled on the uninhabited southern part of Greenland. In the 13th century, the Inuit arrived, and in the late 15th century the Norse colonies were abandoned. In the early 18th century, contact between Scandinavia and Greenland was re-established and Denmark established rule over Greenland.
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Hong Kong
Coordinates: 22°16′42″N 114°09′32″E / 22.27833°N 114.15889°E / 22.27833; 114.15889
Hong Kong (Chinese: 香港) is one of two special administrative regions (SARs) of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the other being Macau. A city-state situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea, it is known for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour. With a land mass of 1,104 km2 (426 sq mi) and a population of seven million people, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated areas in the world. Hong Kong's population is 95 percent ethnic Chinese and 5 percent from other groups. Hong Kong's Han Chinese majority originate mainly from the cities of Guangzhou and Taishan in the neighbouring Guangdong province.
Hong Kong became a colony of the British Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). Originally confined to Hong Kong Island, the colony's boundaries were extended in stages to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and then the New Territories in 1898. It was occupied by Japan during the Pacific War, after which the British resumed control until 1997, when China resumed sovereignty. The region espoused minimum government intervention under the ethos of positive non-interventionism during the colonial era. The time period greatly influenced the current culture of Hong Kong, often described as "East meets West", and the educational system, which used to loosely follow the system in England until reforms implemented in 2009.
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Iceland
Icelandi/ˈaɪslənd/ (Icelandic: Ísland, IPA: [ˈislant]) is a Nordic European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The country has a population of about 320,000 and a total area of 103,000 km2 (40,000 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Reykjavík, with the surrounding areas in the southwestern region of the country being home to two-thirds of the country's population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior mainly consists of a plateau characterised by sand fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle.
According to Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in AD 874 when the chieftain Ingólfur Arnarson became the first permanent Norse settler on the island. Others had visited the island earlier and stayed over winter. Over the following centuries, Norsemen settled Iceland, bringing with them thralls (slaves) of Gaelic origin. From 1262 to 1918 Iceland was part of the Norwegian and later the Danish monarchies. Until the 20th century, the Icelandic population relied largely on fisheries and agriculture, and the country was one of the poorest and least developed in the world. Industrialisation of the fisheries and aid from the Marshall Plan brought prosperity in the years after World War II, and by the 1990s it was one of the world's wealthiest countries. In 1994, Iceland became party to the European Economic Area, which made it possible for the economy to diversify into economic and financial services.
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India
India (i/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
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Indonesia
Indonesia (i/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ IN-də-NEE-zhə or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/ IN-doh-NEE-zee-ə), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Indonesian pronunciation: [rɛpʊblɪk ɪndɔnɛsɪa]), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 17,508 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's 17th largest economy by nominal GDP.
The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.
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Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan (i/ˌkɑːzəkˈstɑːn/ or /ˌkæzəkˈstæn/) (Kazakh: Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, pronounced [qɑzɑqstɑ́n]; Russian: Казахстан [kəzɐxˈstan]), officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a transcontinental country in Central Asia and Europe. The ninth largest country in the world by land area, it is also the world's largest landlocked country; its territory of 2,727,300 square kilometres (1,053,000 sq mi) is larger than Western Europe. It is neighbored clockwise from the north by Russia, China, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and also borders on a significant part of the Caspian Sea. Although Kazakhstan does not share a border with Mongolia, its most easterly point is only 38 kilometres (24 mi) from Mongolia's western tip. The terrain of Kazakhstan ranges from flatlands, steppes, taigas, rock-canyons, hills, deltas, and snow-capped mountains to deserts. With 16.6 million people (2011 estimate) Kazakhstan has the 62nd largest population in the world, though its population density is less than 6 people per square kilometre (15 per sq. mi.). The capital was moved in 1998 from Almaty, Kazakhstan's largest city, to Astana.
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Latvia
Latviai/ˈlætviə/ (Latvian: Latvija), officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvian: Latvijas Republika), is a country in the Baltic region of Northern Europe. It is bordered to the north by Estonia (border length 343 km), to the south by Lithuania (588 km), to the east by the Russian Federation (276 km), to the southeast by Belarus (141 km), and shares maritime borders to the west with Sweden. With 2,067,887 inhabitants and a territory of 64,589 km2 (24,938 sq mi) it is one of the least populous and least densely populated countries of the European Union. The capital of Latvia is Riga. The official language is Latvian and the currency is called Lats (Ls). The country has a temperate seasonal climate.
The Latvians are a Baltic people, culturally related to the Lithuanians. Together with the Finno-Ugric Livs (or Livonians), the Latvians are the indigenous people of Latvia.Latvian is an Indo-European language and along with Lithuanian the only two surviving members of the Baltic branch. Indigenous minority languages are Latgalian and the nearly extinct Finno-Ugric Livonian language. In terms of geography, territory and population Latvia is the middle of three Baltic states: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Latvia and Estonia share a long common history: historical Livonia, times of German (Teutonic Order), Polish-Lithuanian, Swedish, Russian, Nazi German and Soviet rule, 13th century Christianization and 16th century Protestant Reformation. Both countries are home to a large number of ethnic Russians (26.9% in Latvia and 25.5% in Estonia) of whom some are non-citizens. Latvia is historically predominantly Protestant, except for the region of Latgalia in the southeast which is historically predominantly Roman Catholic.
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Lithuania
Lithuania (i/ˌlɪθuːˈeɪniə/ or /ˌlɪθjuːˈeɪniə/; Lithuanian: Lietuva), officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lithuanian: Lietuvos Respublika) is a country in Northern Europe, the largest of the three Baltic states. It is situated along the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea, whereby to the west lie Sweden and Denmark. It borders Latvia to the north, Belarus to the east and south, Poland to the south, and a Russian exclave (Kaliningrad Oblast) to the southwest. Lithuania has an estimated population of 3.2 million as of 2011, and its capital and largest city is Vilnius. The Lithuanians are a Baltic people, and the official language, Lithuanian, is one of only two living languages (together with Latvian) in the Baltic branch of the Indo-European language family.
For centuries, the southeastern shore of the Baltic Sea was inhabited by various Baltic tribes. In the 1230s the Lithuanian lands were united by Mindaugas, who was crowned as King of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the first Lithuanian state, on 6 July 1253. During the 14th century, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was the largest country in Europe: present-day Belarus, Ukraine, and parts of Poland and Russia were territories of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. With the Lublin Union of 1569, Lithuania and Poland formed a voluntary two-state union, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth lasted more than two centuries, until neighboring countries systematically dismantled it from 1772 to 1795, with the Russian Empire annexing most of Lithuania's territory.
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Madagascar
Madagascar, officially the Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic, Malagasy: Repoblikan'i Madagasikara [republiˈkʲan madaɡasˈkʲarə̥], French: République de Madagascar) is an island country located in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern coast of Africa. The nation comprises the island of Madagascar (the fourth-largest island in the world), as well as numerous smaller peripheral islands. Following the prehistoric breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar split from India around 88 million years ago, allowing plants and animals on the island to evolve in complete isolation. Consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hotspot in which over 90% of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The island's diverse ecosystems and unique wildlife are threatened by human settlement.
Initial human settlement of Madagascar occurred from 350 BCE and 550 CE by Austronesian peoples arriving on outrigger canoes from Borneo who were later joined around 1000 CE by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel. Other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over time, each one making lasting contributions to Malagasy cultural life. The Malagasy ethnic group is often divided into eighteen or more sub-groups of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands.
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Namibia
Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia (Afrikaans: Republiek van Namibië, German: Republik Namibia (help·info)), is a country in southern Africa whose western border is the Atlantic Ocean. It shares land borders with Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south and east. It gained independence from South Africa on 21 March 1990, following the Namibian War of Independence. Its capital and largest city is Windhoek. Namibia is a member state of the United Nations (UN), the Southern African Development Community (SADC), the African Union (AU), and the Commonwealth of Nations.
The dry lands of Namibia were inhabited since early times by Bushmen, Damara, and Namaqua, and since about the 14th century AD by immigrating Bantu who came with the Bantu expansion. It became a German Imperial protectorate in 1884 and remained a German colony until the end of World War I. In 1920, the League of Nations mandated the country to South Africa, which imposed its laws and, from 1948, its apartheid policy.
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North Sumatra
North Sumatra (Indonesian: Sumatera Utara) is a province of Indonesia on the Sumatra island. Its capital is Medan. It is the most populous Indonesian province outside of Java. It is slightly larger than Sri Lanka in area.
The province of North Sumatra stretches across the island of Sumatra between the Indian Ocean and the Strait Malacca. It borders Aceh province on the northwest and Riau and West Sumatra provinces in the southeast. It has an area of 70,787 km². The province contains a broad, low plain along the Strait of Malacca on which the provincial capital, Medan, is located. In the south and west, the land rises to the mountain range that runs the length of Sumatra; the mountains here are dominated by Lake Toba, formed from the caldera of an ancient volcano. Several large islands in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Sumatra are part of North Sumatra, most notably Nias, and the Batu Islands.
North Sumatra recorded a population of 11.48 million in the 2000 national census. An Intercensal estimate for 2007 shows a population of 12,834,371, 2010 census recorded 12,985,075 people, a sex ratio of 99.59 men per 100 women.
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Norway
Norwayi/ˈnɔrweɪ/ (Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and the subantarctic Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of about 5 million. It is the second least densely populated country in Europe. The majority of the country shares a border to the east with Sweden; its northernmost region is bordered by Finland to the south and Russia to the east; in its south Norway borders the Skagerrak Strait across from Denmark. The capital city of Norway is Oslo. Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords.
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Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea (PNG; Tok Pisin: Papua Niugini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea, is a country in Oceania, occupying the eastern half of the island of New Guinea and numerous offshore islands (the western portion of the island is a part of the Indonesian provinces of Papua and West Papua). It is located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, in a region defined since the early 19th century as Melanesia. The capital is Port Moresby.
Papua New Guinea is one of the most culturally diverse countries on Earth. According to recent data, 841 different languages are listed for the country, although 11 of these have no known living speakers. . (A detailed series of language maps of Papua New Guinea may be found at Ethnologue) There may be at least as many traditional societies,out of a population of about 6.2 million. It is also one of the most rural, as only 18% of its people live in urban centres. The country is one of the world's least explored, culturally and geographically, and many undiscovered species of plants and animals are thought to exist in the interior of Papua New Guinea.
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Peace of Passau
Holy Roman Emperor Charles V had won a victory against Protestantism in the Schmalkaldic War of 1547. Many Protestant princes were unhappy with the religious terms of the Augsburg Interim imposed after this victory. In January 1552, led by Maurice of Saxony, many formed an alliance with Henry II of France at the Treaty of Chambord. In return for French funding and assistance, Henry was promised lands in western Germany. In the ensuing Princes' War, Charles was driven out of Germany into Italy by the Protestant alliance, while Henry captured the fortresses of Metz, Verdun and Toulon.
In August 1552, weary from three decades of religious civil war, Charles guaranteed Lutheran religious freedoms in the Peace of Passau. The implementation of the Augsburg Interim was cancelled. The Protestant princes taken prisoner during the Schmalkaldic War, John Frederick of Saxony and Philip of Hesse, were released. A precursor to the Peace of Augsburg of September, 1555, the Peace of Passau effectively surrendered Charles V's lifelong quest for European religious unity.
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Poland
Polandi/ˈpoʊlənd/ (Polish: Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska; Kashubian: Pòlskô Repùblika; Silesian: Polsko Republika), is a country in Central Europe, bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous post-communist member. Poland is a unitary state made up of 16 voivodeships. Poland is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Economic Area, International Energy Agency, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Atomic Energy Agency, G6, Council of the Baltic Sea States, Visegrád Group, Weimar Triangle and Schengen Agreement.
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Serbia
Serbiai/ˈsɜrbiə/, officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija, pronounced [rɛpǔblika sř̩bija]), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; additionally, it borders Albania through Kosovo, whose status as part of Serbia is disputed. Serbia covers an area of 88,361 km2 and has a population of just over 7.1 million, while the capital and largest city is Belgrade.
The arrival of the Serbs to the Balkans in the 7th century, established several states, eventually forming the Serbian Empire in the 14th century. By the 16th century, Serbia was conquered and occupied by the Ottoman Empire, at times interrupted by the Habsburgs. In the early 19th century the Serbian revolution re-established the country as the region's first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory and pioneered the abolition of feudalism in the Balkans. The former Habsburg crownland of Vojvodina united with Serbia in 1918. Following World War I, Serbia formed Yugoslavia with other South Slavic peoples which existed in several forms up until 2006, when the National Assembly of Serbia declared independence and the legal succession to the former State Union. In February 2008 the parliament of UNMIK-governed Kosovo, Serbia's southern province, declared independence, with mixed responses from international governments.
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Slovakia
The Slovak Republic (short form: Slovakiai/sloʊˈvɑːkiə/ or /sləˈvækiə/; Slovak: Slovensko (help·info), long form Slovenská republika (help·info)) is a landlocked state in Central Europe. It has a population of over five million and an area of about 49,000 square kilometres (19,000 sq mi). Slovakia is bordered by the Czech Republic and Austria to the west, Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east and Hungary to the south. The largest city is the capital, Bratislava, and the second largest is Košice. Slovakia is a member state of the European Union, NATO, United Nations, OECD and WTO among others. The official language is Slovak, a member of the Slavic language family.
The Slavs arrived in the territory of present day Slovakia in the 5th and 6th centuries during the migration period. In the course of history, various parts of today's Slovakia belonged to Samo's Empire (the first known political unit of Slavs), Principality of Nitra (as independent polity, as part of Great Moravia and as part of Hungarian Kingdom), Great Moravia, Kingdom of Hungary, the Austro-Hungarian Empire or Habsburg Empire, and Czechoslovakia. A separate Slovak state briefly existed during World War II, during which Slovakia was a dependency of Nazi Germany between 1939 and 1944. From 1945 Slovakia once again became a part of Czechoslovakia. The present-day Slovakia became an independent state on 1 January 1993 after the peaceful dissolution of Czechoslovakia.
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Slovenia
Slovenia (i/sloʊˈviːniə/ sloh-VEE-nee-ə, Slovene: Slovenija), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija, [reˈpublika sloˈveːnija]) is a Slavic nation state, situated in South-Central Europe, at the crossroad of main European cultural and trade routes. It borders Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Croatia to the south and southeast, and Hungary to the northeast. It covers 20,273 square kilometres (7,827 sq mi) and has a population of 2.05 million. It is a parliamentary republic, member of the European Union and NATO. Relative to its geography, history, economy, culture, and language, it is a very diverse country distinguished by a transitional character. It is characterised by a high economic and social level. Its capital and largest city is Ljubljana.
The territory of Slovenia is mainly hilly or mountainous and has an exceptionally high landscape and biological diversity and a mosaic structure, which are a result of natural attributes and the long-lasting presence of humans. Four major European geographic units interweave here: the Alps, the Dinaric Alps, the Mediterranean, with a small portion of coastline along the Adriatic Sea, and the Pannonian Plain. The climate is temperate and significantly influenced by the variety of territory, with a strong interaction of the continental climate, the sub-Mediterranean climate and Alpine climate across most of the country. The country is one of the water-richest in Europe, with a dense river network, a rich aquifer system, and significant karstic underground watercourses. Over half of the territory is covered by forest.
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Sturmabteilung
The Sturmabteilung (SA) (German pronunciation: [ˈʃtʊʁmʔapˌtaɪlʊŋ] ( listen);Storm Detachment or Assault Division) or Brownshirts) functioned as the original paramilitary wing of the Nazi Party. It played a key role in Adolf Hitler's rise to power in the 1920s and 1930s. Their main assignments were providing protection for Nazi rallies and assemblies; the disruption of opposing political parties and the fight against their paramilitary units (esp. the Rotfrontkämpferbund); and the intimidation of Jewish citizens (eg. the Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses).
The SA was the first Nazi paramilitary group to develop pseudo-military titles for bestowal upon its members. The SA ranks were adopted by several other Nazi Party groups, chief amongst them the SS, itself originally a branch of the SA. SA men were often called "brownshirts" for the colour of their uniforms (similar to Benito Mussolini's blackshirts). Brown-coloured shirts were chosen as the SA uniform because a large batch of them were cheaply available after World War I, having originally been ordered during the war for colonial troops posted to Germany's former African colonies.
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Sweden
Sweden (i/ˈswiːdən/ SWEE-dən; Swedish: Sverige [ˈsværjɛ] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)), is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland, and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Øresund.
At 450,295 square kilometres (173,860 sq mi), Sweden is the third largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of about 9.4 million. Sweden has a low population density of 21 inhabitants per square kilometre (54 /sq mi) with the population mostly concentrated to the southern half of the country. About 85% of the population live in urban areas. Sweden's capital city is Stockholm, which is also the largest city.
Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages. In the 17th century, the country expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire. The empire grew to be one of the great powers of Europe in the 17th and early 18th century. Most of the conquered territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The eastern half of Sweden, present-day Finland, was lost to Russia in 1809. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Sweden by military means forced Norway into a personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, practicing "non-participation in military alliances during peacetime and neutrality during wartime". However, Sweden has been a member of the European Union since 1 January 1995 and is a member of the OECD.
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Sydney
Sydney ( /sɪdni/) is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is classified as an Alpha+ World City indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world.
Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people. Inhabitants of Sydney are called Sydneysiders, comprising a cosmopolitan and international population.
The site of the first British colony in Australia, Sydney was established in 1788 at Sydney Cove by Arthur Phillip, commodore of the First Fleet as a penal colony. The city is built on hills surrounding Port Jackson which is commonly known as Sydney Harbour, where the iconic Sydney Opera House and the Harbour Bridge feature prominently. The hinterland of the metropolitan area is surrounded by national parks, and the coastal regions feature many bays, rivers, inlets and beaches including the famous Bondi Beach and Manly Beach. Within the city are many notable parks, including Hyde Park and the Royal Botanic Gardens.
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Tajikistan
Tajikistan (i/tɑːˈdʒiːkɨstɑːn/, /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/, or /tæˈdʒiːkiːstæn/; Тоҷикистон [ˈtɔjikɪsˈtɔn]), officially the Republic of Tajikistan (Tajik: Ҷумҳурии Тоҷикистон, Cumhuriyi Tocikiston; Persian: جمهوری تاجیکستان Jomhuri-ye Tajikestan; Russian: Республика Таджикистан, Respublika Tadzhikistan), is a mountainous landlocked country in Central Asia. It borders Afghanistan to the south, Uzbekistan to the west, Kyrgyzstan to the north, and China to the east. Gilgit Baltistan as well as Khyber Pakhtunkhwa of Pakistan are separated from Tajikistan by the narrow Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan in the south.
Most of Tajikistan's population belongs to the Persian-speaking Tajik ethnic group, who share language, culture and history with Afghanistan and Iran. Once part of the Samanid Empire, Tajikistan became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union in the 20th century, known as the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic (Tajik SSR). Mountains cover over 90% of this Central Asian republic.
After independence, Tajikistan suffered from a devastating civil war which lasted from 1992 to 1997. Since the end of the war, newly established political stability and foreign aid have allowed the country's economy to grow. Trade in commodities such as cotton, aluminium and uranium has contributed greatly to this steady improvement.
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Tanzania
Coordinates: 6°18′25″S 34°51′14″E / 6.307°S 34.854°E / -6.307; 34.854 Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( /ˌtænzəˈniːə/ Swahili: Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern border lies on the Indian Ocean.
Tanzania is a state composed of 26 regions (mikoa), including those of the semi-autonomous region of Zanzibar. The head of state is President Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete, elected in 2005. Since 1996, the official capital of Tanzania has been Dodoma, where Parliament and some government offices are located. Between independence and 1996, the main coastal city of Dar es Salaam served as the country's political capital. Today, Dar es Salaam remains the principal commercial city of Tanzania and the de facto seat of most government institutions. It is the major seaport for the country and its landlocked neighbours.
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The Dakotas
The Dakotas is a collective term that refers to the U.S. states of North Dakota and South Dakota together. The term has been used historically to describe the Dakota Territory, and continues to be used to describe the collective heritage, culture, geography, fauna, sociology, the economy, and even cuisine among the two states.
The two states combined have a population of 1,459,227, a little less than Idaho, or at the 40th place. The number of inhabitants increased by 13,552 from the year before. The Dakotas have a total area of 147,878 square miles (383,177 square kilometres), which rank 4th among U.S. states, right before Montana. The two states also have a population density of 9.8 per sq. mi (3.8 per km2).
The name "Dakota" comes from the Tipi Sapa, a Native American clan that is a branch of the Sioux nation.
A sub-region of the Frontier Strip, the Dakotas are also within the Midwestern United States, with the western portion in the High Plains. According to the Public Broadcasting Service, important areas within the Dakotas include the Black Hills, the town of Deadwood, Fort Buford, Standing Rock Reservation and Wounded Knee. The Upper Missouri River and the Upper Missouri River Valley are important geological features in the area, as well.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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University of Jena
Friedrich Schiller University of Jena (FSU) (German Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena, colloquially Uni Jena), is a public research university located in Jena, Thuringia, Germany.
The university was established in 1558 and is counted among the ten oldest universities in Germany. In 1934, the university was renamed after the writer Friedrich Schiller who was teaching as professor of history when Jena attracted some of the most influential minds at the turn of the 19th century. With Karl Leonhard Reinhold, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, G. W. F. Hegel, F. W. J. Schelling and Friedrich von Schlegel on its teaching staff, the university has been at the centre of the emergence of German idealism and early Romanticism.
As of 2009, the university has around 21,000 students enrolled and 340 professors. Its current rector, Klaus Dicke, is the 317th rector in the history of the university.
The university is organised into the following ten faculties:
The elector John Frederick, Elector of Saxony first thought of a plan to establish a university at Jena in 1547 while he was being held captive by emperor Charles V. The plan was put into motion by his three sons and, after having obtained a charter from the emperor Ferdinand I, the university was established on 2 February 1558.
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Abraham Calovius
Abraham Calovius (also Abraham Calov or Abraham Kalau; 16 April 1612 – 25 February 1686) was a Lutheran theologian, and was one of the champions of Lutheran orthodoxy in the 17th century.
He was born in Mohrungen (now Morąg, Ostróda County) in the Duchy of Prussia. After studying at Königsberg, in 1650 he was appointed professor of theology at Wittenberg, where he afterwards became general superintendent and primarius.
Calovius opposed the Catholics, Calvinists and Socinians, and in particular attacked the syncretism of his bitter enemy, George Calixtus. While Calixtus affirmed that the Apostles' Creed was an adequate definition of faith, Calovius rather held that one must believe every part of revealed truth in order to gain salvation. This led Calovius to deny as a heresy the idea that Roman Catholics or Calvinists could be partakers of salvation.
As a writer of polemics Calovius had few equals. His chief dogmatic work, Systema Iocorum theologicorum, (12 volumes, 1655–1677) represents the climax of Lutheran scholasticism. He produced a popular commentary on Martin Luther's translation of the Bible, "die deutsche Bibel," today known as the Calov Bible. He also wrote a much larger professional exegetical work on the entire Bible called "Biblia Illustrata." It is written from the point of view of a very strict belief in inspiration, his object being to refute the statements made by Hugo Grotius in his Commentaries.
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Aegidius Hunnius
Aegidius Hunnius the Elder (December 21, 1550 Winnenden – April 4, 1603 Wittenberg) was a Lutheran theologian of the Lutheran scholastic tradition and father of Nicolaus Hunnius.
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Andreas Musculus
Andreas Musculus (also Andreas Meusel; b. 29 November 1514, Schneeberg – 29 September 1581, Frankfurt (Oder)) was a German Lutheran theologian. The name Musculus is a Latinized form of Meusel.
Musculus was born in Schneeberg, "generally called only Musculus" and educated in Leipzig and Wittenberg. He became professor in university of Frankfurt an der Oder. As a theologian he was Gnesio-Lutheran and polemic against the Interim, Andreas Osiander the Elder, Franciscus Stancarus, Philipp Melanchthon and John Calvin.
Musculus was one of the co-authors of the Formula of Concord. He was also one of the most remarkable defenders of Eucharistic adoration in early Lutheranism. His main work on this subject is Propositiones de vera, reali et substantiali praesentia, Corporis & Sanguinis IESU Christi in Sacramento Altaris, Francofordiae ad Oderam, 1573 (thesis IX: An adoratio Christi praesentis in coena sit approbanda). He also edited prayer books with the classical hymns for the adoration of the Sacrament[1]. E.g. his Precationes ex veteribus orthodoxis included Lauda Sion and Pange lingua. He died in Frankfurt an der Oder.
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Andreas Osiander
Andreas Osiander (19 December 1498 – 17 October 1552) was a German Lutheran theologian.
Born at Gunzenhausen in Franconia, Osiander studied at the University of Ingolstadt before being ordained as a priest in 1520. In the same year he began work at an Augustinian convent in Nuremberg as a Hebrew tutor. In 1522, he was appointed to the church of St. Lorenz in Nuremberg, and at the same time publicly declared himself to be a Lutheran. During the First Diet of Nuremberg (1522), he met Albert of Prussia, Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, and played an important role in converting him to Lutheranism. He also played a prominent role in the debate which led to the city of Nuremberg's adoption of the Reformation in 1525, and in the same year Osiander married.
Osiander attended the Marburg Colloquy (1529), the Diet of Augsburg (1530) and the signing of the Schmalkalden articles (1531). The Augsburg Interim of 1548 made it necessary for him to leave Nuremberg, settling first at Breslau, then, in 1549, at Königsberg as professor of the newly founded Königsberg University, appointed by Albert of Prussia. Osiander lived and worked in Königsberg until his death in 1552. Osiander's son Lukas (1534–1604), and grandsons Andreas (1562–1617) and Lukas (1571–1638) also worked as theologians. His niece married the future Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer.
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Andreas Poach
Andreas Poach (born around 1515 in Eilenburg; – † April 2 1585 in Utenbach) was a German Lutheran theologian and Reformer.
In 1530 he was admitted to the University of Wittenberg. In 1538, he obtained his Master's and remained until 1541 at the University of Wittenberg. He was an editor of Luther's Table Talk, was deacon at Halle, Saxony-Anhalt, archdeacon at Jena, pastor at Nordhausen, Erfurt, and Utenbach, and professor at Erfurt.
During the Second Antinomian Controversy, he took the Philippist position that since salvation is not through the law, the working of the law is not necessary in conversion; the Gospel alone being sufficient. The Gnesio-Lutherans considered him to be an antinomian because of this viewpoint. Ultimately, his views were rejected in the Formula of Concord in the fifth article, On the Law and the Gospel and in the sixth article, On the Third Use of the Law.
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Antonio Brucioli
Antonio Brucioli (died December 6, 1566) was an Italian humanist, religious thinker, publisher, and writer best known for his translation of the bible into Italian.
Brucioli was born in Florence at an unknown date. In his youth, Brucioli was a frequent attendee and contributor to the circle of humanists and scholars who met in the Orto Oricellari. Among the distinguished thinkers with whom Brucioli developed relationships there, the names of Francesco Cattani da Diacceto, Luigi Alamanni, and Niccolò Machiavelli stand out.
In 1522 Brucioli, along with several other of the members of the Orto Oricellari, was implicated in a plot to assassinate Cardinal Giulio Medici. Fleeing the city, Brucioli took refuge in Lyon, where he began work on a collection of tracts on moral philosophy, a collection published in Venice in 1526. This body of works formed the core of his Dialogi, which he would expand over the course of the next two decades. During his stay in Lyons, he seems to have absorbed many of the religious ideas of the German reformers, adopting moderately Lutheran theology in his translation of the bible, a work which some said relied heavily on Martin Bucer.
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Argula von Grumbach
Argula von Grumbach (née von Stauff) (1492-1554?) was a Bavarian noblewoman who, starting in the early 1520s, became involved in the Protestant Reformation debates going on in Germany. She became the first Protestant woman writer, publishing letters and poems promoting and defending Martin Luther as well as his co-worker Philipp Melanchthon and other Protestant groups. She is most known for directly challenging the University of Ingolstadt’s faculty when she wrote a letter to them speaking out against the arrest of a Lutheran student. As one of the few women at the time openly speaking out her views, her writings sparked controversy and often became bestsellers, with tens of thousands of copies of her letters and poems circulating within a few years of their publication.
Argula von Grumbach was born as Argula von Stauff in 1492, the year known for when Christopher Columbus sailed for the New World. Her family lived in Ehrenfels castle, which was their baronial seat. The von Stauff family were Freiherren, who were lords with independent jurisdiction only accountable to the Emperor, and they were among the pre-eminent leaders of Bavarian nobility.
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Aster Ganno
Aster Ganno (c.1872 - 1964) was an Ethiopian Bible translator who worked with the better known Onesimos Nesib as a translator of the Oromo Bible, published in 1899.
She was born free, but was later enslaved by the king of Limmu-Ennarea. She was emancipated in 1886 when Italian ships intercepted a boat which was taking her to be sold on the Arabian Peninsula, then took her to Eritrea where the Imkullu school of the Swedish Evangelical Mission took her in. Aster (by Ethiopian custom, she is referred to by her first name) was educated at their school . Onesimos quickly “discovered that Aster was endowed with considerable mental gifts and possessed a real feeling for the Oromo language” (Arén 1978:383). She was assigned to compile an Oromo dictionary, which was first used in polishing a translation of New Testament published in 1893.
Aster also translated a book of Bible stories and wrote down 500 traditional Oromo riddles, fables, proverbs, and songs, many of which were published in a volume for beginning readers (1894). She later worked with Onesimos in compiling an Oromo hymnbook. Arén reports that a large amount of folklore she collected is still unpublished, preserved by the Hylander family (1978:384, fn. 71).
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August Kavel
August Ludwig Christian Kavel (3 September 1798 – 12 February 1860). Pastor Kavel was a founder of Lutheranism in Australia.
Kavel was born in Berlin in 1798. In 1826, he was ordained and installed as the Pastor at the church in the village of Klemzig, located near the city of Züllichau in then southeastern Brandenburg in the German state of Prussia. Between 1798 and 1840, the Protestant churches in Prussia had been subjected to a number of changes, brought about by the decrees of King Frederick William III. These decrees were intended to unify the Lutheran and Reformed Churches into one Evangelical Christian Church. By 1826, there was some opposition to the intentions of Frederick William. This escalated in 1830, when Frederick William announced a number of changes that outlawed the traditional rites of the churches and prescribed a form of worship which many Lutherans believed was against the Will of God. It was in this environment that dissent against the decrees of Frederick William arose.
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Austria
Austria (i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] ( listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Carl Olof Rosenius
Carl Olof Rosenius (born February 3, 1816 in Nysätra; died February 24, 1868, Stockholm) was a Swedish revivalist preacher, author and editor of the newspaper Pietisten from 1842-1868.
Carl Rosenius was born in Nysätra in Västerbotten as the third child to the priest Anders Rosenius (1780–1841) who was the town minister, and to his wife, Sarah Margaret Norenius, daughter of priest Olof Norenius. His father took part in the revival movement among with the so-called Nyläsarna. When he was thirteen, Carl lived with his family and went to school in Piteå, Umeå, and Härnösands gymnasium. In 1838, he began theological studies at the University of Uppsala; however, he was forced to cancel his studies for economic and health reasons. Instead, he took the post of tutor near Stockholm.
He became one of Sweden's most widely read religious writers of his time and a central figure in the nineteenth century religious revival in Sweden. He played an important role in the formation of the Evangeliska Fosterlandsstiftelsen , which in English literally translates The Evangelical Homeland Foundation, (acronym EFS, known internationally as the Swedish Evangelical Mission)
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Carl Paul Caspari
Carl Paul Caspari (February 8, 1814 – April 11, 1892) was a Norwegian neo-Lutheran theologian and academic. He wrote several books and is best known for his interpretations and translation of the Old Testament.
He was born Dessau of Jewish parentage and was brought up in the Jewish faith. From 1834 to 1838 he studied at Leipzig, where he acquired a knowledge of Arabic and Persian under Fleischer. Partly from the influence of fellow students, among whom was Franz Delitzsch, he adopted Christianity and was baptized in 1838. His Jewish training naturally fitted him for work in Old Testament exegesis, and he spent two years at Berlin under Hengstenberg.
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Carl Schalk
Dr. Carl Flentge Schalk (born 1929) is a noted Lutheran composer, author, and lecturer. Between 1965 and 2004 he taught church music at Concordia University Chicago. During this time he guided the development of the university's Master of Church Music degree, which has since graduated more than 140 students. Schalk was a member of the Inter-Lutheran Commission on Worship, which produced Lutheran Book of Worship in 1978. He was also the editor of the journal Church Music from 1966 to 1980. Additionally, he is a member of the Music Advisory Committee of Concordia Publishing House and of the board of directors of Lutheran Music Program, the parent organization of the Lutheran Summer Music Academy and Festival.
Schalk graduated in 1952 from Concordia University Chicago (then known as Concordia Teachers College River Forest) with a B.S. in education and proceeded to earn a M.Mus from the Eastman School of Music and an M.A.R. from Concordia Seminary in Saint Louis.
Schalk is well-known for his numerous choral compositions as well as his hymn tunes and carols, which number over one hundred. He had ongoing collaborations with poets Jaroslav Vajda and Herbert Brokering, producing tunes for several of their hymn texts. Schalk's hymn tunes may be found in modern Christian hymnals of various denominations. He is also the author of several books on Lutheran music and hymnody.
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Casiodoro de Reina
Casiodoro de Reina or de Reyna (born 1520 in Montemolín; died 15 March 1594 in Frankfurt am Main) was a Lutherantheologian who (perhaps with several others) translated the Bible into Spanish.
