Virginia (
i/vərˈdʒɪnjə/), officially the Commonwealth of Virginia, is a U.S. state located in the South Atlantic region of the United States. Virginia is nicknamed the "Old Dominion" and sometimes the "Mother of Presidents" after the eight U.S. presidents born there. The geography and climate of the Commonwealth are shaped by the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Chesapeake Bay, which provide habitat for much of its flora and fauna. The capital of the Commonwealth is Richmond; Virginia Beach is the most populous city and Fairfax County the most populous political subdivision. The Commonwealth's population is over eight million.[2]
The area's history begins with several indigenous groups, including the Powhatan. In 1607 the London Company established the Colony of Virginia as the first permanent New World English colony. Slave labor and the land acquired from displaced Native American tribes each played a significant role in the colony's early politics and plantation economy. Virginia was one of the 13 Colonies in the American Revolution and joined the Confederacy in the American Civil War, during which Richmond was made the Confederate capital and Virginia's northwestern counties separated to form the state of West Virginia. Although the Commonwealth was under conservative single-party rule for nearly a century following Reconstruction, both major national parties are competitive in modern Virginia.[6]
The Virginia General Assembly is the oldest legislature in the Western Hemisphere. The state government has been repeatedly ranked most effective by the Pew Center on the States.[7] It is unique in how it treats cities and counties equally, manages local roads, and prohibits its governors from serving consecutive terms. Virginia's economy has many sectors: agriculture in the Shenandoah Valley; federal agencies in Northern Virginia, including the headquarters of the Department of Defense and CIA; and military facilities in Hampton Roads, the site of the region's main seaport. Virginia's public schools and many colleges and universities have contributed to growing media and technology sectors. As a result, computer chips have become the state's leading export.[8]
Virginia has a total area of 42,774.2 square miles (110,784.7 km2), including 3,180.13 square miles (8,236.5 km2) of water, making it the 35th-largest state by area.[9] Virginia is bordered by Maryland and Washington, D.C. to the north and east; by the Atlantic Ocean to the east; by North Carolina and Tennessee to the south; by Kentucky to the west; and by West Virginia to the north and west. Virginia's boundary with Maryland and Washington, D.C. extends to the low-water mark of the south shore of the Potomac River.[10] The southern border is defined as the 36° 30′ parallel north, though surveyor error led to deviations of as much as three arcminutes.[11]
Virginia is divided into five geographic regions.
The Chesapeake Bay separates the contiguous portion of the Commonwealth from the two-county peninsula of Virginia's Eastern Shore. The bay was formed following a meteoroid impact crater during the Eocene.[12] Many of Virginia's rivers flow into the Chesapeake Bay, including the Potomac, Rappahannock, York, and James, which create three peninsulas in the bay.[13][14] Geographically and geologically, Virginia is divided into five regions from east to west: Tidewater, Piedmont, Blue Ridge Mountains, Ridge and Valley, and Cumberland Plateau.[15]
The Tidewater is a coastal plain between the Atlantic coast and the fall line. It includes the Eastern Shore and major estuaries of Chesapeake Bay. The Piedmont is a series of sedimentary and igneous rock-based foothills east of the mountains which were formed in the Mesozoic.[16] The region, known for its heavy clay soil, includes the Southwest Mountains.[17] The Blue Ridge Mountains are a physiographic province of the chain of Appalachian Mountains with the highest points in the state, the tallest being Mount Rogers at 5,729 feet (1,746 m).[18] The Ridge and Valley region is west of the mountains, and includes the Great Appalachian Valley. The region is carbonate rock based, and includes Massanutten Mountain.[19] The Cumberland Plateau and the Cumberland Mountains are in the south-west corner of Virginia, below the Allegheny Plateau. In this region rivers flow northwest, with a dendritic drainage system, into the Ohio River basin.[20]
Deciduous and evergreen trees give the Blue Ridge Mountains their distinct color
[21]
