- published: 09 May 2012
- views: 3046114
- author: Robert Baku
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- Acetylene
- Actinide
- Actinium
- Adaptation
- Adduct
- Aerospace
- Agricultural lime
- Alcan
- Alcoa
- Alfred E. Hunt
- Alkali metal
- Alkaline earth metal
- Alkylation
- Allergy
- Alloying
- Alnico
- Alum
- Alumina
- Aluminium
- Aluminium acetate
- Aluminium alloy
- Aluminium antimonide
- Aluminium arsenide
- Aluminium borate
- Aluminium bromide
- Aluminium bronze
- Aluminium can
- Aluminium carbide
- Aluminium chloride
- Aluminium diboride
- Aluminium fluoride
- Aluminium foam
- Aluminium foil
- Aluminium hydride
- Aluminium hydroxide
- Aluminium in Russia
- Aluminium iodide
- Aluminium molybdate
- Aluminium monoiodide
- Aluminium monoxide
- Aluminium nitrate
- Aluminium nitride
- Aluminium oxide
- Aluminium oxynitride
- Aluminium phosphate
- Aluminium phosphide
- Aluminium recycling
- Aluminium selenide
- Aluminium silicate
- Aluminium sulfate
- Aluminium sulfide
- Aluminium wire
- Aluminium(II) oxide
- Aluminon
- Alzheimer's disease
- Amalgam (chemistry)
- American English
- Americium
- Amine
- Ammonia
- Ammonium alum
- Amphoteric
- Ancient Greece
- Ancient Rome
- Anhydrous
- Annum
- Anode
- Antacid
- Anteros
- Antimony
- Antiperspirant
- Antiperspirants
- Argon
- Arleigh Burke class
- Arno Press
- Arsenic
- Asphalt
- Astatine
- Asteroids
- Astringent
- Atomic number
- Atomic radius
- Atomic weight
- Austin A40 Sports
- Australia
- Automobile
- Bacteria
- Bar stock
- Barium
- Baseball bat
- Bauxite
- Bayer process
- Bayerite
- Berkelium
- Beryl
- Beryllium
- Beverage can
- Bibcode
- Bicycle
- Bismuth
- Blood–brain barrier
- Bloomberg News
- Blow torch
- Boehmite
- Bohrium
- Boiling point
- Book Aluminium
- Book Boron group
- Boron
- Boron group
- Brazil
- Breast cancer
- British Aluminium
- British Columbia
- British English
- Bromine
- Bulk modulus
- Cadmium
- Caesium
- Calcium
- Californium
- Canada
- Carbon
- Carl Wilhelm Siemens
- CAS registry number
- Catalyst support
- Cathode
- Cation
- Cations
- Cement
- Ceramic
- Ceria
- Cerium
- Charles Martin Hall
- Chem Matters
- Chemical bond
- Chemical element
- Chemical symbol
- China
- Chlorine
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- Claus process
- Cobalt
- Coin
- Cold seep
- Compact disc
- Concrete
- Contact dermatitis
- Continental slope
- Cooking utensil
- Cookware
- Copernicium
- Copper
- Corrosion
- Corundum
- Cosmetics
- Cosmic-ray
- Cosmogenic
- Covalent radius
- CRC Press
- Crust (geology)
- Cryolite
- Crystal structure
- Cubic crystal system
- Curium
- Darmstadtium
- Decay energy
- Decay mode
- Decay product
- Denmark
- Density
- Deodorant
- Diaspore
- Digestion
- DIN
- Disproportionation
- Door
- Dross
- Dubnium
- Ductility
- Duralumin
- Dyes
- Dysprosium
- Earth
- Earth's atmosphere
- Earth's crust
- Einsteinium
- Elastic modulus
- Electrical conductor
- Electrode
- Electrolysis
- Electron capture
- Electron shell
- Electronegativity
- Electronvolt
- Element abundance
- Elsevier
- Enthalpy of fusion
- Erbium
- Estrogen
- Europe
- Europium
- Extrusion
- Falklands War
- Fatigue (material)
- Fatigue limit
- Feldspar
- Fermium
- Finland
- Fire diamond
- Fire extinguisher
- Flerovium
- Fluoride
- Fluorine
- France
- Francium
- Friedrich Wöhler
- Fugacity
- Gadolinium
- Gallium
- Galvanic cell
- Gamma radiation
- Garnet
- Gauss (unit)
- Gemstone
- Gene expression
- Germanium
- Gibbs free energy
- Gibbsite
- Glass
- Gold
- Greenland
- Group 13 element
- Guinea
- Guyton de Morveau
- Hafnium
- Half-life
- Hall-Heroult process
- Hall-Héroult
- Hall-Héroult process
- Halogen
- Hassium
- Heat conduction
- Heat of reaction
- Heat sink
- Heavy metals
- Helium
- High pressure sodium
- Holmium
- Hoope process
- Humphry Davy
- Hydrogen
- Hydrogen ions
- Hydrogen sulfide
- Hydrolysis
- Iceland
- India
- Indium
- Indonesia
- Infrared
- Internet Archive
- Iodine
- Ionization energy
- Iridium
- Iron
- Isotope
- Israel
- Italy
- J.J. Scannell
- Jamaica
- JOM (journal)
- Kelvin
- Kiloampere
- Kilojoule per mole
- Kilowatt-hour
- Kramer Guitars
- Krypton
- Lake pigment
- Lanthana
- Lanthanide
- Lanthanum
- Latin
- Lawrencium
- LD50
- Lead
- Leather
- LED lighting
- Lewis acid
- Ligand
- Lithium
- Lithium hydride
- Livermorium
- Loanword
- Lutetium
- Luxfer Group
- Machining
- Macquarie Dictionary
- Magnesium
- Magnesium oxide
- Magnetism
- Malleable
- Mallet-Bachelier
- Maltol
- Manganese
- Marcel Dekker
- Mast (sailing)
- McGraw-Hill
- Megajoule
- Meitnerium
- Melting point
- Mendelevium
- Mercury (element)
- Metal
- Metal acetylide
- Metal aquo complex
- Metalloestrogen
- Metalloid
- Meteorite
- Methane
- Methylaluminoxane
- Millitesla
- Mineral
- Mineralogy Database
- Mirror
- MKM steel
- Mohs hardness
- Molar heat capacity
- Molybdenum
- Moon
- Mordant
- Natural abundance
- Nature (journal)
- Neodymium
- Neon
- Neptunium
- Neurotoxicity
- Neutron
- NFPA 704
- Nickel
- Niobium
- Nitrogen
- Nobelium
- Noble gas
- Non-ferrous metal
- Nonmetal
- Norway
- Ocean
- Ohio
- Old French
- Olefin
- Optical coating
- Ore
- Organic chemistry
- Organic compound
- Osmium
- Other metal
- Ounce
- Oxidation
- Oxidation state
- Oxide
- Oxygen
- P-block
- Paint
- Palladium
- Panel edge staining
- PAQUID cohort
- Paramagnetism
- Pascal (unit)
- Passivation
- Paul Héroult
- Period 3 element
- Periodic table
- Petroleum
- Phase (matter)
- Phosphine
- Phosphorus
- Physical Review
- Piccadilly Circus
- Picometre
- Pierre Berthier
- Platinum
- Plutonium
- Poisson's ratio
- Poland
- Polonium
- Polyethene
- Polymerization
- Portal Chemistry
- Positron emission
- Potassium
- Praseodymium
- Promethium
- Protactinium
- Proton
- PubMed Central
- PubMed Identifier
- Pyrophoric
- Pyrotechnics
- Quantum clock
- Quarterly Review
- Quartz
- Quebec
- Radioactive decay
- Radium
- Radon
- Railway car
- Recycling
- Recycling code
- Red-Al
- Redox
- Refineries
- Refining
- Reflectance
- Renewable resource
- Rhenium
- Rhodium
- RM-81 Agena
- Rock (geology)
- Roentgenium
- Romania
- Room temperature
- Rubber
- Rubidium
- Ruby
- Russia
- Ruthenium
- Rutherfordium
- Salt (chemistry)
- Samarium
- Sapphire
- Scandium
- Scotland
- Seaborgium
- Sediment
- Selenium
- Senile plaques
- Shear modulus
- Siding
- Silicon
- Silver
- Silver (color)
- Smelting
- Sodium
- Sodium hydroxide
- Soil testing
- Solid
- Solid rocket
- Sorghum
- South China Sea
- Spallation
- Spectral lines
- Speed of sound
- Spinel
- Stable isotope
- Steel
- Strontium
- Styptic
- Sulfur
- Superconductor
- Supernova
- Superstructure
- Suriname
- Switzerland
- Sydney
- Tantalum
- Technetium
- Tellurium
- Tempering
- Terbium
- Thallium
- Thermal conductivity
- Thermite
- Thoria
- Thorium
- Thulium
- Tin
- Titanium
- Tonne
- Trace radioisotope
- Transistor
- Transition metal
- Transport
- Travis Bean
- Triethylamine
- Triisobutylaluminium
- Trimethylaluminium
- Truck
- Tungsten
- Turquoise
- Ultraviolet
- United Arab Emirates
- United States
- Ununoctium
- Ununpentium
- Ununseptium
- Ununtrium
- Uranium
- USS Belknap (CG-26)
- Vacuum
- Van der Waals radius
- Vanadium
- Vapor pressure
- Varnish
- Vep Alüminii
- Vinyl polymer
- Visible light
- Vomiting
- Vulkan-Verlag
- W. H. Freeman
- Walking pole
- Washington Monument
- Water
- Water treatment
- Weathering
- Webster's Dictionary
- Wheat
- Wikipedia Books
- Wiley-VCH
- Window
- Wood pulp
- World Coin News
- Wöhler process
- Xenon
- Year
- Yield (engineering)
- Young's modulus
- Ytterbium
- Yttrium
- Yugoslavia
- Ziegler-Natta
- Zinc
- Zirconium
-
Australia
Australia (
/əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent as well as the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.
For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups. After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.
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Brazil
Brazil
i/brəˈzɪl/ (Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil, listen (help·info)), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 km (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas region of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile.
Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal.Independence was achieved in 1822 with the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The country became a presidential republic in 1889, when a military coup d'état proclaimed the Republic, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to the ratification of the first constitution in 1824. Its current Constitution, formulated in 1988, defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.
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British Columbia
British Columbiai/ˌbrɪtɪʃ kəˈlʌmbiə/ (B.C. or BC) (French: la Colombie-Britannique, C.-B.) is the westernmost of Canada's provinces and is known for its natural beauty, as reflected in its Latin motto, Splendor sine occasu ("Splendour without Diminishment"). Its name was chosen by Queen Victoria in 1858. In 1871, it became the sixth province of Canada.
As well as being the westernmost province of Western Canada, British Columbia is also a component of the Pacific Northwest, along with the US states of Oregon and Washington. The province has strong cultural and personal ties to the Prairie Provinces and Ontario as well as to the West Coast of the United States and to Alaska and the Yukon.
The capital of British Columbia is Victoria, the 15th largest metropolitan region in Canada. The largest city is Vancouver, the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, the largest in Western Canada, and the second largest in the Pacific Northwest. In 2009, British Columbia had an estimated population of 4,419,974 (about two and a half million of whom were in Greater Vancouver). The province is currently governed by the BC Liberal Party, led by Premier Christy Clark, who became leader as a result of the party election on February 26, 2011.
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Canada
Canada ( /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Spanning over 9,900,000 km2 (3,800,000 sq mi), Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common border with the United States is the longest land border in the world.