Reina was born about 1520. From his youth on he studied the Bible. In 1557 he became a monk of the Hieronymite-Monastery of San Isidoro del Campo outside Sevilla (Monasterio Jerónimo de San Isidoro del Campo de Sevilla). At this time he had contact with Lutheranism and he became an adherent of the Protestant Reformation. He fled with about a dozen other monks when they came under suspicion by the Office of the Inquisition for Reformist tendencies. He first turned to John Calvin's Geneva but he did not find the atmosphere of doctrinaire rigidity of the Consistory to be salutary. In 1558, Reina declared that Geneva had become "a new Rome" and left.
Reina traveled 1559 to London where he served as pastor to Spanish Protestant refugees. However King Philip II of Spain was exerting pressure for his extradition.
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Catherine Winkworth
Catherine Winkworth (13 September 1827 - 1 July 1878) was an English translator. She is best known for bringing the German chorale tradition to English speakers with her numerous translations of hymns.
Catherine Winkworth was born in London at 20 Ely Place, Holborn. She was the fourth daughter of Henry Winkworth, a silk merchant. Winkworth lived most of her life in Manchester. She studied also under the Unitarian minister, Rev. William Gaskell and with the English philosopher Dr. James Martineau. Her sister Susanna Winkworth (1820–1884) was also a translator, mainly of German devotional works.
She spent a year in Dresden, during which time she took an interest in German hymnody. Around 1854, she published her book Lyra Germanica, a collection of German hymns which she had chosen and translated into English. A further collection followed in 1858. During 1863, she published The Chorale Book for England which was coedited by the composers William Sterndale Bennett and Otto Goldschmidt, and in 1869 she followed this with Christian Singers of Germany. According to The Harvard University Hymn Book, Winkworth "did more than any other single individual to make the rich heritage of German hymnody available to the English-speaking world." Four examples of translations by her hand are published in The Church Hymn Book 1872 (Nos 344, 431, 664 and 807).
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Christian Keyser
Christian Gottlob Keyser (also spelled Keysser, Kaiser) was a Lutheran missionary of the Neuendettelsau Mission Society. He served for almost 22 years at the Neuendettelsau Mission Station in the Finschhafen District of New Guinea, which had been founded in 1892 by Johann Flierl. He controversially proposed the evangelization of tribes, rather than individuals, the concept known as Volkskirche (Congregation Church). An avid linguist, he compiled one of the first dictionaries of a Guinean dialects: Dictionary of the Kâte Language, a Papuan community (Wörterbuch der Kâte-Sprache; Eine Papuagemeinde). He also maintained a regular correspondence with the German Geographical Society in Berlin, reporting on his naturalist findings in New Guinea. He published his memoirs (1929), as well as over 300 essays and pamphlets and ten books. An intrepid explorer, he ascended the Saruwaged Range massif in 1913.
In 1899, the Neuendettelsau Missionary Society sent Christian Keyser to the Sattelberg Mission Station in New Guinea. There, he worked under the tutelage of the station's founder, Johann Flierl, for several years; he also married the governess of Flierl's four children, Emilie Heumann (b. 14 February 1873 in Strasbourg), in 1903. Keyser proved a gifted and diligent linguist, and he also developed a critical understanding of the Kâte people that Flierl did not have: in this corporatist society, it would not be possible to bring people to Christ one at a time, through individual acceptance of God. Instead, he sought tribal conversions.
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Christian Scriver
Christian Scriver (January 2, 1629 – April 5, 1693) was a German Lutheran devotional writer.
Scriver was born at Rendsburg and entered the University of Rostock in 1647, and in 1653 was appointed archdeacon at Stendal, whence he was called in 1667 to Magdeburg as pastor of St. James's. Here he remained twenty-three years, until in 1690 he was made chief court chaplain at Quedlinburg, a position which he held until his death. The friend of Philipp Jakob Spener, Scriver was one of those theologians of the latter part of the seventeenth century who opposed the formalism then besetting Lutheranism, and thus prepared the way for Pietism, even while himself maintaining strict orthodoxy. Scriver died in Quedlinburg.
The writings of Scriver were devotional, those including the Gottholds vierhundert zufällige Andachten (1667; last ed., Basel, 1893; Eng. transl., Gotthold's Emblems: or, Invisible Things understood by Things that are made, by R. Menzies, Edinburgh, 1857), a collection of 400 parables; Gotthold's Siech- und Siegesbette (1687; new ed., Stuttgart, 1870); and Chrysologia Catechetica, Goldpredigten über die Hauptstücke des lutherischen Katechismus (1687; new ed., Stuttgart, 1861). His most important work, however, was his Seelenschatz ("The Soul's Treasure", 5 parts, 1675-1692; new ed., 3 vols., Berlin, 1852-53), describing the progress of the soul from misery to eternal life and combining allegory, dogmatics, and ethics. It has been translated at least into Danish, Swedish and Finnish.
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Church usher
In many denominations of the Christian Church, a Church usher is the first official representative seen when entering the church. The role of the usher in church is a volunteer position, and is often considered one of honor, particularly if the church or a church committee member selects an usher by nomination.
The concept of an Usher is not new. In the Old Testament, there were positions addressed as "Doorkeepers" or "Gatekeepers", and their roles were very similar.(2 Kings 22:4) (1 Chronicles 9:17-27) (Psalms 84:10)
In modern times, the church usher has many duties. Depending on the church's denomination, size, and preferences, ushers may perform all, some, or a few of the following.
Ushers are required to be punctual and time conscious as they are required to be in the church far earlier than the rest of the congregation, who may still be at Sunday school or before or during sabbath school. Since they are part of the service, they need to meet early in order to pray with the clergy. Adequate spiritual preparation by the usher ensures a service full of the presence of God[citation needed].
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Claus Harms
Claus Harms (May 25, 1778, Fahrstedt – February 1, 1855, Kiel) was a German clergyman and theologian.
Harms was born at Fahrstedt in Schleswig, and in his youth worked in his father's mill. At the University of Kiel he repudiated the prevailing rationalism and under the influence of Schleiermacher became a fervent Evangelical preacher, first at Lunden (1806), and then at Kiel (1816).
Harms's trenchant style made him very popular, and he did great service for his cause especially in 1817, when, on the 300th anniversary of the Reformation, he published side by side with Luther's theses, ninety-five of his own, attacking reason as "the pope of our time" who "dismisses Christ from the altar and throws God's word from the pulpit."
As a musician, Harms sought to restore Lutheran hymns back to their original state. To this end, he researched the original texts from people such as Luther, Gerhardt, and others, hoping to find the original texts for the hymns his people were singing. In this he was mostly successful - the textual reforms he made still remain in hymnals today. He was unsuccessful, though, in restoring the tunes to their original states. The Renaissance-style tunes employed by the early Reformers had largely been smoothed out, such that the lively syncopations common to music of that era had been replaced by simple, plodding meters. His attempts met with early resistance, and he abandoned the project.
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Cyriacus Spangenberg
Cyriacus Spangenberg (June 7, 1528, Nordhausen – February 10, 1604) was a German theologian and historian, son of the Südharz' reformator Johannes Spangenberg (1484–1550).
Cyriacus was born in Nordhausen. As a student, he was a fellow tenant of Martin Luther in Wittenberg, later became a minister in Eisleben, and in 1559 the General Dean of the Grafschaft Mansfeld.
In January 1575, he lost his place at Mansfeld because in the Flacian controversy he sided with Matthias Flacius. Along with Flacius, he taught that through original sin some of the substantial faculties of men were also corrupted. This contradicted the doctrine of his opponents that only accidental faculties were depraved. He served as a pastor at Schlitz, Hesse from 1580 until getting expelled in 1590. After getting expelled, he went on a short retreat to Vacha before moving to Strasburg, where his youngest son, Wolfhart Spangenberg, a celebrated poet, lived, and where he died on February 10, 1604. Among the last pupils of Luther, Spangenberg is the most prominent.
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David Chytraeus
David Chytraeus or Chyträus (26 February 1530, Ingelfingen - 25 June 1600, Rostock) was a German Lutheran theologian and historian.
His real surname was Kochhafe, which in Classical Greek is χυτρα, from where he derived the Latinized pseudonym "Chyträus".
Chytraeus was professor of the University of Rostock and one of the co-authors of the Formula of Concord.
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Dieterich Buxtehude
Dieterich Buxtehude (German pronunciation: [ˈdiːtəʁɪç bʊkstəˈhuːdə], also Dietrich; Danish Diderich [ˈdidəʁɪk buksdəˈhuːðə], equivalent to the modern Diderik) (c. 1637 to 1639 — 9 May 1707) was a German-Danish organist and composer of the Baroque period. His organ works represent a central part of the standard organ repertoire and are frequently performed at recitals and in church services. He composed in a wide variety of vocal and instrumental idioms, and his style strongly influenced many composers, including Johann Sebastian Bach. Buxtehude, along with Heinrich Schütz, is considered today to be one of the most important German composers of the mid-Baroque.
He is thought to have been born with the name Diderich Buxtehude. Scholars dispute both the year and country of his birth, although most now accept that he was born in 1637 in Helsingborg, Skåne, at the time part of Denmark (but now part of Sweden). His obituary stated that "he recognized Denmark as his native country, whence he came to our region; he lived about 70 years". Others, however, claim that he was born at Oldesloe in the Duchy of Holstein, which at that time was a part of the Danish Monarchy (but is now in Germany). Later in his life he Germanized his name and began signing documents Dieterich Buxtehude.
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Eduard Huschke
Georg Philipp Eduard Huschke was a German jurist and authority on church government; born at Hannoversch Münden June 26, 1801 and died at Breslau February 7, 1886. In 1817 Huschke went to Göttingen to study law. He was attracted by Savigny in Berlin, but returned to Göttingen and established himself as privatdozent, lecturing on the orations of Cicero, on Gaius and the history of law; then he was appointed professor in Rostock. He accepted a call to Breslau as professor of Roman law in 1827.
Soon after his arrival he became interested in the dissensions caused by the Evangelical Union which were forced upon the orthodox Old Lutherans by the state rulers, and took a prominent part in them. Huschke tried to solve the problem practically as soon as he came to Breslau. Out of the dispute originated the independent Lutheran Church, and Huschke, as the defender of its rights, was appointed head of the supreme church college.
Huschke was intensely hostile to the papacy, in which he saw the realization of a demoniac power. He was an eager student of the apocalypse. The fruit of his studies was a work entitled Das Buch mit sieben Siegeln (Dresden, 1860). His exegesis, however, is not always sound. His ideas on church government are laid down in Die streitigen Lehren von der Kirche, dem Kirchenamt, dem Kirchenregiment und der Kirchenregierung (Leipzig, 1863). In addition, Huschke published many important writings on law.
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Elijah
Elijah ( /ɨˈlaɪdʒə/; also Elias /ɨˈlaɪ.əs/; Hebrew: אֱלִיָּהוּ, Eliyahu, meaning "Yahweh is my God";Arabic:إلياس, Ilyās), was a prophet in the northern kingdom of Israel during the reign of Ahab (9th century BC), according to the Books of Kings.
According to the Books of Kings, Elijah defended the worship of Yahweh over that of the Phoenician god Baal; he raised the dead, brought fire down from the sky, and was taken up in a whirlwind (either accompanied by a chariot and horses of flame or riding in it). In the Book of Malachi, Elijah's return is prophesied "before the coming of the great and terrible day of the Lord," making him a harbinger of the Messiah and the eschaton in various faiths that revere the Hebrew Bible. Derivative references to Elijah appear in the Talmud, Mishnah, the New Testament, and the Qur'an.
In Judaism, Elijah's name is invoked at the weekly Havdalah ritual that marks the end of Shabbat, and Elijah is invoked in other Jewish customs, among them the Passover seder and the Brit milah (ritual circumcision). He appears in numerous stories and references in the Haggadah and rabbinic literature, including the Babylonian Talmud.
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Felix Mendelssohn
Jakob Ludwig Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy (German pronunciation: [ˈjaːkɔp ˈluːtvɪç ˈfeːlɪks ˈmɛndl̩szoːn baʁˈtɔldi]), born, and generally known in English-speaking countries, as Felix Mendelssohn (3 February 1809 – 4 November 1847) was a German composer, pianist, organist and conductor of the early Romantic period.
The grandson of the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn, Felix Mendelssohn was born into a prominent Jewish family, although initially he was raised without religion and was later baptised as a Lutheran Christian. Mendelssohn was recognised early as a musical prodigy, but his parents were cautious and did not seek to capitalise on his talent.
Early success in Germany, where he also revived interest in the music of Johann Sebastian Bach, was followed by travel throughout Europe. Mendelssohn was particularly well received in Britain as a composer, conductor and soloist, and his ten visits there – during which many of his major works were premiered – form an important part of his adult career. His essentially conservative musical tastes, however, set him apart from many of his more adventurous musical contemporaries such as Franz Liszt, Richard Wagner and Hector Berlioz. The Leipzig Conservatoire (now the University of Music and Theatre Leipzig), which he founded, became a bastion of this anti-radical outlook.
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Franz Delitzsch
Franz Delitzsch (Leipzig, February 23, 1813 – Leipzig, March 4, 1890) was a German Lutheran theologian and Hebraist. Born in Leipzig, he held the professorship of theology at the University of Rostock from 1846 to 1850, at the University of Erlangen until 1867, and after that at the University of Leipzig until his death. Delitzsch wrote many commentaries on books of the Bible, Jewish antiquities, biblical psychology, a history of Jewish poetry, and Christian apologetics.
He defended the Jewish community against anti-Semitic attacks and translated the New Testament into Hebrew. In 1880 he established the Institutum Judaicum in Leipzig for the training of missionary workers among Jews.
Today, Delitzsch is best known for his translation of the New Testament into Hebrew (1877). Delitzsch's translation is still considered the standard New Testament edition in Hebrew and in its 10th Edition it was revised by a young Arnold Ehrlich at Delitzsch's insistence. This edition was to be utilized for proselytization among Jews. It is remarkable that these editions were composed before the modern revival of the Hebrew language, but the translations still remain fresh and alive for readers today.
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Georg Major
George Major (April 25, 1502 – November 28, 1574) was a Lutheran theologian of the Protestant Reformation. He was born in Nuremberg and died at Wittenberg.
At the age of nine Major was sent to Wittenberg, and in 1521 entered the university there. When Cruciger returned to Wittenberg in 1529, Major was appointed rector of the Johannisschule in Magdeburg, but in 1537 he became court preacher at Wittenberg and was ordained by Martin Luther.
In 1545 he was made professor in the theological faculty, in which his authority increased to such an extent that in the following year the elector sent him to the Conference of Regensburg, where he was soon captivated by the personality of Butzer. Like Philipp Melanchthon, he fled before the disastrous close of the Schmalkald war, and found refuge in Magdeburg. In the summer of 1547, he returned to Wittenberg, and in the same year became cathedral superintendent at Merseburg, although he resumed his activity at the university in the following year.
In the negotiations of the Augsburg Interim, he took the part of Melanchthon in first opposing it and then making concessions. This attitude incurred the enmity of the opponents of the Interim, especially after he cancelled a number of passages in the second edition of his Psalterium in which he had violently attacked the position of Maurice, Elector of Saxony, whom he now requested to prohibit all polemical treatises proceeding from Magdeburg, while he condemned the preachers of Torgau who were imprisoned in Wittenberg on account of their opposition to the Interim. He was even accused of accepting bribes from Maurice.
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George Forell
George Wolfgang Forell (September 19, 1919 – April 29, 2011) was the Carver Distinguished Professor Emeritus in the Department of Religious Studies at the University of Iowa. He was an internationally known author, lecturer, and guest professor in the field of Christian ethics.
Forell was born on September 19, 1919 in Breslau, Germany, (now Wrocław, Poland). He studied philosophy and theology at the University of Vienna. In 1939 he came to the USA as a refugee from Nazi Germany. He enrolled at the Lutheran Theological Seminary at Philadelphia, as a student in theology. He graduated in 1941 and was ordained as a Lutheran minister the same year. While serving as a parish pastor, he continued his education at Princeton Theological Seminary and Union Theological Seminary. In 1949 he received a Th.D. from Union Theological Seminary. In 1945 he married Elizabeth Rossing in Argyle, Wisconsin. They have two daughters, Dr. Madeleine Forell Marshall and The Rev. Mary Forell Davis, four grandchildren and seven great-grandchildren.
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German American
German Americans are citizens of the United States of German ancestry and comprise about 50 million people, or 17% of the U.S. population, the country's largest self-reported ancestral group.California, Texas and Pennsylvania have the largest numbers of German origin, although upper Midwestern states, including Ohio, Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Nebraska, and the Dakotas, have the highest proportion of German Americans at over one-third.
None of the historical German states had overseas colonies, so not until the 1680s did the first significant groups of German immigrants arrive in the British colonies, settling primarily in New York and Pennsylvania. Immigration continued in very large numbers during the 19th century, with some eight million arrivals from Germany. They were pulled by the attractions of land and religious freedom, and pushed out of Europe by shortages of land and religious or political oppression. Many arrived seeking religious or political freedom, others for economic opportunities greater than those in Europe, and others simply for the chance to start fresh in the New World. The arrivals before 1850 were mostly farmers who sought out the most productive land, where their intensive farming techniques would pay off. After 1840, many came to cities, where "Germania"—German-speaking districts—soon emerged.
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Germans
The Germans (Deutsche) are a Germanic ethnic group native to Central Europe. The English term Germans has referred to the German-speaking population of the Holy Roman Empire since the Late Middle Ages. Legally, Germans are citizens of the Federal Republic of Germany.
Of approximately 100 million native speakers of German in the world, about 66–75 million consider themselves Germans. There are an additional 80 million people of German ancestry mainly in the United States, Brazil, Canada, Argentina, France, Russia, Chile, Poland, Australia and Romania who most likely are not native speakers of German. Thus, the total number of Germans worldwide lies between 66 and 160 million, depending on the criteria applied (native speakers, single-ancestry ethnic Germans, partial German ancestry, etc.).
Today, peoples from countries with a German-speaking majority or significant German-speaking population groups other than Germany, such as Austria, Switzerland, Liechtenstein and Luxembourg, have developed their own national identity and usually do not refer to themselves as "Germans" in a modern context.
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Gottfried Thomasius
Gottfried Thomasius (June 26, 1802 - January 24, 1875) was a German Lutheran theologian. He was born in Egenhausen (in present-day Middle Franconia) and he died in Erlangen.
He studied philosophy and theology in Erlangen, Halle and Berlin, and as a student had renowned instructors that included Friedrich Schleiermacher, August Neander, G. W. F. Hegel, Philip Marheineke and Friedrich Tholuck. In 1829 he began serving as a pastor in Nuremberg, and in 1842 was appointed professor of dogmatics at the University of Erlangen.
Thomasius was an important representative of the "Erlangen School" within the German Neo-Lutheranism movement and a major influence on, for instance, the church historian Albert Hauck. He is remembered for introducing the concept of Kenotic Christology into German theology, of which his aim was to provide an understanding of the limited consciousness of Jesus Christ without denying the unity of deity and humanity in Christ. Among his more important publications are the following:
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Gotthard Fritzsche
Gotthard Daniel Fritzsche[p] (20 July 1797[b] – 26 October 1863) was one of the first founding pastors of Lutheranism to emigrate to Australia. He was born in Liebenwerda, Saxony, Germany, and migrated to Australia in 1841. From 1842-1863, he was pastor of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. He died and was buried at Lobethal, South Australia.
Gotthard Fritzsche went to Breslau after his gymnasium training, to receive his university training. There he studied under Johann Gottfried Scheibel. As was customary, after his university education, he served as a private tutor. At his first examination for entering the ministry, he declared himself to be against the Prussian Union, and was banned from ministry in the State church. He joined the underground Old Lutheran church as a Flying Pastor, who travelled from place to place disguised as a travelling tradesman, and performing secret worship services and rites to those opposed to the State church. After a time, he grew weary of the work, and he travelled to Hamburg.
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Hallgrímur Pétursson
Hallgrímur Pétursson (1614– October 27, 1674) was one of Iceland's most famous poets and a minister at Hvalneskirkja and Saurbær in Hvalfjörður. The Hallgrímskirkja in Reykjavík and the Hallgrímskirkja in Saurbær are named after him. He was one of the most influential pastors during the Age of Orthodoxy (1580–1713). Because of his contributions to Lutheran hymnody, he is sometimes called the Icelandic Paul Gerhardt.
Hallgrímur Pétursson was born at Hólar, where his father was the bell-ringer and his uncle, the resident bishop. He ran away from home young and left Iceland with merchants. He was not heard from again until Brynjólfur Sveinsson, an Icelandic priest travelling through Glückstadt (now in Germany but then a part of Denmark), heard Hallgrímur curse his employer in Icelandic. Brynjólfur took pity on the boy and sponsored him to attend seminary in Denmark at the Church of Our Lady.
During his last year of study there, Pétursson was employed to reëducate a group of Icelanders who had been kidnapped by Barbary pirates and ransomed. Among them was a married woman, Guðríður Símonardóttir, sixteen years Pétursson's senior, whom he impregnated. He then left seminary and returned with the group to Iceland. After Guðríður discovered that her husband had died, she and Pétursson promptly married. He worked as a labourer for a number of years.
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Hans Egede
Hans Poulsen Egede (January 31, 1686 – November 5, 1758) was a Norwegian-Danish Lutheran missionary who launched mission efforts to Greenland, which led him to be styled the Apostle of Greenland. He established a successful mission among the Inuit and is credited with revitalizing Dano-Norwegian interest in the island after contact had been broken for hundreds of years. He founded Greenland's capital Godthåb, now known as Nuuk.
Hans Egede was born into the home of a civil servant on Hinnøya, in Harstad, Norway, several hundreds of miles north of the Arctic Circle. His paternal grandfather had been a vicar priest in Vester Egede on southern Zealand, Denmark. Hans was schooled by an uncle, a clergyman in a local Lutheran Church. In 1704 he traveled to Copenhagen to enter the University of Copenhagen, where he earned a Bachelor's degree in Theology. He returned to Hinnøya after graduation, and in April 1707 he was ordained and assigned to a parish on the equally remote archipelago of Lofoten. Also in 1707 he married Gertrud Rasch (or Rask), who was 13 years his senior. Four children were born to the marriage - two boys and two girls.
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Hans Nielsen Hauge
Hans Nielsen Hauge (April 3, 1771 – March 29, 1824) was a noted revivalist Norwegian lay minister who spoke up against the Church establishment in Norway. Hauge is considered an influential personality in the industrialization of Norway. He is commemorated annually on March 29 as a renewer of the church by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America.
Hans Nielsen Hauge was born the fifth of ten children in his ancestral farm of Hauge in Tune in the county of Østfold. His father was Niels Mikkelsen Evenrød (1732–1813) and mother Maria Olsdatter Hauge (1735–1811).
He had a poor and otherwise ordinary youth until April 5, 1796, when he received his "spiritual baptism" in a field near his farm. Within two months, he had founded a revival movement in his own community, written a book, and decided to take his mission on the road. He wrote a series of books in his lifetime. In a total of 18 years, he published 33 books. Estimates are that 100,000 Norwegians read one or more of them, at a time when the population was 900,000 more-or-less literate individuals.
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Hans Tausen
Hans Tausen (Tavsen) (1494 – November 11, 1561), the leading theologian of the Danish Reformation in Denmark, was born at Birkende on Funen in 1494 and died in Ribe in 1561. He published the first translation of the Pentateuch into Danish in 1535.
Very little is known about his childhood and youth, but apparently he was a pupil at the grammar schools at Odense and Slagelse, finally settling down as a friar in the monastery of the Order of Saint John of Antvorskov near Slagelse. After studying at Rostock, where he got the degree of a master of arts and also after being ordained as a priest, he studied for a short time at the University of Copenhagen, and was then again sent abroad by his prior, visiting, among other places, the newly founded University of Leuven in Belgium and making the acquaintance of the Dutch humanists. He was already a good linguist, understanding both Latin and Hebrew. Subsequently he translated the books of Moses from the original.
In May 1523 Tausen went to Wittenberg, where he met Martin Luther and studied for a year and a half, when he was recalled to Antvorskov. In consequence of his professed attachment to the doctrines of Martin Luther he was transferred, in the spring of 1525, to the monastery of the Order of Saint John at Viborg in Jutland, where he continued to preach the Lutheran belief, and eventually was allowed to use the pulpit of the Saint Johns Church. At Viborg the seed sown by Tausen fell upon good soil. Very soon Hans Tausen had a large group of followers in the town.
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Heinrich Hansen
Heinrich Hansen (13 October 1861 – 17 April 1940) was a German Lutheran theologian and the father of the Lutheran High Church movement in Germany.
Hansen was born in Klockries near Lindholm (in present-day Nordfriesland) as a son of a teacher. In Kiel and Erlangen he studied theology, Hebrew, Syriac, Arabic and in particular the Old Testament under August Klostermann. He worked since 1887 as a pastor in Schleswig-Holstein: in Reinfeld, Lindholm, on the island Pellworm, in Kropp and in Olderup near Husum.
Hansen wrote Latin hymns and worked on a Low German Bible translation and published a Low German hymnal. By the study of the old Lutheran theologians, particularly Martin Chemnitz, and the Roman Catholic theologian Johann Adam Möhler, he came to an Evangelical Catholic view about church. In the Reformation jubilee year of 1917—exactly 100 years after Claus Harms— Hansen published 95 theses (Stimuli et Clavi) in Latin and German, as a sharp criticism against contemporary Protestantism. His theses influenced the foundation of "Hochkirchliche Vereinigung" in October 1918. Hansen is well-known as a co-founder and the first chairman of Hochkirchliche Vereinigung. He died in Breklum.
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Heinrich Schütz
Heinrich Schütz (8 October (JC), 1585 – 6 November 1672) was a German composer and organist, generally regarded as the most important German composer before Johann Sebastian Bach and often considered to be one of the most important composers of the 17th century along with Claudio Monteverdi. He wrote what is traditionally considered to be the first German opera, Dafne (Opitz-Schütz), performed at Torgau in 1627, of which the music has since been lost. He is commemorated as a musician in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on 28 July with Johann Sebastian Bach and George Frideric Handel. He was buried in the Dresden Frauenkirche but his tomb has been destroyed.
He was born in Köstritz, the eldest son of Christoph Schütz and Euphrosyne Bieger. In 1590 the family moved to Weißenfels, where his father Christoph managed the inn "Zum Ring". When Schütz lived with his parents, his musical talents were discovered by Moritz von Hessen-Kassel in 1599. After being a choir-boy he went on to study law at Marburg before going to Venice from 1609–1612 to study music with Giovanni Gabrieli. Gabrieli is the only person Schütz ever referred to as being his teacher. He also inherited a ring from Gabrieli shortly before the latter's death. He subsequently had a short stint as organist at Kassel before moving to Dresden in 1615 to work as court composer to the Elector of Saxony. In 1619 Schütz married Magdalena Wildeck who had been born in 1601. She bore two daughters before her death in 1625: Anna Justina born in 1621 and Euphrosyne born in 1623.
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Henrik Steffens
Henrik Steffens (2 May 1773–13 February 1845), was a Norwegian-born Danish philosopher, scientist, and poet.
He was born at Stavanger, Norway. At the age of fourteen he went with his parents to Copenhagen, where he studied theology and natural science. In 1796 he lectured at the University of Kiel, and a year later went to the University of Jena to study the natural philosophy of Friedrich Schelling. He went to Freiburg in 1800, and there came under the influence of Friedrich Werner.
After two years he returned to Copenhagen, and is said to have introduced German romanticism to Denmark in 1802 with nine lectures given at Elers Kollegium, later published as Indledning til philosophiske Forelæsninger (Introduction to Philosophical Lectures). These lectures were a great success and a source of inspiration in Danish romanticism. They were attended by many who later became leading Danish thinkers, such as Oehlenschläger and Grundtvig. Friedrich Schleiermacher was so much struck by their excellence that he endeavoured, unsuccessfully, to obtain for Steffens a chair in the new Berlin University in 1804, in order that his own ethical teachings should be supported in the scientific department.
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Henry Muhlenberg
Henry Melchior Muhlenberg (an anglicanization of Heinrich Melchior Mühlenberg) (September 6, 1711 – October 7, 1787), was a German Lutheran pastor sent to North America as a missionary, requested by Pennsylvania colonists.
Integral to the founding of the first Lutheran church body or denomination in North America, Muhlenberg is considered the patriarch of the Lutheran Church in the United States. Muhlenberg and his wife Anna Maria had a large family, several of whom had a significant impact on colonial life in North America as pastors, military officers, and politicians. His and Anna Maria's descendants continued to be active in Pennsylvania and national political life.
Muhlenberg was born in 1711 at Einbeck, to Nicolaus Melchior Mühlenberg and Anna Maria Kleinschmid in the German state of Hanover. He studied theology at the Georg-August University of Göttingen. As a student, Muhlenberg came under the influence of the Pietist movement through fellow students from Einbeck who had worked at the Francke Foundations in Halle (Saale), an important Pietist institution. With two other men, Muhlenberg started a charity school in Göttingen that eventually became an orphanage.
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Herman Amberg Preus
Herman Amberg Preus (June 16, 1825 – July 2, 1894) was an American Lutheran clergyman and church leader. He was a key figure in organizing the Norwegian Synod.
Herman Amberg Preus was born in Kristiansand, Norway. He was the son of Paul Arctander Preus, headmaster at the Cathedral School in Kristiansand and Anne Keyser, whose father was Johan Keyser, the Bishop of Kristiansand. Herman attended the Cathedral School in Kristiansand. He was educated in theology, graduating from the University of Oslo in 1848.
During May 1851, Preus and Caroline Keyser were married and subsequently immigrated to the United States. Preus was installed as the pastor of Spring Prairie Lutheran Church in Columbia County, Wisconsin during August 1851. In 1853, he was one of seven pastors organizing the Norwegian Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. Preus served as president of the Norwegian Synod from 1862 until his death in 1894.
Known for his strict adherence to the doctrine of the state Church of Norway, Preus was a leader of the conservative group in the doctrinal and theological disputes among the early Scandinavian-American Lutherans. Preus was associate editor of the synod newspaper, Maanedstidende (1861–1868) and was the author of two books on Norwegian-American Lutheranism published in 1867 and 1875. Preus had a significant part in the founding of St. Olaf College. Preus laid the foundation stone of the St. Olaf on July 4, 1877.
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Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant (German pronunciation: [ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl ˈkant]; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher from Königsberg (today Kaliningrad of Russia), who researched, lectured, and wrote on philosophy and anthropology during the Enlightenment at the end of the 18th century. At the time, there were major successes and advances in the sciences (for example, Isaac Newton, Carl Friedrich Gauss, and Robert Boyle) applying reason and logic.
Kant’s major work, the Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 1781), aimed to unite reason with experience to move beyond what he took to be failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. He hoped to end an age of speculation where objects outside experience were used to support what he saw as futile theories, while opposing the skepticism of thinkers such as Descartes, Berkeley and Hume.
He stated:
Kant proposed a ‘Copernican Revolution’ in reverse, saying that:
Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, 1788) and the Metaphysics of Morals (Die Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797), which dealt with ethics. And the Critique of Judgment (Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790), which looks at aesthetics and teleology. He aimed to resolve disputes between empirical and rationalist approaches. The former asserted that all knowledge comes through experience; the latter maintained that reason and innate ideas were prior. Kant argued that experience is purely subjective without first being processed by pure reason. He also said that using reason without applying it to experience only leads to theoretical illusions. The free and proper exercise of reason by the individual was both a theme of the Enlightenment, and of Kant's approaches to the various problems of philosophy.
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Jakob Andreae
Jakob Andreae (March 25, 1528 – January 7, 1590) was a significant German Lutheran theologian, involved in the drafting of major documents.
He was born in Waiblingen, in the Duchy of Württemberg. He studied at the University of Tübingen from 1541. he attended the diets of Ratisbon (1557) and Augsburg (1559), became professor of theology in the University of Tübingen (1562), and provost of the church of St. George. He was active in Protestant discussions and movements, particularly in the adoption of a common declaration of faith by the two parties.
In 1573 he conducted with the help of Martin Crusius a correspondence with Patriarch Jeremias II of Constantinople, to make contact on behalf of the Lutheran Church with the Orthodox Church.
He was a signatory of the 1577 Formula of Concord, and editor with Martin Chemnitz of the 1580 Book of Concord. In the latter part of his life he traveled in Bohemia and Germany, working for the consolidation of the Reformation, conferring with pastors, magistrates, and princes. He was the author of more than 150 works, nearly all polemical and vigorously written, for the most part directed against Calvinism.
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Jakob Böhme
Jakob Böhme (probably April 24, 1575 – November 17, 1624) was a German Christian mystic and theologian. He is considered an original thinker within the Lutheran tradition, and his first book, commonly known as Aurora, caused a great scandal. In contemporary English, his name may be spelled Jacob Boehme; in seventeenth-century England it was also spelled Behmen, approximating the contemporary English pronunciation of the German Böhme.
Böhme was born in April 1575, at Alt Seidenberg (now a part of Sulików, Lower Silesian Voivodeship, Poland), a village near Görlitz in Upper Lusatia, a territory of the Holy Roman Empire. His father, George Wissen, was reasonably wealthy, but a peasant nonetheless. Böhme's first job was that of a herd boy. He was, however, deemed to be not strong enough for husbandry. When he was 14 years old, he was sent to Seidenberg, as an apprentice to become a shoemaker. His apprenticeship for shoemaking was hard; he lived with a family who were not Christians, which exposed him to the controversies of the time. He regularly prayed and read the Bible as well as works by visionaries such as Paracelsus, Weigel and Schwenckfeld, although he received no formal education. After three years as an apprentice, Böhme left to travel. Although it is unknown just how far he went, he at least made it to Görlitz. By 1599, Böhme was master of his craft with his own premises in Görlitz. That same year he married Katharina daughter of Hans Kuntzschmann, a butcher in Görlitz, and together he and Katharinea had four sons and two daughters.
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Jaroslav Vajda
Jaroslav Vajda (April 28, 1919 – May 10, 2008) was an American hymnist.