The state's carbonate rock is filled with more than 4,000 caves, ten of which are open for tourism.[22] The Virginia seismic zone has not had a history of regular activity. Earthquakes are rarely above 4.5 on the Richter magnitude scale because Virginia is located away from the edges of the North American Plate. The largest earthquake, at an estimated 5.9 magnitude, was in 1897 near Blacksburg.[23] A 5.8 magnitude earthquake struck central Virginia on August 23, 2011, near Mineral. The earthquake was reportedly felt as far away as Toronto, Canada.[24] Coal mining takes place in the three mountainous regions at 40 distinct coal beds near Mesozoic basins.[25] Other resources such as slate, kyanite, sand, and gravel are mined, with an annual value of nearly $2 billion as of 2006[update].[26]
| Virginia state-wide averages |
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The climate of Virginia becomes increasingly warmer and more humid farther south and east.[27] Seasonal extremes vary from average lows of 26 °F (−3 °C) in January to average highs of 86 °F (30 °C) in July. The Atlantic ocean has a strong effect on eastern and southeastern coastal areas of the state. Influenced by the Gulf Stream, coastal weather is subject to hurricanes, most pronouncedly near the mouth of Chesapeake Bay.[28]
Virginia has an annual average of 35–45 days of thunderstorm activity, particularly in the western part of the state,[29] and an average annual precipitation of 42.7 inches (108 cm).[28] Cold air masses arriving over the mountains in winter can lead to significant snowfalls, such as the Blizzard of 1996 and winter storms of 2009–2010. The interaction of these elements with the state's topography creates distinct microclimates in the Shenandoah Valley, the mountainous southwest, and the coastal plains.[30] Virginia averages seven tornadoes annually, most F2 or lower on the Fujita scale.[31]
In recent years, the expansion of the southern suburbs of Washington, D.C. into Northern Virginia has introduced an urban heat island primarily caused by increased absorption of solar radiation in more densely populated areas.[32] In the American Lung Association's 2011 report, 11 counties received failing grades for air quality, with Fairfax County having the worst in the state, due to automobile pollution.[33][34] Haze in the mountains is caused in part by coal power plants.[35]
Forests cover 65% of the state, primarily with deciduous, broad leaf trees.[36] Lower altitudes are more likely to have small but dense stands of moisture-loving hemlocks and mosses in abundance, with hickory and oak in the Blue Ridge.[27] However since the early 1990s, Gypsy moth infestations have eroded the dominance of oak forests.[37] In the lowland tidewater yellow pines tend to dominate, with bald cypress wetland forests in the Great Dismal and Nottoway swamps. Other common trees and plants include chestnut, maple, tulip poplar, mountain laurel, milkweed, daisies, and many species of ferns. The largest areas of wilderness are along the Atlantic coast and in the western mountains, where the largest populations of trillium wildflowers in North America are found.[27][38] The Atlantic coast regions are host to flora commonly associated with the South Atlantic pine forests and lower Southeast Coastal Plain maritime flora, the latter found primarily in southeastern Virginia.
Mammals include White-tailed deer, black bear, beaver, bobcat, coyote, raccoon, skunk, groundhog, Virginia Opossum, gray fox, red fox, and eastern cottontail rabbit.[39] Birds include cardinals, barred owls, Carolina chickadees, Red-tailed Hawks, Ospreys, Brown Pelicans, Quail, Sea gulls, Bald Eagles, and Wild Turkeys. The Peregrine Falcon was reintroduced into Shenandoah National Park in the mid-1990s.[40] Walleye, brook trout, Roanoke bass, and blue catfish are among the 210 known species of freshwater fish.[41] Running brooks with rocky bottoms are often inhabited by a plentiful amounts of crayfish and salamanders.[27] The Chesapeake Bay is host to many species, including blue crabs, clams, oysters, and rockfish (also known as striped bass).[42]
Virginia has 30 National Park Service units, such as Great Falls Park and the Appalachian Trail, and one national park, the Shenandoah National Park.[43] Shenandoah was established in 1935 and encompasses the scenic Skyline Drive. Almost 40% of the park's area (79,579 acres/322 km2) has been designated as wilderness under the National Wilderness Preservation System.[44] Additionally, there are 34 Virginia state parks and 17 state forests, run by the Department of Conservation and Recreation and the Department of Forestry.[36][45] The Chesapeake Bay, while not a national park, is protected by both state and federal legislation, and the jointly run Chesapeake Bay Program which conducts restoration on the bay and its watershed. The Great Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge extends into North Carolina, as does the Back Bay National Wildlife Refuge, which marks the beginning of the Outer Banks.[46]