The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French colonial expeditions explored, and later settled, along the region's Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy; the Canada Act 1982 severed the vestiges of legal dependence on Britain.
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China
China (i/ˈtʃaɪnə/; Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó; see also Names of China), officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is the world's most-populous country, with a population of over 1.3 billion. Covering approximately 9.6 million square kilometres, the East Asian state is the world's second-largest country by land area, and the third- or fourth-largest in total area, depending on the definition of total area.
The People's Republic of China is a single-party state governed by the Communist Party of China. It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces, five autonomous regions, four directly controlled municipalities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai, and Chongqing), and two mostly self-governing special administrative regions (Hong Kong and Macau). Its capital city is Beijing. The PRC also claims Taiwan—which is controlled by the Republic of China (ROC), a separate political entity—as its 23rd province, a claim controversial due to the complex political status of Taiwan and the unresolved Chinese Civil War. The PRC government denies the legitimacy of the ROC.
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Denmark
The Kingdom of Denmark (Danish: Kongeriget Danmark, pronounced [ˈkɔŋəʁiːəð ˈdanmɑɡ̊] (
listen)) is a constitutional monarchy and sovereign state consisting the country of Denmark in northern Europe and two autonomous constituent countries, the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic and Greenland in North America. The kingdom is a unitary state with some power being devolved from Denmark proper to Greenland and the Faroe Islands; this polity is referred to as the Danish Realm. Denmark proper is the hegemonial area, where judicial, executive, and legislative power resides. The Faroe Islands are defined to be a community of people within the kingdom, and the Greenlandic people are defined as a separate people with the right to self-determination.
Denmark is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, located southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. The country consists of a large peninsula, Jutland and many islands, most notably Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster and Bornholm, as well as hundreds of minor islands often referred to as the Danish Archipelago.
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Finland
Coordinates: 65°N 27°E / 65°N 027°E / 65; 027
Finlandi/ˈfɪnlənd/ ( Finnish: Suomi; Swedish: Finland (help·info)), officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of Northern Europe. It is bordered by Sweden in the west, Norway in the north and Russia in the east, while Estonia lies to its south across the Gulf of Finland.
Around 5.4 million people reside in Finland, with the majority concentrated in the southern region. It is the eighth largest country in Europe in terms of area and the most sparsely populated country in the European Union. Finland is a parliamentary republic with a central government based in Helsinki and local governments in 336 municipalities, and an autonomous region of the Åland Islands. About one million residents live in the Greater Helsinki area, which consists of Helsinki, Espoo, Kauniainen and Vantaa, and a third of the country's GDP is produced there. Other larger cities include Tampere, Turku, Oulu, Jyväskylä, Lahti and Kuopio.
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France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
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Greenland
Greenland (Kalaallisut: Kalaallit Nunaat, "Land of the Kalaallit";Danish: Grønland) is an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe (specifically Norway and later Denmark) for more than a millennium. Greenland is, by area, the world's largest island. With a population of 56,615 (January 2011 estimate) it is the least densely populated dependency or country in the world.
Greenland has been inhabited, though not continuously, by Arctic peoples via Canada for 4500–5000 years. In the 10th century, Norsemen settled on the uninhabited southern part of Greenland. In the 13th century, the Inuit arrived, and in the late 15th century the Norse colonies were abandoned. In the early 18th century, contact between Scandinavia and Greenland was re-established and Denmark established rule over Greenland.
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Guinea
Guinea
i/ˈɡɪni/, officially the Republic of Guinea (French: République de Guinée), is a country in West Africa. Formerly known as French Guinea (Guinée française), it is today sometimes called Guinea-Conakry to distinguish it from its neighbour Guinea-Bissau and the Republic of Equatorial Guinea. Guinea has almost 246,000 square kilometres (94,981 sq mi) and a population of 10,057,975. It forms a crescent by curving from its western border on the Atlantic Ocean toward the east and the south. Its northern border is shared with Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, and Mali, the southern one with Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Côte d'Ivoire. The Niger River's source is in the Guinea Highlands in southeastern Guinea.
Guinea is geographically divided into eight administrative regions and subdivided into thirty-three prefectures. Conakry is the capital, largest city and economic centre. The other major cities in the country include Kankan, Nzérékoré, Kindia, Labe, Guéckédou, Mamou and Boke.
Guinea's 10 million people belong to twenty-four ethnic groups. The largest and most prominent groups are the Fula 40%, Mandingo 30%, and Susu 20%.
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Iceland
Icelandi/ˈaɪslənd/ (Icelandic: Ísland, IPA: [ˈislant]) is a Nordic European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The country has a population of about 320,000 and a total area of 103,000 km2 (40,000 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Reykjavík, with the surrounding areas in the southwestern region of the country being home to two-thirds of the country's population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior mainly consists of a plateau characterised by sand fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle.
According to Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in AD 874 when the chieftain Ingólfur Arnarson became the first permanent Norse settler on the island. Others had visited the island earlier and stayed over winter. Over the following centuries, Norsemen settled Iceland, bringing with them thralls (slaves) of Gaelic origin. From 1262 to 1918 Iceland was part of the Norwegian and later the Danish monarchies. Until the 20th century, the Icelandic population relied largely on fisheries and agriculture, and the country was one of the poorest and least developed in the world. Industrialisation of the fisheries and aid from the Marshall Plan brought prosperity in the years after World War II, and by the 1990s it was one of the world's wealthiest countries. In 1994, Iceland became party to the European Economic Area, which made it possible for the economy to diversify into economic and financial services.
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India
India (i/ˈɪndiə/), officially the Republic of India (Bhārat Gaṇarājya), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the second-most populous country with over 1.2 billion people, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the south-west, and the Bay of Bengal on the south-east, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north-east; and Burma and Bangladesh to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives; in addition, India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia.
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history. Four of the world's major religions—Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism—originated here, whereas Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also helped shape the region's diverse culture. Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom from the mid-19th century, India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non-violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi.
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Indonesia
Indonesia (i/ˌɪndəˈniːʒə/ IN-də-NEE-zhə or /ˌɪndoʊˈniːziə/ IN-doh-NEE-zee-ə), officially the Republic of Indonesia (Indonesian: Republik Indonesia Indonesian pronunciation: [rɛpʊblɪk ɪndɔnɛsɪa]), is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania. Indonesia is an archipelago comprising approximately 17,508 islands. It has 33 provinces with over 238 million people, and is the world's fourth most populous country. Indonesia is a republic, with an elected legislature and president. The nation's capital city is Jakarta. The country shares land borders with Papua New Guinea, East Timor, and Malaysia. Other neighboring countries include Singapore, Philippines, Australia, and the Indian territory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Indonesia is a founding member of ASEAN and a member of the G-20 major economies. The Indonesian economy is the world's 17th largest economy by nominal GDP.
The Indonesian archipelago has been an important trade region since at least the 7th century, when Srivijaya and then later Majapahit traded with China and India. Local rulers gradually absorbed foreign cultural, religious and political models from the early centuries CE, and Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms flourished. Indonesian history has been influenced by foreign powers drawn to its natural resources. Muslim traders brought Islam, and European powers brought Christianity and fought one another to monopolize trade in the Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery. Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism, Indonesia secured its independence after World War II. Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratization process, and periods of rapid economic change.
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Israel
Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
Israel, officially the State of Israel ( /ˈɪzriːəl/ or /ˈɪzreɪəl/; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [me̞diˈnät jisʁäˈʔe̞l] ( listen); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is defined as a Jewish and Democratic State in its Basic Laws and is the world's only Jewish-majority state.
Following the adoption of a resolution by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption and implementation of the United Nations plan to partition Palestine, on 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, a state independent from the British Mandate for Palestine. Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including east Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.[neutrality is disputed] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.
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Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
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Jamaica
Coordinates: 18°10′57″N 77°19′18″W / 18.1823878°N 77.3217773°W / 18.1823878; -77.3217773
Jamaica (i/dʒəˈmeɪkə/), officially the Commonwealth of Jamaica, is an island nation of the Greater Antilles, 234 kilometres (145 mi) in length, up to 80 kilometres (50 mi) in width, and 10,990 square kilometres (4,240 sq mi) in area. It is situated in the Caribbean Sea, about 145 kilometres (90 mi) south of Cuba, and 191 kilometres (119 mi) west of Hispaniola, the island harbouring the nation-states of Haiti and the Dominican Republic. The indigenous Arawakan-speaking Taíno name for the island was Xaymaca, meaning the "Land of Wood and Water" or the "Land of Springs".
Once a Spanish possession known as Santiago, it became an English colony in 1655 under the name "Jamaica". It achieved full independence from Britain on August 6, 1962. With 2.8 million people, it is the third most populous anglophone country in the Americas, after the United States and Canada. It remains a Commonwealth realm in concert with the Monarchy of Jamaica holding ultimate executive power, where Queen Elizabeth II is the current head of state and Queen of Jamaica.Kingston is the country's largest city and the capital.
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Norway
Norwayi/ˈnɔrweɪ/ (Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and the subantarctic Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of about 5 million. It is the second least densely populated country in Europe. The majority of the country shares a border to the east with Sweden; its northernmost region is bordered by Finland to the south and Russia to the east; in its south Norway borders the Skagerrak Strait across from Denmark. The capital city of Norway is Oslo. Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords.
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Ohio
Ohio (i/oʊˈhaɪ.oʊ/) is a state in the Midwestern United States. Ohio is the 34th most extensive, the 7th most populous, and the 10th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The state's capital and largest city is Columbus.
The name "Ohio" originated from Iroquois word ohi-yo’, meaning "great river". The state, originally partitioned from the Northwest Territory, was admitted to the Union as the 17th state (and the first under the Northwest Ordinance) on March 1, 1803. Although there are conflicting narratives regarding the origin of the nickname, Ohio is historically known as the "Buckeye State" (relating to the Ohio buckeye tree) and Ohioans are also known as "Buckeyes".
The government of Ohio is composed of the executive branch, led by the Governor; the legislative branch, which comprises the Ohio General Assembly; and the judicial branch, which is led by the Supreme Court. Currently, Ohio occupies 18 seats in the United States House of Representatives. Ohio is known for its status as both a swing state and a bellwether in national elections.
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Poland
Polandi/ˈpoʊlənd/ (Polish: Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska; Kashubian: Pòlskô Repùblika; Silesian: Polsko Republika), is a country in Central Europe, bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous post-communist member. Poland is a unitary state made up of 16 voivodeships. Poland is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Economic Area, International Energy Agency, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Atomic Energy Agency, G6, Council of the Baltic Sea States, Visegrád Group, Weimar Triangle and Schengen Agreement.
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Quebec
Coordinates: 53°45′N 071°59′W / 53.75°N 71.983°W / 53.75; -71.983 (Quebec)
Quebec /kwəˈbɛk/ or /kəˈbɛk/ (French: Québec [kebɛk] ( listen)) is a province in east-central Canada. It is the only Canadian province with a predominantly French-speaking population and the only one whose sole official language is French at the provincial level.
Quebec is Canada's largest province by area and its second-largest administrative division; only the territory of Nunavut is larger. It is bordered to the west by the province of Ontario, James Bay and Hudson Bay, to the north by Hudson Strait and Ungava Bay, to the east by the Gulf of Saint Lawrence and the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador and New Brunswick. It is bordered on the south by the US states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, and New York. It also shares maritime borders with Nunavut, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia.