Vajda was born to a Lutheran pastor of Slovak descent. His father, Rev. John Vajda, was a pastor in East Chicago, Ind. at Holy Trinity Slovak Lutheran Church. This is where Jaroslav had his beginning learning from his father and his mother, Maria. Jaroslav had two brothers, Ludovit and Edward, both pastors, now deceased.
Vajda received musical training in childhood and began translating classical Slovak poetry at age eighteen. Vajda did not write his first hymn until age 49. From that time until his death in 2008 at age 89, he wrote over 200 original and translated hymns that appear worldwide in more than 65 hymnals. He also published two collections of hymn texts, numerous books, translations, and articles. Vajda served on hymnal commissions for Hymnal Supplement (1969) and Lutheran Book of Worship (1978).
Vajda is a Fellow of the Hymn Society in the United States and Canada, and is the recipient of numerous honorary doctorates recognizing hymnic contributions. After 18 years in a mostly bilingual ministry he became the editor of This Day Magazine and then became a book editor and developer at Concordia Publishing House. Jaroslav Vajda retired in 1986.
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Jesper Brochmand
Jesper Rasmussen Brochmand, bishop of Zealand; born at Køge, Zealand, August 5, 1585; died at Copenhagen April 19, 1652.
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Jesper Swedberg
Jesper Swedberg (28 August 1653 (O.S)–26 July 1735 (N.S)) was a bishop of Skara, Sweden. He was one of Sweden's most notable churchmen. He published the first edition ever of a Swedish book of hymns in 1694, and was the father of scientist and mystic Emanuel Swedenborg.
Jesper Swedberg was born as the son of a bergsman (owner of a farm privileged with mining rights) and his wife, daughter of a pastor, in Falun Municipality. His family were devoted Christians. After basic school, he began studying theology at the University of Lund in 1669, with the intention of becoming a minister. In 1674 he went north to the University of Uppsala, where he further educated himself until he became a priest.
In 1683 he got married, and during the next two years he travelled through Europe. In Sweden, he had learnt much theory, but in Europe he saw many practical approaches towards the Christian faith. Among them were the traditions of the Catholic Church in France, and the Pietist movement in Hamburg, Germany.
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Jesus
Jesus ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated. In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.
Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate. Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation. Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.
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Joachim Lütkemann
Joachim Lütkemann (15 December 1608, Demmin - 18 October 1655, Wolfenbüttel) was a German theologian and writer of devotional literature.
Joachim Lütkemann was the son of Samuel Lütkemann, an apothecary from Demmin who had become mayor, and his wife Katharina, née Zander. After attending school in Demmin, he went to university in Greifswald in 1624, then in 1626 to the Marienstiftsgymnasium in Stettin. From 1629–1634he then studied philosophy and theology at the University of Strasbourg, where he was especially influeced by the teachings of Johann Conrad Dannhauer and Johann Schmidt, and later by those of Philipp Jakob Spener. After a study-trip to France and Italy, he joined the University of Rostock in November 1637, graduating from it in 1638 as a magister legens.
In 1639 he became a deacon in the Jakobikirche in Rostock and later that year was elected to replace the lately-deceased Zacharias Deutsch as archdeacon, also marrying Deutsch's widow Dorothea. In 1643 he became the Professor of Metaphysics and Physics in the University of Rostock. In 1646 he disputed on De viribus naturae et gratiae at the University of Greifswald pro licentia. From November 1646 he taught theology classes in Rostock and was chosen as the university's recotr. In 1648 in Greifswald he was promoted De baptismo to Doctor of Theology.
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Joachim Stegmann
Joachim Stegmann Sr.(Potsdam 1595 - Cluj-Napoca 1633) was a German Socinian theologian, Bible translator, mathematician and rector of the Racovian Academy.
Stegmann was born in Potsdam, and was a Lutheran pastor in Brandenburg, but from 1626 he began to openly profess their ideas of Fausto Paolo Sozzini and moved to Poland, where he began working in the centers of the Polish Brethren. He was a teacher and rector of the Racovian Academy and contributed to the prosperity of the university.
In 1630 he collaborated with Johannes Crellius on the publication of German version of the Racovian New Testament.
He was chosen by the Polish Brethren community to go to Transylvania in 1633 to serve the "Arian" (in fact Socinian) community among the Hungarian-speaking Unitarians there but died shortly after arrival in Cluj-Napoca.
Other members of his family include:
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Johann Arndt
Johann Arndt (or Arnd; December 27, 1555 – May 11, 1621) was a German Lutheran theologian who wrote several influential books of devotional Christianity. Although reflective of the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy, he is seen as a forerunner of pietism, a movement within Lutheranism that gained strength in the late 17th century.
He was born at Ballenstedt, in Anhalt, and studied in several universities. He was at Helmstedt in 1576 and at Wittenberg in 1577. At Wittenberg the crypto-Calvinist controversy was then at its height, and he took the side of Melanchthon and the crypto-Calvinists. He continued his studies in Strasbourg, under the professor of Hebrew, Johannes Pappus (1549–1610), a zealous Lutheran, the crown of whose life's work was the forcible suppression of Calvinistic preaching and worship in the day, and who had great influence over him.
In Basel, again, he studied theology under Simon Sulzer (1508–1585), a broad-minded divine of Lutheran sympathies, whose aim was to reconcile the churches of the Helvetic and Wittenberg confessions. In 1581 he went back to Ballenstedt, but was soon recalled to active life by his appointment to the pastorate at Badeborn in 1583.
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Johann Crüger
Johann Crüger (9 April 1598 – 23 February 1662) was a German composer of well-known hymns.
Crüger was born in Groß Breesen (now part of Guben) as the son of an innkeeper. He studied at the Lateinschule in Guben until 1613, after which he traveled to Sorau and Breslau and finally to Regensburg, where he received his first musical training from Paulus Homberger. In 1615 he traveled to Berlin, where he studied theology at the Berlinisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster. From 1620 he studied theology at the University of Wittenberg and trained himself further in music through private study. From 1622 to his death, a period of 40 years, he was simultaneously a teacher at gymnasium Zum Grauen Kloster and cantor of the Nikolaikirche in Berlin.
Crüger composed numerous concert works and wrote extensively on music education. In 1643 he became acquainted with the famous hymn writer Paul Gerhardt, for whom he wrote the music for various hymns. In 1647 he edited the most important German Lutheran hymnal of the 17th century, Praxis pietatis melica. He died in Berlin.
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Johann Eck
Dr. Johann Maier von Eck (13 November 1486 – 13 February 1543) was a German Scholastic theologian and defender of Catholicism during the Protestant Reformation. It was Eck who argued that the beliefs of Martin Luther and Jan Hus were similar.
Johann Eck was born Johann Maier at Eck (later Egg, near Memmingen, c. 70 km miles south of Augsburg) in Swabia, and derived his additional surname from his birthplace, which he himself, after 1505, always modified into Eckius or Eccius, i.e. "of Eck." His father, Michael Maier, was a peasant and bailiff, or Amtmann, of the village. The boy's education was undertaken by his uncle, Martin Maier, parish priest at Rottenburg on the river Neckar.
At the age of twelve he entered the University of Heidelberg, which he left in the following year for Tübingen. After taking his master's degree in 1501, he began the study of theology under Johann Jakob Lempp, and studied the elements of Hebrew and political economy with Konrad Summenhart. He left Tübingen in 1501 on account of the plague and after a year at Cologne finally settled at Freiburg University, at first as a student of theology and law and later as a successful teacher where he was mentor to the prominent Anabaptist leader of Waldshut and Nikolsburg, Balthasar Hubmaier, and later retaining this relationship during their move to the University of Ingolstadt. In 1508 he entered the priesthood in Strasbourg and two years later obtained his doctorate in theology.
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Johann Ernst Glück
Johann Ernst Glück (Latvian: Ernsts Gliks; 10 November 1652 – 5 May 1705) was a German translator and Lutheran theologian active in Livonia, which is now in Latvia.
Glück was born in Wettin as the son of a pastor. After attending the Latin school of Altenburg, he studied theology, rhetoric, philosophy, geometry, history, geography, and Latin at Wittenberg and Jena.
Glück is known for translating the Bible into Latvian, which he carried out in its entirety in Marienburg (Alūksne) in Livonia, in the building now the Alūksne Museum, established to honour his work. He also founded the first Latvian language schools in Livonia in 1683. He died in Moscow.
He had four daughters, a son, and a foster-daughter Marta Skavronska who married Peter I and is mainly known as Catherine I. From 1725 until 1727 she was empress of Russian Empire.
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Johann Flierl
Johann Flierl (1858 – 1947), was a pioneer Lutheran missionary in New Guinea. He established mission schools and organized the construction of roads and communication between otherwise remote interior locations. Under his leadership, Lutheran evangelicalism flourished in New Guinea. He founded the Evangelical Lutheran Mission in the Sattelberg, and a string of filial stations on the northeastern coast of New Guinea.
He was educated at the mission seminary in Neuendettelsau, in Kingdom of Bavaria. Prior to finishing his education, the Neuendettelsau Missionary Society sent him to the Bethesda mission, near Hahndorf, in western Australia, where he joined an Old Lutheran community. While there, he felt called to serve in the newly established German protectorate, Kaiser-Wilhelmsland. On the journey to New Guinea, he founded the Hope Vale Mission Station in Cooktown, Queensland (Australia). In Kaiser-Wilhelmsland, he established a lasting Lutheran presence at the missionary stations of Simbang, near Finschhafen, another on Tami, and a third, on the Sattelberg in the Huon Peninsula, plus several filial mission stations along the coast of the present-day Morobe province.
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Johann Franz Buddeus
Johann Franz Buddeus or Budde (sometimes Johannes Franciscus Buddeus), German Lutheran theologian and philosopher; born at Anklam, Swedish Pomerania, where his father was pastor, 25 June 1667; died at Gotha 19 November 1729.
Johann Franz Buddeus was a descendant of the French scholar Guillaume Budé (also known by the Latinized name Budaeus); the Huguenot family fled France after the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre, and those who emigrated to Pomerania Germanized their name as Budde, the Latin equivalent of which was Buddeus. Johann Franz early received a thorough education in classical and Oriental languages, and had read the Bible through in the original before he went to the University of Wittenberg in 1685. He was appointed adjunct professor of philosophy there soon after taking his master's degree in 1687, and in 1689 exchanged this for a similar position at Jena, where he also paid much attention to the study of history. In 1692 he went to Coburg as professor of Greek and Latin in a Gymnasium, and the next year to the new University of Halle as professor of moral philosophy. Here he remained until 1705, when he went to Jena as second professor of theology. His lectures embraced all branches of this science, and frequently touched on philosophy, history, and politics. Respected by all as a man and a Christian, he remained at Jena for the rest of his life, several times acting as rector of the university temporarily and being head of his department and an ecclesiastical councilor from 1715.
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Johann Funck
Johann Funck, Funk or Funccius (7 February 1518- 28 October 1566, Königsberg, East Prussia, now Kaliningrad, Russia) was a German Lutheran theologian. He was beheaded after a court intrigue.
He was born in Wöhrd, now part of Nuremburg. After obtaining an M.A. at the University of Wittenberg and preaching in several places, he was recommended to Duke Albert of Prussia by Veit Dietrich, and went to Königsberg in 1547. He was made court preacher in 1549.
In the Osiandrian controversy, Funck sided with Andreas Osiander and Andreas Aurifaber who was physician in ordinary to the duke; when Osiander died in 1552, Funck delivered the eulogy. Joachim Mörlin, his main opponent, was obliged to leave Prussia in 1553. and Funck became the dominant representative of Osiander's theology. Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg, son-in-law of Duke Albert and a Lutheran, intrigued against Funck, who had to retract certain "heresies" at a synod held at Riesenburg in 1556 and to promise to abide by the Augsburg Confession and the Loci Theologici of Melanchthon.
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Johann Georg Hamann
Johann Georg Hamann (27 August 1730, Königsberg – 21 June 1788, Münster) was a noted German philosopher, a main proponent of the Sturm und Drang movement, and associated by historian of ideas Isaiah Berlin with the Counter-Enlightenment.
He was destined for the pulpit, but became a clerk in a mercantile house, and afterward held many small public offices, devoting his leisure to study. He wrote under the nom de plume of “the Magus of the North” (German: Magus im Norden).
His distrust of reason and the Enlightenment (“I look upon logical proofs the way a well-bred girl looks upon a love letter” was one of his many witticisms) led him to conclude that faith in God was the only solution to the vexing problems of philosophy.
Hamann was a Pietist Lutheran, and a friend (while being an intellectual opponent) of the philosopher Immanuel Kant. He was greatly influenced by David Hume. This is most evident in Hamann's conviction that faith and belief, rather than knowledge, determine human actions. Also, Hamann asserted that the efficacy of a concept arises from the habits it reflects rather than any inherent quality it possesses. Hamann famously used the image of Socrates, who often proclaimed to know nothing, in his Socratic Memorabilia, an essay in which Hamann critiques the Enlightenment's dependence on reason.
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Johann Gerhard
Johann Gerhard (October 17, 1582 – August 17, 1637) was a Lutheran church leader and Lutheran Scholastic theologian during the period of Orthodoxy.
He was born in the German city of Quedlinburg. At the age of fourteen, during a dangerous illness, he came under the personal influence of Johann Arndt, author of Das wahre Christenthum, and resolved to study for the church. He entered the University of Wittenberg in 1599, and studied philosophy and theology. A relative then persuaded him to change his subject, and he studied medicine for two years. In 1603, he resumed his theological reading at Jena, and in the following year received a new impulse from J.W. Winckelmann and Balthasar Mentzer at Marburg. He graduated in 1605 and began to give lectures at Jena, then in 1606 he accepted the invitation of John Casimir, Duke of Coburg, to the superintendency of Heldburg and mastership of the gymnasium; soon afterwards he became general superintendent of the duchy, in which capacity he was engaged in the practical work of ecclesiastical organization until 1616, when he became the senior theological professor at Jena, where the remainder of his life was spent.
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Johann Heermann
Johann Heermann (11 October 1585 – 17 February 1647) was a German poet and hymn-writer. He is commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on 26 October with Philipp Nicolai and Paul Gerhardt.
Heermann was born in Raudten (modern day Rudna) in Silesia, the fourth son of a middle-class Protestant family. None of his elder siblings had survived beyond childhood, so when the infant Heermann became very ill, his mother prayed that, if he survived, she would pay for him to study at university. He attended the local school in Raudten, and when his teacher Johannes Baumann left the school to become the local pastor in 1597, Heermann’s parents took him to Wohlau, where he lived and studied with Jakob Fuchs, a doctor and apothecary. At school in Wohlau, he was taught by Georg Gigas, son of Johann Gigas, composer of two popular hymns of the time. After a year he became ill yet again, and his parents brought him home. After recovering, he returned to school in Raudten. At the house of a teacher, Gregorius Fiebing, he began his first poetry at the age of seventeen.
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Johann Hülsemann
Johann Hülsemann (1602-1661) was a German Lutheran theologian. He is known as one of the most prominent Lutheran scholastic opponents of Georgius Calixtus in the Syncretistic Controversy.
Hülsemann was born at Esens, 65 m. n.w. of Bremen in East Frisia, November 26, 1602. He was educated at Norden, Stade, and Hanover. Before he had reached the age of eighteen, he went to the University of Rostock, and two years later to Wittenberg. He also studied briefly at Marburg.
In 1627 he removed to Leipzig, where he was permitted to lecture. In 1629 he was appointed professor at Wittenberg, where he achieved an authoritative position. In 1630 he was sent to Leipzig as a delegate to a convention in behalf of the Augsburg Confession, and in 1645 he took a leading position at the colloquy of Thorn. In 1646 he became professor at Leipzig, and while there he also served as pastor of St. Nicholas Church and as superintendent from 1657.
He wrote Calvinisimus irreconciliabilis (Wittenberg 1644) as the counterpart to Bishop Joseph Hall's Roma irreconciliabilis, adding an appendix Quae dogmata sint ad salutem creditu necessaria, which is somewhat conciliatory towards the Reformed doctrine of the Lord’s Supper and the personal union. In his later years he denied his appendix and asked for it to be considered an immature writing of his youth.
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Johann Pachelbel
Johann Pachelbel ( /ˈjoʊhɑːn ˈpækəlbɛl/ or /ˈpɑːkəlbɛl/;German: [ˈjoːhan ˈpaxɛlbəl], baptised September 1, 1653 – buried March 9, 1706) was a German Baroque composer, organist and teacher, who brought the south German organ tradition to its peak. He composed a large body of sacred and secular music, and his contributions to the development of the chorale prelude and fugue have earned him a place among the most important composers of the middle Baroque era.
Pachelbel's music enjoyed enormous popularity during his lifetime; he had many pupils and his music became a model for the composers of south and central Germany. Today, Pachelbel is best known for the Canon in D, the only canon he wrote – although a true canon at the unison in three parts, it is often regarded more as a passacaglia, and it is in this mode that it has been arranged and transcribed for many different media. In addition to the canon, his most well-known works include the Chaconne in F minor, the Toccata in E minor for organ, and the Hexachordum Apollinis, a set of keyboard variations.
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Johann Pfeffinger
Johann Pfeffinger (27 December 1493, Wasserburg am Inn – 1 January 1573, in Leipzig) was a significant theologian and Protestant Reformer.
Devoting himself to the religious life, Pfeffinger became an acolyte at Salzburg in 1515, and soon afterward was made subdeacon and deacon. Receiving a dispensation from the regulations concerning canonical age, he was ordained priest and stationed at Reichenhall, Saalfelden, and Passau, where his clerical activity soon found great approbation. Suspected of Lutheran heresy, he went to Wittenberg in 1523, where he was cordially welcomed by Martin Luther, Philip Melanchthon, and Bugenhagen.
In 1527 he went as parish priest to Sonnenwalde, and in 1530, when expelled by the bishop of Meissen, he removed to the monastery of Eicha, near Leipzig, where his services were attended by many outside the parish. In 1532 he went to Belgern, whence he was delegated, in 1539, to complete the Reformation in Leipzig. In 1540, he was permanently vested with the office of superintendent.
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Johann von Rist
Johann von Rist (1607–1667) was a German poet and dramatist best known for the hymns he wrote.
He was born at Ottensen in Holstein (today Hamburg) on 8 March 1607; the son of the Lutheran pastor of that place, Caspar Rist. He received his early training at the Gelehrtenschule des Johanneums in Hamburg and the Gymnasium Illustre in Bremen; he then studied theology at the University of Rinteln. Under the influence of Josua Stegman there, his interest in hymn writing began. On leaving Rinteln, he tutored the sons of a Hamburg merchant, accompanying them to the University of Rostock, where he himself studied Hebrew, mathematics, and medicine. During his time at Rostock, the Thirty Years War almost emptied the University, and Rist himself lay there for several weeks, suffering from pestilence.
In 1633, he became tutor in the house of Landschreiber Heinrich Sager at Heide, in Holstein. Two years later (1635) he was appointed pastor of the village of Wedel on the Elbe. The same year he married Elisabeth Stapel, sister of Franz Stapel, bailiff of nearby Pinneberg. They had 5 children, of whom 2 died early; Elisabeth died 1662. In 1664, he married Anna Hagedorn, born Badenhop, widow of his friend Phillipp Hagedorn. He died in Wedel on 31 August 1667
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Johann Walter
Johann Walter (original name: Johann Blankenmüller; also known as Johannes Walter) (1496 – 25 March 1570) was a Lutheran composer and poet during the Reformation period.
Walter was born in Kahla, in present-day Thuringia in 1496. According to a document filed with his will, he was born with the surname of Blanckenmüller, but adopted out of poverty by a citizen of Kahla, and given an education at Kahla and Rochlitz under his new name, Johann Walter. He began his career as a composer and bass cantor in the chapel of Frederick the Wise at the age of 21. It was a position he would hold until Frederick’s death in 1525. By this time, he was the director of the chapel and had become an outspoken musical spokesman for Lutherans. Walter edited the first Protestant hymnal, Geystliches gesangk buchleyn, published in 1524, with a foreword by Martin Luther himself and for the German-language Deutsche Messe produced in 1527.
Following the conclusion of his appointment to Frederick’s chapel, Walter became cantor for the Torgau town choir in 1525, a post he would hold until 1554 when he was named court composer for Moritz, Duke of Saxony in Dresden.
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Johann Wilhelm Baier
Johann Wilhelm Baier (November 11, 1647 – October 19, 1695) was Lutheran theologian of the seventeenth century in the Lutheran scholastic tradition. He was born at Nuremberg, and died at Jena.
He studied philology, especially Oriental, and philosophy at Altdorf from 1664 to 1669, in which year he went to Jena and became a disciple of the celebrated Johannes Musäus, the representative of the middle party in the Syncretistic Controversy, whose daughter he married in 1674. Taking his doctor’s degree the same year, he became in 1675 professor of church history in the university, and lectured with great success on several different branches of theology.
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Johannes Aepinus
Johannes Aepinus (Johann Hoeck) (1499–1553) was a German Protestant theologian, the first Lutheran superintendent of Hamburg.
He was born at Ziesar or Ziegesar, north-east of Magdeburg, in the march of Brandenburg. He was under the instruction of Johannes Bugenhagen. He took his bachelor's degree at Wittenberg in 1520; here he became the friend of Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon. Then he had a school in Brandenburg, but was imprisoned for his reforming activity, and had to leave home. He then adopted the modified form of the Greek word αἰπεινός (aipeinos) (“lofty”), by which he is generally known, and which he claimed was a translation of his real name (Hoeck = hoch).
He spent some time in Pomerania, in close relations with the leaders of the Protestant Reformation there. From about 1524 to 1528 he was in Stralsund, in charge of a school. The local authorities asked him to draw up an order of ecclesiastical discipline, which went into effect November 5, 1525. In October 1529, he succeeded Johann Boldewan as pastor of St. Peter's Church, Hamburg; he helped introduce Bugenhagen's order of discipline in the city. His contest with the cathedral chapter, still Catholic, gave rise to his Pinacidion de Romanæ ecclesiæ imposturis (1530). On May 18, 1532 he was appointed to the highest office in the Lutheran Church of Hamburg, that of superintendent according to Bugenhagen's order of discipline.
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Johannes Agricola
Johannes Agricola (originally Schneider, then Schnitter) (April 20, 1494 – September 22, 1566) was a German Protestant reformer and humanist. He was a follower and friend of Martin Luther, who became his antagonist in the matter of the binding obligation of the law on Christians.
Agricola was born at Eisleben, whence he is sometimes called Magister Islebius. He studied at Wittenberg, where he soon gained the friendship of Martin Luther. In 1519 he accompanied Luther to the great assembly of German divines at Leipzig, and acted as recording secretary. After teaching for some time in Wittenberg, he went to Frankfurt in 1525 to establish the Protestant mode of worship. He had resided there only a month when he was called to Eisleben, where he remained till 1526 as teacher in the school of St Andrew, and preacher in the Nicolai church.
In 1536 he was recalled to teach in Wittenberg, and was welcomed by Luther. Almost immediately, however, a controversy, which had been begun ten years before and been temporarily silenced, broke out more violently than ever. Agricola was the first to teach the views which Luther was the first to stigmatize by the name Antinomian, maintaining that while non-Christians were still held to the Mosaic law, Christians were entirely free from it, being under the gospel alone, see also Law and Gospel. After he wrote an attack on Luther shortly after Luther had given him shelter when he was fleeing persecution, Luther had nothing further to do with him.
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Johannes Avetaranian
Johannes Avetaranian (June 30, 1861 – December 11, 1919), born Mehmet Şükri, according to his autobiography a Turkish descendent of Prophet Muhammad, was originally a mullah in Turkey who converted from Islam to Christianity, and later became a missionary for the Swedish Mission Covenant Church in Southern Xinjiang (1892–1938). He translated the New Testament into the Uyghur language
Avetaranian was born in Erzurum, in 1861, to a Muslim family. His mother was deaf, blind, and mute, and died when Avetaranian was only two years old. His father was a dervish.
He took the Armenian name of John Avetaranian (Avetaran means 'Gospel') and was baptised in Tiflis, Russia (modern-day Tbilisi, Georgia) on 28 February 1885.
In his biography "A Muslim Who Became a Christian", Aveteranian states to have been unaware of his descent from the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, until a trip with his father to Erzurum. During the trip, Aveteranian and his father had put on the Green turbans, to which only the Sayyids or descendants of Muhammad are entitled. Prior to this, he had only worn this once in his childhood. The Green turban had been a gift which was presented to him by his maternal aunt. A local Mullah was astonished to see the green turban, and inquired as to from where he had obtained it. Then he requested Aveteranian to ask whether his aunt was aware that only Sayyids were entitled to wear green turbans. He did so, and the next day, his aunt went to the Mullah and clarified the Mullah's doubts as to their descent when she revealed her father's name. After this incident, Aveteranian gained respect from the Mullah, who would always defer to him, while in Avetaranian's presence.
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Johannes Brenz
Johann Brenz (24 June 1499, Weil der Stadt – 11 September 1570, Stuttgart) was a German theologian and the Protestant Reformer of the Duchy of Württemberg.
Brenz was born in the then Free Imperial City of Weil der Stadt, 20 miles west of Stuttgart. He received his education at Heidelberg, where, shortly after becoming magister and regent of the Realistenbursa in 1518, he delivered philological and philosophical lectures. He also lectured on the Gospel of Matthew, only to be prohibited on account of his popularity and his novel exegesis, especially as he had already been won over to the side of Luther, not only through his ninety-five theses, but still more by personal acquaintance with him at the disputation at Heidelberg in April, 1518. In 1522 Brenz was threatened with a trial for heresy, but escaped through a call to the pastorate of Schwäbisch Hall. In the spring of 1524 he received a strong ally in his activity as a Reformer in Johann Isenmann, who became pastor of the parish-church at Hall. The feast of corpus Christi was the first to be discarded, and in 1524 the monastery of the Discalced Friars was transformed into a school. In the German Peasants' War, on the other hand, Brenz deprecated the abuse of evangelical liberty by the peasants, pleading for mercy to the conquered and warning the magistracy of their duties. At Christmas the Lord's Supper was administered in both kinds, and at Easter of the following year the first regulations were framed for the church and the school. Brenz himself prepared in 1528 a larger and a smaller catechism for the young, both characterized by simplicity, warmth, and a childlike spirit.
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Johannes Bugenhagen
Johannes Bugenhagen (24 June 1485 – 20 April 1558), also called Doctor Pomeranus by Martin Luther, introduced the Protestant Reformation in the Duchy of Pomerania and Denmark in the 16th century. Among his major accomplishments was organization of Lutheran churches in Northern Germany and Scandinavia. He has also been called second Apostle of the North.
Johannes Bugenhagen was pastor to Martin Luther at St. Mary's church in Wittenberg. He is also commemorated in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod as a pastor on 20 April.
Bugenhagen was born in Wollin (now Wolin), Duchy of Pomerania, on 24 June 1485 as one of three children of local Ratsherr Gerhard Bugenhagen. From 1502 to 1504, he studied artes at the University of Greifswald. In 1504, he moved to Treptow an der Rega (now Trzebiatów) and became Rector of the local school. Though he had not studied theology, he was ordinated as a priest in Treptow's St. Mary's Church in 1509, and served as a vicar at the Kanonikerkolleg of that church thereafter.
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Johannes Musaeus
Johannes Musaeus (7 February 1613 – 4 May 1681) was a German Protestant theologian.
After visiting the Latin school in Arnstadt he studied at the University of Erfurt starting from 1633 in the Arts Faculty and in Jena with Damiel Stahl. In 1634 he received the Magister Artium, studying theology under Georg Grosshain, producing a thesis entitled: Disputatio Apologetica In qua Germanica B. Lutheri versio adversus Georgium Holzaium Jesuitam Ingolstad. defenditur In causa De Cultu Divino Enoschi. In 1643 he become professor of history and poetry. He ottained a doctorate to 1646 in theology and changed to the Theological Faculty.
He fought against the catholic controversial theologians V. Erbermann, J. Kedde, and Jacobus Masenius, and positioned himself against Socinianism. He was founder of the Jenenser Richtung followed by orthodox Lutherans.
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Johannes Zahn
Johannes Zahn (full name Johannes Christoph Andreas Zahn) (1 August 1817 in Eschenbach/Pegnitz – 17 February 1895 in Neuendettelsau) was a German theologian and musicologist best known for his opus Melodien der deutschen evangelischen Kirchenlieder, a critical anthology of almost 9000 hymn melodies developed and used in German Lutheran churches.
Johannes C. A. Zahn was the son of Eschenbach teacher and cantor Johannes Zahn. Between 1832 and 1837 he attended the Nuremberg high school, and studied afterwards in Berlin to obtain his degree in theology in 1841. After attending the Predigerseminar in Munich, he became a house teacher for the residence of Gustav Schulze, a prominent merchant.
In 1847 he was named teacher and prefect of the Royal Schullehrer Seminar in Altdorf bei Nürnberg, and became its head in 1854.
Johannes Zahn dedicated himself particularly to the recovery and critical revision of melodies and hymns developed during and after the Reformation, which he started publishing in 1889, in Gütersloh. The classification system he developed is still used by hymnologists worldwide, in the form Zahn ###, where the number represents the location of the melody or hymn in Zahn's anthology.
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John Campanius
John Campanius (Swedish: Johannes Jone Holmiensis Campanius) (August 15, 1601 – September 17, 1683), also known as John Campanius Holm, was a Swedish Lutheran clergyman assigned to the New Sweden colony.
Johan Campanius was born in Stockholm and attended Uppsala University, where he studied theology and graduated in 1633. He was ordained into the Lutheran ministry during 1633. He served as the chaplain to the Swedish delegation in Russia in 1634. He then moved to Norrtälje, where he served as a schoolmaster beginning in 1635. He also served as chaplain and preceptor of the Stockholm Orphan's Home, a position he continued in through 1642.
Campanius left Stockholm on August 16, 1642 and arrived at New Sweden on February 15, 1643. He came to accompany the first Swedish settlers to Fort Christina, near present-day Wilmington, Delaware, and served as a missionary to the nearby Lenape Indians. Campanius served as a replacement for the first Swedish Lutheran Minister, Reorus Torkillus who had recently died. For several years the New Sweden colony had no specific location for organized worship. Campanius had to visit the settlers at their cabins, which ranged all the way up to Fort Nya Gothenburg on Tinicum Island. Johan Campanius dedicated the new church at Tinicum on September 4, 1646. One of the few items which remain from his time of service is a gilded silver chalice used in celebrating the Eucharist..
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Jonas Bretkūnas
Jonas Bretkūnas, Johann(es) Bretke, also known as Bretkus (born 1536 in Bammeln near Friedland – 1602 Königsberg) was a Lutheran pastor and was one of the best known developers of the written Lithuanian language. He translated the Bible into Lithuanian, was the author of twelve Lithuanian books, and a historian as well.
Jonas Bretkūnas, Johann(es) Bretke was born in Prussia in 1536. His father was German (according to Gerullis) or Germanized Prussian, and his mother from a native Prussian family. The language spoken in the area was primarily German, while Jonas Bretkūnas' mother tongues were Old Prussian and Lithuanian. Lithuanian language was also used and in state chancellery as well. Different people, who had come to Lutheran Prussia did at the time, because the Lutheranism had promised to preach in languages people understood rather than Latin. The Duke of Prussia therefore arranged for the education and studies of languages for pastors. In 1544, Duke Albrecht, had founded the Albertina University in Königsberg and the area became one of the centers of learning for the neighboring peoples of Lithuania, Latvia and Poland, none of them had bibles in their language up to that time. As the Duke of Prussia, the first Lutheran state, Albrecht supported the translations of the Bible into these languages.
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Josquin des Prez
Josquin des Prez [Josquin Lebloitte dit Desprez] (French pronunciation: [ʒɔskɛ̃ depʁe]; c. 1450/1455 – 27 August 1521), often referred to simply as Josquin, was a Franco-Flemish composer of the Renaissance. He is also known as Josquin Desprez and Latinized as Josquinus Pratensis, alternatively Jodocus Pratensis, although he himself expressed his preferred spelling of his name, Josquin des Prez, in an acrostic in his motet Illibata Dei virgo nutrix. He was the most famous European composer between Guillaume Dufay and Palestrina, and is usually considered to be the central figure of the Franco-Flemish School. Josquin is widely considered by music scholars to be the first master of the high Renaissance style of polyphonic vocal music that was emerging during his lifetime.
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Jozef Roháček
Jozef Roháček (February 6, 1877 - July 28, 1962) was Slovak Protestant actvist, evangelist and scholar.
He translated the Bible from original languages into Slovak. The 1st edition of the complete lutheran Slovak Bible was edited by British and Foreign Bible Society in 1936. The revised edition was printed in Kutná Hora (Czech republic) in 1951.
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Jurij Dalmatin
Jurij Dalmatin (c. 1547–1589) was a Slovene Lutheran minister, writer and translator. Born in Krško in around 1546, Dalmatin became a preacher in Ljubljana in 1572.
Dalmatin was the author of several religious books, such as Karšanske lepe molitve (Beautiful Christian Prayers, 1584), Ta kratki würtemberški katekizmus (The Short Württemberg Catechism, 1585), and Agenda (1589). However, his most important achievement is the complete translation of the Bible into Slovene, which he allegedly wrote to a large extent at Turjak Castle under the protection of the Carniolan governor, Herbard VIII von Auersperg (Slovene: Hervard Turjaški), and Herbard's son Christoph von Auersperg, who are said to have provided for the translator Dalmatin a "Wartburg"-type sanctuary as had been offered to Martin Luther by Frederick the Wise, the Elector of Saxony. This, however, is refuted as pure legend.
The original title of Damatin's translation was Bibilija, tu je vse svetu pismu stariga inu noviga testamenta, slovenski tolmačena skuzi Jurija Dalmatina (The Bible: That Is, the Entire Holy Scripture of the Old and the New Testament, Translated into Slovene by Jurij Dalmatin), and it was published in 1584, printed in the Bohorič alphabet. The translation set the norm for the Slovene standard language (with later innovations in vocabulary) until the first half of the 19th century.