Jamestown 2007 marked Virginia's quadricentennial year, celebrating 400 years since the establishment of the Jamestown Colony. The celebrations highlighted contributions from Native Americans, Europeans, and Africans, each of which had a significant part in shaping Virginia's history.[47][48] Warfare, including among these groups, has also had an important role. Virginia was a focal point in conflicts from the French and Indian War, the American Revolution and the Civil War, to the Cold War and the War on Terrorism.[49] Stories about historic figures, such as those surrounding Pocahontas and John Smith, George Washington's childhood, or the plantation elite in the slave society of the antebellum period, have also created potent myths of state history, and have served as rationales for Virginia's ideology.[50]
The first people are estimated to have arrived in Virginia over 12,000 years ago.[51] By 5,000 years ago more permanent settlements emerged, and farming began by 900 AD. By 1500, the Algonquian peoples had founded towns such as Werowocomoco in the Tidewater region, which they referred to as Tsenacommacah. The other major language groups in the area were the Siouan to the west, and the Iroquoians, who included the Nottoway and Meherrin, to the north and south. After 1570, the Algonquians consolidated under Chief Powhatan in response to threats from these other groups on their trade network.[52] Powhatan controlled more than 30 smaller tribes and over 150 settlements, who shared a common Virginia Algonquian language. In 1607, the native Tidewater population was between 13,000 to 14,000.[53]
Several European expeditions, including a group of Spanish Jesuits, explored the Chesapeake Bay during the 16th century. In 1583, Queen Elizabeth I of England granted Walter Raleigh a charter to plant a colony north of Spanish Florida.[54] In 1584, Raleigh sent an expedition to the Atlantic coast of North America.[55] The name "Virginia" may have been suggested then by Raleigh or Elizabeth, perhaps noting her status as the "Virgin Queen", and may also be related to a native phrase, "Wingandacoa", or name, "Wingina".[56] Initially the name applied to the entire coastal region from South Carolina to Maine, plus the island of Bermuda.[57] The London Company was incorporated as a joint stock company by the proprietary Charter of 1606, which granted land rights to this area. The Company financed the first permanent English settlement in the "New World", Jamestown. Named for King James I, it was founded in May 1607 by Christopher Newport.[58] In 1619, colonists took greater control with an elected legislature called the House of Burgesses. With the bankruptcy of the London Company in 1624, the settlement was taken into royal authority as a British crown colony.[59]
Life in the colony was perilous, and many died during the "starving time" in 1609 and the Anglo-Powhatan Wars, including the Indian massacre of 1622, which fostered the colonists' negative view of all tribes.[60][61] By 1624, only 3,400 of the 6,000 early settlers had survived.[62] However, European demand for tobacco fueled the arrival of more settlers and servants.[63] The headright system tried to solve the labor shortage by providing colonists with land for each indentured servant they transported to Virginia.[64] African workers were first imported in 1619, and their slavery was codified after a 1654 lawsuit over the servant John Casor.[65]
Tensions and the geographic differences between the working and ruling classes led to Bacon's Rebellion in 1676, by which time current and former indentured servants made up as much as 80% of the population.[66] Rebels, largely from the colony's frontier, were also opposed to the conciliatory policy towards native tribes. Colonists appropriated tribal land by force and treaty, including the Treaty of 1677, which made the signatory tribes tributary states. Williamsburg became the colonial capital in 1699, following the founding of The College of William & Mary in 1693.[67] In 1747, a group of Virginian speculators formed the Ohio Company, with the backing of the British crown, to start English settlement and trade in the Ohio Country west of the Appalachian Mountains.[68] France, which claimed this area as part of their colony of New France, viewed this as a threat, and the ensuing French and Indian War became part of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). A militia from several British colonies, called the Virginia Regiment, was led by then-Lieutenant colonel George Washington.[69]
The British Parliament's efforts to levy new taxes following the French and Indian War were deeply unpopular in the colonies. In the House of Burgesses, opposition to taxation without representation was led by Patrick Henry and Richard Henry Lee, among others.[70] Virginians began to coordinate their actions with other colonies in 1773, and sent delegates to the Continental Congress the following year.[71] After the House of Burgesses was dissolved by the royal governor in 1774, Virginia's revolutionary leaders continued to govern via the Virginia Conventions. On May 15, 1776, the Convention declared Virginia's independence from the British Empire and adopted George Mason's Virginia Declaration of Rights, which was then included in a new constitution.[72] Another Virginian, Thomas Jefferson, drew upon Mason's work in drafting the national Declaration of Independence.[73]