Quebec is Canada's second most populous province, after Ontario. Most inhabitants live in urban areas near the Saint Lawrence River between Montreal and Quebec City, the capital. English-speaking communities and English-language institutions are concentrated in the west of the island of Montreal but are also significantly present in the Outaouais, Eastern Townships, and Gaspé regions. The Nord-du-Québec region, occupying the northern half of the province, is sparsely populated and inhabited primarily by Aboriginal peoples.
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Romania
Romania (i/roʊˈmeɪniə/ roh-MAY-nee-ə; dated: Roumania; or Rumania;Romanian: România [romɨˈni.a] ( listen)) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and Moldova to the northeast and east, and Bulgaria to the south.
At 238,400 square kilometers (92,000 sq mi), Romania is the ninth largest country of the European Union by area, and has the seventh largest population of the European Union with over 19 million people. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest, the tenth largest city in the EU with about two million people.
The Kingdom of Romania emerged when the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were united under Prince Alexander Ioan Cuza in 1859. Independence from the Ottoman Empire was declared on 9 May 1877, and was internationally recognized the following year. At the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the Kingdom of Romania. Greater Romania emerged into an era of progression and prosperity that would continue until World War II. By the end of the War, many north-eastern areas of Romania's territories were occupied by the Soviet Union, and Romania forcibly became a socialist republic and a member of the Warsaw Pact.
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Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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Scotland
Scotland (Scottish Gaelic: Alba ([ˈalˠ̪apə] listen (help·info))) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. Occupying the northern third of the island of Great Britain, it shares a border with England to the south and is bounded by the North Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the north and west, and the North Channel and Irish Sea to the southwest. In addition to the mainland, Scotland constitutes over 790 islands including the Northern Isles and the Hebrides.
Edinburgh, the country's capital and second largest city, is one of Europe's largest financial centres. Edinburgh was the hub of the Scottish Enlightenment of the 18th century, which transformed Scotland into one of the commercial, intellectual and industrial powerhouses of Europe. Glasgow, Scotland's largest city, was once one of the world's leading industrial cities and now lies at the centre of the Greater Glasgow conurbation. Scottish waters consist of a large sector of the North Atlantic and the North Sea, containing the largest oil reserves in the European Union. This has given Aberdeen, the third largest city in Scotland, the title of Europe's oil capital.
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South China Sea
The South China Sea is a marginal sea that is part of the Pacific Ocean, encompassing an area from the Singapore and Malacca Straits to the Strait of Taiwan of around 3,500,000 square kilometres (1,400,000 sq mi). The area's importance largely results from one-third of the world's shipping transiting through its waters, and that it is believed to hold huge oil and gas reserves beneath its seabed.
It is located
The minute South China Sea Islands, collectively an archipelago, number in the hundreds. The sea and its mostly uninhabited islands are subject to competing claims of sovereignty by several countries. These claims are also reflected in the variety of names used for the islands and the sea.
South China Sea is the dominant term used in English for the sea, and the name in most European languages is equivalent, but it is sometimes called by different names in neighboring countries, often reflecting historical claims to hegemony over the sea.
The English name is a result of early European interest in the sea as a route from Europe and South Asia to the trading opportunities of China. In the sixteenth century Portuguese sailors called it the China Sea (Mar da China); later needs to differentiate it from nearby bodies of water led to calling it the South China Sea. The International Hydrographic Organization refers to the sea as "South China Sea (Nan Hai)".
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Suriname
Suriname, officially the Republic of Suriname (Dutch: Republiek Suriname, Dutch pronunciation: [ˌrepyˈblik ˌsyriˈnaːmə]), is a country in northern South America. It borders French Guiana to the east, Guyana to the west, Brazil to the south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the north. Suriname was first colonized by the British, and captured by the Dutch in 1667, who governed it as the colony of Suriname until 1954. The country of Suriname achieved independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, in which Suriname, the Netherlands Antilles, and the Netherlands itself cooperated on a basis of equality since 1954, on 25 November 1975.
At just under 165,000 km2 (64,000 sq mi) Suriname is the smallest sovereign state in South America (French Guiana comprises less territory, but is French territory). It has an estimated population of approximately 560,000, most of whom live on the country's north coast, where the capital Paramaribo is located.
The name Suriname may derive from a Taino (Arawak-speaking) group called "Surinen" who first inhabited the region prior to European arrival.
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Switzerland
Switzerland (German: die Schweiz[ˈʃvaɪts]; French: Suisse [sɥis(ə)]; Italian: Svizzera [ˈzvit͡sːɛra]; Romansh: Svizra [ˈʒviːtsrɐ] or [ˈʒviːtsʁːɐ]), in its full name the Swiss Confederation (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica, hence its abbreviation CH), is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western Europe, where it is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Italy to the south, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east.
Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2 (15,940 sq mi). While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately 8 million people is concentrated mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found. Among them are the two global cities and economic centres of Zurich and Geneva.
The Swiss Confederation has a long history of armed neutrality—it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815—and did not join the United Nations until 2002. It pursues, however, an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. Switzerland is also the birthplace of the Red Cross and home to a large number of international organizations, including the second largest UN office. On the European level, it is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association and is part of the Schengen Area – although it is notably not a member of the European Union, nor the European Economic Area.
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Sydney
Sydney ( /sɪdni/) is the most populous city in Australia and the state capital of New South Wales. Sydney is classified as an Alpha+ World City indicating its influence in the region and throughout the world.
Sydney is located on Australia's south-east coast of the Tasman Sea. As of June 2010, the greater metropolitan area had an approximate population of 4.6 million people. Inhabitants of Sydney are called Sydneysiders, comprising a cosmopolitan and international population.
The site of the first British colony in Australia, Sydney was established in 1788 at Sydney Cove by Arthur Phillip, commodore of the First Fleet as a penal colony. The city is built on hills surrounding Port Jackson which is commonly known as Sydney Harbour, where the iconic Sydney Opera House and the Harbour Bridge feature prominently. The hinterland of the metropolitan area is surrounded by national parks, and the coastal regions feature many bays, rivers, inlets and beaches including the famous Bondi Beach and Manly Beach. Within the city are many notable parks, including Hyde Park and the Royal Botanic Gardens.
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United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emiratesi/juːˌnaɪtɨd ˌærəb ˈɛmɪrɨts/ (Arabic: دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة, Al Imārāt al ‘Arabīyah al Muttaḥidah), sometimes simply called the Emirates or the UAE, is a country situated in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman to the east and Saudi Arabia to the south, as well as sharing sea borders with Qatar to the west and Iran to the north.
The UAE is a federation of seven emirates (equivalent to principalities), each governed by a hereditary emir, with a single national president. The constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain. The capital is Abu Dhabi, which is also the state's center of political, industrial, and cultural activities.
Prior to independence in 1971, the UAE was known as the Trucial States or Trucial Oman, in reference to a 19th-century truce between the local sheikhs, hereditary rulers of the territories, and the United Kingdom. The term Pirate Coast was also used by some to refer to the emirates from the 18th to the early 20th century, owing to the preponderance of pirates operating from Emirati ports.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia (Croatian, Serbian, Slovene, Macedonian: Jugoslavija; Cyrillic: Југославија) was a country in the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century which was established three times under differing forms of government.
The first country to be known by this name was the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which before 3 October 1929 was known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It was established on 1 December 1918 by the union of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia (the Kingdom of Montenegro was annexed on 13 November 1918, and the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris gave international recognition to the union on 13 July 1922). The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers in 1941, and because of the events that followed, was officially abolished in 1943 and 1945.
The second country with this name was the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, proclaimed in 1943 by the Yugoslav Partisans resistance movement during World War II. It was renamed to the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia in 1946, when a communist government was established. In 1963, it was renamed again to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). This was the largest Yugoslav state, as Istria, Rijeka and Zadar were added to the new Yugoslavia after the end of World War II.
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Carl Wilhelm Siemens
Carl Wilhelm Siemens (en: Charles William Siemens, known as Sir William Siemens) (4 April 1823 – 19 November 1883) was a German-born engineer who for most of his life worked in Britain and later became a British subject.
Siemens was born in the village of Lenthe, today part of Gehrden, near Hanover where his father, Christian Ferdinand Siemens (July 31, 1787-January 16, 1840), a tenant farmer, farmed an estate belonging to the Crown. His mother was Eleonore Deichmann (1792-July 8, 1839), and William, or Carl Wilhelm, was the fourth son of a family of fourteen children. Of his siblings, Ernst Werner Siemens, the fourth child, became a famous electrician and was associated with William in many of his inventions. He is also a brother of Carl Heinrich von Siemens and a cousin of Alexander Siemens.
On July 23, 1859, Siemens was married at St. James's, Paddington, to Anne Gordon, the youngest daughter of Mr. Joseph Gordon, Writer to the Signet, Edinburgh, and brother to Mr. Lewis Gordon, Professor of Engineering in the University of Glasgow and became a naturalised British subject. He used to say that on March 19 of that year he took oath and allegiance to two ladies in one day — to the Queen and his betrothed. He was knighted – becoming Sir William – a few months before his death. He died on the evening of Monday November 19, 1883, at nine o'clock and was buried on Monday November 26, in Kensal Green Cemetery.
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Charles Martin Hall
Charles Martin Hall (December 6, 1863 – December 27, 1914) was an American inventor, music enthusiast, and chemist. He is best known for his invention in 1886 of an inexpensive method for producing aluminium, which became the first metal to attain widespread use since the prehistoric discovery of iron.
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Friedrich Wöhler
Friedrich Wöhler (31 July 1800 – 23 September 1882) was a German chemist, best known for his synthesis of urea, but also the first to isolate several chemical elements.
He was born in Eschersheim, which belonged to Hanau at the time but is nowadays a district of Frankfurt am Main. In 1823 Wöhler finished his study of medicine in Heidelberg at the laboratory of Leopold Gmelin, who arranged for him to work under Jöns Jakob Berzelius in Stockholm. He taught chemistry from 1826 to 1831 at the Polytechnic School in Berlin until 1839 when he was stationed at the Polytechnic School at Kassel. Afterwards, he became Ordinary Professor of Chemistry in the University of Göttingen, where he remained until his death in 1882. In 1834, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Wöhler is regarded as a pioneer in organic chemistry as a result of his (accidentally) synthesizing urea in the Wöhler synthesis in 1828. This discovery has become celebrated as a refutation of vitalism, the hypothesis that living things are alive because of some special "vital force". However, contemporary accounts do not support that notion. This Wöhler Myth, as historian of science Peter J. Ramberg called it, originated from a popular history of chemistry published in 1931, which, "ignoring all pretense of historical accuracy, turned Wöhler into a crusader who made attempt after attempt to synthesize a natural product that would refute vitalism and lift the veil of ignorance, until 'one afternoon the miracle happened'". Nevertheless, it was the beginning of the end of one popular vitalist hypothesis, that of Jöns Jakob Berzelius that "organic" compounds could only be made by living things.
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Humphry Davy
Sir Humphry Davy, 1st Baronet FRS MRIA FGS (17 December 1778 – 29 May 1829) was a British chemist and inventor. He is probably best remembered today for his discoveries of several alkali and alkaline earth metals, as well as contributions to the discoveries of the elemental nature of chlorine and iodine. Berzelius called Davy's 1806 Bakerian Lecture On Some Chemical Agencies of Electricity "one of the best memoirs which has ever enriched the theory of chemistry." This paper was central to any chemical affinity theory in the first half of the nineteenth century. In 1815 he invented the Davy lamp, which allowed miners to work safely in the presence of flammable gases.