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Justus Jonas
Justus Jonas (5 June 1493 – 9 October 1555) was a German Lutheran reformer.
Jonas was born at Nordhausen in Thuringia. His real name was Jodokus (Jobst) Koch, which he changed according to the common custom of German scholars in the sixteenth century, when at the University of Erfurt. He entered that university in 1506, studied law and the humanities, and became Master of Arts in 1510. In 1511 he went to Wittenberg, where he took his bachelors degree in law. He returned to Erfurt in 1514 or 1515, was ordained priest, and in 1518 was promoted doctor in both faculties and appointed to a well-endowed canonry in the Church of St Severus, to which a professorship of law was attached.
His great admiration for Erasmus first led him to Greek, Hebrew and Biblical studies, and his election in May 1519 as rector of the university was regarded as a triumph for the partisans of the New Learning. It was not, however, until after the Leipzig Disputation with Johann Eck that Martin Luther won his allegiance. He accompanied Luther to the Diet of Worms in 1521, and there was appointed professor of canon law at Wittenberg by Frederick III, Elector of Saxony.
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Justus Menius
Justus Menius (13 December 1499 – 11 August 1558) was a German Lutheran theologian, whose name is Latinized from Jost or Just (i.e. Jodocus) Menig.
Menius was born in Fulda to poor but respectable parents. Entering the University of Erfurt in 1514, he received his bachelor's degree in 1515 and his master's degree in 1516. At this time, in association with the keen humanists Conrad Mutian, Crotus Rubeanus, and Eoban Hess, Menius became more sceptical. Moving to Wittenberg in 1519, he became evangelical under the teaching of Philipp Melanchthon and the preaching of Martin Luther.
After travel in Italy (1521-1522) Menius was appointed (1523) town preacher at Wittenberg, but was soon transferred to the charge of Mühlberg, under Erfurt. Here he published his commentary on Acts (1524) and married. He resigned his charge (1525) and opened a school at Erfurt, but the town council insisted on his resuming his ministry, appointing him preacher in St Thomas, Erfurt. He worked in conjunction with Luther's friend, John Lange, and was opposed by the Franciscans under Conrad Kling.
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Jákup Dahl
Jákup Dahl (English and German Jacob Dahl) (June 5, 1878 – 1944) was a Faroese Provost and Bible translator. In 1908 he became known as a linguist with the first Faroese grammar lessons for school students.
Dahl was born June 5, 1878, in Vágur on the island of Suðuroy in the Faroe Islands. He was the son of the merchant Peter Hans Dahl and Elisabeth Súsanna Vilhelm.
Dahl was a classmate of Janus Djurhuus at the high school in Tórshavn, the capital of the Faroes. Djurhuus described Dahl’s delivery of the nationalist hymn Nú it tann stundin komin til handa by Jóannes Patursson as his "linguistic baptism". While he was affiliated with Patursson's Party Sjálvstýrisflokkurin (Self-Government Party or Separatist Party), Jacob Dahl became famous during the Faroese language conflict, when he refused, as a teacher in Tórshavn 1909, to continue to teach in Danish. This matter back then was elevated to the Copenhagen ministry of instruction. One of his former students was William Heinesen, who reminisced about the time when Dahl still forced his students to use Danish.
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Karl Graul
Karl Graul (1814–1864) was a leader of Leipzig Lutheran mission and a Tamil scholar. He was born in a poor weaver family in Germany. He moved to India as the director of the Lutheran Leipzig Mission in 1849 and there he mastered Tamil.
Graul was one of the foremost figures in missiology. His approach towards caste system was considered to be too lenient by his critics since he considered that caste system would fade on its own accord and Christian organizations need not interfere with local traditions. He also advocated the supremacy of Lutheranism over other Christian denominations and found it hard to cooperate with Anglicans in India.
Karl Graul was born in 1814 in a poor weaver family. In spite of his poor background he received good education in classical and modern languages as well as in theology. However, as for as mission and missiology is concerned he was entirely self-taught.
Karl Graul was appointed the director of the Lutheran Leipzig Mission in 1844. The Lutheran mission had succeeded the Danish-Hale mission in South India. During his stay in India Graul mastered the Tamil language. After returning to Leipzig in 1853 he taught Tamil language and literature at the mission house. Later Graul wrote Bibilotheca Tamulica seu Opera Praecipua Tamuliensium (1854–1865). A work in 4 volumes, it contains in its third and fourth volumes the first complete translation of Tirukkural (திருக்குறள்) in Latin, German, and the standard spoken Tamil with notes and glossaries. It was published by his student Wilhelm Germann the year after Graul's death. Graul also wrote a Tamil Grammar in German (1855).
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Kjell Magne Yri
Kjell Magne Yri (born 5 November 1943) is a Norwegian priest, linguist and translator.
He hails from Hareid. He was interested in linguistics at an early age; during Norwegian classes in secondary school he read books in Greek and Esperanto. During his spare time he read Swahili. He combined the language interest with religious studies after a friend encouraged him to become a bible translator, eventually graduating from the MF Norwegian School of Theology with the cand.theol. degree in 1970. He also minored in Greek at the University of Oslo, as well as studying Latin and Hebrew. He was eventually given an assignment to translate the New Testament for the Norwegian Lutheran Mission, who found the official Norwegian translation too liberal. He was occupied with this translation from 1968 to 1973.
In 1973 he travelled with his family to work as a priest in Ethiopia. He learned both the Amharic and Oromo languages, and was later sent to work in the Sidama Zone. While staying here, he translated the New Testament into Sidamo. It took twelve years, and he was finished in 1988.
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Laity
In religious organizations, the laity consists of all people who are not a part of or independent of the clergy. A person who is a member of a religious order who has not ordained legitimate clergy is considered as a member of the laity, even though they are members of a religious order (for example a nun or lay brother).
In the past in Christian cultures, the term lay priest was sometimes used to refer to a secular priest, a diocesan priest who is not a member of a religious order. Terms such as lay priest, lay clergy and lay nun were once used in Buddhist cultures to indicate ordained persons who continued to live in the wider community instead of retiring to a monastery. In recent centuries, the term is often used more generally, in the context of any specialized profession, to refer to those who are not members of that profession.
The word lay derives from the Anglo-French lai (from Late Latin laicus, from the Greek λαϊκός, laikos, of the people, from λαός, laos, the people at large).
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Lars Levi Læstadius
Lars Levi Læstadius (January 10, 1800 – February 21, 1861) was a Swedish Lutheran pastor of partly Sami ancestry. From the mid 1840s and onward he became the leader of the Laestadian movement. He was also an author, teetotaller and botanist.
Laestadius was born in Swedish Lapland, near Arjeplog in the western mountainous parts of Norrbotten County, the most northerly county in Sweden. His father provided for the family by hunting, fishing, and tar-making. The family lived in poverty, but with help from a half-brother of his who was a pastor at Kvikkjokk, Lars Levi was able to enter Uppsala University in 1820, where he proved to be a brilliant student. Because of his interest in botany he was made assistant in the Botany Department while pursuing studies in theology. He was ordained a Lutheran minister in 1825 by the bishop of Härnösand, Erik Abraham Almquist.
His first parish was at Arjeplog in Lapland, where he became regional missionary for the Pite district. From 1826 to 1849 he was vicar in Karesuando parish in Lapland, and subsequently served at Pajala parish in Norrbotten from 1849 until his death. Before moving to Karesuando, he married a local Sami woman, Brita Cajsa Alstadius, and together they raised a family of twelve children.
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Lars Olsen Skrefsrud
Lars Olsen Skrefsrud (4 February 1840 – 11 December 1910) was a Norwegian missionary and language researcher in India. Together with Hans Peter Børresen he is regarded as the founder of the Norwegian missionary organization Santalmisjonen (from 2001 a part of Normisjon). He was followed by the missionary, linguist and folklorist Paul Olaf Bodding.
Skrefsrud came from the small place of Fåberg north of Lillehammer in Norway. As a young man he was imprisoned for three years, and during his incarceration he became a Christian and started to study both the Bible and languages, and became one of Norway's foremost linguists.
The mission he established in India has grown to a church with over 150,000 members in the Indian states of Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal and Assam. In the 1950s it became an independent institution - The Northern Evangelical Lutheran Church (NELC)
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Laurentius Andreae
Laurentius Andreae (c. 1470 – 14 April 1552) was a Swedish clergyman and scholar who is acknowledged as one of his country's preeminent intellectual figures during the first half of the 16th century. In his time he was most renowned as one of the main proponents of the Swedish Protestant reformation of 1523-31.
Laurentius Andreae (in Swedish Lars Andersson, in English Lawrence Anderson) was born in the Swedish town of Strängnäs. As was the case with many 15th century personalities, the date of his birth remained unrecorded, although the year is generally assumed to have been in the early 1470s.
During his youth he was a priest, and had travelled to Rome as well as conducted studies abroad. In 1509, when he was in his mid- to late thirties, he received an appointment as deacon of his hometown of Strängnäs. In the intervening years he met Olaus Petri, converted to Lutheranism and by the 1520s was promoted to archdeacon of Uppsala.
Along with Olaus Petri and his brother Laurentius, Andreae completed the full translation of the Bible into Swedish, known as the "Gustav Vasa Bible" of 1541. He served as chancellor for King Gustav I Vasa and cherished by Laurentius Petri, the Archbishop, because they shared a strong Lutheran faith. In 1527, at the Diet of Västerås, he declared the King to be the head of the Church of Sweden.
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Laurentius Petri
Laurentius Petri Nericius (Örebro 1499 – 27 October 1573) was a Swedish clergyman and the first Evangelical Lutheran Archbishop of Sweden. He and his brother Olaus Petri are, together with the King Gustav Vasa, regarded as the main Protestant reformers of Sweden. They are commemorated by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on April 19.
Laurentius was born Lars Persson in Örebro, Närke. Laurentius studied in Germany in 1520, possibly together with his brother. Here they took influence from Lutheranism, among other things they met with Martin Luther himself. On returning home to Stockholm, they got stranded and nearly lost their lives as the boat went ashore on the island Gotland. They both survived however, and settled on the island, and Laurentius became headmaster at a school while Olaus became assistant to a priest. Not so long after, Olaus travelled with the priest to Stockholm and the crowning of King Gustav Vasa. Subsequently he managed to get on friendly terms with the King, and soon moved to Stockholm where he worked in the vicinity of the King.
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Leonhard Hutter
Leonhard Hutter (also Hütter, Latinized as Hutterus; January 19, 1563 – October 23, 1616) was a German Lutheran theologian.
He was born at Nellingen near Ulm. From 1581 he studied at the universities of Strasbourg, Leipzig, Heidelberg and Jena. In 1594 he began to give theological lectures at Jena, and in 1596 accepted a call as professor of theology at Wittenberg, where he died twenty years later.
Hutter was a stern champion of Lutheran orthodoxy, as set down in the confessions and embodied in his own Compendium locorum theologicorum (1610; reprinted 1863), being so faithful to his master as to win the title of "Luther redonatus."
In reply to Rudolf Hospinian's Concordia discors (1607), he wrote a work, rich in historical material but one-sided in its argument, Concordia concors (1614), defending the formula of Concord, which he regarded as inspired. His Irenicum vere christianum is directed against David Pareus (1548–1622), professor primarius at Heidelberg, who in Irenicum sive de unione et synodo Evangelicorum (1614) had pleaded for a reconciliation of Lutheranism and Calvinism; his Calvinista aulopoliticus (1610) was written against the "damnable Calvinism" which was becoming prevalent in Holstein and Brandenburg. Another work, based on the Formula of Concord, was entitled Loci communes theologici.
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Ludwig Senfl
Ludwig Senfl (born around 1486, died between December 2, 1542 and August 10, 1543) was a Swiss composer of the Renaissance, active in Germany. He was the most famous pupil of Heinrich Isaac, was music director to the court of Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, and was an influential figure in the development of the Franco-Flemish polyphonic style in Germany.
Senfl was probably born in Basel around 1486, and lived in Zürich from 1488 until 1496, when he joined the choir of the Hofkapelle of Emperor Maximilian I in Augsburg. Apart from one brief visit in 1504 he appears never again to have lived in Switzerland.
In 1497 he followed the Hofkapelle to Vienna, and between 1500 and 1504 he probably studied in Vienna for three years, the standard practice for choirboys whose voices had broken, as part of the normal training for the priesthood. During this period he studied with Heinrich Isaac, serving as his copyist by 1509; he is known to have copied much of the older composer's Choralis Constantinus, an enormous work which he was later to complete after Isaac's death.
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Martin Chemnitz
Martin Chemnitz (November 9, 1522 – April 8, 1586) was an eminent second-generation Lutheran theologian, reformer, churchman, and confessor. In the Lutheran tradition he is known as Alter Martinus, the "Second Martin": Si Martinus non fuisset, Martinus vix stetisset ("If Martin [Chemnitz] had not come along, Martin [Luther] would hardly have survived") goes a common saying concerning him. He is commemorated as a pastor and confessor in the Lutheran Service Book of the Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod on November 9.
Chemnitz, born in Treuenbrietzen in Brandenburg to Paul and Euphemia Chemnitz, was the last of three children. His older siblings names were Matthew and Ursula. His father was a successful merchant who died when Martin was eleven: thereafter, the family suffered from financial difficulties.
When he was old enough, Martin matriculated in Magdeburg. Upon completion of the course work, he became a weaver's apprentice. He helped his family with its clothing business for the next few years. When he was 20, he resumed his education at the University of Frankfurt (Oder). He remained in school until his finances were exhausted; he then took a teaching job in the town of Wriezen, supplementing his income by collecting the local sales tax on fish. His time at Frankfurt gave him the basic tools to continue his education on his own, researching areas in which he was interested and applying his naturally inquisitive mind to problems that others had worried over in the past.
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Martin Luther
Martin Luther (help·info) (10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German monk, priest, professor of theology and iconic figure of the Protestant Reformation. He strongly disputed the claim that freedom from God's punishment for sin could be purchased with money. He confronted indulgence salesman Johann Tetzel with his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517. His refusal to retract all of his writings at the demand of Pope Leo X in 1520 and the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms in 1521 resulted in his excommunication by the pope and condemnation as an outlaw by the Emperor.
Luther taught that salvation is not earned by good deeds but received only as a free gift of God's grace through faith in Jesus Christ as redeemer from sin. His theology challenged the authority of the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church by teaching that the Bible is the only source of divinely revealed knowledge and opposed sacerdotalism by considering all baptized Christians to be a holy priesthood. Those who identify with Luther's teachings are called Lutherans.
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Martin Moller
Martin Moller (10 November 1547, Ließnitz – 2 March 1606, Görlitz) was a German poet and mystic.
Moller was born in Ließnitz (now Kropstädt bei Wittenberg, Saxony-Anhalt) in 1547 and became cantor in Löwenberg in Lower Silesia in 1568. He was ordained in 1572, despite never having been to university, and served as priest and deacon in Kesseldorf, Löwenberg and Sprottau. He came to Görlitz in 1600, where Jakob Böhme was in his congregation. Böhme was a keen attendant at the devotional meetings Moller held at his house; only after Moller's death in 1606 did Böhme start coming into conflict with the Görlitz priesthood.
Moller's works characterise him as a conciliatory theologian rather than one who, like Böhme, looked to provoke conflict. Practical Christianity, not dogma, was important to him. As such, he can be regarded as a forerunner of Johann Arndt.
He was suspected of Crypto-Calvinist sympathies after publishing his Praxis evangeliorum in 1601 and did little to refute these claims. Other well-known works of devotional literature written by Moller include Meditationes Sanctorum Patrum (1584–1591), Soliloquia de passione Jesu Christi (1587) and Mysterium magnum (1597). All of these works show clearly how Moller was influenced by another German theologian with links to mysticism, Valerius Herberger.
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Martin Rinkart
Martin Rinkart, or Rinckart (23 April 1586 – 8 December 1649) was a German clergyman and hymnist. He is best known for the text to "Now thank we all our God" (Nun danket alle Gott), which was written ca. 1636. It was set to music by Johann Crüger about 1647, and translated into English in the 19th century by Catherine Winkworth.
Rinkart was a deacon at Eisleben and archdeacon at Eilenburg, where he was born and also died. He served there during the Thirty Years' War and a severe plague in 1637.
German pastor Martin Rinkart served in the walled town of Eilenburg during the horrors of the Thirty Years War of 1618-1648. Eilenburg became an overcrowded refuge for the surrounding area. The fugitives suffered from epidemic and famine. At the beginning of 1637, the year of the Great Pestilence, there were four ministers in Eilenburg. But one abandoned his post for healthier areas and could not be persuaded to return. Pastor Rinkhart officiated at the funerals of the other two. As the only pastor left, he often conducted services for as many as 40 to 50 persons a day—some 4,480 in all. In May of that year, his own wife died. By the end of the year, the refugees had to be buried in trenches without services.
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Martin Stephan
Martin Stephan (1777–1846) was pastor of St. John Lutheran Church in Dresden, Germany during the early 19th century. He organized the Saxon emigration to the United States in the early 19th century.
Martin Stephan was born August 13, 1777 in Stramberg, Moravia, presently the Czech Republic, of Austrian, German, and Czech parents. Martin attended St. Elizabeth's Gymnasium in Breslau, sponsored by local pietist and pastor Johannes Ephraim Scheibel, a professor at the University of Breslau. He attended the University of Halle and the University of Leipzig from 1804-1809.
Stephan became pastor in Haber, Bohemia in 1809. In 1810, Martin became the pastor of St. John's in Dresden, a specially chartered church that had its origins in those who had fled from Moravia and Bohemia in 1650 and were befriended by Count Nicolaus Ludwig Zinzendorf, a pietistic bishop and missionary. He preached in Czech and German. For the next 30 years Martin was known for his teaching, preaching, and compassionate counseling. He led the protest of oppressive practices by the Saxon consistory in the state-governed Lutheran Church. He came under attack by the rationalist pastors for his confessional and orthodox stand. Pastor Stephan continued to uphold biblical and sacramental practices in his church.
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Martti Rautanen
Martti (Martin) Rautanen (10 November 1845 Novasolkka (Novoselki), Ingria – 19 October 1926 Olukonda Constituency, Namibia) was the pioneer of Finnish Mission in Ovamboland, Namibia.
Rautanen was born in a poor Finnish family in Ingria near St. Peterburg, Russia. Rautanen's family lived in the village of Tikanpesä in the parish of Novasolkka (Russian: Новоселки, tr. Novoselki). The family originated from Joroinen in the province of Savo in Eastern Finland, but had moved to Ingria. Martti Rautanen considered himself a Russian as he was born and living in Russia. Encouraged by the pastor of his church and his mother, Martti Rautanen left Ingria in 1863 for Helsinki to study at the preparatory school for missionaries organized by the Finnish Missionary Society.
Rautanen departed from Finland with four colleagues on 24 June 1868 towards Ovamboland in present-day Namibia. From Walvis Bay they travelled via Hereroland where they arrived in April 1869 and spent there over a year. Finally, they reached Ovamboland in July 1870. The Finnish missionaries managed to start work primarily in the southeastern territory of the Ondonga tribe.
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Matthias Bel
Matthias Bel or Matthias Bél (German: Matthias Bel; Hungarian: Bél Mátyás; Latin: Matthias Belius; Slovak: Matej Bel; March 22, 1684 – August 29, 1749) was a Lutheran pastor and polymath from the Kingdom of Hungary. He is also known as the Great Ornament of Hungary (Magnum decus Hungariae). He described himself as "lingua Sla-vus, natione Hungarus, eruditione Germanus" ("by language a Slav, by nation a Hungarian, by erudition a German"). He never edited a language book in Slovak though, what is however quite natural as the first attempt to codify written form of Slovak language was performed only in 1787, well after his death. Domestically, Slovak protestants including Bel used at that time so called biblical Czech language instead, introduced by translation of Bible known as Bible of Kralice.
Matthias Bel was born in Ocsova, Očová at which time it was part of the Kingdom of Hungary. His father was Matej Bel, a Slovak wealthy peasant and butcher, while his mother was Veszprém-born Erzsébet Cseszneky, from a Hungarian noble family, House of Cseszneky.
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Matthias Flacius
Matthias Flacius Illyricus (Latin; Croatian: Matija Vlačić Ilirik, German: Matthias Flach) (3 March 1520 – 11 March 1575) was a Lutheran reformer from Istria, present day Croatia.
Flacius was born in Carpano, a part of Labin in Istria, son of Andrea Vlacich alias Francovich and Jacobea Luciani, daughter of a wealthy and powerful Albonian family. His mother's uncle was the Lutheran Baldo Lupetina who later was condemned to death in Venice for his faith. He lost his father during his early childhood.
At the age of sixteen Flacius went to study in Venice where he was taught by the humanist Giambattista Cipelli (Baptista Aegnatius / Battista Egnazio). At the age of seventeen, he intended to join a monastic order, with a view to sacred learning. His intention, however, was diverted by his uncle, Baldo Lupetina, provincial of the Franciscans and sympathetic to the Reformation cause, who convinced him to start a university career.
Flacius continued his studies in Basel in 1539, then went to Tübingen and finally ended up in Wittenberg where in (1541) he was welcomed by Melanchthon. There he came under the influence of Martin Luther. In 1544, Flacius was appointed professor of Hebrew at Wittenberg. He finished his master's degree on 24 February 1546, ranking first among the graduates.
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Michael Praetorius
Michael Praetorius (probably February 15, 1571 – February 15, 1621) was a German composer, organist, and music theorist. He was one of the most versatile composers of his age, being particularly significant in the development of musical forms based on Protestant hymns, many of which reflect an effort to make better the relationship between Protestants and Catholics.
He was born Michael Schultze, the youngest son of a Lutheran pastor, in Creuzburg, in present-day Thuringia. After attending school in Torgau and Zerbst, he studied divinity and philosophy at the University of Frankfurt (Oder). After receiving his musical education, from 1587 he served as organist at the Marienkirche in Frankfurt. From 1592/3 he served at the court in Wolfenbüttel, under the employ of Henry Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg. He served in the duke's State Orchestra Brunswick first as organist and later (from 1604) as Kapellmeister.
His first compositions appeared around 1602/3. Praetorius had begun writing some of them when Regensburg was the parliamentary seat of the Holy Roman Empire. Their publication primarily reflects the care for music at the court of Gröningen. The motets of this collection were the first in Germany to make use of the new Italian performance practices; as a result, they established him as a proficient composer.
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Mikael Agricola
Mikael Agricola ( pronunciation (help·info)) (c. 1510 – 9 April 1557) was a clergyman who became the de facto founder of written Finnish and a prominent proponent of the Protestant Reformation in Sweden (including Finland). He is often called the "father of the Finnish written language". Agricola was consecrated as the bishop of Turku (Åbo) in 1554, without papal approval. As a result, he began a reform of the Finnish church (then a part of the Church of Sweden) along Lutheran lines. He translated the New Testament into Finnish and also produced the prayer book and hymns used in Finland's new, Lutheran Church. This work set the rules of orthography that are the basis of modern Finnish spelling. His thoroughgoing work is particularly remarkable in that he accomplished it in only three years. He died suddenly while returning from a trip during which he negotiated a treaty with the Russians.
Michael Olaui or Mikkel Olofsson (Finnish: Mikael Olavinpoika) was born in Uusimaa (Nyland) in the village of Torsby in Pernå, Finland, around the year 1510. He was named after the patron saint of Pernå's church. The exact date of his birth, like most details of his life, is unknown. His family was a quite wealthy peasant family according to the local bailiff's accounting. He had three sisters, but their names are not known. His teachers apparently recognized his aptitude for languages and his rector Bartholomeus sent him to Viborg (Viipuri) for Latin school and some priestly training, where he attended the school of Erasmus. It is not known whether his first language was Swedish or Finnish - the first alternative is supported by the fact that Pernå was mostly a Swedish-speaking district. However, he mastered both languages like a native speaker and was possibly a bilingual child.
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Moses
Moses (Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה, Modern Moshe Tiberian Mōšéh ISO 259-3 Moše; Greek: Mωϋσῆς Mōüsēs; Arabic: موسىٰ Mūsa) was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed. Also called Moshe Rabbenu in Hebrew (מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּנוּ, Lit. "Moses our Teacher/Rabbi"), he is the most important prophet in Judaism, and is also considered an important prophet in Christianity and Islam, as well as a number of other faiths.
The existence of Moses as well as the veracity of the Exodus story is disputed amongst archaeologists and Egyptologists, with experts in the field of biblical criticism citing logical inconsistencies, new archaeological evidence, historical evidence, and related origin myths in Canaanite culture. Other historians maintain that the biographical details, and Egyptian background, attributed to Moses imply the existence of a historical political and religious leader who was involved in the consolidation of the Hebrew tribes in Canaan towards the end of the Bronze Age.
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Nicolaus Gallus
Nicolaus Gallus (also Hahn) (c. 1516 in Köthen – June, 1570 in Bad Liebenzell), was leader of the Lutheran Reformation in Regensburg.
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Nicolaus Hunnius
Nicolaus Hunnius (b. at Marburg July 11, 1585; d. at Lübeck April 12, 1643), the third son of Egidius Hunnius, was an orthodox Lutheran theologian of the Lutheran scholastic tradition.
At the age of fifteen he entered the University of Wittenberg, where he studied philology, philosophy, and theology. In 1609 he joined the philosophical faculty and lectured in philosophy and theology. He followed the same theological direction as his father, inherited his temper and talent as a polemist, and was like him, possessed of great learning. In virtue of his ability Elector John George I. of Saxony appointed him, in 1612, superintendent of Eilenburg, where he won the respect of his superiors and the affection of his congregation. In 1617 Hunnius was called to succeed Leonhard Hutter, at Wittenberg, as professor of theology. In 1623 he was appointed pastor of St. Mary's Church at Lübeck; the following year he became superintendent. For the suppression of the enthusiasts who pervaded the region, Hunnius reunited the dioceses of Lübeck, Hamburg, and Lüneburg (Ministrium tripolitanum), and at a convention held in 1633 at Mölln measures were proposed and adopted for the same purpose. For the suppression of the adherents of Calvinism Hunnius frustrated the efforts of John Durie, who tried to establish harmony between the Lutherans and the Reformed. To check the proselytizing tendencies of the Roman Catholics, he even invoked the aid of the secular powers. At the same time he made earnest efforts to elevate the religious and ecclesiastical life.
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Nicolaus von Amsdorf
Nicolaus von Amsdorf (3 December 1483 – 14 May 1565) was a German theologian and Protestant reformer.
He was born in Torgau, on the Elbe.
He was educated at Leipzig, and then at Wittenberg, where he was one of the first who matriculated (1502) in the recently founded university. He soon obtained various academic honours, and became professor of theology in 1511.
Like Andreas Karlstadt, he was at first a leading exponent of the older type of scholastic theology, but under the influence of Luther abandoned his Aristotelian positions for a theology based on the Augustinian doctrine of grace. Throughout his life he remained one of Luther's most determined supporters; he was with him at the Leipzig conference (1519), and the Diet of Worms (1521); and was in the secret of his Wartburg seclusion. He assisted the first efforts of the Reformation at Magdeburg (1524), at Goslar (1531) and at Einbeck (1534); took an active part in the debates at Schmalkalden (1537), where he defended the use of the sacrament by the unbelieving; and (1539) spoke out strongly against the bigamy of the Landgrave of Hesse.
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Nikolaus Selnecker
Nikolaus Selnecker (or Selneccer) (December 5, 1532, Hersbruck – May 24, 1592, Leipzig) was a German musician and theologian. He is now known mainly as a hymn writer. He is also known as one of the principal authors of the Formula of Concord along with Jakob Andreä and Martin Chemnitz.
At a young age he was an organist in Nuremberg. He studied under Melanchthon at the University of Wittenberg, graduating M. A. in 1554. Later he was a court preacher and musician at Dresden.
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Nils Vibe Stockfleth
Nils Joachim Christian Vibe Stockfleth (b. 11 January 1787 in Fredrikstad, Norway; d. 26 April 1866 in Sandefjord) was a Norwegian cleric who was instrumental in the first development of the written form of the Northern Sami language. Stockfleth compiled a Norwegian-Sami dictionary, wrote a Sami grammar and translated a portion of the Bible into the Sami language.
Born to Dean Niels Stockfleth (1756–1794) and his wife Anne Johanne Vibe (1753–1805), he was a student in Copenhagen from 1803 to 1804, when he was hired as an undersecretary in the Danish Chancery office (Danske Kancelli). He attended lectures on law, and for a time he studied carpentry.
In 1808 he was commissioned as a lieutenant in the Danish Army; he took part in the Battle of Sehested (Schleswig-Holstein) during the Napoleonic Wars. After the Denmark-Norway union ended in 1814, Stockfleth joined the Norwegian Army as an officer posted to Valdres. He resigned from the army in 1823 to study theology, graduating in 1824. In March of the following year he became pastor of Vadsø, transferring to Lebesby in 1828 so that he could more easily meet with the nomadic Sami.
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Olaus Petri
Olof Persson (sometimes Petersson; born January 6, 1493 in Örebro, died April 19, 1552 in Stockholm), better known under the Latin form of his name, Olaus Petri (or less commonly, Olavus Petri), was a clergyman, writer, and a major contributor to the Protestant Reformation in Sweden. His brother, Laurentius Petri, became the first Evangelical Lutheran Archbishop of Sweden. He and Laurentius are commemorated by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on April 19.
Olaus Petri first studied at the University of Uppsala, then in Leipzig, and then finished his education with his M.A. at the University of Wittenberg in 1518. During his time in Germany he got acquainted with the main characters of the German reformation, Philipp Melanchthon and Martin Luther.
He returned to Sweden with his brother in 1519. It is reported how they both nearly died as the boat ran ashore on the island Gotland during a storm. They stayed on Gotland for a while and the bishop there, Mattias Gregersson, appointed Olaus as his secretary and as dean in 1520.
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Onesimos Nesib
Onesimos Nesib (in Oromo orthography, Onesimoos Nasiib; about 1856 – 21 June 1931), was a native Oromo who converted to Lutheran Christianity and translated the Christian Bible into the Oromo language. His parents named him Hika as a baby, meaning "Translator"; he took the name "Onesimus", after the Biblical character, upon converting to Christianity.
Onesimos Nesib is included in the American Lutheran Book of Worship as a saint, who commemorate his life 21 June. The Mekane Yesus Church honored him by naming their seminary in Addis Ababa for him.
Born near Hurumu in modern Ethiopia, Onesimos lost his father when he was four years old. According to an account he later wrote for the Board of the Swedish Evangelical Mission, he was kidnapped by slavers in 1869, and passed through the hands of eight owners until Werner Munzinger freed him at Massawa (in modern Eritrea) and had him educated at the Imkullu Swedish Evangelical Mission in that port city. There he proved a good student, and eventually received baptism on Easter Sunday (31 March 1872). He was sent to Johannelunds Teologiska Högskola in Bromma, Sweden for five years to receive further education; upon his return to Massawa, he married Mehret Hailu.
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Otto Fabricius
Otto Fabricius (1744–1822) was a Danish missionary, naturalist, ethnographer and explorer of Greenland. He was sent to Greenland 1768–1773 and during this brief period he made enormous amounts of observations and collections. The facilities at his command were primitive to the extreme. His laboratory was an inuit house made of turf, his only artificial light was an oil lamp, he had a few magnifying glasses and only one book was in his library, Linnaei Systema Naturae. Nevertheless, Otto Fabricius made enough zoological observation to be able to publish a magnificent Fauna Groenlandica (1780) after his return to Denmark. Here, he described 473 animal species, 130 of which were new to science. Detailed descriptions are given, including information on habitat and behaviour, the vernacular inuit name, what use inuit people make of the animal and not least how they catch it.
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Paavo Ruotsalainen
Paavo Ruotsalainen (9 July 1777 – 27 January 1852) was a Finnish farmer and lay preacher.
Born in Tölvänniemi (now a part of Lapinlahti) as the oldest son of plain farmers, he received his first bible at age six. At the time of his confirmation he had already read it three times. His preoccupation with the words of the bible gained him the nickname foolish Paavo. When he heard about the lay pastor Jakob Högman in Jyväskylä, he immediately walked the 200 km to Jyväskylä. This visit laid the foundation of his religious life.
Jakob Högman was known as an avid reader of a revivalist devotional booklet "Kallis Hunajan Pisara" (The Choice Drop of Honey). He gave Paavo Ruotsalainen a copy of the book which remained important to Paavo throughout his life. Högman illustrated to Paavo that there was one thing of utmost importance he was missing: the utmost spiritual poverty where only Christ could bring mercy.
Ruotsalainen never received formal education in theology, but he managed to encapsulate and develop the central ideas of Lutheranism in response to the harsh northern environment and accelerating change of the society. The core of his teaching was that in the spiritual life one can only be the receiver of God's mercy, never a subject. One must only abide and yearn for God to reveal himself. Paavo Ruotsalainen's thinking was a curious mixture of old folk wisdom, theology and old Christian tradition. His thinking was fresh and original but also vehement and harsh.
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Paul Althaus
Paul Althaus (4 February 1888-18 May 1966) was a German Lutheran theologian, son of Adolf Paul Johannes Althaus. He was born in Obershagen in the Province of Hanover, and he died in Erlangen. He held various pastorates from 1914 to 1925, when he was appointed associate professor of practical and systematic theology at the University of Göttingen, becoming full professor two years later. Althaus was moderately critical of Lutheran Orthodoxy and evangelical-leaning Neo-Lutheranism. He termed it a “mistake” to “defend the authenticity and infallibility of the Bible.”
Erickson, Robert, Theologians under Hitler. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985.
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Paul Egede
Paul or Poul Hansen Egede (9 September 1708 – 6 June 1789) was a Dano-Norwegian theologian, missionary, and scholar, principally concerned with the Lutheran mission among the Kalaallit people of the Greenland established by his father Hans in 1721.
Egede was born in Kabelvåg, a village in Vågan, Norway, on the southern shore of Austvågøy. He was the older son of the village minister Hans Egede and his wife Gertrud Rask. Hans became dedicated to the cause of restoring contact with and missionizing among the Norsemen of the lost Greenland colony, who were presumed to have remained Catholic following the Reformation. He parlayed support among Norwegian merchants and the Danish Mission College into the establishment of the Bergen Greenland Company, which equipt three ships which left Bergen in 1721. A few months later, the Egede family and about forty other colonists landed on the Island of Hope (modern Kangeq) at the mouth of the fjord which houses today's Nuuk. Scurvy broke out and most returned home as quickly as possible, but the natives proved generally curious and helpful. No Norse survivors were found and Hans's company went bankrupt in 1727, but he and his family learned the local Inuit dialect and began a Christian mission among them.
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Paul Gerhardt
Paul Gerhardt (12 March 1607 – 27 May 1676) was a German hymn writer.
Gerhardt was born into a middle-class family at Gräfenhainichen, a small town between Halle and Wittenberg. At the age of fifteen, he entered the Fürstenschule in Grimma. The school was known for its pious atmosphere and stern discipline. The school almost closed in 1626 when the plague came to Grimma, but Paul remained and graduated from there in 1627. In January 1628 he enrolled in the University of Wittenberg. There, two teachers in particular had an influence on him: Paul Röber and Jacob Martini. Both of these men were staunch Lutherans, promoting its teachings not only in the classroom but in sermons and hymns. Röber in particular often took his sermon texts from hymns. In this way Gerhardt was taught the use of hymnody as a tool of pastoral care and instruction.
Gerhardt graduated from the University of Wittenberg around 1642. Due to the troubles of the Thirty Years War it seems he was not immediately placed as a pastor, and thus moved to Berlin where he worked as tutor in the family of an advocate named Andreas Barthold. During his time in Berlin his hymns and poems brought him to the attention of Johann Crüger the cantor and organist at the Nicolaikirche in Berlin. Crüger was impressed by Gerhardt's hymns and included eighteen of them in his "Praxis pietatis melica" (1656). The hymns proved popular, and Gerhardt and Crüger began a collaboration and friendship that continued for many years.
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Paul Henkel
Paul Henkel (December 15, 1754 – November 27, 1825) was a native of North Carolina who became an itinerant evangelist for the Lutheran church in the eastern United States.
He was born in Rowan County, North Carolina, in 1754. His family moved to what is now West Virginia[1] while he was still young. In that environment, he developed a solid acquaintance with orthodox Lutheran works. He grew to become a cooper by trade, and was obliged to provide enough for his substantial family. Despite these demands on his time, he always gave his highest priority to conducting religious services. He took advantage of the numerous prayer meetings and Bible classes in his area to help him focus on spiritual values.
By 1781, he preached his first sermon, first in German, then in English. This began a period of missionary work which would continue for the next forty years. He was licensed as a preacher by the Ministerium of Pennsylvania in 1783 to begin his work, being ordained by the same body in 1792. He worked in the area of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, and Indiana. Although he did receive some financial assistance for his missionary work, the majority of the expenses were paid for out of his own pocket. His work included preaching, baptizing, and creating new congregations in the communities he visited. He also worked to organize clergy for the organization and administrative purposes. He helped to found the North Carolina Synod in 1803. This group helped provide discipline and moral support for the people of the area, and also helped its members withstand the great degree of emotionalism which was a regular feature of several revival movements of the time.
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Paul Olaf Bodding
Paul Olaf Bodding (born Gjøvik, Norway on 2 November 1865, died Odense, Denmark on 25 September 1938) was a Norwegian missionary, linguist and folklorist. He served in India for 44 years (1889–1933), and operated mainly from the town Dumka in the Santhal Parganas-district. Bodding created the first alphabet and wrote the first grammar for the Santali-speaking native people in eastern India. In 1914 he also completed the translation of the Bible into the Santali language.
Paul Olaf Bodding had studied theology at the university of Oslo. He was a celebrated scientist, and he is still well known among the santals living in the states of Jharkand, Bihar and Assam as well as in Bangladesh and the Scandinavian countries.
Bodding was the son of a bookseller, and he first met the founder of The Indian Home Mission to the Santals (later developed to the NELC), Lars Olsen Skrefsrud, in his father's bookshop in Gjøvik. Skrefsrud was born just outside the neighbouring town Lillehammer, in Oppland, Norway.
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Paul Speratus
Paul Speratus (13 December 1484 – 12 August 1551) was a Catholic priest who became a Protestant preacher and song-writer. In 1523, he helped Martin Luther to create the First Lutheran hymnal, published in 1524 and called Achtliederbuch.
Paul Speratus was born in Rötlen (a village now part of present-day Ellwangen) in Swabia, on or about 13 December 1484, probably to a wealthy family. His original surname, Latinized to "Speratus," may have been "Spreter," "Hoffer," or "Offer." In later years would write his name as "von Rötlen" (of Rötlen) or "von Ellwangen, Priester der Diöcese Augsburg" (of Ellwangen, Priest of the Diocese of Augsburg).
Early studies took him to Paris and Italy, as well as (probably) Freiburg and Vienna. In 1506, he was ordained a Roman Catholic priest. In 1517, he was the author of a poem praising the Johann Eck, a conservative Catholic soon to be an important Catholic critic of Luther's new doctrines. At about the same time, the Pope named Speratus a Papal count palatine. In 1520, after having spent some years as cathedral preacher in Salzburg, he became the cathedral preacher in Würzburg.
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Paul the Apostle
Paul the Apostle (c. AD 5 – c. AD 67; variously referred to as the "Apostle Paul" or "Saint Paul"), also known as Saul of Tarsus, is perhaps the most influential early Christian missionary. The writings ascribed to him by the church form a considerable portion of the New Testament. The influence on Christian thinking of the epistles ascribed to him has been significant, due in part to his association as a prominent apostle of Christianity during the spreading of the Gospel through early Christian communities across the Roman Empire.
According to the writings in the New Testament, Paul was known as Saul prior to his conversion, and was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem. While traveling from Jerusalem to Damascus on a mission to "bring them which were there bound unto Jerusalem", the resurrected Jesus appeared to him in a great light. Saul was struck blind, but after three days his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah and the Son of God.
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Petrus Särkilahti
Petrus Särkilahti (a.k.a. Pietari Särkilahti, sometimes written as Petrus Saerkilahti) - died 1529 - was a Finnish student of Martin Luther and one of the early pioneers of teaching science in Finnish language. He spread the idea of the religious reformation eagerly.
In Turku, Finland, Särkilahti met Mikael Agricola, who became his student. In 1538, the first known books written entirely in Finnish were published by Agricola. Agricola therefore became called by many the father of written Finnish language. Other Finnish language literal works that may have existed from earlier time are assumed to have been burned and destroyed by wars and fires. The earliest remaining writing in Finnish language is a spell written on a birch bark in the beginning of the 13th century AD.
Already in the 13th century - and perhaps even before - books and other literal works are known to have been published in Finland by churches and monasteries, but nearly all known works from that age have been destroyed by wars and fires as well, and all known books published were written in Latin.
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Philipp Jakob Spener
Philipp Jakob Spener (January 13, 1635, Rappoltsweiler – February 5, 1705, Berlin) was a German Christian theologian known as the "Father of Pietism."
Spener was born in Ribeauvillé in Upper Alsace ( now part of France, at the time part of the Holy Roman Empire). After a brief time at the grammar school of Colmar, he went to Strasbourg in 1651, where he devoted himself to the study of philology, history and philosophy, and won his degree of master (1653) by a disputation against the philosophy of Thomas Hobbes. He then became private tutor to the princes Christian and Charles of the Palatinate, and lectured in the university on philology and history. From 1659 to 1662 he visited the universities of Basel, Tübingen and Geneva, and commenced the study of heraldry, which he pursued throughout his life. In Geneva especially his religious views and tendencies were turned in the direction of mysticism.
Spener returned to Strasbourg in 1663, where he was appointed preacher without pastoral duties, with the right of holding lectures. Three years afterwards he was invited to become the chief pastor in the Lutheran Church at Frankfurt. Here he published his two chief works, Pia desideria (1675) and Allgemeine Gottesgelehrtheit (1680), and began that form of pastoral work which resulted in the movement called Pietism. In 1686 he accepted the invitation to the first court chaplaincy at Dresden. But the Elector John George III, at whose personal desire the post had been offered to him, was soon offended when Spener condemned the morals of John George's court. Spener refused to resign his post, and the Saxon government hesitated to dismiss him. But in 1691 the Saxon representative at Berlin induced the court of Brandenburg to offer him the rectorship of St Nicholas in Berlin with the title of "Konsistorialrat."
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Philipp Melanchthon
Philipp Melanchthon (February 16, 1497 – April 19, 1560), born Philipp Schwartzerdt, was a German reformer, collaborator with Martin Luther, the first systematic theologian of the Protestant Reformation, intellectual leader of the Lutheran Reformation, and an influential designer of educational systems. He stands next to Luther and Calvin as a reformer, theologian, and molder of Protestantism. As much as Luther, he is the primary founder of Lutheranism. They both denounced what they claimed was the exaggerated cult of the saints, justification by works, and the coercion of the conscience in the sacrament of penance that nevertheless could not offer certainty of salvation. Melanchthon made the distinction between law and gospel the central formula for Lutheran evangelical insight. By the "law" he meant God's requirements both in Old and New Testament; the "gospel" meant the free gift of grace through faith in Jesus Christ.
He was born Philipp Schwartzerdt (of which "Melanchthon" is a Greek translation) on 16 February 1497, at Bretten, near Karlsruhe, where his father Georg Schwarzerdt was armorer to Philip, Count Palatine of the Rhine. His birthplace was demolished in 1689 and the town's Melanchthonhaus built on its site in 1897.
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Philipp Nicolai
Philipp Nicolai (10 August 1556 in Bad Arolsen-Mengeringhausen – 26 October 1608 in Hamburg) was a German Lutheran pastor, poet, and composer, author of two famous hymns: Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme and Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern. These two chorales have inspired many composers, including Johann Sebastian Bach, whose cantatas Wie schön leuchtet der Morgenstern, BWV 1 and Wachet auf, ruft uns die Stimme, BWV 140 are based on them. The two hymns are sometimes referred to as the King and Queen of Chorales, respectively. The organ transcription of the latter, as published in the Schübler Chorales, has become world famous. Nicolai is supposed to be the last example of the Meistersinger tradition, in which words and music, text and melody stem from one and the same person.
He is commemorated as a hymnwriter in the Calendar of Saints of the Lutheran Church on 26 October with Johann Heermann and Paul Gerhardt.
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Pope John Paul II
Blessed Pope John Paul II (Latin: Ioannes Paulus PP. II, Italian: Giovanni Paolo II, Polish: Jan Paweł II), born Karol Józef Wojtyła (Polish: [ˈkarɔl ˈjuzɛf vɔjˈtɨwa]; 18 May 1920, Wadowice, Republic of Poland – 2 April 2005, Apostolic Palace, Vatican City), reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church from 1978 until his death in 2005. He was the second-longest serving Pope in history and the first non-Italian since 1523.
John Paul II was acclaimed as one of the most influential leaders of the 20th century. He was instrumental in ending communism in his native Poland and eventually all of Europe. John Paul II significantly improved the Catholic Church's relations with Judaism, Islam, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. Though criticised by progressives for upholding the Church's teachings against artificial contraception and the ordination of women, and by traditionalists for his support of the Church's Second Vatican Council and its reform, he was also widely praised for his firm, orthodox Catholic stances.
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Primož Trubar
Primož Trubar or Primož Truber ( pronunciation (help·info)) (1508 – 28 June 1586) was the author of the first Slovene language printed book, the founder and the first superintendent of the Protestant Church of the Slovene Lands, notable for consolidating the Slovene language. Trubar is the key figure of Slovenian cultural history and in many aspects a major historical personality.,
Trubar was born in the village Rašica (now in the Velike Lašče municipality) in the Duchy of Carniola, then under the Habsburgs. In the years 1520–1521 he attended school in Rijeka, in 1522–1524 he continued his education in Salzburg. From there he went to Trieste under the tutorship of the Roman Catholic bishop Pietro Bonomo, where he got in touch with the Humanist writers, in particular Erasmus of Rotterdam. In 1528 he enrolled at the University of Vienna, but did not complete his studies. In 1530 he returned to the Slovene Lands and became a preacher. He gradually leaned towards Protestantism and was in 1547 expelled from Ljubljana.
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Saint Peter
Saint Peter or Simon Peter was an early Christian leader and one of the twelve apostles of Jesus who is featured prominently in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles and who is venerated as a saint. The son of John or of Jonah, he was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee or Gaulanitis. His brother Andrew was also an apostle. Peter is venerated in multiple churches and is regarded as the first Pope by the Catholic Church. After working to establish the church of Antioch, presiding for seven years as the leader of the city's Christian community, he preached to scattered communities of believers, Jews, Hebrew Christians and the gentiles, in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia Minor and Bithynia.[citation needed] He then went to Rome, where in the second year of Claudius, it is claimed, he overthrew Simon Magus and held the Sacerdotal Chair for 25 years.[citation needed] He is said to have been put to death at the hand of Emperor Nero.
Peter wrote two General epistles. The Gospel of Mark is also ascribed to him (as Mark was his disciple and interpreter). On the other hand, several books bearing his name—the Acts of Peter, Gospel of Peter, Preaching of Peter, Revelation of Peter, and Judgement of Peter—are rejected by the Catholic Church as Apocryphal.
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Salomo Glassius
Salomo Glassius (German: Salomon Glaß; 20 May 1593 – 27 July 1656) was a German theologian and biblical critic born at Sondershausen, in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen.
In 1612 he entered the University of Jena. In 1615, with the idea of studying law, he moved to Wittenberg. In consequence of an illness, however, he returned to Jena after a year. Here, as a student of theology under Johann Gerhard, he directed his attention especially to Hebrew and the cognate dialects; in 1619 he was made an adjunctus of the philosophical faculty, and some time afterwards he received an appointment to the chair of Hebrew.
From 1625 to 1638 he was superintendent in Sondershausen; but shortly after the death of Gerhard (1637) he was, in accordance with Gerhard's last wish, appointed to succeed him at Jena. In 1640, however, at the earnest invitation of Duke Ernest the Pious, he removed to Gotha as court preacher and general superintendent in the execution of important reforms which had been initiated in the ecclesiastical and educational establishments of the Duchy. The delicate duties attached to this office he discharged with tact and energy; and in the Syncretistic Controversy, by which Protestant Germany was so long vexed, he showed an unusual combination of firmness with liberality, of loyalty to the past with a just regard to the demands of the present and the future.
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Sebastian Krelj
Sebastian Krelj, also known as Sebastjan Krelj, Sebastijan Krelj or Boštjan Krelj (1538–1567) was a Slovene Protestant reformer, writer, theologian, linguist and preacher and regarded as one of the most educated Slovene Protestants of the 16th century..
Krejl was born in Vipava, then part of the Duchy of Carniola. He studied at University of Jena and became a follower of the Lutheran preacher and author Primož Trubar, the leader of the Protestant Reformation in the Slovene Lands, whom he assisted as a preacher in Ljubljana. Krelj had a wide linguistic and philologic knowledge: besides Slovene, German and Latin, he knew Ancient Greek, Hebrew, Croatian and glagolitic literature. Krelj put the central dialect into context of dialects spoken by Istrians, the inhabitants of the Vipava Valley and Lower Carniolans. He identified and used the signs: s, z, c, š, ž, č, and his reforms were taken up by Dalmatin in the bible .
In Ljubljana he later became superintendent of Slovenian Protestant Church.
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Simon Dach
Simon Dach (29 July 1605 – 15 April 1659) was a Prussian German lyrical poet and writer of hymns, born in Memel (now Klaipėda) in the Duchy of Prussia.
Although brought up in humble circumstances, (his father was a poorly-paid court interpreter in Lithuania), he received a classical education in the Domschule of Königsberg, and in the Latin schools of Wittenberg, and Magdeburg, and entered the University of Königsberg in 1626 where he was a student of theology and philosophy. In 1626, he left Magdeburg to escape both the plague and the 30 Years War, and returned to his Prussian homeland, settling in Königsberg, where he remained for the rest of his life.
After earning his degree, Dach was a private tutor for a time, then was appointed Kollaboralor (teacher) in 1633 and co-rector of the Domschule (cathedral school) in Königsberg in 1636. In 1639 he was appointed by Adrian Brauer to the Chair of Poetry at the Albertina University in Königsberg. This was a post he held until his death. Also, in 1640 he received a doctorate from the University.
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Sorbs
Sorbs (Upper Sorbian: Serbja; Lower Sorbian: Serby also known as Wends, Lusatian Sorbs or Lusatian Serbs) are a Western Slavic people of Central Europe living predominantly in Lusatia, a region on the territory of Germany and Poland. In Germany they live in the states of Brandenburg and Saxony. They speak the Sorbian languages (Wendish, Lusatian) - closely related to Polish and Czech - officially recognized and protected as a minority language of Germany. They are predominantly Roman Catholics and Lutheran Protestants.
Sorbs are divided into two geographical groups:
The dialects spoken vary in intelligibility in different areas.
Lusatian tribes are noted in the work of the Bavarian Geographer. The document contains a list of the tribes in Central-Eastern Europe east of the Elbe and north of the Danube to the Volga rivers to the Black and Caspian Sea most of them of Slavic origin. Having settled by the Elbe, Spree and Neisse in the 6th century, Sorbian tribes divided into two main groups, which have taken their names from the characteristics of the area where they had settled. Sorbs living on the swampy broads of the Lower Spree have taken their name from the word marsh. The Milceni (ancestors of Upper Sorbs) settled on fertile soil around Upper Spree, the name derives from the word měl’ (loess soil). Both groups were separated from each other by a wide and uninhabited forest range. The rest of the tribes settled themselves between the Elbe and Saale. Among many Slavic tribes Bavarian Geographer noted also few lusatian tribes:
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Stephan Agricola
Stephan Agricola (c. 1491–1547) was a Lutheran church reformer. Born in Abensberg, at a young age he joined the Augustinian order. As a monk, he studied Augustine deeply. As a student, he went to the universities in Bologna and Venice, where in 1519 he became a Doctor of Theology. He began to preach on whole books of the Bible in 1520. He was led to Lutheranism through his study of Augustine's works on the scriptures. He was accused of Lutheranism as a heresy. Although he claimed his independence of Luther, he was arrested and imprisoned in Mühldorf on November 17, 1522. In 1523 he escaped and came to Augsburg, where with Urbanus Rhegius he fully accepted the Reformation and translated Johannes Bugenhagen's tract ag. Zwingjli into German. He was on the Lutheran side during the Marburg Colloquy, became pastor in Hof in 1532, took part in the meeting at Schmalkalden in 1537, and signed the Smalcald Articles. He was instrumental in introducing the Reformation in the Upper Palatinate, as he was pastor at Sulzbach beginning in 1542. During the Schmalkaldic War, he had to flee to Eisleben, where he died in old age on April 10-11, 1547. Stephen Agricola was a staunch uncompromising Lutheran, earnest and devoted. His son, Stephen, translated some of Luther's commentaries on the minor prophets.
wn.com/Stephan_Agricola -
Stephan Praetorius
Stephan Praetorius (or Prætorius) (German: Stephan Prätorius) (May 3, 1536, Salzwedel – May 4, 1603, Salzwedel) was a German Lutheran theologian and pastor.
Praetorius was born in Salzwedel, Margraviate of Brandenburg. He was educated at the University of Rostock, where he also taught in the local schools; was ordained by Agricola[disambiguation needed
] at Berlin in 1565; became preacher in the same year at the monastery of the Holy Ghost at Salzwedel, and soon after deacon of the Church of St. Mary's; and from 1569 until his death was pastor in Salzwedel.
A great admirer of Martin Luther, and an opponent of Jesuitism and Calvinism alike, Praetorius laid great stress on the sacraments, though not in the Roman Catholic sense, and held to justification by faith, though he also insisted on purity of life. He was a precursor of Johann Arndt and Philipp Jakob Spener, though not Pietist in the narrow sense. His lack of caution brought upon him the charges of antinomianism and perfectionism, the latter theory later even being called Praetorianism. Through his tracts, which he or his friends published after 1570, Praetorius exercised an influence far beyond his own congregation; these were collected and published by Arndt under the title Acht-und-fünfzig schöne, auserlesne, geist- und trostreiche Traktätlein (Lüneburg, 1622), containing also fourteen hymns with their melodies, one of them being "Was hat gethan der heilige Christ?"
wn.com/Stephan_Praetorius -
Theodor Kliefoth
Theodor Friedrich Dethlof Kliefoth was a German Neo-Lutheran. He was born at Körchow, Mecklenburg-Schwerin on January 18, 1810 and he died at Schwerin on January 26, 1895.
He was educated at the gymnasium of Schwerin, and at the Universities of Berlin and Rostock. In 1833 he was appointed instructor of Duke William of Mecklenburg, and in 1837 accompanied Grand Duke Frederick Francis as tutor to Dresden. He became pastor at Ludwigslust in 1840, and superintendent of Schwerin in 1844. Since 1835 he had been the leading spirit in the ecclesiastical and theological affairs of his state. With the abolishment of the old constitution of the estates in 1848 and the organization of a parliamentary government, the rule of the Church by the State had become an impossibility. Thus there originated in 1850 a superior ecclesiastical court with Kliefoth as chief ecclesiastical councilor. In 1886 he became its president. During the decades 1850-70, he was actively engaged in ecclesiastical reforms. Being convinced that the prosperity of the Church is principally dependent upon the efficiency of the administrators of the Means of Grace, he was intent upon filling the clergy with the spirit and doctrines of the Lutheran Church. To this end the faculty of Rostock was reorganized with teachers of strictly Lutheran tendency, the institution of church inspections by superintendents was again called into life, abuses in the church service and in the administration of ecclesiastical acts were abolished, and the rationalistic spirit was removed from the pulpit. New formularies of liturgy on the basis of the old church orders were made, and the old treasures of Lutheran church music were embodied in a new book of melodies.
wn.com/Theodor_Kliefoth -
Theodore Beza
Theodore Beza (Théodore de Bèze or de Besze) (June 24, 1519 – October 13, 1605) was a French Protestant Christian theologian and scholar who played an important role in the Reformation. A member of the monarchomaque movement who opposed absolute monarchy, he was a disciple of John Calvin and lived most of his life in Switzerland.
Theodore Beza was born at Vezelay, in Burgundy, France. His father, Pierre de Beze, royal governor of Vezelay, descended from a Burgundian family of distinction; his mother, Marie Bourdelot, was known for her generosity. Beza's father had two brothers; Nicholas, who was member of Parliament at Paris; and Claude, who was abbot of the Cistercian monastery Froimont in the diocese of Beauvais.
Nicholas, who was unmarried, during a visit to Vezelay was so pleased with Theodore that, with the permission of his parents, he took him to Paris to educate him there. From Paris, Theodore was sent to Orléans in December 1528 to receive instruction from the famous German teacher Melchior Wolmar. He was received into Wolmar's house, and the day on which this took place was afterward celebrated as a second birthday.
wn.com/Theodore_Beza -
Theodosius Harnack
Theodosius Harnack (3 January 1817, Saint Petersburg – 23 September 1889, Tartu) was a Baltic German theologian.
Harnack was a professor of Divinity at the University of Tartu in what is today Estonia. He was a staunch Lutheran and a prolific writer on theological subjects; his chief field of work was practical theology, and his important book on that subject summing up his long experience and teaching appeared at Erlangen (1877–1878, 2 vols.). The liturgy of the Lutheran church of Russia has, since 1898, been based on his Liturgische Formulare (1872).
His twin sons were the German theologian Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930) and mathematician Carl Gustav Axel Harnack (1851–1888).
wn.com/Theodosius_Harnack -
Victor Danielsen
Victor Danielsen (March 28, 1894 – February 2, 1961), was the first Faroese Bible translator and Plymouth Brethren missionary. Victor Danielsen played a pivotal role in the Plymouth Brethren's establishment in the Faroe Islands after it was introduced there by William Gibson Sloan in the late nineteenth century.
Victor Danielsen was born in the settlement of Søldarfjørður on the island of Eysturoy. In 1911, Danielsen started training as a teacher in Tórshavn and completed his course in 1914. He was appointed teacher at the schools in Søldarfjørður, Glyvrar und Lamba. He quit his teaching positions, however, after only six months to pursue his vocation as a missionary.
Danielsen quit the established Faroese People's Church in 1916 and attached himself to the Brøðrasamkoman (Faroese Plymouth Brethren). He married in 1920 and moved with his wife to Fuglafjørður, where he worked as a full-time worker in Siloa Assembly and itinerary missionary for the Faroese Plymouth Brethren.
In 1930, the assembly of the Plymouth Brethren in Tórshavn requested Danielsen translate the Letter to the Galatians into the Faroese language. The resulting translation so enthused the congregation that Danielsen was requested to translate the entire New Testament as well. This translation was published in march 1937, a few weeks before the publication of Jákup Dahl's translation, which had been authorised by the Faroese People's Church.
wn.com/Victor_Danielsen -
Victorinus Strigel
Viktorin/Victorinus Strigel (* 16 or 26 December, 1524 in Kaufbeuren—26 June 1569 in Heidelberg) was a Philippist Lutheran Theologian.
Victorinus Strigel was born 1524 in Kaufbeuren the son of the physician Ivo Strigel. He attended the University of Freiburg in October 1542 and went to the University of Wittenberg to study philosophy and theology. There he became a follower of Philipp Melanchthon in 1544, earned a Master of Arts, and gave his own lectures. Due to the Schmalkaldic War, he fled with Melanchthon at first to Magdeburg and went to the University of Erfurt, where he also taught. From Erfurt, he was recommended to Jena, where he took part in the founding of the Gymnasium’s academicum and from 20 March gave lectures on philosophy, history, and later on Melanchthon's Loci Communes.
He then continued his academic career as a professor and rector of the University of Jena. He supported the establishment of the university constitution. Strigel taught students in Jena in the abandoned Dominican monastery; this was the setting of the emergence of the "Collegium Jenense." With the appointment of Matthias Flacius 1557 Strigel entered into the dispute between the Gnesio-Lutherans and the Philippists, who tended toward the more mediating position of the followers of Melanchthon. In 1559 he was even taken into custody because of his theological views and suspended from duty. In 1562 he moved to the University of Leipzig to take a post, from there to Wittenberg, and finally to the University of Heidelberg in 1567, where he accepted the Reformed teaching of the Eucharist.
wn.com/Victorinus_Strigel -
Werner Elert
Werner August Friedrich Immanuel Elert (August 19, 1885—November 19, 1954) was a German Lutheran theologian and professor of both church history and systematic theology at the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg. His writings in the fields of Christian dogmatics, ethics, and history have had great influence on modern Christianity in general and modern Lutheranism in particular.
Elert was born on August 19, 1885 in the village of Heldrungen in what is modern-day Thuringia, but he grew up in northern Germany. His parents were August Elert and Friederike, née Graf, Elert. After attending the Realgymnasium in Harburg and the Gymnasium in Husum, he studied theology, philosophy, history, German literature, psychology and law in Breslau, Erlangen, and Leipzig. He earned doctorates in philosophy and theology at Erlangen.
After working as a tutor for a short time in Livonia, he served as a pastor from 1912 to 1919 in Seefeld, Pomerania. During World War I he served as a field preacher on several fronts.
wn.com/Werner_Elert -
Wilhelm Sihler
Wilhelm Sihler (November 12, 1801 – October 27, 1885) was a German American Lutheran minister. A proponent for Christian education, Wilhelm Sihler founded Concordia Theological Seminary, in Fort Wayne, Indiana.
Wilhelm Sihler was born in Germany in Bernstadt, near Breslau, in the historical region of Lower Silesia. He studied in Berlin 1826–29. He was employed as a private tutor in Breslau during 1829 and 1830. He was an instructor at a private college in Dresden during 1830. From 1838 until 1843 he worked as a private tutor within the Baltic area.
Sihler immigrated to the United States in 1843. He served as a teacher Pomeroy, Ohio and vicinity during 1844. He was ordained within the Evangelical Lutheran Joint Synod of Ohio in June 1844. Sihler served as the third rector of St. Paul's Lutheran Church, Fort Wayne, Indiana.
Wilhelm Sihler had arrived in America as the result of a call for help by F.C.D. Wyneken. Pastor Wyneken had arrived in Fort Wayne in 1838 to find that the only pastor in Indiana had died a few days before. Shocked at the condition of the Lutheran church in the area, Wyneken returned to Germany to search for new pastors willing to emigrate. In June 1841, Pastor Wyneken met with and sought assistance from Dr. Wilhelm Löhe. Sihler was one of those who read Wyneken's The Distress of the German Lutherans in North America (German: Die Noth der deutschen Lutheraner in Nordamerika) and decided to leave his home country for America.
wn.com/Wilhelm_Sihler -
William Tyndale
William Tyndale (sometimes spelled Tynsdale, Tindall, Tindill, Tyndall; c. 1492 – 1536) was an English scholar who became a leading figure in Protestant reform in the years leading up to his execution. He is remembered for his translation of the Bible into English. He was influenced by the work of Desiderius Erasmus, who made the Greek New Testament available in Europe, and by Martin Luther.
While a number of partial and complete translations had been made from the seventh century onward, the popularity of Wycliffe's Bible in the 14th century resulted in a ban on the publication of the Bible in English; almost all vernacular Bibles were confiscated and burned. Tyndale's illegal translation was the first of the new English Bibles of the Reformation, and the first to draw directly from Hebrew and Greek texts, and the first to take advantage of the new medium of the print, which allowed for wide distribution. This was taken to be a direct challenge to the hegemony of both the Roman Catholic Church and the English church and state. Tyndale also wrote, in 1530, The Practyse of Prelates, opposing Henry VIII's divorce on the grounds that it contravened scriptural law.
wn.com/William_Tyndale
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Why Lutheran?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:38
- Updated: 24 Feb 2013
Presiding Bishop Mark Hanson of the ELCA answers the question "Why Lutheran?" at a Q&A; at the conference Follow Me: Sharing the Gospel in a 2.0 World
http://wn.com/Why_Lutheran?
Presiding Bishop Mark Hanson of the ELCA answers the question "Why Lutheran?" at a Q&A; at the conference Follow Me: Sharing the Gospel in a 2.0 World
Do Lutherans Have the Best Theology?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:39
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
I've heard this and said this a number of times, but what does it mean and is it true? UPDATE: This video cuts off a few seconds at the end. Probably the best part of the video too when I compared Lutheran theology to Fat Tire beer. The whole acquired taste thing. It just takes a lot of time and experience and probably a bit of luck to end up appreciating Lutheran theology...but once that happens, it sure is good.
http://wn.com/Do_Lutherans_Have_the_Best_Theology?
I've heard this and said this a number of times, but what does it mean and is it true? UPDATE: This video cuts off a few seconds at the end. Probably the best part of the video too when I compared Lutheran theology to Fat Tire beer. The whole acquired taste thing. It just takes a lot of time and experience and probably a bit of luck to end up appreciating Lutheran theology...but once that happens, it sure is good.
- published: 31 Mar 2011
- views: 1244
- author: hyperrealpda
Christology - Differences Between Calvinists and Lutherans
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:51
- Updated: 09 Nov 2012
The difference between the historic position of Christians (represented by Lutherans here) and the position of Calvinists on the person and work of Christ are compared. The effects of denying the Virgin Mary as the Mother of God as well as the rejection of the Communicatio Idiomatum are discussed.
http://wn.com/Christology_Differences_Between_Calvinists_and_Lutherans
The difference between the historic position of Christians (represented by Lutherans here) and the position of Calvinists on the person and work of Christ are compared. The effects of denying the Virgin Mary as the Mother of God as well as the rejection of the Communicatio Idiomatum are discussed.
- published: 19 Feb 2008
- views: 6876
- author: Paleolutheran
Daring to be Lutheran
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:04
- Updated: 02 Jan 2013
higherthings.org Pr. Borghardt answer the question, "What's the difference between a Lutheran and a Christian." He explains that there is no difference. He also talks about the differences between Lutherans and other denominations. If you have questions you'd like answered you can email them to radio@higherthings.org or send them via text message to 936-647-3235.
http://wn.com/Daring_to_be_Lutheran
higherthings.org Pr. Borghardt answer the question, "What's the difference between a Lutheran and a Christian." He explains that there is no difference. He also talks about the differences between Lutherans and other denominations. If you have questions you'd like answered you can email them to radio@higherthings.org or send them via text message to 936-647-3235.
- published: 05 Mar 2012
- views: 1273
- author: htdtbl
Lutheranism 101
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:52
- Updated: 13 Feb 2013
Lutheranism 101 examines Lutheran beliefs and heritage in a fresh way. If you are a lifelong Lutheran searching for more information or new to Lutheranism looking to understand what we believe, this book will be your guide. It is written in an easy-to-read conversational style with short articles, side-bar features, and some humor. Lutheranism 101 helps create a solid foundation of reference upon which a lifetime of sound teaching can be built. Explore the basics of Lutheran theology by digging into the history of Lutheranism and making connections between what Lutherans believe and what Lutherans do. Visit lutheranism101.com for more information.
http://wn.com/Lutheranism_101
Lutheranism 101 examines Lutheran beliefs and heritage in a fresh way. If you are a lifelong Lutheran searching for more information or new to Lutheranism looking to understand what we believe, this book will be your guide. It is written in an easy-to-read conversational style with short articles, side-bar features, and some humor. Lutheranism 101 helps create a solid foundation of reference upon which a lifetime of sound teaching can be built. Explore the basics of Lutheran theology by digging into the history of Lutheranism and making connections between what Lutherans believe and what Lutherans do. Visit lutheranism101.com for more information.