Davy was born in Penzance in Cornwall, United Kingdom, on 17 December 1778. The parish register of Madron (the parish church) records ‘Humphry Davy, son of Robert Davy, baptized at Penzance, January 22nd, 1779.’ Robert Davy was a wood carver at Penzance, who pursued his art rather for amusement than profit. As the representative of an old family (monuments to his ancestors in Ludgvan Church date as far back as 1635), he became possessor of a modest patrimony. His wife, Grace Millet, came from an old but no longer wealthy family. Her parents died within a few hours of each other from malignant fever, whereupon Grace and her two sisters were adopted by John Tonkin, an eminent surgeon in Penzance. Robert Davy and his wife became the parents of five children — two boys, Humphry, the eldest, and John, and three girls.
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Paul Héroult
The French scientist Paul (Louis-Toussaint) Héroult (April 10, 1863 – May 9, 1914) was the inventor of the aluminium electrolysis and of the electric steel furnace. He lived in Thury-Harcourt, Normandy.
Paul Héroult read Henri Sainte-Claire Deville's treatise on aluminium, when he was 15 years old. At that time, aluminium was as expensive as silver and was used mostly for luxury items and jewellery. Héroult wanted to make it cheaper. He succeeded in doing so when he discovered the electrolytic aluminium process in 1886. The same year, in the United States, Charles Martin Hall (1863–1914) was discovering the same process. Because of this the process was called the Hall-Heroult process.
Héroult's second most important invention is the electric arc furnace for steel in 1900. The Héroult furnace gradually replaced the giant smelters for the production of a variety of steels. In 1905, Paul Héroult was invited to the United States as a technical adviser to several companies, and in particular to the United States Steel Corporation.
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Pierre Berthier
Pierre Berthier (July 3, 1782, Nemours, Seine-et-Marne – August 24, 1861) was a French geologist and mining engineer.
Pierre Berthier was born in Nemours. After studying at the École Polytechnique, he went to the École des Mines, where he became chief of the laboratory in 1816. In 1821, while working in the village of Les Baux-de-Provence, in southern France, he discovered the mineral bauxite, named for the place of its discovery. He also discovered the mineral Berthierite, which was named after him. In addition to numerous contributions in mineralogy and mining, Berthier is also noted for his research into blast furnaces and for the utilization of phosphates by plants.
Pierre Berthier was elected a member of the Académie des Sciences in 1825. In 1828, he became a chevalier of the Legion of Honor.
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Travis Bean
Clifford Travis Bean (21 August 1947 – 10 July 2011) was an American luthier and machinist from California.
In 1974, he partnered with Marc McElwee and Gary Kramer to start Travis Bean Guitars, which made high-end electric guitars and basses featuring machined aluminum necks. This was an unusual design, departing from more traditional wood necked instruments. The aluminum center section ran through the instrument body, with the pickups directly mounted to the aluminum. The majority of these instruments featured solid koa wood bodies and humbucker pickups. Though praised for their sound, the use of aluminum necks also made Travis Bean guitars heavier than other electric guitars. Models included the Artist, Standard, Wedge (rare), and TB500 (rare) with single coil pickups.
Kramer and Bean parted ways in 1975, with the former starting Kramer Guitars. The first series of Kramer guitars were redesigned aluminum-necked instruments but utilizing wooden inserts along the back of the neck to cut down on weight and provide a more traditional feel; these modifications also avoided patent violations on Travis Bean's original neck design.
wn.com/Travis_Bean
music: hagel / lyrics: lodmalm
reptile sleep
the fix runs deep
alone with mirrors
a blank reflection stains the glass
liquid eyes
late goodbyes
calling from a distant waste that you can't find
and now when all is said and done
nowhere left to run
bittersweet aluminium - left in my mouth
diamond dreams
tainted past
it comes together - all together - it won't last
exiled waves
heartbeat lost
set the world on fire now at any cost
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Nie pomalujesz ! To je amelinium (to je aluminium!)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:44
- Updated: 02 Mar 2013
Koszulki AMELINIUM za DARMO! SPRAWDŹ szczegóły! www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Nie_pomalujesz_!_To_je_amelinium_to_je_aluminium!
Koszulki AMELINIUM za DARMO! SPRAWDŹ szczegóły! www.facebook.com
How It's Made: Aluminium Foil
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:19
- Updated: 28 Feb 2013
How is Aluminium Foil Manufactured? From Season 1, Episode 1 of How It's Made.
http://wn.com/How_It's_Made_Aluminium_Foil
How is Aluminium Foil Manufactured? From Season 1, Episode 1 of How It's Made.
- published: 18 Jan 2009
- views: 328189
- author: HowItsMadeEpisodes
Aluminium cubesat boards for high tension power supply
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:45
- Updated: 01 Mar 2013
Euroluna continues to work towards a flight ready high tension power supply for the Ion Propulsion system.
http://wn.com/Aluminium_cubesat_boards_for_high_tension_power_supply
Euroluna continues to work towards a flight ready high tension power supply for the Ion Propulsion system.
- published: 01 Mar 2013
- views: 57
- author: euroluna
Lamatherm - EN1364-4 Aluminium Curtain Wall Fire Test
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:27
- Updated: 01 Mar 2013
Non Fire Rated Aluminium Curtain Wall & Lamatherm CW Firestop
http://wn.com/Lamatherm_EN1364-4_Aluminium_Curtain_Wall_Fire_Test
Non Fire Rated Aluminium Curtain Wall & Lamatherm CW Firestop
- published: 01 Mar 2013
- author: SideriseGroup
MacBook Hardware Tour (Late-2008 Aluminium) - #276
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:10
- Updated: 05 Feb 2013
Watch my cartoons! www.youtube.com Outro ft. www.youtube.com Twitter - www.twitter.com Facebook - www.facebook.com Show Twitter - www.twitter.com Tumblr - www.itsalex.com Ask.FM - http Google + - www.gplus.to Surviving 2012
http://wn.com/MacBook_Hardware_Tour_Late-2008_Aluminium_276
Watch my cartoons! www.youtube.com Outro ft. www.youtube.com Twitter - www.twitter.com Facebook - www.facebook.com Show Twitter - www.twitter.com Tumblr - www.itsalex.com Ask.FM - http Google + - www.gplus.to Surviving 2012
- published: 03 Oct 2012
- views: 345
- author: Alex Hollings
OS X Mountain Lion Installation (MacBook Aluminium) - #208
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 21:03
- Updated: 10 Feb 2013
S2012 Twitter - www.twitter.com Personal Twitter - www.twitter.com Tumblr - alexhollings.tumblr.com Google + - http Fan Wiki - surviving2012.wikia.com Surviving 2012
http://wn.com/OS_X_Mountain_Lion_Installation_MacBook_Aluminium_208
S2012 Twitter - www.twitter.com Personal Twitter - www.twitter.com Tumblr - alexhollings.tumblr.com Google + - http Fan Wiki - surviving2012.wikia.com Surviving 2012
- published: 27 Jul 2012
- views: 858
- author: Alex Hollings
How It's Made - Socket Sets, Leather Shoes, Aluminium Water Bottles, and Bike Chains
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 19:49
- Updated: 28 Feb 2013
Discovery / Science Channel's "How It's Made" Socket Sets, Leather Shoes, Aluminium Water Bottles, and Bike Chains
http://wn.com/How_It's_Made_Socket_Sets,_Leather_Shoes,_Aluminium_Water_Bottles,_and_Bike_Chains
Discovery / Science Channel's "How It's Made" Socket Sets, Leather Shoes, Aluminium Water Bottles, and Bike Chains
- published: 28 Jul 2012
- views: 13068
- author: thatsmynamedude
Aluminium Extraction - Royal Society of Chemistry
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:18
- Updated: 13 Feb 2013
http://wn.com/Aluminium_Extraction_Royal_Society_of_Chemistry
Photoshopping iCloud Style Aluminium Icons (@PhotoGuides)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:54
- Updated: 01 Mar 2013
In Apple's recent iCloud and iOS5 keynote, a vast array of brushed aluminium style icons were used. In this tutorial we learn how to create an incredible iCloud style aluminium icon in just a few minutes. It's been a real rush to launch this episode (these video tutorials aren't quick to make!) but I'm very excited to be able to offer the first full tutorial for creating these icons with a freshly pioneered method. You saw it here on PhotoGuides first! Better still, the tutorial is versatile enough to allow you to create these aluminium icons with any logo or text embedded, and you'll hopefully be able to adapt the brushed aluminium methods for use in other images. As always, PhotoGuides members can download the high definition version of this tutorial and the Photoshop source files. And of course, it is free to join! To complete this tutorial, you'll also need to download the iCloud logo file which can be found over at www.photoguides.net If you have any questions or comments, feel free to leave them below or over at photoguides.net Otherwise I hope you enjoy the tutorial and stay tuned for more!
http://wn.com/Photoshopping_iCloud_Style_Aluminium_Icons_@PhotoGuides
In Apple's recent iCloud and iOS5 keynote, a vast array of brushed aluminium style icons were used. In this tutorial we learn how to create an incredible iCloud style aluminium icon in just a few minutes. It's been a real rush to launch this episode (these video tutorials aren't quick to make!) but I'm very excited to be able to offer the first full tutorial for creating these icons with a freshly pioneered method. You saw it here on PhotoGuides first! Better still, the tutorial is versatile enough to allow you to create these aluminium icons with any logo or text embedded, and you'll hopefully be able to adapt the brushed aluminium methods for use in other images. As always, PhotoGuides members can download the high definition version of this tutorial and the Photoshop source files. And of course, it is free to join! To complete this tutorial, you'll also need to download the iCloud logo file which can be found over at www.photoguides.net If you have any questions or comments, feel free to leave them below or over at photoguides.net Otherwise I hope you enjoy the tutorial and stay tuned for more!
- published: 08 Jun 2011
- views: 43966
- author: PhotoGuides
Aluminium Wireless Bluetooth Keyboard For The New iPad
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:30
- Updated: 01 Mar 2013
Aluminium Wireless Bluetooth Keyboard - www.ebay.com.au AUS PROSELLER - stores.ebay.com.au Song Used: Easy Lemon, Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- WEBSITE - http Facebook Group - tinyurl.com Twitter - twitter.com ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- More Social Content: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Add me on Gamecenter - Shadow Rider 9 Top iDevice App's Throughout The Years (Playlist) - bit.ly Google + - plus.google.com YouTube Channel - youtube.com Facebook Page - tinyurl.com Shirts (All under $20) - theipodtouchworld.spreadshirt.com ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Contact us at: ipodtouchworld@hotmail.com Subscribe Like and Comment ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Permission has been given to use the introduction song ("Pixels")
http://wn.com/Aluminium_Wireless_Bluetooth_Keyboard_For_The_New_iPad
Aluminium Wireless Bluetooth Keyboard - www.ebay.com.au AUS PROSELLER - stores.ebay.com.au Song Used: Easy Lemon, Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- WEBSITE - http Facebook Group - tinyurl.com Twitter - twitter.com ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- More Social Content: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Add me on Gamecenter - Shadow Rider 9 Top iDevice App's Throughout The Years (Playlist) - bit.ly Google + - plus.google.com YouTube Channel - youtube.com Facebook Page - tinyurl.com Shirts (All under $20) - theipodtouchworld.spreadshirt.com ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Contact us at: ipodtouchworld@hotmail.com Subscribe Like and Comment ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Permission has been given to use the introduction song ("Pixels")
- published: 08 Sep 2012
- views: 5516
- author: TheIpodTouchWorld
Aluminium - Modern Marvels - History Channel Discovery
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 42:45
- Updated: 03 Mar 2013
This useful metal was once considered more valuable than gold. Watch as aluminum is stretched, pounded, melted and turned into foam. Did you know that aluminum is made out of a powder? Visit the widest rolling mill in the world where skins for the largest jets are made, then it's off to NASA to observe how aluminum is used to make reflective mirrors for telescopes. Discover the process of making aluminum foil and learn why aluminum baseball bats are better than wood. Aluminium (or aluminum) is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is silvery white, and it is not soluble in water under normal circumstances. Aluminium is the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon), and the most abundant metal, in the Earth's crust. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid surface. Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite. Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation. Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and are important in other areas of transportation and structural materials. The most useful compounds of aluminium, at least on a weight basis, are the oxides and sulfates. Despite its prevalence in the ...
http://wn.com/Aluminium_Modern_Marvels_History_Channel_Discovery
This useful metal was once considered more valuable than gold. Watch as aluminum is stretched, pounded, melted and turned into foam. Did you know that aluminum is made out of a powder? Visit the widest rolling mill in the world where skins for the largest jets are made, then it's off to NASA to observe how aluminum is used to make reflective mirrors for telescopes. Discover the process of making aluminum foil and learn why aluminum baseball bats are better than wood. Aluminium (or aluminum) is a chemical element in the boron group with symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is silvery white, and it is not soluble in water under normal circumstances. Aluminium is the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon), and the most abundant metal, in the Earth's crust. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid surface. Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme reducing environments. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite. Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation. Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and are important in other areas of transportation and structural materials. The most useful compounds of aluminium, at least on a weight basis, are the oxides and sulfates. Despite its prevalence in the ...
- published: 03 Mar 2013
- views: 1
- author: PodCast4U
MacBook Aluminium RAM Upgrade (8GB) - #194
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:34
- Updated: 05 Feb 2013
S2012 Twitter - www.twitter.com Personal Twitter - www.twitter.com Tumblr - alexhollings.tumblr.com Google + - http Fan Wiki - surviving2012.wikia.com Surviving 2012
http://wn.com/MacBook_Aluminium_RAM_Upgrade_8GB_194
S2012 Twitter - www.twitter.com Personal Twitter - www.twitter.com Tumblr - alexhollings.tumblr.com Google + - http Fan Wiki - surviving2012.wikia.com Surviving 2012
- published: 13 Jul 2012
- views: 365
- author: Alex Hollings
Anodising aluminium at home part 1 ✔
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:32
- Updated: 22 Feb 2013
Visit www.penchemistry.co.uk
http://wn.com/Anodising_aluminium_at_home_part_1_✔
Surviving 2012 - MacBook Aluminium Unboxing and Setup - #123 | Surviving 2012
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 17:51
- Updated: 27 Feb 2013
Links: Suggest a video: www.google.com Ask Alex: www.google.com Twitter: www.twitter.com Google+: www.gplus.to Facebook: www.facebook.com 20th Century Cow: www.youtube.com Gaming Channel: www.youtube.com Mobile Channel: www.youtube.com Surviving 2012 Playlist: www.youtube.com - - - - - Surviving 2012 -- Alex Hollings
http://wn.com/Surviving_2012_MacBook_Aluminium_Unboxing_and_Setup_123_|_Surviving_2012
Links: Suggest a video: www.google.com Ask Alex: www.google.com Twitter: www.twitter.com Google+: www.gplus.to Facebook: www.facebook.com 20th Century Cow: www.youtube.com Gaming Channel: www.youtube.com Mobile Channel: www.youtube.com Surviving 2012 Playlist: www.youtube.com - - - - - Surviving 2012 -- Alex Hollings
- published: 03 May 2012
- views: 759
- author: Alex Hollings
How It's Made: Aluminium Bike Wheels
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:01
- Updated: 01 Mar 2013
A clip from How It's Made S17E04 showing the construction of Fulcrum Racing Zero bicycle wheels.
http://wn.com/How_It's_Made_Aluminium_Bike_Wheels
A clip from How It's Made S17E04 showing the construction of Fulcrum Racing Zero bicycle wheels.
- published: 04 Dec 2011
- views: 193791
- author: johnnytifosi
Minecraft Millennium Falcon vs TIE Patrol
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:49
- Updated: 24 Feb 2013
This video is the nerdiest thing I have ever done. Reddit Post: no longer available Texture pack: www.minecraftforum.net MUSIC USED: Artist: grapes Track Name: 'I dunno' Track Link: ccmixter.org Liscense: creativecommons.org Artist: Darkroom Track Name: Time Track Link: ccmixter.org Liscense: creativecommons.org
http://wn.com/Minecraft_Millennium_Falcon_vs_TIE_Patrol
This video is the nerdiest thing I have ever done. Reddit Post: no longer available Texture pack: www.minecraftforum.net MUSIC USED: Artist: grapes Track Name: 'I dunno' Track Link: ccmixter.org Liscense: creativecommons.org Artist: Darkroom Track Name: Time Track Link: ccmixter.org Liscense: creativecommons.org
- published: 30 Jul 2011
- views: 60784
- author: TobiwanK3nobi
menuiserie aluminium tunis
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:37
- Updated: 12 Feb 2013
I created this video with the YouTube Video Editor (www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/menuiserie_aluminium_tunis
I created this video with the YouTube Video Editor (www.youtube.com
- published: 12 Apr 2012
- views: 8212
- author: menuiserie aluminium
Aluminium Selber Eloxieren (Anodizing Aluminum)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:21
- Updated: 26 Feb 2013
Anodisieren - elektrolytisches Oxidieren von Aluminium
http://wn.com/Aluminium_Selber_Eloxieren_Anodizing_Aluminum
Anodisieren - elektrolytisches Oxidieren von Aluminium
- published: 18 Sep 2009
- views: 117261
- author: superwookie
How It's Made - Halogen Bulbs Cellulose Insulation Aluminium Ladders Bamboo Fly Rods
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 20:48
- Updated: 25 Feb 2013
Enjoy!
http://wn.com/How_It's_Made_Halogen_Bulbs_Cellulose_Insulation_Aluminium_Ladders_Bamboo_Fly_Rods
Master CP Aluminium case
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:10
- Updated: 02 Mar 2013
If any of you wanted to see more details of the Master Cp's case, before buying one, here you go... Visit: rchelistuff.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/Master_CP_Aluminium_case
If any of you wanted to see more details of the Master Cp's case, before buying one, here you go... Visit: rchelistuff.blogspot.com
- published: 02 Mar 2013
- author: MrCofl1001
CNC machine creates solid Aluminium Helmet.flv
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:32
- Updated: 02 Mar 2013
Amazing piece of engineering - a programmed CNC machien creates a complete MX helmet from a solid piece of aluminium
http://wn.com/CNC_machine_creates_solid_Aluminium_Helmetflv
Amazing piece of engineering - a programmed CNC machien creates a complete MX helmet from a solid piece of aluminium
- published: 24 Aug 2010
- views: 51962
- author: Velocitycoffee
ALUMINIUM, Gift im Essen,in Medikamenten und mehr.mp4
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:46
- Updated: 03 Feb 2013
Die Gesundheit der menschen wird wieder einmal mehr zu Gunsten des Profites bewusst auf`s Spiel gesetzt. Wir werden mit staatlicher Genehmigung vergiftet.
http://wn.com/ALUMINIUM,_Gift_im_Essen,in_Medikamenten_und_mehrmp4
Die Gesundheit der menschen wird wieder einmal mehr zu Gunsten des Profites bewusst auf`s Spiel gesetzt. Wir werden mit staatlicher Genehmigung vergiftet.
- published: 15 Nov 2011
- views: 2587
- author: tubebuchti
Continental - mounting instruction for tubular tyres, aluminium rims
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:43
- Updated: 18 Feb 2013
How to mount a tubular tyre. Find a video of the pros from Continental! www.conti-bicycletyres.com
http://wn.com/Continental_mounting_instruction_for_tubular_tyres,_aluminium_rims
How to mount a tubular tyre. Find a video of the pros from Continental! www.conti-bicycletyres.com
- published: 01 Dec 2010
- views: 36141
- author: Continental2Wheel
photo: Malacañang Photo Bureau / Jay Morales
01 Mar 2013
TERESA CEROJANO. Associated Press= MANILA, Philippines (AP) — Shooting erupted in a Malaysian village that has been occupied by nearly 200 members of a Filipino clan for three weeks, but the Malaysian home minister denied Friday that his forces were responsible. Members of a Muslim royal clan from the southern Philippines landed in a coastal village in Malaysia's Sabah state on Feb ... He said his plan was "to fight." ... --- ... World news....(size: 3.0Kb)
photo: WN / Imran Nissar
02 Mar 2013
Srinagar, March 02.. Two local policemen were killed by separatist guerrillas in a hit-and-run attack in Kupwara district of north Kashmir Saturday. A senior police officer told IANS that militants fired from close range at two constables of an armed battalion near the bus stand in Handwara town, 75 kilometres from here this morning ... The area has been cordoned off and searches have started in the town....(size: 2.1Kb)
photo: AP / Hussein Malla
03 Mar 2013
Syrian president Bashar Assad has accused the British government of being "naive, confused and unrealistic" in its approach to the conflict in his country and warned of dire consequences if the West armed its rebels. In an interview with the Sunday Times Mr Assad said Britain was sacrificing peace talks to push for an end to an EU arms embargo, which would allow rebels to be armed ... "We do not expect an arsonist to be a firefighter." ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
photo: AP
03 Mar 2013
"Our path to freedom is irreversible," declared Nelson Mandela on February 11, 1990. Addressing over fifty thousand cheering South African supporters in Cape Town, he had just been freed after three decades of imprisonment ... Millions of South Africans accepted his challenge. Political violence and interethnic tensions soon diminished. Educational and employment opportunities increased ... Without one the other two cannot exist....(size: 4.3Kb)
News24
03 Mar 2013
One complaint was from residents in Louis Trichardt, in Limpopo, who were without water for 27 days ... The area's ratepayers association chairperson Clive Sandenberg said the flocculant used to settle silt in the Sonderend river contained aluminium. "The aluminium ends up in our drinking water ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
Mail Guardian South Africa
03 Mar 2013
The SA Human Rights Commission has received over 100 complaints relating to water contamination and supply in two years ... Our Coverage ... The area's ratepayers association chairperson Clive Sandenberg said the flocculant used to settle silt in the Sonderend river contained aluminium. "The aluminium ends up in our drinking water ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
The Verge
03 Mar 2013
HTC One V or Galaxy S III Mini?. Posted by danjames on March 3, 2013 07.38 am 0. Hi, my brother is signing up for a new contract and he is getting a free phone ... http.//d.pr/i/NSco+. The V (in my opinion) seems to have much higher build quality (although I have seen some reports of the aluminium wearing away), as it seems the aluminium will feel much nicer in the hand than the plastic back of the Mini ... A little about me ... at home too ... Apr ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)
The Times of India
03 Mar 2013
The Gleaner
03 Mar 2013
'Student-centric' activity challenges artistic creativity for top prizes ... Prizes ... Presentation and judging begins at the UWI's Students' Union on Tuesday during the institution's fashion week ... Countries like Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Singapore and the United States have all inspired artists to create their own aluminium artwork. ....(size: 2.3Kb)
noodls
03 Mar 2013
(Source. JSW Steel Limited) PRESS RELEASE FOR IMMEDIATE PUBLICATION. JSW Steel posts growth in Crude Steel production - February 2009. Mumbai, March 5, 2009 ... This includes the trial production of 18,262 tons from recently commissioned largest Blast Furnace in February 2009 ... Product ... Product ... The group has diversified interest in mining, carbon steel, power, industrial gases, port facilities, Aluminium, Cement and Information Technology ... Mr....(size: 3.9Kb)
The Times of India
02 Mar 2013
The Star
02 Mar 2013
CONAKRY (Reuters) - At least one person was killed by gunfire and three others injured in ongoing street clashes in Guinea on Saturday, and the government said it was investigating whether security forces used live rounds against civilians ... REUTERS/Saliou Samb ... Politics in Guinea, the top world supplier of bauxite, raw material of aluminium, are mainly drawn along ethnic lines ... (Writing by Richard Valdmanis; Editing by Jason Webb). ....(size: 3.1Kb)
The Independent
02 Mar 2013
Lib Dems to confront Clegg over Rennard. Liberal Democrat members are to confront Nick Clegg over his response to allegations that party activists were sexually harassed by Lord Rennard ... Pryce 'cooked up bullying story' ... MORE. Prescription charge to rise from April ... MORE ... MORE ... Commodities giant Glencore supplied alumina to an Iranian firm that has provided aluminium to Iran's nuclear program, intelligence and diplomatic sources have said ... ....(size: 6.3Kb)
photo: WN / Imran Nissar
02 Mar 2013
12. A formal allee of trained apple trees in full bloom in the west Cork garden of gardener Joy Larkcom.A wire-trained apple tree. Photograh. RICHARD JOHNSTON ... Santry Community Orchard ... Each sponsored tree bears a neatly printed aluminium label containing a dedication and the name of the donor, many of them grandparents gifting trees they hope their grandchildren will enjoy long after they’re gone. santrycommunitygarden.ie ... ....(size: 8.4Kb)
News24
02 Mar 2013
2013-03-02 11.11. > >. Pin It ... LOOKS, THE SAME... The Hyundai i20, all "fluidic" body lines and chunky shell, varies little between models - but now comes a hearty diesel engine. > Gallery. 2012 Hyundai i20 gets facelift. 2012-08-14 20.14 ... Nice job, guys!. Author. LES STEPHENSON ... LESS PLAYING ABOUT ... where the others' aluminium engine block's bore/stroke reads 77x74.99mm those of the cast-iron lump inthe diesel are 75x79mm ... > >....(size: 9.0Kb)
The Guardian
01 Mar 2013
The commodities trader Glencore supplied thousands of tonnes of alumina to an Iranian firm that has provided aluminium to Iran's nuclear programme, intelligence and diplomatic sources have told Reuters ... Reuters first learned about Glencore's barter deal with Iralco, and an aluminium supply contract that Iralco had with Iran Centrifuge Technology Co (TESA), from a western diplomatic source in early November....(size: 3.2Kb)
This article is about the metallic element. For other uses, see Aluminium (disambiguation).