- published: 27 Sep 2010
- views: 10617
- author: ConcordiaPublishing
Catholic Priest Interviews Lutheran Bishop
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 28:36
- Updated: 22 Feb 2013
Catholic Priest Rev James Korda Interviews Lutheran Bishop
http://wn.com/Catholic_Priest_Interviews_Lutheran_Bishop
Catholic Priest Rev James Korda Interviews Lutheran Bishop
- published: 18 Feb 2012
- views: 6110
- author: FatherJeffrey
God's Word is AWESOME (Becoming Lutheran from Evangelicalism) - Rev. Bryan Wolfmueller
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 69:00
- Updated: 25 Feb 2013
Pr. Bryan Wolfmueller shares his experience of coming out of Evangelicalism using the framework of Psalm 119 and also Law and Gospel. He speaks of the treasure that is the Word of God and Lutheran doctrine, treasure for the soul that is despairing from the effects of Evangelical beliefs.
http://wn.com/God's_Word_is_AWESOME_Becoming_Lutheran_from_Evangelicalism_Rev_Bryan_Wolfmueller
Pr. Bryan Wolfmueller shares his experience of coming out of Evangelicalism using the framework of Psalm 119 and also Law and Gospel. He speaks of the treasure that is the Word of God and Lutheran doctrine, treasure for the soul that is despairing from the effects of Evangelical beliefs.
- published: 20 Feb 2013
- views: 1050
- author: John TheSteadfast
Weekly Sermon Capitol Hill Lutheran Church 02-17-2013
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:38
- Updated: 19 Feb 2013
Weekly sermon from Pastor Leighton Carlson at Capitol Hill Lutheran Church www.chlcdesmoines.org
http://wn.com/Weekly_Sermon_Capitol_Hill_Lutheran_Church_02-17-2013
Weekly sermon from Pastor Leighton Carlson at Capitol Hill Lutheran Church www.chlcdesmoines.org
- published: 19 Feb 2013
- views: 5
- author: CHLCDSM
WEtv Live: Becoming Lutheran, with special guest Pastor Matt Richard
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 60:44
- Updated: 19 Feb 2013
Pastor Fisk interviews Pastor Matt Richard on the research he's done on the topic of "Becoming Lutheran". Many of you may have even participated in the research, we've managed to get Pastor Richard to talk to us first about what he is discovering about people who make the shift from American Evangelicalism to confessional Lutheranism. If you yawned when I mentioned the word "research", be prepared to be surprised. This is really cool stuff and you won't want to miss a chance to hear this live and maybe even have Pastor Richard answer your questions you might have about becoming Lutheran. The results of the quantitative portion of the research project can be found here: www.pastormattrichard.com Join the Lutheran Ninja Clan -- www.worldvieweverlasting.com Want more Worldview Everlasting? Ask a question at: www.WorldviewEverlasting.com Join the conversation www.Facebook.com Order BROKEN by Jonathan Fisk: goo.gl
http://wn.com/WEtv_Live_Becoming_Lutheran,_with_special_guest_Pastor_Matt_Richard
Pastor Fisk interviews Pastor Matt Richard on the research he's done on the topic of "Becoming Lutheran". Many of you may have even participated in the research, we've managed to get Pastor Richard to talk to us first about what he is discovering about people who make the shift from American Evangelicalism to confessional Lutheranism. If you yawned when I mentioned the word "research", be prepared to be surprised. This is really cool stuff and you won't want to miss a chance to hear this live and maybe even have Pastor Richard answer your questions you might have about becoming Lutheran. The results of the quantitative portion of the research project can be found here: www.pastormattrichard.com Join the Lutheran Ninja Clan -- www.worldvieweverlasting.com Want more Worldview Everlasting? Ask a question at: www.WorldviewEverlasting.com Join the conversation www.Facebook.com Order BROKEN by Jonathan Fisk: goo.gl
- published: 06 Feb 2013
- author: Jonathan Fisk
Lutheran Roots in America
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 31:37
- Updated: 08 Jan 2013
Who were the first Lutherans in the new world? Why did they come and what did they find when they got here? From Swedes to Danes to Germans and Norwegians, Lutheran Roots in America recounts the dramatic tale of Lutheran migration to America. You will learn about Muhlenberg, the Saxons, Hans Neilson Hauge, the Salzburgers and others. Designed for new member and confirmation classes, this video will help congregations understand their history. www.elca.org/mosaic 800.638.3522 ext. 6009 Tim Frakes, Producer
http://wn.com/Lutheran_Roots_in_America
Who were the first Lutherans in the new world? Why did they come and what did they find when they got here? From Swedes to Danes to Germans and Norwegians, Lutheran Roots in America recounts the dramatic tale of Lutheran migration to America. You will learn about Muhlenberg, the Saxons, Hans Neilson Hauge, the Salzburgers and others. Designed for new member and confirmation classes, this video will help congregations understand their history. www.elca.org/mosaic 800.638.3522 ext. 6009 Tim Frakes, Producer
- published: 23 Oct 2006
- views: 12233
- author: ELCAVideo
Lutherans Fight Malaria in Tanzania
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:27
- Updated: 16 Dec 2012
Our partners at the Lutheran Malaria Initiative (LMI), supported by the United Nations Foundation, demonstrated during an observation trip this August how the Lutheran church helps lead malaria prevention efforts in Tanzania. To learn more about LMI's work, visit: www.lutheranmalaria.org
http://wn.com/Lutherans_Fight_Malaria_in_Tanzania
Our partners at the Lutheran Malaria Initiative (LMI), supported by the United Nations Foundation, demonstrated during an observation trip this August how the Lutheran church helps lead malaria prevention efforts in Tanzania. To learn more about LMI's work, visit: www.lutheranmalaria.org
- published: 10 Dec 2012
- views: 300
- author: nothingbutnets
1972 Allen Digital Computer Organ complete Lutheran liturgy
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:57
- Updated: 23 Feb 2013
Here I play all the liturgical music from the Evangelical Lutheran Worship setting 2 at Midland Lutheran Church, Midland, TX. We do all of this music every Sunday (certain pieces are done just during certain seasons such as Lent however.) This is the current amp setup using 2, 20 watt PA amps. I am going to upgrade the amp system on this organ with a new preamp and 2, 2-channel 100 watt per channel amps and install 2 additional Allen speaker cabinets for 400 total watts of power (10 times what it is now). This should cut back on distortion and increase bass. The pieces are: 1. Kyrie (In peace, let us pray to the Lord...Lord, have mercy) 2. Gloria (Glory to God in the Highest) 3. This is the feast of victory for our Lord (used during festival seasons such as Christmas) 4. Gospel acclamation (Alleluia) 5. Gospel acclamation for Lent (Let your steadfast love come to us , O Lord) 6. The Lord be with you (and also with you) 7. Sanctus (Holy, Holy, Holy Lord) 8. Agnus Dei (Lamb of God) 9. Nunc Dimittis (now Lord, you let your servant go in peace)
http://wn.com/1972_Allen_Digital_Computer_Organ_complete_Lutheran_liturgy
Here I play all the liturgical music from the Evangelical Lutheran Worship setting 2 at Midland Lutheran Church, Midland, TX. We do all of this music every Sunday (certain pieces are done just during certain seasons such as Lent however.) This is the current amp setup using 2, 20 watt PA amps. I am going to upgrade the amp system on this organ with a new preamp and 2, 2-channel 100 watt per channel amps and install 2 additional Allen speaker cabinets for 400 total watts of power (10 times what it is now). This should cut back on distortion and increase bass. The pieces are: 1. Kyrie (In peace, let us pray to the Lord...Lord, have mercy) 2. Gloria (Glory to God in the Highest) 3. This is the feast of victory for our Lord (used during festival seasons such as Christmas) 4. Gospel acclamation (Alleluia) 5. Gospel acclamation for Lent (Let your steadfast love come to us , O Lord) 6. The Lord be with you (and also with you) 7. Sanctus (Holy, Holy, Holy Lord) 8. Agnus Dei (Lamb of God) 9. Nunc Dimittis (now Lord, you let your servant go in peace)
- published: 20 Jan 2013
- views: 610
- author: retrochad
5&5 with Daniel Lutheran
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:47
- Updated: 16 Feb 2013
Daniel Lutheran lets us know how Toy Machine trips get weird and why he likes California in this 5&5 for Independent Trucks and Strangenotes.
http://wn.com/5&5_with_Daniel_Lutheran
Daniel Lutheran lets us know how Toy Machine trips get weird and why he likes California in this 5&5 for Independent Trucks and Strangenotes.
- published: 22 Jan 2013
- views: 1765
- author: StrangeNotes
Daniel Lutheran
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:00
- Updated: 21 Feb 2013
fb.sk8only.com
http://wn.com/Daniel_Lutheran
The Apocrypha: The Lutheran Edition with Notes
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:57
- Updated: 11 Feb 2013
For more than 100 years, the Apocrypha has been left out of English versions of the Bible. Concordia Publishing House is proud to announce the 2012 release of the first and only ESV edition of the Apocrypha with notes and annotations by Lutherans. Described by Martin Luther as useful texts to read, but not divinely inspired, the Apocrypha allows Lutherans to look back at their heritage and see the Bible as our forefathers would have. Furthermore, the texts of the Apocrypha are essential reading for filling in the 400-year gap between the Old and New Testaments. A key resource for understanding the New Testament's background, Concordia's The Apocrypha will include notes, maps, charts, illustrations, introductions to the books, and an extensive set of articles that will provide guidance to those who are studying ancient literatures such as the Dead Sea Scrolls. This Study Bible-style treatment of the Apocrypha is certain to be the most extensive, popular edition available; especially to those eager to study the unique Lutheran perspective on these books and the time between the testaments. Learn more about the Apocrypha at www.cph.org
http://wn.com/The_Apocrypha_The_Lutheran_Edition_with_Notes
For more than 100 years, the Apocrypha has been left out of English versions of the Bible. Concordia Publishing House is proud to announce the 2012 release of the first and only ESV edition of the Apocrypha with notes and annotations by Lutherans. Described by Martin Luther as useful texts to read, but not divinely inspired, the Apocrypha allows Lutherans to look back at their heritage and see the Bible as our forefathers would have. Furthermore, the texts of the Apocrypha are essential reading for filling in the 400-year gap between the Old and New Testaments. A key resource for understanding the New Testament's background, Concordia's The Apocrypha will include notes, maps, charts, illustrations, introductions to the books, and an extensive set of articles that will provide guidance to those who are studying ancient literatures such as the Dead Sea Scrolls. This Study Bible-style treatment of the Apocrypha is certain to be the most extensive, popular edition available; especially to those eager to study the unique Lutheran perspective on these books and the time between the testaments. Learn more about the Apocrypha at www.cph.org
- published: 05 Oct 2012
- views: 1580
- author: ConcordiaPublishing
South Sudanese Nile Lutheran Church
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 68:07
- Updated: 23 Jan 2013
South Sudanese Nile Lutheran Church prayer service on Sunday December 09, 2012 Omaha, Nebraska USA
http://wn.com/South_Sudanese_Nile_Lutheran_Church
South Sudanese Nile Lutheran Church prayer service on Sunday December 09, 2012 Omaha, Nebraska USA
- published: 30 Dec 2012
- views: 252
- author: Komach Dey
WEtv LIVE on January 17th at 8pm Central
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:06
- Updated: 18 Jan 2013
Check it out! Another live broadcast coming up next week! We're really looking forward to doing this again and hope you can join us on Thursday, January 17th at 8pm Central time. Pastor Fisk will be answering questions about his book and taking other theological questions as well. Come hang out on Youtube for an hour of solid, Lutheran, Christian, orthodox theology, the kind you know you can't get anywhere else on Youtube. That's why Worldview Everlasting IS your favorite Youtube addiction!! Keep an eye on the Facebook fan page for more details and the link to the show when it goes live. Join the Lutheran Ninja Clan - www.worldvieweverlasting.com Want more Worldview Everlasting? Ask a question at: www.WorldviewEverlasting.com Join the conversation www.Facebook.com Order BROKEN by Jonathan Fisk: goo.gl
http://wn.com/WEtv_LIVE_on_January_17th_at_8pm_Central
Check it out! Another live broadcast coming up next week! We're really looking forward to doing this again and hope you can join us on Thursday, January 17th at 8pm Central time. Pastor Fisk will be answering questions about his book and taking other theological questions as well. Come hang out on Youtube for an hour of solid, Lutheran, Christian, orthodox theology, the kind you know you can't get anywhere else on Youtube. That's why Worldview Everlasting IS your favorite Youtube addiction!! Keep an eye on the Facebook fan page for more details and the link to the show when it goes live. Join the Lutheran Ninja Clan - www.worldvieweverlasting.com Want more Worldview Everlasting? Ask a question at: www.WorldviewEverlasting.com Join the conversation www.Facebook.com Order BROKEN by Jonathan Fisk: goo.gl
- published: 10 Jan 2013
- author: Jonathan Fisk
Looking back and looking ahead: an Anglican-Lutheran Christmas message
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:20
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
In their 2012 joint Christmas video message, Archbishop Fred Hiltz of the Anglican Church of Canada and National Bishop Susan C. Johnson of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada recall their recent trip to Jerusalem and anticipate their denominations' joint assembly in 2013. For more information about Anglican-Lutheran cooperation, visit www.anglican.ca
http://wn.com/Looking_back_and_looking_ahead_an_Anglican-Lutheran_Christmas_message
In their 2012 joint Christmas video message, Archbishop Fred Hiltz of the Anglican Church of Canada and National Bishop Susan C. Johnson of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada recall their recent trip to Jerusalem and anticipate their denominations' joint assembly in 2013. For more information about Anglican-Lutheran cooperation, visit www.anglican.ca
- published: 14 Dec 2012
- views: 350
- author: General Synod
I'm a Lifelong Lutheran, But... with Rev. Jonathan Fisk
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 58:28
- Updated: 25 Feb 2013
Pr. Jonathan Fisk speaks and discusses the crisis we have in catechizing our young ones (in homes, churches, and schools). He skillfully addresses the problems and honestly expresses his own ongoing struggle to find a solution with regards to how we pass down the faith from generation to generation (especially this new generation which is being entertained to death). Of particular note, Pr. Fisk discusses the phrase "I've been a Lutheran all my life, but..." which is how Lutherans confess non-Lutheran teachings and criticize Lutheran doctrine and practice. This has become a standard phrase which tries to introduce a non-Lutheran solution to the problems that we see out there among our youth. Commendable for trying to fix the problem we all see, it falls flat because it does not come from Lutheran teachings. Pastor Fisk asks some tough questions to wrestle with as we catechize our youth.
http://wn.com/I'm_a_Lifelong_Lutheran,_But_with_Rev_Jonathan_Fisk
Pr. Jonathan Fisk speaks and discusses the crisis we have in catechizing our young ones (in homes, churches, and schools). He skillfully addresses the problems and honestly expresses his own ongoing struggle to find a solution with regards to how we pass down the faith from generation to generation (especially this new generation which is being entertained to death). Of particular note, Pr. Fisk discusses the phrase "I've been a Lutheran all my life, but..." which is how Lutherans confess non-Lutheran teachings and criticize Lutheran doctrine and practice. This has become a standard phrase which tries to introduce a non-Lutheran solution to the problems that we see out there among our youth. Commendable for trying to fix the problem we all see, it falls flat because it does not come from Lutheran teachings. Pastor Fisk asks some tough questions to wrestle with as we catechize our youth.
- published: 16 Feb 2013
- views: 1605
- author: John TheSteadfast
Apocrypha - Lutheran Liturgy and Worship
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:28
- Updated: 04 Nov 2012
How have Lutherans traditionally used the Apocrypha? Learn more about the Apocrypha at www.cph.org
http://wn.com/Apocrypha_Lutheran_Liturgy_and_Worship
How have Lutherans traditionally used the Apocrypha? Learn more about the Apocrypha at www.cph.org
- published: 05 Oct 2012
- views: 363
- author: ConcordiaPublishing
Bingo with the Lutherans
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:41
- Updated: 15 Nov 2012
For more from The Worship Network, visit worship.net.
http://wn.com/Bingo_with_the_Lutherans
For more from The Worship Network, visit worship.net.
- published: 15 Nov 2012
- views: 572
- author: TheWorshipnetwork
Andrey Kasparov: Fantasy on Lutheran Chorales
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:11
- Updated: 28 Jan 2013
Andrey Kasparov (1966 - ) Fantasy on Lutheran Chorales (2004) Invencia Piano Duo: Andrey Kasparov & Oksana Lutsyshyn www.naxos.com Elon University Elon, NC
http://wn.com/Andrey_Kasparov_Fantasy_on_Lutheran_Chorales
Andrey Kasparov (1966 - ) Fantasy on Lutheran Chorales (2004) Invencia Piano Duo: Andrey Kasparov & Oksana Lutsyshyn www.naxos.com Elon University Elon, NC
- published: 13 Dec 2012
- views: 220
- author: Raff645
Windsor, Ontario - FIRST EV. LUTHERAN CHURCH - SLIDE SHOW
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:31
- Updated: 07 Nov 2012
First Evangelical Lutheran Church 114 Giles Boulevard West Windsor, ON, Canadá Slide Show
http://wn.com/Windsor,_Ontario_FIRST_EV_LUTHERAN_CHURCH_SLIDE_SHOW
First Evangelical Lutheran Church 114 Giles Boulevard West Windsor, ON, Canadá Slide Show
- published: 04 Nov 2012
- views: 96
- author: TheChristianhymns
photo: Public Domain
23 Feb 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. "No one who works full-time should have to live in poverty." -President Barack Obama, State of the Union Address, 2013. As of late, I have grown very fond and reflective of the workers at McDonalds. Since I do not have the internet in my apartment, I usually go there every Sunday where I drink coffee and read the latest online news ... the exploitation of one class by another....(size: 3.7Kb)
photo: AP / Nasser Shiyoukhi
25 Feb 2013
Six days after Arafat Jaradat was arrested by the Israeli army and the Shin Bet, he was dead. Between the date of his arrest - February 18 - and the day of his death - February 23 - his lawyer Kamil Sabbagh met with Arafat only once. in front of a military judge at the Shin Bet's Kishon interrogation facility. Sabbagh reported that when he saw Jaradat, the man was terrified ... Arafat was killed under torture. Torture is routine ... 757. Source.....(size: 8.3Kb)
photo: AP / SANA
22 Feb 2013
MOSCOW ' Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov accused the United States on Friday of having double standards on Syria, saying it had blocked a UN Security Council statement condemning a car bomb attack in Damascus. Washington denied it had blocked the statement and said it had only asked for balance ... “We believe these are double standards,” Lavrov said after talks with China’s foreign minister ... ....(size: 3.0Kb)
photo: AP / Ahn Young-joon, Pool
25 Feb 2013
Park Geun-Hye was today sworn in as South Korea's first female president, vowing zero tolerance with provocation from North Korea and demanding Pyongyang "abandon its nuclear ambitions" immediately. As leader of Asia's fourth-largest economy, Park, the 61-year-old daughter of a military strongman, faces challenges including slowing growth and soaring welfare costs in one of the world's most rapidly ageing societies ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)
photo: US Army/Sgt. Tierney Nowland
25 Feb 2013
It has been 10 years since the US-led invasion of Iraq, which marked a turning point in the West's so-called war on terror. The pretext of the Iraq war was security and freedom, but the bombastic and openly pronounced objective was no less than remaking the greater Middle East region. For Iraq, the invasion and occupation were cataclysmic ... ... But how much has America's calculus of war really changed?. ... ... Sunday ... 0600 ... ....(size: 4.7Kb)
STL Today
25 Feb 2013
CHESTERFIELD • It’s a good thing that the collective memory span of the Holt hockey team was a short one. The Indians, who saw a two-goal lead evaporate in a 4-2 loss to Lutheran South in Game 2 of the series earlier Sunday, regrouped after a mini-game tie to beat Lutheran South 2-1 in a shootout at the Ice Plex. The No ... The stop on Sparks came on a brilliant poke check ... Holt outshot Lutheran South 6-5 in the mini-game. ....(size: 3.3Kb)
noodls
25 Feb 2013
(Source. University of Minnesota). Next Community Meal Set for February 25 ... Faith Lutheran Church ... at Faith Lutheran Church (108 West Eighth Street, Morris) ... Ongoing sponsors include Pomme de Terre Food Co-op, Willie's Supervalu, Faith Lutheran Church, and the University of Minnesota, Morris Office of Community Engagement. Volunteers looking to help cook or serve the meal are welcome to come to Faith Lutheran Church between 2 and 8 p.m....(size: 2.3Kb)
Milwaukee Journal Sentinel
25 Feb 2013
.. As the deadline looms for the March 1 federal cuts known as the sequester, nearly 100 Christian leaders from around the country are calling on President Barack Obama and Congress to protect programs that serve the poor and vulnerable and cease the political brinksmanship that is slowing the nation’s economic recovery ... ... . ... ... ... ... ELCA Lutheran. The Lutheran Church - Missouri Synod. WELS Lutheran....(size: 3.0Kb)
Denver Post
25 Feb 2013
The following school closures have been reported for Monday, February 25, 2013. ABC Childcare Center - Opening at 8 a.m. Academy Charter School - Castle Rock - Closed. Accelerated Schools - Closed ... Ambleside School - Opening at 9.55 a.m. American Academy - Closed ... Holy Cross Lutheran ELC H R - Class Closed/ Child Care Open ... Lord of Life Lutheran - Opening at 9.30 a.m ... Lutheran HS Parker - Delayed Schedule ... Trinity Lutheran-Franktown - Closed....(size: 4.0Kb)
The Roanoke Times
25 Feb 2013
noodls
25 Feb 2013
GEORGETOWN, Texas - Southwestern got out to leads in both games of the doubleheader, but Texas Lutheran was able to rally late in each game for the pair of wins, 8-5 and 9-8 ... Texas Lutheran rallied in the seventh, scoring seven runs on four hits and an error to take the 8-5 lead and secured the victory. Caroline Young led Southwestern by going 2-4, with a double and three runs batted in....(size: 4.2Kb)
Detroit Free Press
25 Feb 2013
CLASS A. 1. Kalamazoo Central at Portage Central, 7; Niles at St ... 2 ... 3 ... 4 ... 5 ... 6 ... Rockford vs ... Macomb Lutheran North, 7 ... West Bloomfield Frankel Jewish Academy at Auburn Hills Oakland Christian, 7; Royal Oak Shrine at Pontiac Academy for Excellence, 6; Madison Heights Bishop Foley at Rochester Hills Lutheran Northwest, 7 ... Saginaw Michigan Lutheran Seminary, 7.30 ... Joseph Michigan Lutheran ... Lutheran Westland vs. Westland Huron Valley Lutheran, 6.30....(size: 10.6Kb)
Detroit Free Press
25 Feb 2013
CLASS A. 1. Kalamazoo Central at Portage Central, 7; Niles at St ... 2 ... 3 ... 4 ... 5 ... 6 ... Rockford vs ... Macomb Lutheran North, 7 ... West Bloomfield Frankel Jewish Academy at Auburn Hills Oakland Christian, 7; Royal Oak Shrine at Pontiac Academy for Excellence, 6; Madison Heights Bishop Foley at Rochester Hills Lutheran Northwest, 7 ... Saginaw Michigan Lutheran Seminary, 7.30 ... Joseph Michigan Lutheran ... Lutheran Westland vs. Westland Huron Valley Lutheran, 6.30....(size: 10.6Kb)
noodls
25 Feb 2013
(Source. Franklin County, PA) WORLD FAMOUS BIG BAND SWINGS INTO THE HISTORIC CAPITOL THEATRE IN DOWNTOWN CHAMBERSBURG ON SUNDAY, MARCH 3. February 23rd, 2013 ... (All ticket prices below.) ... Main St ... - 4.30 p.m ... Capitol Theatre is presenting the event and will benefit from it. Thank you to LIFE Lutheran Services and Lutheran Home Care & Hospice and Franklin County Visitors Bureau for their sponsorship of this world-class event ... (noodl....(size: 3.6Kb)
noodls
25 Feb 2013
(Source. CLP Holdings Limited). 24 February 2013. 中華電力有限公司. CLP Power Hong Kong Limited Application for CLP Community Care Subsidy Starts Tomorrow ... Application for the subsidy starts tomorrow (25 February). CLP will offer each approved eligible household a subsidy of HK$300 ... www.clp.com.hk starting from tomorrow ... - End - ... Tel ... HKLSS Martha Boss Lutheran Community Centre ... HKLSS Homantin Lutheran Family Support ... HKLSS Shek Wu Lutheran Community....(size: 7.7Kb)
The Los Angeles Times
25 Feb 2013
"His patience grew so large because of me," Lawrence said at the memorial service for the couple ... "Breathing in and out is hard right now," Foster said ... Dorner later took his own life ... When she graduated from college, she rose quickly in the coaching ranks at Cal Lutheran University and Cal State Fullerton. "In 10 minutes, I knew I had found a star," said Roy Dow, head coach of the women's basketball team at Cal Lutheran ... 0. ... ... ....(size: 6.2Kb)
Newsday
25 Feb 2013
Harborfields Long Island Lutheran 51, Mary Louis Academy 30 Southampton 36, Stony Brook 10 Deer Park 76, Brentwood 63 St ... Lutheran 58, Lincoln 49 Griffin Schwab and Darbie Burke Nassau Class B Track Championship Massapequa goalie Dana DeMartino Nassau Coaches Invitational Floral Park 37, Manhasset 35 Mepham 50, Herricks 49 Suffolk V title....(size: 3.9Kb)
Newsday
25 Feb 2013
Harborfields Long Island Lutheran 51, Mary Louis Academy 30 Southampton 36, Stony Brook 10 Deer Park 76, Brentwood 63 St ... Lutheran 58, Lincoln 49 Griffin Schwab and Darbie Burke Nassau Class B Track Championship Massapequa goalie Dana DeMartino Nassau Coaches Invitational Floral Park 37, Manhasset 35 Mepham 50, Herricks 49 Suffolk V title....(size: 3.9Kb)
Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the theology of Martin Luther, a German reformer. Luther's efforts to reform the theology and practice of the Roman Catholic Church launched the Protestant Reformation. Beginning with the 95 Theses, Luther's writings were disseminated internationally, spreading the ideas of the Reformation beyond the ability of governmental and churchly authorities to control it.[1]
The name "Lutheran" originated as a derogatory term used against Luther by Johann Eck during the Leipzig Debate in July 1519.[2] Eck and other Roman Catholics followed the traditional practice of naming a heresy after its leader, thus labeling all who identified with the theology of Martin Luther as Lutherans.[3] Martin Luther always disliked the term, preferring instead to describe the reform movement with the term "Evangelical", which was derived from euangelion, a Greek word meaning "good news", i.e. "Gospel."[2] Lutherans themselves began to use the term in the middle of the 16th century in order to distinguish themselves from other groups, such as Philippists and Calvinists. In 1597, theologians in Wittenberg used the title "Lutheran" to describe their church.[3]
Contents
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History[link]
The split between the Lutherans and the Roman Catholics began with the Edict of Worms in 1521, which officially excommunicated Luther and all of his followers.[3] The divide centered over the doctrine of Justification. Lutheranism advocates a doctrine of justification "by grace alone through faith alone because of Christ alone" which went against the Roman view of "faith formed by love", or "faith and works". Unlike the Reformed Churches, Lutherans retain many of the liturgical practices and sacramental teachings of the pre-Reformation Church. Lutheran theology significantly differs from Reformed theology in Christology, the purpose of God's Law, divine grace, the concept of perseverance of the saints, and predestination.
Lutheranism has its roots in the efforts of Martin Luther who sought to reform the Western Church to a more biblical foundation.[4][5][6][7]
Spread into Northern Europe[link]
Lutheranism spread through all of Scandinavia during the 16th century, as the monarch of Denmark-Norway (also ruling Iceland) and the monarch of Sweden (also ruling Finland) adopted Lutheranism. Through Baltic-German and Swedish rule Lutheranism also spread into the Baltic countries of Estonia and Latvia.
Since 1520, regular[8] Lutheran services have been held in Copenhagen. Under the reign of Frederick I (1523–33), Denmark-Norway remained officially Catholic. Although Frederick initially pledged to persecute Lutherans, he soon adopted a policy of protecting Lutheran preachers and reformers, the most significant being Hans Tausen.[9]
During Frederick's reign, Lutheranism made significant inroads among the Danish population. At an open meeting in Copenhagen attended by the king in 1536, the people shouted; "We will stand by the holy Gospel, and do not want such bishops anymore".[10] Frederick's son Christian was openly Lutheran, which prevented his election to the throne upon his father's death. However, following his victory in the civil war that followed, in 1537 he became Christian III and advanced the Reformation in Denmark-Norway.
The constitution upon which the Danish Norwegian Church, according to the Church Ordinance should rest was "The pure word of God, which is the Law and the Gospel".[11] It does not even mention the[12] Augsburg Confession. The priests at least had to[13] understand the Holy Script well enough to preach and explain the Gospel and the Epistles for their congregations.
The youths were taught[14] from the Small Catechism, available in Danish since 1532. They may in the end expect:[15] "forgiving of their sins", "to be counted as just", and "the eternal life". Instruction is still similar.[16] The first Bible in Danish was Martin Luther's. It was translated by 1550 and made available in 3,000 copies.[17] It was sold out 30 years later. Important differences from today's Roman Catholicism are the Lutherans' refutation of the ideas that tradition is a carrier of the "Word of God", and that only the communion of the Bishop of Rome had been entrusted to interpret the "Word of God".[18][19]
The Reformation in Sweden began with Olaus and Laurentius Petri, brothers who took the Reformation to Sweden after studying in Germany. They led Gustav Vasa, elected king in 1523, to Lutheranism. The pope's refusal to allow the replacement of an archbishop that supported the invading forces opposing Gustav Vasa during the Stockholm Bloodbath led to the discontinuance of any official connection between Sweden and the papacy in 1523.[9]
Four years later, at the Diet of Västerås, the king succeeded in forcing the diet to accept his dominion over the national church. The king was given possession of all church properties such as the church appointments and the clergy. While this effectively granted official sanction to Lutheran ideas,[9] Lutheranism did not become official until 1593, when the Uppsala Synod declared Holy Scripture the sole guideline for faith, with four documents accepted as faithful and authoritative explanations of it: the Apostles' Creed, the Nicene Creed, the Athanasian Creed, and the unaltered Augsburg Confession of 1530.[20] Mikael Agricola's translation of the first Finnish New Testament was published in 1548.[21]
Schmalkaldic War and the Formula of Concord[link]
After the death of Luther in 1546, the Schmalkaldic War started out as a conflict between two German Lutheran rulers in 1547. Soon, Holy Roman Imperial forces joined the battle and conquered the members of the Schmalkaldic League, oppressing and exiling many German Lutherans as they enforced the terms of the Augsburg Interim. Religious freedom was secured for Lutherans through the Peace of Passau in 1552 and under the Cuius regio, eius religio and Declaratio Ferdinandei clauses of the Peace of Augsburg in 1555.[22]
Religious disputes between the Crypto-Calvinists, Philippists, Sacramentarians, Ubiquitarians, and Gnesio-Lutherans raged within Lutheranism during the middle of the 16th century. This finally ended with the resolution of the issues in the Formula of Concord. Large numbers of politically and religiously influential leaders met together, debated, and resolved these topics on the basis of Scripture, resulting in the Formula, which over 8,000 leaders signed. The Book of Concord replaced earlier, incomplete collections of doctrine, unifying all German Lutherans with identical doctrine and beginning the period of Lutheran Orthodoxy.
Lutheran orthodoxy[link]
Main article: Lutheran Orthodoxy
The historical period of Lutheran Orthodoxy is divided into three sections: Early Orthodoxy (1580–1600), High Orthodoxy (1600–1685), and Late Orthodoxy (1685–1730). Lutheran scholasticism developed gradually especially for the purpose of arguing with the Jesuits, and it was finally established by Johann Gerhard. Abraham Calovius represents the climax of the scholastic paradigm in orthodox Lutheranism. Other orthodox Lutheran theologians include Martin Chemnitz, Aegidius Hunnius, Leonhard Hutter, Nicolaus Hunnius, Jesper Rasmussen Brochmand, Salomo Glassius, Johann Hülsemann, Johann Conrad Dannhauer, Johannes Andreas Quenstedt, Johann Friedrich König, and Johann Wilhelm Baier.
Near the end of the Thirty Years' War, the compromising spirit seen in Philip Melanchthon rose up again in Helmstedt School and especially in theology of Georgius Calixtus, causing the Syncretistic Controversy. Another theological issue that arose was the Crypto-Kenotic Controversy.[23]
Late orthodoxy was torn by influences from rationalism, philosophy based on reason, and Pietism, a revival movement in Lutheranism. After a century of vitality, the Pietist theologians Philipp Jakob Spener and August Hermann Francke warned that orthodoxy had degenerated into meaningless intellectualism and Formalism, while orthodox theologians found the emotional and subjective focuses of Pietism to be vulnerable to Rationalist propaganda.[24]
The last famous orthodox Lutheran theologian before the rationalist Aufklärung, or Enlightenment, was David Hollatz. Late orthodox theologian Valentin Ernst Löscher took part in the controversy against Pietism. Medieval mystical traditions continued in works of Martin Moller, Johann Arndt, and Joachim Lütkemann. Pietism became a rival of orthodoxy but adopted some orthodox devotional literature; for example, Arndt's, Scriver's and Prätorius' which were combined Pietistic literature.
Rationalism[link]
Rationalist philosophers from France and England had an enormous impact during the 18th century, along with the German Rationalists Christian Wolff, Gottfried Leibniz, and Immanuel Kant. Their work led to an increase in rationalist beliefs, at the expense of faith in God and agreement with the Bible.[24]
In 1709, Valentin Ernst Löscher warned that this new Rationalist view of the world fundamentally changed society by drawing into question every aspect of theology. Instead of considering the authority of divine revelation, he explained, Rationalists relied solely on their personal understanding when searching for truth.[25]
Johann Melchior Goeze (1717–1786), pastor of St. Catherine's Church, Hamburg, wrote apologetical works against Rationalists, including a theological and historical defence against the historical criticism of the Bible.[26]
Dissenting Lutheran pastors were often reprimanded by the government bureaucracy overseeing them, for example, when they tried to correct Rationalist influences in the parish school.[27] As a result of the impact of a local form of rationalism, termed Neology, by the latter half of the 18th century, genuine piety was found almost solely in small Pietist conventicles.[24] However, some of the laity preserved Lutheran orthodoxy from both Pietism and rationalism through reusing old catechisms, hymnbooks, postils, and devotional writings, including those written by Johann Gerhard, Heinrich Müller, and Christian Scriver.[28]
Revivals[link]
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A layman, Luther scholar Johann Georg Hamann (1730–88), became famous for countering Rationalism and striving to advance a revival known as the Erweckung, or Awakening.[29] In 1806, Napoleon's invasion of Germany promoted Rationalism and angered German Lutherans, stirring up a desire among the people to preserve Luther's theology from the Rationalist threat. Those associated with this Awakening held that reason was insufficient and pointed out the importance of emotional religious experience.[30][31]
Small groups sprang up, often in universities, which devoted themselves to Bible study, reading devotional writings, and revival meetings. Although the beginning of this Awakening tended heavily toward Romanticism, patriotism, and experience, the emphasis of the Awakening shifted around 1830 to restoring the traditional liturgy, doctrine, and confessions of the Lutheran church in the Neo-Lutheran movement.[30][31]
This Awakening swept through all of Scandinavia except for Iceland.[32] It developed from both German Neo-Lutheranism and Pietism. Danish pastor and philosopher Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig reshaped church life throughout Denmark through a reform movement beginning in 1830. He also wrote about 1,500 hymns, including God's Word Is Our Great Heritage.[33]
In Norway, Hans Nielsen Hauge, a lay street preacher, emphasized spiritual discipline and sparked the Haugean movement.[34] In Norway, the Awakening drove the growth of foreign missions to non-Christians to a new height, which has never been reached since.[32] In Sweden, Lars Levi Læstadius began the Laestadian movement that emphasized moral reform.[34] In Finland, a farmer, Paavo Ruotsalainen, began the Finnish Awakening when he took to preaching about repentance and prayer.[34]
In 1817, Frederick William III of Prussia ordered the Lutheran and Reformed churches in his territory to unite, forming the Evangelical Church of the Prussian Union. The unification of the two branches of German Protestantism sparked the Schism of the Old Lutherans. Many Lutherans, called "Old Lutherans", chose to leave the state churches despite imprisonment and military force.[29] Some formed independent church bodies, or "free churches", at home while others left for the United States, Canada, and Australia. A similar legislated merger in Silesia prompted thousands to join the Old Lutheran movement. The dispute over ecumenism overshadowed other controversies within German Lutheranism.[35]
Despite political meddling in church life, local and national leaders sought to restore and renew Christianity. Neo-Lutheran Johann Konrad Wilhelm Löhe and Old Lutheran free church leader Friedrich August Brünn[36] both sent young men overseas to serve as pastors to German Americans, while the Inner Mission focused on renewing the situation home.[37] Johann Gottfried Herder, superintendent at Weimar and part of the Inner Mission movement, joined with the Romantic movement with his quest to preserve human emotion and experience from Rationalism.[38]
Ernst Wilhelm Hengstenberg, though raised Reformed, became convinced of the truth of historic Lutheranism as a young man.[39] He led the Neo-Lutheran Repristination School of theology, which advocated a return to the orthodox theologians of the 17th century and opposed modern Bible scholarship.[40] As editor of the periodical Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, he developed it into a major support of Neo-Lutheran revival and used it to attack all forms of theological liberalism and rationalism. Although he received a large amount of slander and ridicule during his forty years at the head of revival, he never gave up his positions.[39]
The theological faculty at the University of Erlangen in Bavaria became another force for reform.[39] There, professor Adolf von Harless, though previously an adherent of rationalism and German idealism, made Erlangen a magnet for revival oriented theologians.[41] Termed the Erlangen School of theology, they developed a new version of the Incarnation,[41] which they felt emphasized the humanity of Jesus better than the ecumenical creeds.[42] As theologians, they used both modern historical critical and Hegelian philosophical methods instead of attempting to revive the orthodoxy of the 17th century.[43]
Friedrich Julius Stahl led the High Church Lutherans. Though raised a Jew, he was baptized as a Christian at the age of 19 through the influence of the Lutheran school he attended. As the leader of a neofeudal Prussian political party, he campaigned for the divine right of kings, the power of the nobility, and episcopal polity for the church. Along with Kliefoth and Vilmar, he promoted agreement with Roman Catholicism with regard to the authority of the institutional church, ex opere operato effectiveness of the sacraments, and the divine authority of clergy. Unlike Roman Catholics, however, they also urged complete agreement with the Book of Concord.[42]
The Neo-Lutheran movement managed to slow secularism and counter atheistic Marxism, but it did not fully succeed in Europe.[37] It partly succeeded in continuing the Pietist movement's drive to right social wrongs and focus on individual conversion. The Neo-Lutheran call to renewal failed to achieve widespread popular acceptance because it both began and continued with a lofty, idealistic Romanticism that did not connect with an increasingly industrialized and secularized Europe.[44] At best, the work of local leaders resulted in specific areas with vibrant spiritual renewal, but people in Lutheran areas overall continued to become increasingly distant from church life.[37] By 1969, Manfried Kober complained that “unbelief is rampant” even within German Lutheran parishes.[45]
Doctrine[link]
The Bible[link]
Traditionally, Lutherans hold the Bible of the Old and New Testaments to be the only divinely inspired book, the only source of divinely revealed knowledge, and the only norm for Christian teaching.[46] Scripture alone is the formal principle of the faith, the final authority for all matters of faith and morals because of its inspiration, authority, clarity, efficacy, and sufficiency.[47]
The authority of the Scriptures has been challenged during the history of Lutheranism. Martin Luther taught that the Bible was the written Word of God, and the only reliable guide for faith and practice. He held that every passage of Scripture has one straightforward meaning, the literal sense as interpreted by other Scripture.[48][clarification needed] These teachings were accepted during the orthodox Lutheranism of the 17th century.[49] During the 18th century, Rationalism advocated reason rather than the authority of the Bible as the final source of knowledge, but most of the laity did not accept this Rationalist position.[50] In the 19th century, a confessional revival reemphasized the authority of the Bible and agreement with the Lutheran Confessions.
Today, Lutherans disagree about the inspiration and authority of the Bible. Theological conservatives use the historical-grammatical method of Biblical interpretation, while theological liberals use the higher critical method. The 2008 U.S. Religious Landscape Survey conducted by the Pew Research Center surveyed 1,926 adults in the United States that self-identified as Lutheran. The study found that 30% believed that the Bible was the Word of God and was to be taken literally word for word. 40% held that the Bible was the Word of God, but was not literally true word for word or were unsure if it was literally true word for word. 23% said the Bible was written by men and not the Word of God. 7% did not know, were not sure, or had other positions.[51]
Inspiration[link]
Although many Lutherans today hold less specific views of inspiration, historically, Lutherans affirm that the Bible does not merely contain the Word of God, but every word of it is, because of plenary, verbal inspiration, the direct, immediate word of God.[52] The Apology of the Augsburg Confession identifies Holy Scripture with the Word of God[53] and calls the Holy Spirit the author of the Bible.[54] Because of this, Lutherans confess in the Formula of Concord, "we receive and embrace with our whole heart the prophetic and apostolic Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments as the pure, clear fountain of Israel."[55] The apocryphal books were not written by the prophets, by inspiration; they contain errors[56] never included in the Judean Canon that Jesus used,[57] and therefore are not a part of Holy Scripture.[58] The prophetic and apostolic Scriptures are authentic as written by the prophets and apostles. A correct translation of their writings is God's Word because it has the same meaning as the original Hebrew and Greek.[58] A mistranslation is not God's word, and no human authority can invest it with divine authority.[58]
Divine authority[link]
Historically, Lutherans maintain that Holy Scripture, the Word of God, carries the full authority of God. For confessional Lutherans, every single statement of the Bible calls for instant and unqualified acceptance. For Lutherans that are more aligned with mainline Protestantism, a basic claim is made that the canonical Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments are the inspired Word of God and the authoritative source and norm of its proclamation, faith, and life. This allows for historical-critical methods for interpretation.
Clarity[link]
Historically, Lutherans understand the Bible to present all doctrines and commands of the Christian faith clearly.[59] God's Word is freely accessible to every reader or hearer of ordinary intelligence, without requiring any special education.[60] Of course, one must understand the language God's Word is presented in, and not be so preoccupied by contrary thoughts so as to prevent understanding.[61] As a result of this, no one needs to wait for any clergy, pope, scholar, or ecumenical council to explain the real meaning of any part of the Bible.[62]
Efficacy[link]
Lutherans confess that Scripture is united with the power of the Holy Spirit and with it, not only demands, but also creates the acceptance of its teaching.[63] This teaching produces faith and obedience. Holy Scripture is not a dead letter, but rather, the power of the Holy Spirit is inherent in it.[64] Scripture does not compel a mere intellectual assent to its doctrine, resting on logical argumentation, but rather it creates the living agreement of faith.[65] As the Smalcald Articles affirm, "in those things which concern the spoken, outward Word, we must firmly hold that God grants His Spirit or grace to no one, except through or with the preceding outward Word."[66]
Sufficiency[link]
Lutherans are confident that the Bible contains everything that one needs to know in order to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life.[67] There are no deficiencies in Scripture that need to be filled with by tradition, pronouncements of the Pope, new revelations, or present-day development of doctrine.[68]
Law and Gospel[link]
_-_The_Law_and_the_Gospel.jpg)
Lutherans understand the Bible as containing two distinct types of content, termed Law and Gospel (or Law and Promises).[69] Properly distinguishing between Law and Gospel prevents the obscuring of the Gospel teaching of justification by grace through faith alone.[70]
Lutheran Confessions[link]
The Book of Concord, published in 1580, contains ten documents which some Lutherans believe are faithful and authoritative explanations of Holy Scripture. Besides the three Ecumenical Creeds, which date to Roman times, the Book of Concord contains seven credal documents articulating Lutheran theology in the Reformation era.
The doctrinal positions of Lutheran churches are not uniform because the Book of Concord does not hold the same position in all Lutheran churches. For example, the state churches in Scandinavia consider only the Augsburg Confession as a "summary of the faith" in addition to the three ecumenical Creeds.[71] Lutheran pastors, congregations, and church bodies in Germany and the Americas usually agree to teach in harmony with the entire Lutheran Confessions. Some Lutheran church bodies require this pledge to be unconditional because they believe the confessions correctly state what the Bible teaches. Others allow their congregations to do so "insofar as" the Confessions are in agreement with the Bible.
Justification[link]
The key doctrine, or material principle, of Lutheranism is the doctrine of justification. Lutherans believe that humans are saved from their sins by God's grace alone (Sola Gratia), through faith alone (Sola Fide). Lutherans believe that this grace is granted for the sake of Christ's merit alone (Solus Christus). Orthodox Lutheran theology holds that God made the world, including humanity, perfect, holy and sinless. However, Adam and Eve chose to disobey God, trusting in their own strength, knowledge, and wisdom.[72][73] Consequently, people are saddled with original sin, born sinful and unable to avoid committing sinful acts.[74] For Lutherans, original sin is the "chief sin, a root and fountainhead of all actual sins."[75]
Lutherans teach that sinners, while capable of doing works that are outwardly "good," are not capable of doing works that satisfy God's justice.[76] Every human thought and deed is infected with sin and sinful motives.[77] Because of this, all humanity deserves eternal damnation in hell.[78] God in eternity has turned His Fatherly heart to this world and planned for its redemption because he loves all people and does not want anyone to be eternally damned.[79]
To this end, "God sent his Son Jesus Christ, our Lord, into the world to redeem and deliver us from the power of the devil, and to bring us to Himself, and to govern us as a King of righteousness, life, and salvation against sin, death, and an evil conscience," as the Large Catechism explains.[80] Because of this, Lutherans teach that salvation is possible only because of the grace of God made manifest in the birth, life, suffering, death, and resurrection, and continuing presence by the power of the Holy Spirit, of Jesus Christ.[81] By God's grace, made known and effective in the person and work of Jesus Christ, a person is forgiven, adopted as a child and heir of God, and given eternal salvation.[82] Christ, because he was entirely obedient to the law with respect to both his human and divine natures, "is a perfect satisfaction and reconciliation of the human race," as the Formula of Concord asserts, and proceeds to summarize:[83]
[Christ] submitted to the law for us, bore our sin, and in going to his Father performed complete and perfect obedience for us poor sinners, from his holy birth to his death. Thereby he covered all our disobedience, which is embedded in our nature and in its thoughts, words, and deeds, so that this disobedience is not reckoned to us as condemnation but is pardoned and forgiven by sheer grace, because of Christ alone.
Lutherans believe that individuals receive this gift of salvation through faith alone.[84] Saving faith is the knowledge of,[85] acceptance of,[86] and trust[87] in the promise of the Gospel.[88] Even faith itself is seen as a gift of God, created in the hearts of Christians[89] by the work of the Holy Spirit through the Word[90] and Baptism.[91] Faith receives the gift of salvation rather than causes salvation.[92] Thus, Lutherans reject the "decision theology" which is common among modern evangelicals.
Trinity[link]
Lutherans are Trinitarian; they confess in the Nicean Creed: the version in Evangelical Lutheran Worship (2006) of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Canada (ELCIC) is the 1988 ecumenical (ELLC) version. But the Lutheran Service Book(2006) of the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod (LCMS) and the Lutheran Church–Canada (LCC) is that of the 1662 Book of Common Prayer with modernized spelling of the words "catholic" and "apostolic", with changes in capitalization of these and other words, and with "Holy Spirit" in place of "Holy Ghost". Lutherans reject the idea that the Father and the Son are merely faces of the same person, stating that both the Old Testament and the New Testament show them to be two distinct persons.[93] Lutherans believe the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son.[94] "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; Neither confounding the Persons, nor dividing the Substance. For there is one Person of the Father, another of the Son, and another of the Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost is all one: the glory equal, the majesty coeternal."
Two natures of Christ[link]
Main article: Scholastic Lutheran Christology
Lutherans believe Jesus is the Christ, the savior promised in the Old Testament. They believe he is both by nature God and by nature man in one person, as they confess in Luther's Small Catechism that he is "true God begotten of the Father from eternity and also true man born of the Virgin Mary".[95]
The Augsburg Confession explains:[96]
[T]he Son of God, did assume the human nature in the womb of the blessed Virgin Mary, so that there are two natures, the divine and the human, inseparably enjoined in one Person, one Christ, true God and true man, who was born of the Virgin Mary, truly suffered, was crucified, dead, and buried, that He might reconcile the Father unto us, and be a sacrifice, not only for original guilt, but also for all actual sins of men.
Sacraments[link]
Main article: Lutheran sacraments
Lutherans hold that sacraments are sacred acts of divine institution.[97] Whenever they are properly administered by the use of the physical component commanded by God[98] along with the divine words of institution,[99] God is, in a way specific to each sacrament, present with the Word and physical component.[100] He earnestly offers to all who receive the sacrament[101] forgiveness of sins[102] and eternal salvation.[103] He also works in the recipients to get them to accept these blessings and to increase the assurance of their possession.[104]
Lutherans are not dogmatic about the number of the sacraments.[106] In line with Luther's initial statement in his Large Catechism some speak of only two sacraments,[107] Baptism and Holy Communion, although later in the same work he calls Confession and Absolution[108] "the third sacrament."[109] The definition of sacrament in the Apology of the Augsburg Confession lists Absolution as one of them.[110] Since Absolution is a return to the forgiveness given in baptism, strictly speaking there are only two sacraments. Confession is not practiced among Lutherans as often as in the Roman Church. Rather, it is expected before receiving the Eucharist for the first time.[111] Some churches also allow for individual absolution on Saturdays before the Eucharistic service. A general absolution (known as the Penitential Rite) is proclaimed in the Eucharistic liturgy. Lutherans do not emphasize "penance" as a retribution of sin but rather the proclamation of God's forgiveness by the "called and ordained" minister of the Holy Gospel.
Baptism[link]
Lutherans hold that Baptism is a saving work of God,[112] mandated and instituted by Jesus Christ.[113] Baptism is a "means of grace" through which God creates and strengthens "saving faith" as the "washing of regeneration"[114] in which infants and adults are reborn.[115] Since the creation of faith is exclusively God's work, it does not depend on the actions of the one baptized, whether infant or adult. Even though baptized infants cannot articulate that faith, Lutherans believe that it is present all the same.[116]
Because it is faith alone that receives these divine gifts, Lutherans confess that baptism "works forgiveness of sins, delivers from death and the devil, and gives eternal salvation to all who believe this, as the words and promises of God declare."[117] Holding fast to the Scripture cited in 1 Peter 3:21 "and this water symbolizes baptism that now saves you also—not the removal of dirt from the body but the pledge of a good conscience toward God. It saves you by the resurrection of Jesus Christ." Therefore, Lutherans administer Baptism to both infants[118] and adults.[119] In the special section on infant baptism in his Large Catechism, Luther argues that infant baptism is God-pleasing because persons so baptized were reborn and sanctified by the Holy Spirit.[120][121]
File:JohntheSteadfast.JPG
Luther communing John the Steadfast.
Eucharist[link]
Main article: Eucharist in the Lutheran Church
File:RepentanceisContrition&faith.jpg
A.C. Article XII: Of Repentance.
Lutherans hold that within the Eucharist, also referred to as the Sacrament of the Altar, the Mass, or the Lord's Supper, the true body and blood of Christ are truly present "in, with, and under the forms" of the consecrated bread and wine for all those who eat and drink it,[122] a doctrine that the Formula of Concord calls the sacramental union.[123]
Conversion[link]
In Lutheranism, conversion or regeneration in the strict sense of the term is the work of divine grace and power by which man, born of the flesh, and void of all power to think, to will, or to do any good thing, and dead in sin is, through the gospel and holy baptism, taken from a state of sin and spiritual death under God's wrath into a state of spiritual life of faith and grace, rendered able to will and to do what is spiritually good and, especially, made to trust in the benefits of the redemption which is in Christ Jesus.[124]
During conversion, one is moved from impenitence to repentance. The Augsburg Confession divides repentance into two parts: "One is contrition, that is, terrors smiting the conscience through the knowledge of sin; the other is faith, which is born of the Gospel, or of absolution, and believes that for Christ's sake, sins are forgiven, comforts the conscience, and delivers it from terrors."[125]
Predestination[link]
Lutherans adhere to divine monergism, the teaching that salvation is by God's act alone, and therefore reject the idea that humans in their fallen state have a free will concerning spiritual matters.[127] Lutherans believe that although humans have free will concerning civil righteousness, they cannot work spiritual righteousness in the heart without the presence and aid of the Holy Spirit.[128][129] Lutherans believe Christians are "saved";[130] that all who trust in Christ alone and his promises can be certain of their salvation.[131]
According to Lutheranism, the central final hope of the Christian is "the resurrection of the body and the life everlasting" as confessed in the Apostles' Creed rather than predestination. Lutherans disagree with those who make predestination - rather than Christ's suffering, death, and resurrection - the source of salvation. Unlike Calvinists, Lutherans do not believe in a predestination to damnation,[132] usually referencing "God our Savior, who desires all people to be saved and to come to the knowledge of the truth" [133] as contrary evidence to such a claim. Instead, Lutherans teach eternal damnation is a result of the unbeliever's sins, rejection of the forgiveness of sins, and unbelief.[134]
Divine providence[link]
According to Lutherans, God preserves his creation, cooperates with everything that happens, and guides the universe.[135] While God cooperates with both good and evil deeds, with evil deeds he does so only inasmuch as they are deeds, but not with the evil in them. God concurs with an act's effect, but he does not cooperate in the corruption of an act or the evil of its effect.[136] Lutherans believe everything exists for the sake of the Christian Church, and that God guides everything for its welfare and growth.[137]
The explanation of the Apostles' Creed given in the Small Catechism declares that everything good that people have is given and preserved by God, either directly or through other people or things.[138] Of the services others provide us through family, government, and work, "we receive these blessings not from them, but, through them, from God."[139] Since God uses everyone's useful tasks for good, people should look not down upon some useful vocations as being less worthy than others. Instead people should honor others, no matter how lowly, as being the means God uses to work in the world.[139]
Good works[link]
Lutherans believe that good works are the fruit of faith,[141] always and in every instance.[142] Good works have their origin in God,[143] not in the fallen human heart or in human striving;[144] their absence would demonstrate that faith, too, is absent.[145] Lutherans do not believe that good works are a factor in obtaining salvation; they believe that we are saved by the grace of God - based on the merit of Christ in his suffering and death - and faith in the Triune God. Good works are the natural result of faith, not the cause of salvation. Although Christians are no longer compelled to keep God's law, they freely and willingly serve God and their neighbors.[146]
Judgment and eternal life[link]
Lutherans do not believe in any sort of earthly millennial kingdom of Christ either before or after his second coming on the last day.[147] Lutherans teach that, at death, the souls of Christians are immediately taken into the presence of Jesus,[148] where they await the second coming of Jesus on the last day.[149] On the last day,[150] all the bodies of the dead will be resurrected.[151]
Their souls will then be reunited with the same bodies they had before dying.[152] The bodies will then be changed, those of the wicked to a state of everlasting shame and torment,[153] those of the righteous to an everlasting state of celestial glory.[154] After the resurrection of all the dead,[155] and the change of those still living,[156] all nations shall be gathered before Christ,[157] and he will separate the righteous from the wicked.[158]
Christ will publicly judge[159] all people by the testimony of their deeds,[160] the good works[161] of the righteous in evidence of their faith,[162] and the evil works of the wicked in evidence of their unbelief.[163] He will judge in righteousness[164] in the presence of all people and angels,[165] and his final judgment will be just damnation to everlasting punishment for the wicked and a gracious gift of life everlasting to the righteous.[166]
Comparison among Protestants[link]
This table summarizes the classical views of three Protestant beliefs about salvation.[167]
| Topic | Calvinism | Lutheranism | Arminianism |
| Human will | Total Depravity without free will permanently due to the nature of divine sovereignty | Total Depravity without free will until spiritual regeneration | Total depravity, with prevenient grace, does not preclude free will |
| Election | Unconditional election to salvation with those outside the elect foreordained to damnation (double-predestination)[168] | Unconditional election to salvation only | Conditional election on the basis of foreseen faith or unbelief |
| Justification | Justification is limited to those predestined to salvation, completed at Christ's death | Justification of all people made available at Christ's death[citation needed] | Justification made possible for all through Christ's death, but only completed upon placing faith in Jesus |
| Conversion | Monergistic, through the inner calling of the Holy Spirit, irresistible | Monergistic, through the means of grace, resistible | Synergistic, resistible due to the common, sufficient grace of free will |
| Preservation and apostasy | Perseverance of the saints: the eternally elect in Christ will necessarily persevere in faith and subsequent holiness until the end | Falling away is possible, but reflection on one's faith provides assurance of preservation | Preservation is conditional upon continued faith in Christ; reflection on one's faith provides assurance |
Practices[link]
File:EinFesteBurg.jpg
Luther composed hymns and hymn tunes, including "A Mighty Fortress Is Our God".
Liturgy[link]
Lutherans place great emphasis on a liturgical approach to worship services;[169] although there are substantial non-liturgical minorities, for example, the Haugean Lutherans from Norway. Martin Luther was a great fan of Music, and this is why it forms a large part of Lutheran services. In particular, Luther was a great fan of the composers Josquin des Prez and Ludwig Senfl and wanted singing in the church to move away from the ars perfecta (Catholic Sacred Music of the late Renaissance) and towards singing as a Gemeinschaft (community).[170] Lutheran hymns are sometimes known as chorales. Lutheran hymnody is well known for its doctrinal, didactic, and musical richness. Most Lutheran churches are active musically with choirs, handbell choirs, children's choirs, and occasionally carillon groups that ring bells in a bell tower. Johann Sebastian Bach, a devout Lutheran, composed music for the Lutheran church.
Lutherans also preserve a liturgical approach to the celebration of the Mass (or the Holy Eucharist/Communion), emphasizing the sacrament as the central act of Christian worship. Lutherans believe that the actual body and blood of Jesus Christ are present in, with and under the bread and the wine. This belief is called Real Presence or sacramental union and is different from consubstantiation and transubstantiation. Additionally Lutherans reject the idea that communion is a mere symbol or memorial. They confess in the Apology of the Augsburg Confession:
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- "...we do not abolish the Mass but religiously keep and defend it. Among us the Mass is celebrated every Lord's Day and on other festivals, when the Sacrament is made available to those who wish to partake of it, after they have been examined and absolved. We also keep traditional liturgical forms, such as the order of readings, prayers, vestments, and other similar things." (Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article XXIV.1)
Besides the Holy Communion (Divine Service), congregations also hold offices, which are worship services without communion. They may include Matins, Vespers, Compline, and Easter Vigil. Private or family offices include the Morning and Evening Prayers from Luther's Small Catechism.[171] Meals are blessed with the Common Table Prayer, Psalm 145:15–16, or other prayers, and after eating the Lord is thanked, for example, with Psalm 136:1.[171] In addition, Lutherans use devotional books, from small daily devotionals, for example, Portals of Prayer, to large breviaries, including the Breviarium Lipsiensae and Treasury of Daily Prayer.
In the 1970s, many Lutheran churches began holding contemporary worship services for the purpose of evangelistic outreach. These services were in a variety of styles, depending on the preferences of the congregation. Often they were held alongside a traditional service in order to cater to those who preferred contemporary worship music. Today, few but some Lutheran congregations have contemporary worship as their sole form of worship. Outreach is no longer given as the primary motivation; rather this form of worship is seen as more in keeping with the desires of individual congregations.[172] In Finland, Lutherans have experimented with the St Thomas Mass or Metal Mass in which traditional hymns are adapted to heavy metal. The Lutheran World Federation, in its Nairobi Statement on Worship and Culture, recommended every effort be made to bring church services into a more sensitive position with regard to cultural context.[173]
Lutheran churches use hymnals as well as electronic projection media. In 2006, both the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America and the Lutheran Church – Missouri Synod, in cooperation with certain foreign English speaking church bodies within their respective fellowships, released new hymnals: Evangelical Lutheran Worship (ELCA) and Lutheran Service Book (LCMS). Along with these, the most widely used among English speaking congregations include: Evangelical Lutheran Hymnary (1996, ELS), The Lutheran Book of Worship (1978, LC-USA), Lutheran Worship (1982, LCMS), Christian Worship (1993, WELS), and The Lutheran Hymnal (1941, Synodical Conference). In the Lutheran Church of Australia, the official hymnal is the Lutheran Hymnal with Supplement of 1986, which includes a supplement to the Lutheran Hymnal of 1973, itself a replacement for the Australian Lutheran Hymn Book of 1921. Prior to this time, the two Lutheran church bodies in Australia (which merged in 1966) used a bewildering variety of hymnals, usually in the German language.
Missions[link]
Sizable Lutheran missions arose for the first time during the 19th century. Early missionary attempts during the century after the Reformation did not succeed. However, European traders brought Lutheranism to Africa beginning in the 17th century as they settled along the coasts. During the first half of the 19th century, missionary activity in Africa expanded, including preaching by missionaries, translation of the Bible, and education.[174]
Lutheranism came to India beginning with the work of Bartholomäus Ziegenbalg, where a community totaling several thousand developed, complete with their own translation of the Bible, catechism, their own hymnal, and system of Lutheran schools. In the 1840s, this church experienced a revival through the work of the Leipzig Mission, including Karl Graul.[175] After German missionaries were expelled in 1914, Lutherans in India became entirely autonomous, yet preserved their Lutheran character. In recent years India has relaxed its anti-religious conversion laws, allowing a resurgence in missionary work.
In Latin America, missions began to serve European immigrants of Lutheran background, both those who spoke German and those who no longer did. These churches in turn began to evangelize those in their areas who were not of European background, including indigenous peoples.[176]
In 1892, the first Lutheran missionaries reached Japan. Although work began slowly and a major setback occurred during the hardships of WWII.[177] Lutheranism there has survived and become self-sustaining.[178] After missionaries to China, including those of the Lutheran Church of China, were expelled, they began ministry in Taiwan and Hong Kong, the latter which became a center of Lutheranism in Asia.[178]
The Lutheran Mission in New Guinea, though founded only in 1953, became the largest Lutheran mission in the world in only several decades. Through the work of native lay evangelists, many tribes of diverse languages were reached with the Gospel.[178]
Education[link]
Catechism is considered basic in most Lutheran churches. Almost all maintain Sunday Schools, and some host or maintain Lutheran schools, at the preschool, elementary, middle, high school, folk high school, or university level. Life-long study of the catechism is intended for all ages so that the abuses of the pre-Reformation Church will not recur.[179] Lutheran schools have always been a core aspect of Lutheran mission work, starting with Bartholomew Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Putschasu, who began work in India in 1706.[3]
Pastors almost always have substantial theological educations, including Greek and Hebrew so that they can refer to the Christian scriptures in the original language. Pastors usually teach in the common language of the local congregation. In the U.S., some congregations and synods historically taught in German, Danish, Finnish, Norwegian, or Swedish, but retention of immigrant languages has been in significant decline since the early and middle 20th century.
Lutherans have a heritage of not only learned theologians, but also theologically adept laypeople. Among the laity there is an emphasis on life-long study of the Bible, Luther's Small Catechism, and other theological works.
Church fellowship[link]
Lutherans were divided about the issue of church fellowship for the first thirty years after Luther's death. Philipp Melanchthon and his Philippist party felt that Christians of different beliefs should join in union with each other without completely agreeing on doctrine. Against them stood the Gnesio-Lutherans, led by Matthias Flacius and the faculty at Jena. They condemned the Philippist position for indifferentism, describing it as a "unionistic compromise" of precious Reformation theology. Instead, they held that genuine unity between Christians and real theological peace was only possible with an honest agreement about every subject of doctrinal controversy.[180]
Complete agreement finally came about in 1577, after the death of both Melanchthon and Flacius, when a new generation of theologians resolved the doctrinal controversies on the basis of Scripture in the Formula of Concord of 1577.[181] Although they decried the visible division of Christians on earth, orthodox Lutherans avoided ecumenical fellowship with other churches, believing that Christians should not, for example, join together for the Lord's Supper or exchange pastors if they do not completely agree about what the Bible teaches. In the 17th century, Georgius Calixtus began a rebellion against this practice, sparking the Syncretistic Controversy with Abraham Calovius as his main opponent.[182]
In the 18th century, there was some ecumenical interest between the Church of Sweden and the Church of England. John Robinson, Bishop of London, planned for a union of the English and Swedish churches in 1718. The plan failed because most Swedish bishops rejected the Calvinism of the Church of England, although Swedberg and Gezelius, bishops of Skara, Sweden and Turku, Finland, were in favor.[183] With the encouragement of Swedberg, church fellowship was established between Swedish Lutherans and Anglicans in the Middle Colonies. Over the course of the 1700s and the early 1800s, Swedish Lutherans were absorbed into Anglican churches, with the last original Swedish congregation completing merger into the Episcopalians in 1846.[184]
In the 19th century, Samuel Simon Schmucker attempted to lead the Evangelical Lutheran General Synod of the United States toward unification with other American Protestants. His attempt to get the synod to reject the Augsburg Confession in favor of his compromising Definite Platform failed. Instead, it sparked a Neo-Lutheran revival, prompting many to form the General Council, including Charles Porterfield Krauth. Their alternative approach was “Lutheran pulpits are for Lutheran ministers only, and Lutheran altars are for Lutheran communicants only.”
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Beginning in 1867, confessional and liberal minded Lutherans in Germany joined together to form the Common Evangelical Lutheran Conference against the ever looming prospect of a state-mandated union with the Reformed.[185] However, they failed to reach a consensus among themselves on how much agreement in doctrine is necessary for church union.[37] Eventually, the fascist German Christians movement pushed the final national merger of Lutheran, Union, and Reformed churches into a single Reich Church, now the Evangelical Church in Germany, in 1933.
Presently, Lutherans are divided over how to interact with other Christian denominations. Some Lutherans assert that everyone must share the "whole counsel of God" (Acts 20:27) in complete unity (1 Cor. 1:10)[186] before pastors can share each others' pulpits, and before communicants commune at each others' altars, a practice termed closed (or close) communion. On the other hand, other Lutherans are practice varying degrees of open communion and allow preachers from other Christian denominations in their pulpits.
While not an issue in the majority of Lutheran church bodies, some of them forbid membership in Freemasonry. Partly, this is because the lodge is viewed as spreading Unitarianism, as the Brief Statement of the Missouri Synod reads, "Hence we warn against Unitarianism, which in our country has to a great extent impenetrated the sects and is being spread particularly also through the influence of the lodges."[187] A 1958 report from the publishing house of the Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod states that, "Masonry is guilty of idolatry. Its worship and prayers are idol worship. The Masons may not with their hands have made an idol out of gold, silver, wood or stone, but they created one with their own mind and reason out of purely human thoughts and ideas. The latter is an idol no less than the former."[188]
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File:Communion3.jpg
LCMS pastor wearing a chasuble during communion
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The largest organizations of Lutheran churches around the world are the Lutheran World Federation, the International Lutheran Council, and the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference. These organizations together include the great majority of Lutheran denominations around the globe. The Lutheran World Federation supports the activities of Lutheran World Relief, a relief and development agency active in more than 50 countries. The LCMS and the LCC are members of the International Lutheran Council (ILC). The WELS and ELS are members of the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference. Many Lutheran churches are not affiliated with the LWF, the ILC or the CELC: The congregations of the Church of the Lutheran Confession (CLC) are affiliated with their mission organizations in Canada, India, Nepal, Myanmar, and many African nations; and those affiliated with the Church of the Lutheran Brethren, are especially active doing mission work in Africa and East Asia.