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| Appearance | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
silvery gray metallic  Spectral lines of aluminium |
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| General properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Name, symbol, number | aluminium, Al, 13 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Pronunciation | UK i/ˌæljʉˈmɪniəm/ AL-ew-MIN-ee-əm; or |
||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Element category | other metal | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Group, period, block | 13, 3, p | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Standard atomic weight | 26.9815386(13) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electron configuration | [Ne] 3s2 3p1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electrons per shell | 2, 8, 3 (Image) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Physical properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Phase | solid | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Density (near r.t.) | 2.70 g·cm−3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Liquid density at m.p. | 2.375 g·cm−3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Melting point | 933.47 K, 660.32 °C, 1220.58 °F | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Boiling point | 2792 K, 2519 °C, 4566 °F | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat of fusion | 10.71 kJ·mol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat of vaporization | 294.0 kJ·mol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Molar heat capacity | 24.200 J·mol−1·K−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Vapor pressure | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
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| Atomic properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Oxidation states | 3, 2[1], 1[2] (amphoteric oxide) |
||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electronegativity | 1.61 (Pauling scale) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Ionization energies (more) |
1st: 577.5 kJ·mol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 2nd: 1816.7 kJ·mol−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 3rd: 2744.8 kJ·mol−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Atomic radius | 143 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Covalent radius | 121±4 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Van der Waals radius | 184 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Miscellanea | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Crystal structure | face-centered cubic | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Magnetic ordering | paramagnetic[3] | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electrical resistivity | (20 °C) 28.2 nΩ·m | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thermal conductivity | 237 W·m−1·K−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thermal expansion | (25 °C) 23.1 µm·m−1·K−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Speed of sound (thin rod) | (r.t.) (rolled) 5,000 m·s−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Young's modulus | 70 GPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Shear modulus | 26 GPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Bulk modulus | 76 GPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Poisson ratio | 0.35 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mohs hardness | 2.75 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Vickers hardness | 167 MPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Brinell hardness | 245 MPa | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| CAS registry number | 7429-90-5 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Most stable isotopes | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Main article: Isotopes of aluminium | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| · r | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aluminium ( /ˌæljuːˈmɪniəm/ AL-ew-MIN-ee-əm) or aluminum (American English; /ˌəlˈuːmɪnəm/ ə-LOO-mi-nəm) is a silvery white member of the boron group of chemical elements. It has the symbol Al, and its atomic number is 13. It is not soluble in water under normal circumstances.
Aluminium is the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon), and the most abundant metal, in the Earth's crust. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid surface. Aluminium metal is too reactive chemically to occur natively. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals.[4] The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite.
Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation. Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and are important in other areas of transportation and structural materials. The most useful compounds of aluminium, at least on a weight basis, are the oxides and sulfates.
Despite its prevalence in the environment, aluminium salts are not known to be used by any form of life. In keeping with its pervasiveness, aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals.[5] Due to their prevalence, potential beneficial (or otherwise) biological roles of aluminium compounds are of continuing interest.
Contents |
Characteristics[link]
Physical[link]
Aluminium is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight, ductile and malleable metal with appearance ranging from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface roughness. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite. A fresh film of aluminium film serves as a good reflector (approximately 92%) of visible light and an excellent reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared radiation. The yield strength of pure aluminium is 7–11 MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.[6] Aluminium has about one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It is easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded.
Aluminium atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure. Aluminium has a stacking-fault energy of approximately 200 mJ/m2.[7]
Aluminium is a good thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper, both thermal and electrical. Aluminium is capable of being a superconductor, with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 Kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).[8]
Chemical[link]
Corrosion resistance can be excellent due to a thin surface layer of aluminium oxide that forms when the metal is exposed to air, effectively preventing further oxidation. The strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper.[6] This corrosion resistance is also often greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.
Owing to its resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retain silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of silver-colored paints. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest reflectance of any metal in the 200–400 nm (UV) and the 3,000–10,000 nm (far IR) regions; in the 400–700 nm visible range it is slightly outperformed by tin and silver and in the 700–3000 (near IR) by silver, gold, and copper.[9]
Aluminium is oxidized by water to produce hydrogen and heat:
- 2 Al + 3 H2O → Al2O3 + 3H2
This conversion is of interest for the production. Challenges include circumventing the formed oxide layer which inhibits the reaction and the expenses associated with the storage of energy by regeneration of the Al metal.[10]
Isotopes[link]
Main article: Isotopes of aluminium
Aluminium has many known isotopes, whose mass numbers range from 21 to 43; however, only 27Al (stable isotope) and 26Al (radioactive isotope, t1/2 = 7.2×105 y) occur naturally. 27Al has a natural abundance above 99.9%. 26Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock exposures, and meteorites. The ratio of 26Al to 10Be has been used to study the role of transport, deposition, sediment storage, burial times, and erosion on 105 to 106 year time scales.[11] Cosmogenic 26Al was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteoroid fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial 26Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding drastically reduces 26Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that 26Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system. Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.[12]
Natural occurrence[link]
See also: List of countries by bauxite production
Stable aluminium is created when hydrogen fuses with magnesium either in large stars or in supernovae.[13]
In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant (8.3% by weight) metallic element and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).[14] Because of its strong affinity to oxygen, it is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Native aluminium metal can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.[15] Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea and Chen et al. (2011)[16] have proposed a theory of its origin as resulting by reduction from tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4– to metallic aluminium by bacteria.[16]
It also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel and turquoise. Impurities in Al2O3, such as chromium or iron yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively.
Although aluminium is an extremely common and widespread element, the common aluminium minerals are not economic sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlOx(OH)3–2x). Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.[17] Large deposits of bauxite occur in Australia, Brazil, Guinea and Jamaica and the primary mining areas for the ore are in Australia, Brazil, China, India, Guinea, Indonesia, Jamaica, Russia and Suriname.
Production and refinement[link]
Aluminium forms strong chemical bonds with oxygen. Compared to most other metals, it is difficult to extract from ore, such as bauxite, due to the high reactivity of aluminum and the high melting point of most of its ores. For example, direct reduction with carbon, as is used to produce iron, is not chemically possible because aluminium is a stronger reducing agent than carbon. Indirect carbothermic reduction can be carried out using carbon and Al2O3, which forms an intermediate Al4C3 and this can further yield aluminium metal at a temperature of 1900–2000 °C. This process is still under development; it requires less energy and yields less CO2 than the Hall-Héroult process, the major industrial process for aluminium extraction.[18] Electrolytic smelting of alumina was originally cost-prohibitive in part because of the high melting point of alumina, or aluminium oxide, (about 2,000 °C (3,600 °F)). Many minerals, however, will dissolve into a second already molten mineral, even if the temperature of the melt is significantly lower than the melting point of the first mineral. Molten cryolite was discovered to dissolve alumina at temperatures signifcanlty lower than the melting point of pure alumina without interfering in the smelting process. In the Hall-Héroult process, alumina is first dissolved into molten cryolite with calcium fluoride and then electolytically reduced to aluminium at a temperature between 950 and 980 °C (1,740 to 1,800 °F). Cryolite is a chemical compound of aluminium and sodium fluorides: (Na3AlF6). Although cryolite is found as a mineral in Greenland, its synthetic form is used in the industry. The aluminium oxide itself is obtained by refining bauxite in the Bayer process.
The electrolytic process replaced the Wöhler process, which involved the reduction of anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium. Both of the electrodes used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide are carbon. Once the refined alumina is dissolved in the electrolyte, it disassociates and its ions are free to move around. The reaction at the cathode is:
- Al3+ + 3 e− → Al
Here the aluminium ion is being reduced. The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is tapped off, usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing.
At the anode, oxygen is formed:
- 2 O2− → O2 + 4 e−
To some extent, the carbon anode is consumed by subsequent reaction with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The anodes in a reduction cell must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process. The cathodes do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes and metal movement. After five to ten years, depending on the current used in the electrolysis, a cell has to be rebuilt because of cathode wear.
Aluminium electrolysis with the Hall-Héroult process consumes a lot of energy, but alternative processes were always found to be less viable economically and/or ecologically. The worldwide average specific energy consumption is approximately 15±0.5 kilowatt-hours per kilogram of aluminium produced (52 to 56 MJ/kg). The most modern smelters achieve approximately 12.8 kW·h/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). (Compare this to the heat of reaction, 31 MJ/kg, and the Gibbs free energy of reaction, 29 MJ/kg.) Reduction line currents for older technologies are typically 100 to 200 kiloamperes; state-of-the-art smelters operate at about 350 kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells.[citation needed]
The Hall-Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99%. Further purification can be done by the Hoope process. The process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium, barium and aluminium fluoride electrolyte. The resulting aluminium has a purity of 99.99%.[19][20]
Electric power represents about 20% to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Aluminium production consumes roughly 5% of electricity generated in the U.S.[21] Smelters tend to be situated where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive, such as the United Arab Emirates with excess natural gas supplies and Iceland and Norway with energy generated from renewable sources. The world's largest smelters of alumina are People's Republic of China, Russia, and Quebec and British Columbia in Canada.[21][22][23]
File:Aluminium output2.PNG
Aluminium output in 2005
In 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top producer of aluminium with almost a one-fifth world share, followed by Russia, Canada, and the USA, reports the British Geological Survey.