The Lutheran World Federation (LWF)-aligned churches do not believe that one church is singularly true in its teachings. According to this belief, Lutheranism is a reform movement rather than a movement into doctrinal correctness. For that reason, a number of doctrinally diverse LWF denominations, now largely separated from state control, are declaring fellowship and joint statements of agreement with other Lutheran and non-Lutheran Christian denominations.
The Lutheran World Federation and the Missouri Synod engaged in a series of official dialogues with the Roman Catholic Church since shortly after the Second Vatican Council. In 1999 the LWF and the Roman Catholic Church jointly issued a statement, the Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification (JDDJ), that stated that the LWF and the Roman Catholic both agreed about certain basics of Justification and lifted certain Roman Catholic anathemas formerly applying to the LWF member churches. The Missouri Synod has participated in most of these talks, though not the one which produced the Joint Declaration and to which they were not invited. While some Lutheran theologians saw the Joint Declaration as a sign that the Roman Catholics were essentially adopting the Lutheran position, other Lutheran theologians disagreed, claiming that, considering the public documentation of the Roman Catholic position, this assertion does not hold up.
By contrast, the Confessional Evangelical Lutheran Conference and International Lutheran Council as well as some unaffiliated denominations such as the Church of the Lutheran Confession (CLC) maintain that the orthodox confessional Lutheran churches are the only churches with completely correct doctrine. They teach that while other Christian churches teach partially orthodox doctrine and have true Christians as members, the doctrines of those churches contain significant errors. More conservative Lutherans strive to maintain historical distinctiveness while emphasizing doctrinal purity alongside Gospel-motivated outreach. They claim that LWF Lutherans are practicing "fake ecumenism" by desiring church fellowship outside of actual unity of teaching.[189]
Although not an "ecumenical" movement in the formal sense, in the 1990s influences from the megachurches of American evangelicalism have become somewhat common. Many of the largest Lutheran congregations in the United States have been heavily influenced by these "progressive Evangelicals." These influences are sharply criticized by some Lutherans as being foreign to orthodox Lutheran beliefs.[190]
The Porvoo Communion is a communion of episcopally led Lutheran and Anglican churches in Europe. Beside its membership in the Porvoo Communion, Church of Sweden also has declared full communion with the Philippine Independent Church and the United Methodist Church.
The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America (ELCA) has been involved in ecumenical dialogues with several denominations. Recently, the ELCA has declared full communion with several American Churches: the Moravian Church, the Episcopal Church, the Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.), the Reformed Church in America, the United Methodist Church, and the United Church of Christ.
Throughout the world[link]
Main article: Lutheranism by region
Today, millions belong to Lutheran communities, which are present on all populated continents.[191] Lutheranism is the largest religious group in Denmark, the Faroe Islands, Greenland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Namibia, and the Dakotas. Lutheranism is also the dominant form of Christianity in the White Mountain and San Carlos Apache nations. In addition, Lutheranism is a main Protestant denomination in Germany (where it forms about 40% of the country's Protestant population), Lithuania, Poland, Austria, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Papua New Guinea, North Sumatra Indonesia, and Tanzania.[192]
Although Namibia is the only country outside Europe to have a Lutheran majority, there are sizable Lutheran bodies in other African countries. In addition, the following nations also have sizable Lutheran populations: Australia, Brazil, Canada, Ethiopia, India, Indonesia, Madagascar, and the United States, especially in the heavily German and Scandinavian Upper Midwest.[193]
Lutheran bodies[link]
- List of Lutheran denominations
- Lutheran church bodies in North America
- List of Lutheran clergy
- List of Lutheran colleges and universities
- List of Lutheran dioceses and archdioceses
- List of Lutheran schools in Australia
Notes[link]
- ^ MSN Encarta, s.v. "Lutheranism" by George Wolfgang Forell; Christian Cyclopedia, s.v. "Reformation, Lutheran" by Lueker, E. et. al. Archived 31 October 2009.
- ^ a b Espín, Orlando O. and Nickoloff, James B. An introductory dictionary of theology and religious studies. Collegeville, Minnesota: Liturgical Press, p. 796.
- ^ a b c d Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William, The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2003. p.362.
- ^ How Lutherans Got Started
- ^ Lutherans, Biblehistory.com
- ^ Martin Luther Biography – Martin Luther Childhood, Life & Timeline
- ^ Reformation: Martin Luther
- ^ Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark, p. 64
- ^ a b c Chapter 12 The Reformation In Germany And Scandinavia, Renaissance and Reformation by William Gilbert.
- ^ Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark, p. 195
- ^ Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark, p. 202
- ^ Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark, p. 207
- ^ Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark, p. 70
- ^ Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark, p. 210
- ^ Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark, p. 205
- ^ (line 33–34)
- ^ A Dictionary Of The Bible, p. 416
- ^ § 13 and 16
- ^ Historisk fremstilling af reformationens indførelse i Danmark, p. 25
- ^ N.F. Lutheran Cyclopedia, article, "Upsala, Diet of", New York: Schrivner, 1899. p. 528-9.
- ^ Lutheran Cyclopedia, article, "Agricola, Michael", New York: Schrivner, 1899. p. 5.
- ^ Fuerbringer, L., Concordia Cyclopedia Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 425
- ^ Lutheran Theology after 1580 article in Christian Cyclopedia
- ^ a b c Fuerbringer, L., Concordia Cyclopedia Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 426
- ^ Kleinig, Vernon P. "Confessional Lutheranism in Eighteenth-Century Germany." Concordia Theological Quarterly 60(1–2) Jan–April 1996: Part I, Valentin Ernst Loescher p. 102.
- ^ Kleinig, Vernon P. "Confessional Lutheranism in Eighteenth-Century Germany." Concordia Theological Quarterly 60(1–2) Jan–April 1996: Part II, Melchior Goeze p. 109-112.
- ^ Rietschel, William C. An Introduction to the Foundations of Lutheran Education. St. Louis: Concordia, 2000. p. 25 (Although this reference specifically mentions Saxony, government promoted rationalism was a trend across Germany)
- ^ Devotional Literature Project
- ^ a b Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 180.
- ^ a b Armin Sierszyn: 2000 Jahre Kirchengeschichte, Book.4, Die Neuzeit, p. 155
- ^ a b Suelflow, Roy A. Walking With Wise Men. Milwaukee: South Wisconsin District (LCMS), 1967. p. 10
- ^ a b Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p. 165.
- ^ Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 182.
- ^ a b c Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 183.
- ^ Benton, William, ed. (1974). "Lutheran Churches". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (15 ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. pp. 198. ISBN 0-85229-290-2 .
- ^ Christian Cyclopedia article on Brünn
- ^ a b c d Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 184.
- ^ Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 187.
- ^ a b c Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 1959, p.21.
- ^ "Repristination Theology." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 6 Apr 2010 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/498536/Repristination-Theology>.
- ^ a b Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age, Volume II, The Nineteenth Century in Europe. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press. p.22.
- ^ a b Nichols, James Hastings. History of Christianity 1650–1950: Secularization of the West. New York, Ronald Press, 1956, p. 175.
- ^ Gassmann, Günther, et. al. Historical dictionary of Lutheranism. Augsburg Fortress, Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2001. p. 32.
- ^ Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 188.
- ^ Detzler, Wayne A. The Changing Church in Europe. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1979. p.17. Quotation from Manfred Kober, Theology in Germany, from the Reformation Review, April 1969.
- ^ For the traditional Lutheran view of the Bible, see Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 3ff.. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060712193848/http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/bibliology.txt. . For an overview of the doctrine of verbal inspiration in Lutheranism, see Inspiration, Doctrine of in the Christian Cyclopedia.
- ^ Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 7ff. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060712193848/http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/bibliology.txt. , Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 29. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1.
- ^ Braaten, Carl E. (1983). Principles of Lutheran Theology. Philadelphia: Fortress Press, p. 9
- ^ Preus, Robert. The Inspiration of Scripture: A Study of the Theology of the 17th Century Lutheran Dogmaticians. London: Oliver and Boyd, 1957. p. 39.
- ^ Benton, William, ed. (1978). "Lutheran Churches". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (15 ed.). Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.. pp. 197–198. ISBN 0-85229-290-2 .
- ^ U.S. Religious Landscape Survey: Religious Beliefs and Practices, Diverse and Politically Relevant. Washington D.C.: Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. June 2008. p. 127. Accessed online on 27 September 2009 at http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf.
- ^ 2 Timothy 3:16, 1 Corinthians 2:13, 1 Thessalonians 2:13, Romans 3:2, 2 Peter 1:21, 2 Samuel 23:2, Hebrews 1:1, John 10:35, John 16:13, John 17:17, Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 26. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1.
- ^ "God's Word, or Holy Scripture" from the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article II, of Original Sin
- ^ "the Scripture of the Holy Ghost." Apology to the Augsburg Confession, Preface, 9
- ^ The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, "Rule and Norm", 3.
- ^ Divination: Tobit 6:17, Prayer to the dead: 2 Macc. 12:42, Suicide: 2 Macc. 14:41–46,
- ^ See Bible, Canon in the Christian Cyclopedia
- ^ a b c Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 27. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1.
- ^ Psalm 19:8, Psalm 119:105, Psalm 119:130, 2 Timothy 3:15, Deuteronomy 30:11, 2 Peter 1:19, Ephesians 3:3–4, John 8:31–32, 2 Corinthians 4:3–4, John 8:43–47, 2 Peter 3:15–16, Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 29. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1. , Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 11–12. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060712193848/http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/bibliology.txt.
- ^ Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 11. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060712193848/http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/bibliology.txt. , Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1.
- ^ Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 11. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060712193848/http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/bibliology.txt.
- ^ Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1.
- ^ Romans 1:16, 1 Thessalonians 2:13, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 11. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060712193848/http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/bibliology.txt. , Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 27. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1.
- ^ Romans 1:16, 1 Thessalonians 1:5, Psalm 119:105, 2 Peter 1:19, 2 Timothy 1:16–17,Ephesians 3:3–4, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 11–12. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060712193848/http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/bibliology.txt. , Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1.
- ^ John 6:63, Revelation 1:3, Ephesians 3:3–4, John 7:17, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 12. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060712193848/http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/bibliology.txt. , Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1.
- ^ Smalcald Articles, part 8, "Of Confession"
- ^ 2 Timothy 3:15–17, John 5:39, John 17:20, Psalm 19:7–8, Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1.
- ^ Isaiah 8:20, Luke 16:29–31, 2 Timothy 3:16–17, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 13. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/bibliology.txt. , Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 28. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1.
- ^ Apology of the Augsburg Confession IV, 5
- ^ Walther, C. F. W. The Proper Distinction Between Law and Gospel. W. H. T. Dau, trans. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1929.
- ^ F.E. Mayer, The Religious Bodies of America. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1954, p. 184. For further information, see The Formula of Concord in the History of Swedish Lutheranism by Seth Erlandsson
- ^ Paul R. Sponheim, "The Origin of Sin," in Christian Dogmatics, Carl E. Braaten and Robert W. Jenson, eds. (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984), 385–407.
- ^ Francis Pieper, "Definition of Original Sin," in Christian Dogmatics (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1953), 1:538.
- ^ Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. 1875. pp. 335–455, Part IX The Specific Doctrines Of The Conservative Reformation: Original Sin.
- ^ Formula of Concord, Original Sin.
- ^ Rom. 7:18, 8:7 1 Cor. 2:14, Martin Chemnitz, Examination of the Council of Trent: Vol. I. Trans. Fred Kramer, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1971, pp. 639–52, "The Third Question: Whether the Good Works of the Regenerate in This Life Are So Perfect that They Fully, Abundantly, and Perfectly Satisfy the Divine Law".
- ^ Gen. 6:5, 8:21, Mat. 7:17, Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. 1875. pp. 388–90, Part IX The Specific Doctrines Of The Conservative Reformation: Original Sin, Thesis VII The Results, Section ii Positive.
- ^ Dt. 27:26,Rom. 5:12,2 Th. 1:9 Rom. 6:23, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 38–41, Part VIII. "Sin"
- ^ 1 Tim. 2:4, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 43–44, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 55.
- ^ Triglot Concordia: The Symbolical Books of the Ev. Lutheran Church. St. Louis: Concordia, 1921. Large Catechism, The Lord's Prayer, The Second Petition, Par. 51.
- ^ Gal. 3:13, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 43, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 54.
- ^ Rom. 10:4, Gal. 4:4–5, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 42, Part X. "Saving Grace", paragraph 52.
- ^ Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article III, "Concerning the Righteousness of Faith before God". par. 57–58. trans. Kolb, R., Wengert, T., and Arand, C. Minneapolis: Augsburg Fortress, 2000.
- ^ Augsburg Confession, Article 4, "Of Justification"
- ^ John 17:3, Luke 1:77,Galatians 4:9, Philippians 3:8, and 1 Timothy 2:4 refer to faith in terms of knowledge.
- ^ John 5:46 refers to acceptance of the truth of Christ's teaching, while John 3:36 notes the rejection of his teaching.
- ^ John 3:16,36, Galatians 2:16, Romans 4:20–25, 2 Timothy 1:12 speak of trust, confidence, and belief in Christ. John 3:18 notes belief in the name of Christ, and Mark 1:15 notes belief in the gospel.
- ^ Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 54–5, Part XIV. "Sin"
- ^ Ps. 51:10, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p.57 Part XV. "Conversion", paragraph 78.
- ^ John 17:20, Rom. 10:17, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p.101 Part XXV. "The Church", paragaph 141.
- ^ Titus 3:5, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p.87 Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 118.
- ^ Eph. 2:8, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934, p.57 Part XV. "Conversion", paragaph 78.
- ^ Is. 63:8–9, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 158–160, section "The Doctrine of God", part 5. "The Holy Trinity Revealed in the Old Testament",Heb. 1:5, see Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 33–36, Part VI. "The Trinity".
- ^ The Nicene Creed and the Filioque: A Lutheran Approach by Rev. David Webber for more information
- ^ Luther's Small Catechism, The Apostles' Creed, Second Article, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 100ff.. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. Archived from the original on 12 July 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060712194230/http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/christology.txt.
- ^ Augsburg confession, Article III. Retrieved 17 April 2010.
- ^ Matthew 28:19, 1 Corinthians 11:23–25, Matthew 26:26–28, Mark 14:22–24, Luke 22:19–20, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 161. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt.
- ^ Ephesians 5:27, John 3:5, John 3:23, 1 Corinthians 10:16, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 162. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt.
- ^ Ephesians 5:26, 1 Corinthians 10:16, 1 Corinthians 11:24–25, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 162. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt.
- ^ Matthew 3:16–17, John 3:5, 1 Corinthians 11:19, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 162. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt.
- ^ Luke 7:30, Luke 22:19–20, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 162. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt.
- ^ Acts 21:16, Acts 2:38, Luke 3:3, Ephesians 5:26, 1 Peter 3:21, Galatians 3:26–27, Matthew 26:28, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt.
- ^ 1 Peter 3:21, Titus 3:5, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt.
- ^ Titus 3:5, John 3:5, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 163. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/soteriology.txt.
- ^ "Private Absolution ought to be retained in the churches, although in confession an enumeration of all sins is not necessary." Article XI: Of Confession
- ^ The Apology of the Augsburg Confession XIII, 2: "We believe we have the duty not to neglect any of the rites and ceremonies instituted in Scripture, whatever their number. We do not think it makes much difference if, for purposes of teaching, the enumeration varies, provided what is handed down in Scripture is preserved" (cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 211).
- ^ Luther's Large Catechism IV, 1: "We have now finished the three chief parts of the common Christian doctrine. Besides these we have yet to speak of our two Sacraments instituted by Christ, of which also every Christian ought to have at least an ordinary, brief instruction, because without them there can be no Christian; although, alas! hitherto no instruction concerning them has been given" (emphasis added; cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 733).
- ^ John 20:23, and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 112–3, Part XXVI "The Ministry", paragraph 156.
- ^ Luther's Large Catechism IV, 74–75: "And here you see that Baptism, both in its power and signification, comprehends also the third Sacrament, which has been called repentance, as it is really nothing else than Baptism" (emphasis added; cf. Theodore G. Tappert, trans. and ed., The Book of Concord: The Confessions of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1959), 751).
- ^ The Apology of the Augsburg Confession XIII, 3, 4: "If we define the sacraments as rites, which have the command of God and to which the promise of grace has been added, it is easy to determine what the sacraments are, properly speaking. For humanly instituted rites are not sacraments, properly speaking, because human beings do not have the authority to promise grace. Therefore signs instituted without the command of God are not sure signs of grace, even though they perhaps serve to teach or admonish the common folk. Therefore, the sacraments are actually baptism, the Lord's Supper, and absolution (the sacrament of repentance)" (cf. Tappert, 211). Apology of the Augsburg Confession, Article 13, Of the Number and Use of the Sacraments
- ^ Apology of the Augsburg Confession, article 24, paragraph 1. Retrieved 16 April 2010.
- ^ 1 Pet. 3:21, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 491–496, section "The Doctrine of Baptism", part 4. "Baptism a True Means of Grace", and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 87, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 118.
- ^ Martin Luther, Small Catechism 4
- ^ Titus 3:5
- ^ John 3:3–7
- ^ "Baptism and Its Purpose". Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod. http://www.lcms.org/pages/internal.asp?NavID=2607. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
- ^ Luther, Martin (2009) [1529]. "The Sacrament of Holy Baptism". Luther's Small Catechism. ISBN 0-89279-043-1. http://www.bookofconcord.org/smallcatechism.html#baptism. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
- ^ Mat. 19:14, Acts 2:38–39, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 90, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 122.
- ^ 1 Cor. 1:14, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 90, Part XXIII. "Baptism", paragraph 122.
- ^ Luther, Martin (2009) [1529]. "Of Infant Baptism". Luther's Large Catechism. ISBN 1-4264-3861-3. http://www.bookofconcord.org/largecatechism/6_baptism.html. Retrieved 24 February 2009. Luther's Large Catechism – Holy Baptism
- ^ The Augsburg Confession – Article IX: Of Baptism
- ^ 1 Cor. 10:16, 11:20, 27, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 95, Part XXIV. "The Lord's Supper", paragraph 131.
- ^ The Solid Declaration of the Formula of Concord, Article 8, The Holy Supper
- ^ Augustus Lawrence Graebner, Lutheran Cyclopedia p. 136, "Conversion"
- ^ Augsburg Confession, Article XII: Of Repentance
- ^ See Augsburg Confession, Article XVIII: Of Free Will
- ^ 1 Cor. 2:14, 12:3, Rom. 8:7, Martin Chemnitz, Examination of the Council of Trent: Vol. I. Trans. Fred Kramer, St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1971, pp. 409–53, "Seventh Topic, Concerning Free Will: From the Decree of the Sixth Session of the Council of Trent".
- ^ Augsburg Confession, Article 18, Of Free Will.
- ^ Acts 13:48, Eph. 1:4–11, Epitome of the Formula of Concord, Article 11, Election, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 585–9, section "The Doctrine of Eternal Election: 1. The Definition of the Term", and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 124–8, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 176.
- ^ 2 Thess. 2:13, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 589–593, section "The Doctrine of Eternal Election: 2. How Believers are to Consider Their Election, and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 127–8, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 180.
- ^ Rom. 8:33, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 127–8, Part XXXI. "The Election of Grace", paragraph 179., Engelder, T.E.W., The Certainty of Final Salvation. The Lutheran Witness 2(6). English Evangelical Missouri Synod: Baltimore. 1891, pp. 41ff.
- ^ 1 Tim. 2:4, 2 Pet. 3:9, Epitome of the Formula of Concord, Article 11, Election, and Engelder's Popular Symbolics, Part XXXI. The Election of Grace, pp. 124–8.
- ^ 1 Timothy 2:3–4
- ^ Hos. 13:9, Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. p. 637, section "The Doctrine of the Last Things (Eschatology), part 7. "Eternal Damnation", and Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 135–6, Part XXXIX. "Eternal Death", paragraph 196.
- ^ Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. Concordia Publishing House. 1934. pp. 189–195 and Fuerbringer, L., Concordia Cyclopedia Concordia Publishing House. 1927. p. 635 and Christian Cyclopedia article on Divine Providence. For further reading, see The Proof Texts of the Catechism with a Practical Commentary, section Divine Providence, p. 212, Wessel, Louis, published in Theological Quarterly, Vol. 11, 1909.
- ^ Mueller, Steven P.,Called to Believe, Teach, and Confess. Wipf and Stock. 2005. pp. 122–123.
- ^ Mueller, J.T., Christian Dogmatics. Concordia Publishing House: 1934. pp. 190 and Edward. W. A.,A Short Explanation of Dr. Martin Luther's Small Catechism. Concordia Publishing House. 1946. p. 165. and Divine Providence and Human Adversity by Markus O. Koepsell
- ^ Luther's Small Catechism, The Apostles' Creed
- ^ a b Luther's Large Catechism, First Commandment
- ^ quoted in Scaer, David. Luther's Concept of the Resurrection Concordia Theological Quarterly 47(3) p.219
- ^ John 15:5, Tit. 2:14, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 62–3, Part XV. "Conversion", paragraph 88 The New Obedience Is The Fruit Of Conversion, The Product Of Faith.
- ^ 2 Cor. 9:8, Krauth, C.P.,The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Literature of the Evangelical Lutheran Church . Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott. 1875. pp. 313–4, Part D Confession of the Conservative Reformation: II, Secondary Confessions: Book of Concord, Formula of Concord, Part IV The Doctrinal Result, 2, Section iv, Of Good Works.
- ^ Phil 2:13, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 74, Part XIX. "Preservation in Faith", paragraph 102.
- ^ Rom. 7:18 Heb 11:6, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 39–40, Part VIII. "Sin", paragraph 46 “Original Sin”.
- ^ Mat. 7:15–16, Tit. 1:16. Augsburg Confession, Article 20, Of Good Works
- ^ Albrecht Beutel, "Luther's Life," tr. Katharina Gustavs, in The Cambridge Companion to Martin Luther, ed. Donald K. McKim (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 11.
- ^ John 18:36, Augsburg Confession, Article 17, Of Christ's Return to Judgment.
- ^ Luke 23:42–43, 2 Cor. 5:8, Engelder, T.E.W., Popular Symbolics. St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1934. pp. 130, Part XXXIV. "The State of the Soul in the Interval Between Death and the Resurrection", paragraph 185.
- ^ 1 Cor. 15:22–24, Francis Pieper, Christian Dogmatics, 505–515; Heinrich Schmid, The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church, 624–632; John Mueller, Christian Dogmatics, 616–619
- ^ John 6:40, John 6:54
- ^ John 5:21, John 5:28–29, Matthew 25:32, 2 Corinthians 5:10, Acts 24:15
- ^ Romans 8:11, Philippians 3:21, 2 Corinthians 5:10, Job 19:26, 1 Corinthians 15:44, 1 Corinthians 15:53, John 5:28, Revelation 20:12
- ^ Daniel 12:2, Matthew 25:41–46, John 5:29
- ^ Daniel 12:1–2, John 5:29, 1 Corinthians 15:52, 1 Corinthians 15:42–44, 1 Corinthians 15:49–53, Philippians 3:21, Matthew 13:43, Revelation 7:16
- ^ John 6:40, John 6:44, John 11:24
- ^ 1 Corinthians 15:51–52, 1 Thessalonians 4:15–17
- ^ Matthew 25:32, Romans 14:10, John 5:22, Acts 17:31, Revelation 1:7
- ^ Matthew 25:32, Mark 16:16
- ^ 2 Corinthians 5:10, 1 Corinthians 4:5, Romans 2:5, Romans 2:16
- ^ Romans 2:6, 2 Corinthians 5:10, Matthew 25:35–36, Matthew 25:42–43
- ^ Isaiah 43:25, Ezekiel 18:22, 1 John 2:28
- ^ Matthew 25:34–35, John 3:16–18, John 3:36, Revelation 14:13, Galatians 5:6, John 13:35
- ^ Matthew 25:42, Matthew 7:17–18, John 3:18, John 3:36
- ^ Romans 2:5, Acts 17:31, Romans 2:16
- ^ Luke 9:26, Matthew 25:31–32
- ^ Matthew 25:41, Matthew 25:34, Matthew 25:46, Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. pp. 233–8. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. http://www.ctsfw.edu/etext/graebneral/eschatology.txt.
- ^ Table drawn from, though not copied, from Lange, Lyle W. God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine. Milwaukee: Northwestern Publishing House, 2006. p. 448.
- ^ Westminster Confession of Faith. Reformed.org. Retrieved 2011-11-12.
- ^ McGrath, Alister, E. Christianity: An Introduction. 2nd ed. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell, 2006. p.272.
- ^ Taruskin, Richard. The Oxford History of Western Music - Volume I (Music in the Ealiest Notations to the sixteenth century, p. 753-8 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010)
- ^ a b See Luther's Small Catechism, Daily Prayers
- ^ Principle examples of this in the ELCA include Family of God, Cape Coral FL., The Well, Charlotte NC, Hosanna! of Lakeville, Minnesota, and Church of the Apostles, Seattle WA..
- ^ "A given culture's values and patterns, insofar as they are consonant with the values of the Gospel, can be used to express the meaning and purpose of Christian worship. Contextualization is a necessary task for the Church's mission in the world, so that the Gospel can be ever more deeply rooted in diverse local cultures." The Nairobe Statement
- ^ Piepkorn, A.C. Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. P. 31.
- ^ Piepkorn, A.C. , Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. P. 32.
- ^ Piepkorn, A.C. , Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. P. 35.
- ^ Piepkorn, A.C. , Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. P. 33.
- ^ a b c Piepkorn, A.C., Profiles in Belief: Volume II, Protestant Denominations. San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1978. P. 34.
- ^ Preface to Luther's Large and preface to Luther's Small Catechism.
- ^ Klug, Eugene F. and Stahlke, Otto F. Getting into the Formula of Concord. St. Louis: Concordia, 1977. p.16
- ^ Klug, Eugene F. and Stahlke, Otto F. Getting into the Formula of Concord. St. Louis: Concordia. p.18
- ^ See Lutheran Orthodoxy Under Fire: An Exploratory Study of the Syncretistic Controversy And The Consensus Repetitus Fidei Vere Lutheranae and Strenuus Christi Athleta Abraham Calov (1612–1686): Sainted Doctor And Defender of the Church, both by Timothy R. Schmeling
- ^ (Swedish)Svenskakyrkan.se
- ^ Bente, Friedrich, 1858–1930. American Lutheranism Volume 1: Early History of American Lutheranism: Lutheran Swedes in Delaware. St. Louis: Concordia, 1919, p.13-16.
- ^ Gritsch, Eric W. A History of Lutheranism. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2002. p. 185.
- ^ For a historical example, see Robert Preus, To Join or Not To Join. North Dakota District of The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod, 1968.
- ^ See Brief Statement was adopted as Missouri Synod doctrine in 1932, and from time to time has been adopted by other Lutherans
- ^ Report of the Lutheran Church, The Northwestern Lutheran, page 281, 31 August 1988.
- ^ see Ecumenism: Facts and Illusions by Kurt E. Marquart for a short explanation of the modern ecumenism movement from a Confessional Lutheran perspective
- ^ See scholarly articles on the [1] from the Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary Library and Implications of the Church Growth Movement for Lutherans: Possibilities and Concerns by Harold L. Senkbeil as examples of criticism from confessional Lutherans
- ^ Lutheran World Federation, "Slight Increase Pushes LWF Global Membership to 66.2 Million", The Lutheran World Federation, http://www.lutheranworld.org/ (accessed 18 May 2006). However, some Lutherans disagree with the way the Lutheran World Federation arrives at this number, as millions of them actually come from bodies that are largely Reformed, but include some Lutherans. For more information on this, see William Schumacher, "Theological Observer: How Many Lutherans?", Concordia Journal April 2005, http://www.csl.edu/CJApril05.pdf/
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, Dominant Protestant Denomination Per Country, 1995.
- ^ Lutherans as a Percentage of All Residents, 2000 (Map by county). Also see comparable maps of other religions along with specific denominations of Lutheran at the main American Ethnic Geography site
Further reading[link]
- ALC Historical Perspective: Nervig, Casper B. Christian Truth and Religious Delusions, Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1941.
- CLC Perspective: Concerning Church Fellowship: A Statement of Principle. Eau Claire, WI: CLC Book House. 1996. http://clclutheran.org/library/ccf.html.
- Confessional & Historical Perspective: Günther Gassmann & Scott Hendrix. Fortress Introduction to the Lutheran Confessions. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1999. ISBN 0-8006-3162-5.
- General Council Historical Perspective: Krauth, Charles Porterfield (1875). The Conservative Reformation and Its Theology: As Represented in the Augsburg Confession, and in the History and Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. 2nd ed. Philadelphia: J. P. Lippincott. p. 840. ISBN 0-7586-0994-9. http://books.google.com/?id=qiURAAAAIAAJ.
- LCA Historical Perspective: Braaten, Carl E. (1983). Principles of Lutheran Theology. Philadelphia: Fortress Press. ISBN 0-8006-1689-8.
- LCMS Perspective: Pieper, Franz (1950–1957). Christian Dogmatics. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 3 Volumes. ISBN 0-570-06714-6.
- LCMS Perspective: Engelder, Theodore E.W. (1934). Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and Of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 526. http://www.archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1.
- LCMS Perspective: Graebner, Augustus Lawrence (1910). Outlines Of Doctrinal Theology. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. p. 250. ISBN 0-524-04891-6. Archived from the original on 9 July 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060709205945/http://showcase.netins.net/web/bilarson/graebner.html.
- LCR Perspective: McLaughlin, Wallace H. (1963). We All Believe in One True God: A Summary of Biblical Doctrine. Midland, Michigan: Cross of Christ Press. http://lutherantheology.com/uploads/works/wabiotg/index.html.
- Neo-Lutheran Historical Perspective: Schmid, Heinrich Friedrich Ferdinand (1876). The Doctrinal Theology of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. Philadelphia: Lutheran Publication Society. ISBN 0-7905-8877-3. http://books.google.com/?id=eK9ZAAAAMAAJ.
- Norwegian Synod Historical Perspective: Monson, Ingvar Grøthe (1915). The Difference: A Popular Guide to Denominational History and Doctrine. Saint Louis, MO: Concordia Publishing House. http://books.google.com/?id=HlJGAAAAYAAJ.
- Slovak Synod Historical Perspective: Richter, V. W. (1913). Why Should a Lutheran Not Join Any Sectarian Church?. Streator, Illinois: Svedok Publishing House. http://books.google.com/?id=OPL0XZG7j70C.
- WELS Perspective: Lange, Lyle W. (2006). God So Loved the World: A Study of Christian Doctrine. Northwestern Publishing House. ISBN 0-8100-1744-X.
- Comparison of about 50 Lutheran church bodies in America: Brug, John F. (2009). WELS & Other Lutherans (2nd ed.). Northwestern Publishing House. ISBN 0-8100-0543-3.
- Comparison of Catholic, Lutheran, and Protestant doctrine: Jackson, Gregory L. (2007). Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: A Doctrinal Comparison of Three Christian Confessions. Glendale, Arizona: Martin Chemnitz Press. http://www.gljackson.com/795931.pdf.
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Lutheranism |
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Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Lutherans. |
- Historic Worship of the Lutheran Church
- Moldehnke, Edward F. "Was ist denn eigentlich ein Lutheraner?" Evangelish-Lutherisches Gemeinde-Blatt. Vol. 1, nos. 8–10 (1866). Trans. Nathaniel J. Biebert. "So What Actually Is a Lutheran?" Studium Excitare. Issue #12 (2010).
"Lutherans". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921. - A historical study of the Laestadian Lutheran Church, the SRK, and Conservative Laestadianism. [2]
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutheranism
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
Jonathan Fisk (September 26, 1778 Amherst, Hillsborough County, New Hampshire – July 13, 1832 Newburgh, Orange County, New York) was an American lawyer and politician from New York.
Life[link]
He was the son of Jonathan Fisk, who later removed to Williamstown, Vermont, and was appointed Judge of Probate for the District of Randolph in 1800.
Fisk attended the public schools, taught school in Weare, New Hampshire, and later removed to New York City to read law. He was admitted to the bar in Westchester County, New York, in 1799, and began to practice in Newburgh in 1800. He married Sarah Van Kleek (1773–1832) and they had four children.
Fisk was elected as a Democratic-Republican to the 11th United States Congress, holding office from March 4, 1809 to March 3, 1811. He was again elected to the 13th and 14th United States Congresses, holding office from March 4, 1813 to March 21, 1815, when he accepted a recess appointment by President James Madison as United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on January 6, 1816, and remained in office until June 30, 1819. Afterwards he resumed the practice of law.
He died in Newburgh in 1832, and was buried at the Old Town Cemetery.
References[link]
- Jonathan Fisk at the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress
- Jonathan Fisk biography at Old Bios
| United States House of Representatives | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Gurdon S. Mumford, George Clinton, Jr. |
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New York's 3rd congressional district 1809 - 1811 |
Succeeded by Pierre Van Cortlandt, Jr. |
| Preceded by Asa Fitch Thomas P. Grosvenor |
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New York's 6th congressional district 1813 - 1815 |
Succeeded by James W. Wilkin |
| Legal offices | ||
| Preceded by Nathan Sanford as U.S. Attorney for the District of New York |
U.S. Attorney for the Southern District of New York 1815 - 1819 |
Succeeded by Robert L. Tillotson |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Fisk, Jonathan |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | American politician |
| Date of birth | September 26, 1778 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | July 13, 1832 |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Jonathan_Fisk
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Fisk
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