Over the last 50 years, Australia has become a major producer of bauxite ore and a major producer and exporter of alumina (before being overtaken by China in 2007).[22][24] Australia produced 62 million tonnes of bauxite in 2005. The Australian deposits have some refining problems, some being high in silica, but have the advantage of being shallow and relatively easy to mine.[25]
Recycling[link]
Main article: Aluminium recycling
Aluminium is theoretically 100% recyclable without any loss of its natural qualities. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in Society report, the global per capita stock of aluminium in use in society (i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics etc.) is 80 kg. Much of this is in more-developed countries (350–500 kg per capita) rather than less-developed countries (35 kg per capita). Knowing the per capita stocks and their approximate lifespans is important for planning recycling.
Recovery of the metal via recycling has become an important facet of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to the public awareness.
Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide).[26] The dross can undergo a further process to extract aluminium.
In Europe aluminium experiences high rates of recycling, ranging from 42% of beverage cans, 85% of construction materials and 95% of transport vehicles.[27]
Recycled aluminium is known as secondary aluminium, but maintains the same physical properties as primary aluminium. Secondary aluminium is produced in a wide range of formats and is employed in 80% of alloy injections. Another important use is for extrusion.
White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially.[28] The process produces aluminium billets, together with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which spontaneously ignites on contact with air;[29] contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, the waste has found use as a filler in asphalt and concrete.[30]
Compounds[link]
Oxidation state +3[link]
The vast majority of compounds, including all Al-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of such compounds varies, but generally Al3+ is six-coordinate or tetracoordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless.[14]
Halides[link]
All four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium fluoride (AlF3) features six-coordinate Al. The octahedral coordination environment for AlF3 is related to the compactness of fluoride ion, six of which can fit around the small Al3+ centre. AlF3 sublimes (with cracking) at 1,291 °C (2,356 °F). With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral Al centers. These materials are prepared by treating aluminium metal with the halogen, although other methods exist. Acidification of the oxides or hydroxides affords hydrates. In aqueous solution, the halides often form mixtures, generally containing six-coordinate Al centres, which are feature both halide and aquo ligands. When aluminium and fluoride are together in aqueous solution, they readily form complex ions such as [AlF(H2O)5]2+, AlF3(H2O)3, and [AlF6]3−. In the case of chloride, polyaluminium clusters are formed such as [Al13O4(OH)24(H2O)12]7+.
Oxide and hydroxides[link]
Aluminium forms one stable oxide, known by its mineral name corundum. Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals. The two oxide-hydroxides (AlO(OH) are boehmite and diaspore. There are three trihydroxides: bayerite, gibbsite, and nordstrandite, which differ in their crystalline structure (polymorphs). Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundrum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful.
Carbide, nitride, and related materials[link]
Aluminium carbide (Al4C3) is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1,000 °C (1,832 °F). The pale yellow crystals consist of tetrahedral aluminium centres. It reacts with water or dilute acids to give methane. The acetylide, Al2(C2)3, is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium.
Aluminium nitride (AlN) is the only nitride known for aluminium. Unlike the oxides it features tetrahedral Al centres. It can be made from the elements at 800 °C (1,472 °F). It is air-stable material with a usefully high thermal conductivity. Aluminium phosphide (AlP) is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give phosphine:
- AlP + 3 H2O → Al(OH)3 + PH3
Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides[link]
Main article: Organoaluminium compound
A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR3 and AlR1.5Cl1.5 exist.[31] These species usually feature tetrahedral Al centres, e.g. "trimethylaluminium" has the formula Al2(CH3)6 (see figure). With large organic groups, triorganoaluminium exist as three-coordinate monomers, such as triisobutylaluminium. Such compounds are widely used in industrial chemistry, despite the fact that they are often highly pyrophoric. Few analogues exist between organoaluminium and organoboron compounds except for large organic groups.
The important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH4), which is used in as a reducing agent in organic chemistry. It can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride:
- 4 LiH + AlCl3 → LiAlH4 + 3 LiCl
Several useful derivatives of LiAlH4 are known, e.g. Sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)dihydridoaluminate. The simplest hydride, aluminium hydride or alane, remains a laboratory curiosity. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH3)n, in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride with the formula (BH3)2.
Oxidation states +1 and +2[link]
Although the great majority of aluminium compounds feature Al3+ centres, compounds with lower oxidation states are known and sometime of significance as precursors to the Al3+ species.
Aluminium(I)[link]
AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the tri-halide is heated with aluminium. The composition AlI is unstable at room temperature with respect to the triiodide:[32]
- 3 AlI → AlI3 + 2 Al
A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine, Al4I4(NEt3)4. Also of theoretical interest but only of fleeting existence are Al2O and Al2S is made by heating the normal oxide, Al2O3, with silicon at 1,800 °C (3,272 °F) in a vacuum.[32] Such materials quickly disproportionates to the starting materials.
Aluminium(II)[link]
Very simple Al(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion[33] and in stellar absorption spectra.[34] More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R4Al2 where R is a large organic ligand.[35]
Analysis[link]
The presence of aluminium can be detected in qualitative analysis using aluminon.
Applications[link]
General use[link]
Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal.[36] Global production of aluminium in 2005 was 31.9 million tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes).[37] Forecast for 2012 is 42–45 million tonnes, driven by rising Chinese output.[38]
Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties, especially when tempered. For example, the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium.[39] The main alloying agents are copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and silicon (e.g., duralumin) and the levels of these other metals are in the range of a few percent by weight.[40]
File:Aluminumfoil.jpg
Household aluminium foil
Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:
- Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine vessels, bicycles, etc.) as sheet, tube, castings, etc.
- Packaging (cans, foil, etc.)
- Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc.).[41]
- A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball bats, watches.[42]
- Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking poles, etc.
- Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for equipment e.g. photographic equipment.
- Electrical transmission lines for power distribution
- MKM steel and Alnico magnets
- Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and CDs.
- Heat sinks for electronic appliances such as transistors and CPUs.
- Substrate material of metal-core copper clad laminates used in high brightness LED lighting.
- Powdered aluminium is used in paint, and in pyrotechnics such as solid rocket fuels and thermite.
- Aluminium can be reacted with hydrochloric acid or with sodium hydroxide to produce hydrogen gas.
- A variety of countries, including France, Italy, Poland, Finland, Romania, Israel, and the former Yugoslavia, have issued coins struck in aluminium or aluminium-copper alloys.[43][44]
- Some guitar models sports aluminium diamond plates on the surface of the instruments, usually either chrome or black. Kramer Guitars and Travis Bean are both known for having produced guitars with necks made of aluminium, which gives the instrument a very distinct sound.
Aluminium is usually alloyed – it is used as pure metal only when corrosion resistance and/or workability is more important than strength or hardness. A thin layer of aluminium can be deposited onto a flat surface by physical vapour deposition or (very infrequently) chemical vapour deposition or other chemical means to form optical coatings and mirrors.
Aluminium compounds[link]
Because aluminium is abundant and most of its derivative exhibit low toxicity, the compounds of aluminium enjoy wide and sometimes large-scale applications.
Alumina[link]
Main article: Aluminium oxide
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and the associated oxy-hydroxides and trihydroxides are produced or extracted from minerals on a large scale. The great majority of this material is converted to metallic aluminium. About 10% of the production capacity is used for other applications. A major use is as an absorbent, for example alumina will remove water from hydrocarbons, to enable subsequent processes that are poisoned by moisture. Aluminium oxides are common catalysts for industrial processes, e.g. the Claus process for converting hydrogen sulfide to sulfur in refineries and for the alkylation of amines. Many industrial catalysts are "supported", meaning generally that an expensive catalyst (e.g., platinum) is dispersed over a high surface area material such as alumina. Being a very hard material (Mohs hardness 9), alumina is widely used as an abrasive and the production of applications that exploit its inertness, e.g., in high pressure sodium lamps.
Sulfates[link]
Several sulfates of aluminium find applications. Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3(H2O)18) is produced on the annual scale of several billions of kilograms. About half of the production is consumed in water treatment. The next major application is in the manufacture of paper. It is also used as a mordant, in fire extinguisher, as a food additive, in fireproofing, and in leather tanning. Aluminium ammonium sulfate, which is also called ammonium alum, (NH4)Al(SO4)2·12H2O, is used as a mordant and in leather tanning.[5] Aluminium potassium sulfate ([Al(K)](SO4)2)(H2O)12 is used similarly. The consumption of both alums is declining.
Chlorides[link]
Aluminium chloride (AlCl3) is used in petroleum refining and in the production of synthetic rubber and polymers. Although it has a similar name, aluminium chlorohydrate has fewer and very different applications, e.g. as a hardening agent and an antiperspirant. It is an intermediate in the production of aluminium metal.
Niche compounds[link]
Given the scale of aluminium compounds, a small scale application could still involve thousands of tonnes. One of the many compounds used at this intermediate level include aluminium acetate, a salt used in solution as an astringent. Aluminium borate (Al2O3·B2O3) is used in the production of glass and ceramics. Aluminium fluorosilicate (Al2(SiF6)3) is used in the production of synthetic gemstones, glass and ceramic. Aluminium phosphate (AlPO4) is used in the manufacture: of glass and ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints and varnishes and in making dental cement. Aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)3) is used as an antacid, as a mordant, in water purification, in the manufacture of glass and ceramic and in the waterproofing of fabrics. Lithium aluminium hydride is a powerful reducing agent used in organic chemistry. Organoaluminiums are used as Lewis acids and cocatalysts. For example, methylaluminoxane is a cocatalyst for Ziegler-Natta olefin polymerization to produce vinyl polymers such as polyethene.
Aluminium alloys in structural applications[link]
Main article: Aluminium alloy
Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number system (ANSI) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents (DIN and ISO).
The strength and durability of aluminium alloys vary widely, not only as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result of heat treatments and manufacturing processes. A lack of knowledge of these aspects has from time to time led to improperly designed structures and gained aluminium a bad reputation.
One important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their fatigue strength. Unlike steels, aluminium alloys have no well-defined fatigue limit, meaning that fatigue failure eventually occurs, under even very small cyclic loadings. This implies that engineers must assess these loads and design for a fixed life rather than an infinite life.
Another important property of aluminium alloys is their sensitivity to heat. Workshop procedures involving heating are complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, melts without first glowing red. Forming operations where a blow torch is used therefore require some expertise, since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting. Aluminium alloys, like all structural alloys, also are subject to internal stresses following heating operations such as welding and casting. The problem with aluminium alloys in this regard is their low melting point, which make them more susceptible to distortions from thermally induced stress relief. Controlled stress relief can be done during manufacturing by heat-treating the parts in an oven, followed by gradual cooling—in effect annealing the stresses.
The low melting point of aluminium alloys has not precluded their use in rocketry; even for use in constructing combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. The Agena upper stage engine used a regeneratively cooled aluminium design for some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region.
Another alloy of some value is aluminium bronze (Cu-Al alloy).
History[link]
Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants and as astringents for dressing wounds; alum is still used as a styptic. In 1761, Guyton de Morveau suggested calling the base alum alumine. In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of alum, which he at first termed alumium and later aluminum (see etymology section, below).
The metal was first produced in 1825 in an impure form by Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian Ørsted. He reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin.[45] Friedrich Wöhler was aware of these experiments and cited them, but after redoing the experiments of Ørsted he concluded that this metal was pure potassium. He conducted a similar experiment in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and yielded aluminium.[45] Wöhler is generally credited with isolating aluminium (Latin alumen, alum), but also Ørsted can be listed as its discoverer.[46] Further, Pierre Berthier discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted it.[47] Frenchman Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville improved Wöhler's method in 1846, and described his improvements in a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of sodium for the considerably more expensive potassium.[48] Deville likely also conceived the idea of the electrolysis of aluminium oxide dissolved in cryolite; Charles Martin Hall and Paul Héroult might have developed the more practical process after Deville.
Before the Hall-Héroult process was developed in the late 1880s, aluminium was exceedingly difficult to extract from its various ores. This made pure aluminium more valuable than gold.[49] Bars of aluminium were exhibited at the Exposition Universelle of 1855.[50] Napoleon III, Emperor of France, is reputed to have given a banquet where the most honoured guests were given aluminium utensils, while the others made do with gold.[51][52]
Aluminium was selected as the material to be used for the 100 ounce (2.8 kg) capstone of the Washington Monument in 1884, a time when one ounce (30 grams) cost the daily wage of a common worker on the project;[53] The capstone, which was set in place on December 6, 1884, in an elaborate dedication ceremony, was the largest single piece of aluminium cast at the time, when aluminium was as expensive as silver.[53]
The Cowles companies supplied aluminium alloy in quantity in the United States and England using smelters like the furnace of Carl Wilhelm Siemens by 1886.[54][55][56] Charles Martin Hall of Ohio in the U.S. and Paul Héroult of France independently developed the Hall-Héroult electrolytic process that made extracting aluminium from minerals cheaper and is now the principal method used worldwide. Hall's process,[57] in 1888 with the financial backing of Alfred E. Hunt, started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company today known as Alcoa. Héroult's process was in production by 1889 in Switzerland at Aluminium Industrie, now Alcan, and at British Aluminium, now Luxfer Group and Alcoa, by 1896 in Scotland.[58]
By 1895, the metal was being used as a building material as far away as Sydney, Australia in the dome of the Chief Secretary's Building.
Many navies have used an aluminium superstructure for their vessels; the 1975 fire aboard USS Belknap that gutted her aluminium superstructure, as well as observation of battle damage to British ships during the Falklands War, led to many navies switching to all steel superstructures. The Arleigh Burke class was the first such U.S. ship, being constructed entirely of steel.
Aluminium wire was once widely used for domestic electrical wiring. Owing to corrosion-induced failures, a number of fires resulted. This discontinuation thus illustrates one failed application of the otherwise highly useful metal.
Etymology[link]
Two variants of the metal's name are in current use, aluminium and aluminum (besides the obsolete alumium). The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990 but, three years later, recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant. Hence their periodic table includes both.[59] IUPAC prefers the use of aluminium in its internal publications, although nearly as many IUPAC publications use the spelling aluminum.[60]
Most countries use the spelling aluminium. In the United States, the spelling aluminum predominates.[14][61] The Canadian Oxford Dictionary prefers aluminum, whereas the Australian Macquarie Dictionary prefers aluminium. In 1926, the American Chemical Society officially decided to use aluminum in its publications; American dictionaries typically label the spelling aluminium as a British variant.
The name aluminium derives from its status as a base of alum. It is borrowed from Old French; its ultimate source, alumen, in turn is a Latin word that literally means "bitter salt".[62]
The earliest citation given in the Oxford English Dictionary for any word used as a name for this element is alumium, which British chemist and inventor Humphry Davy employed in 1808 for the metal he was trying to isolate electrolytically from the mineral alumina. The citation is from the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London: "Had I been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evidences on this subject, and to have procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium, alumium, zirconium, and glucium."[63][64]
Davy settled on aluminum by the time he published his 1812 book Chemical Philosophy: "This substance appears to contain a peculiar metal, but as yet Aluminum has not been obtained in a perfectly free state, though alloys of it with other metalline substances have been procured sufficiently distinct to indicate the probable nature of alumina."[65] But the same year, an anonymous contributor to the Quarterly Review, a British political-literary journal, in a review of Davy's book, objected to aluminum and proposed the name aluminium, "for so we shall take the liberty of writing the word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound."[66]
The -ium suffix conformed to the precedent set in other newly discovered elements of the time: potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, and strontium (all of which Davy isolated himself). Nevertheless, -um spellings for elements were not unknown at the time, as for example platinum, known to Europeans since the 16th century, molybdenum, discovered in 1778, and tantalum, discovered in 1802. The -um suffix is consistent with the universal spelling alumina for the oxide, as lanthana is the oxide of lanthanum, and magnesia, ceria, and thoria are the oxides of magnesium, cerium, and thorium respectively.
The spelling used throughout the 19th century by most U.S. chemists was aluminium, but common usage is less clear.[67] The aluminum spelling is used in the Webster's Dictionary of 1828. In his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal 1892, Charles Martin Hall used the -um spelling, despite his constant use of the -ium spelling in all the patents[57] he filed between 1886 and 1903.[68] It has consequently been suggested that the spelling reflects an easier to pronounce word with one fewer syllable, or that the spelling on the flier was a mistake. Hall's domination of production of the metal ensured that the spelling aluminum became the standard in North America; the Webster Unabridged Dictionary of 1913, though, continued to use the -ium version.
Health concerns[link]
| NFPA 704 |
|---|
| Fire diamond for aluminium shot |
Despite its natural abundance, aluminium has no known function in biology. It is remarkably nontoxic, aluminium sulfate having an LD50 of 6207 mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 500 grams for a 80 kg person.[5] Despite the extremely low acute toxicity, the health effects of aluminium are of interest in view of the widespread occurrence of the element in the environment and in commerce.
Some toxicity can be traced to deposition in bone and the central nervous system, which is particularly increased in patients with reduced renal function. Because aluminium competes with calcium for absorption, increased amounts of dietary aluminium may contribute to the reduced skeletal mineralization (osteopenia) observed in preterm infants and infants with growth retardation. In very high doses, aluminium can cause neurotoxicity, and is associated with altered function of the blood–brain barrier.[69] A small percentage of people are allergic to aluminium and experience contact dermatitis, digestive disorders, vomiting or other symptoms upon contact or ingestion of products containing aluminium, such as deodorants or antacids. In those without allergies, aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals, but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts.[70] Although the use of aluminium cookware has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general, excessive consumption of antacids containing aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants provide more significant exposure levels. Studies have shown that consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium significantly increases aluminium absorption,[71] and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nervous and osseus tissue.[72] Furthermore, aluminium increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the laboratory.[73] The estrogen-like effects of these salts have led to their classification as a metalloestrogen.
The effects of aluminium in antiperspirants has been examined over the course of decades with little evidence of skin irritation.[5] Nonetheless, its occurrence in antiperspirants, dyes (such as aluminium lake), and food additives is controversial in some quarters. Although there is little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adults,[74] some studies point to risks associated with increased exposure to the metal.[75] Aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water.[76] Some researchers have expressed concerns that the aluminium in antiperspirants may increase the risk of breast cancer,[77] and aluminium has controversially been implicated as a factor in Alzheimer's disease.[78] The Camelford water pollution incident involved a number of people consuming aluminium sulfate. Investigations of the long-term health effects are still ongoing, but elevated brain aluminium concentrations have been found in post-mortem examinations of victims, and further research to determine if there is a link with cerebral amyloid angiopathy has been commissioned.[79]
According to The Alzheimer's Society, the overwhelming medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not convincingly demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium and Alzheimer's disease.[80] Nevertheless, some studies, such as those on the PAQUID cohort,[81] cite aluminium exposure as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Some brain plaques have been found to contain increased levels of the metal.[82] Research in this area has been inconclusive; aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the disease rather than a causal agent. In any event, if there is any toxicity of aluminium, it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human exposure to the element in the form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime.[83][84] Scientific consensus does not yet exist about whether aluminium exposure could directly increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease.[80]
Effect on plants[link]
Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acid soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of toxic Al3+ cations increases and disturbs root growth and function.[85][86][87][88]
Most acid soils are saturated with aluminium rather than hydrogen ions. The acidity of the soil is therefore a result of hydrolysis of aluminium compounds.[89] This concept of "corrected lime potential"[90] to define the degree of base saturation in soils became the basis for procedures now used in soil testing laboratories to determine the "lime requirement"[91] of soils.[92]
Wheat's adaptation to allow aluminium tolerance is such that the aluminium induces a release of organic compounds that bind to the harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism. The first gene for aluminium tolerance has been identified in wheat. It was shown that sorghum's aluminium tolerance is controlled by a single gene, as for wheat.[93] This is not the case in all plants.
See also[link]
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References[link]
- ^ Aluminium monoxide
- ^ Aluminium iodide
- ^ Lide, D. R. (2000). "Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds". CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (81st ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 0849304814. http://www-d0.fnal.gov/hardware/cal/lvps_info/engineering/elementmagn.pdf.
- ^ Shakhashiri, B. Z. (17 March 2008). "Chemical of the Week: Aluminum". SciFun.org. University of Wisconsin. http://scifun.chem.wisc.edu/chemweek/PDF/Aluminum.pdf. Retrieved 2012-03-04.
- ^ a b c d Helmboldt, O.; et al. (2007). "Aluminum Compounds, Inorganic". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH. DOI:10.1002/14356007.a01_527.pub2.
- ^ a b Polmear, I. J. (1995). Light Alloys: Metallurgy of the Light Metals (3rd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. ISBN 978-0-340-63207-9.
- ^ Dieter, G. E. (1988). Mechanical Metallurgy. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-016893-8.
- ^ Cochran, J. F.; Mapother, D. E. (1958). "Superconducting Transition in Aluminum". Physical Review 111 (1): 132–142. Bibcode 1958PhRv..111..132C. DOI:10.1103/PhysRev.111.132.
- ^ Macleod, H. A. (2001). Thin-film optical filters. CRC Press. pp. 158–159. ISBN 0-7503-0688-2.
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External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Aluminium |
- Electrolytic production
- World production of primary aluminium, by country
- Price history of aluminum, according to the IMF
- History of Aluminium—from the website of the International Aluminium Institute
- Emedicine – Aluminium
- The short film ALUMINUM (1941) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
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| Na | Mg | Al | Si | P | S | Cl | Ar | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| K | Ca | Sc | Ti | V | Cr | Mn | Fe | Co | Ni | Cu | Zn | Ga | Ge | As | Se | Br | Kr | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Rb | Sr | Y | Zr | Nb | Mo | Tc | Ru | Rh | Pd | Ag | Cd | In | Sn | Sb | Te | I | Xe | |||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Cs | Ba | La | Ce | Pr | Nd | Pm | Sm | Eu | Gd | Tb | Dy | Ho | Er | Tm | Yb | Lu | Hf | Ta | W | Re | Os | Ir | Pt | Au | Hg | Tl | Pb | Bi | Po | At | Rn | |||||||||||
| Fr | Ra | Ac | Th | Pa | U | Np | Pu | Am | Cm | Bk | Cf | Es | Fm | Md | No | Lr | Rf | Db | Sg | Bh | Hs | Mt | Ds | Rg | Cn | Uut | Fl | Uup | Lv | Uus | Uuo | |||||||||||
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