When the American Revolutionary War began, George Washington was selected to head the colonial army. During the war, the capital was moved to Richmond at the urging of Governor Thomas Jefferson, who feared that Williamsburg's location would make it vulnerable to British attack.[74] In 1781, the combined action of Continental and French land and naval forces trapped the British army on the Virginia Peninsula, where troops under George Washington and Comte de Rochambeau defeated British General Cornwallis in the Siege of Yorktown. His surrender on October 19, 1781, led to peace negotiations in Paris and secured the independence of the colonies.[75]
Virginians were instrumental in writing the United States Constitution. James Madison drafted the Virginia Plan in 1787 and the Bill of Rights in 1789.[73] Virginia ratified the Constitution on June 25, 1788. The three-fifths compromise ensured that Virginia, with its large number of slaves, initially had the largest bloc in the House of Representatives. Together with the Virginia dynasty of presidents, this gave the Commonwealth national importance. In 1790, both Virginia and Maryland ceded territory to form the new District of Columbia, though the Virginian area was retroceded in 1846.[76] Virginia is sometimes called "Mother of States" because of its role in being carved into states like Kentucky, which became the 15th state in 1792, and for the numbers of American pioneers born in Virginia.[77]
In addition to agriculture, slave labor was increasingly used in mining, shipbuilding and other industries.[78] Nat Turner's slave rebellion in 1831 and John Brown's Raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859 showed deep social discontent about slavery and its role in the plantation economy. By 1860, almost half a million people, roughly 31% of the total population of Virginia, were enslaved.[79] This division contributed to the start of the American Civil War.
Virginia voted to secede from the United States on April 17, 1861, after the Battle of Fort Sumter and Abraham Lincoln's call for volunteers. On April 24, Virginia joined the Confederate States of America, which chose Richmond as its capital.[77] After the 1863 Wheeling Convention, 48 counties in the northwest separated to form a new state of West Virginia, which chose to remain loyal to the Union. Virginian general Robert E. Lee took command of the Army of Northern Virginia in 1862, and led invasions into Union territory, ultimately becoming commander of all Confederate forces. During the war, more battles were fought in Virginia than anywhere else, including Bull Run, the Seven Days Battles, Chancellorsville, and the concluding Battle of Appomattox Court House.[80] After the capture of Richmond in 1865, the capital was briefly moved to Danville.[81] Virginia was formally restored to the United States in 1870, due to the work of the Committee of Nine.[82]
During the post-war Reconstruction era, Virginia adopted a constitution which provided for free public schools, and guaranteed political, civil, and voting rights.[83] The populist Readjuster Party ran an inclusive coalition until the conservative white Democratic Party gained power after 1883.[84] It passed segregationist Jim Crow laws and in 1902 rewrote the Constitution of Virginia to include a poll tax and other voter registration measures that effectively disfranchised most African Americans and many poor whites.[85] Though their schools were segregated and underfunded, as were services, due to a lack of political representation, African Americans were able to create their own communities.[86]
New economic forces also changed the Commonwealth. Virginian James Albert Bonsack invented the tobacco cigarette rolling machine in 1880 leading to new industrial scale production centered around Richmond. In 1886, railroad magnate Collis Potter Huntington founded Newport News Shipbuilding, which was responsible for building six major World War I-era battleships for the U.S. Navy from 1907–1923.[87] During the war, German submarines like U-151 attacked ships outside the port.[88] In 1926, Dr. W.A.R. Goodwin, rector of Williamsburg's Bruton Parish Church, began restoration of colonial-era buildings in the historic district with financial backing of John D. Rockefeller, Jr..[89] Though their project, like others in the state, had to contend with the Great Depression and World War II, work continued as Colonial Williamsburg became a major tourist attraction.[90]
Protests started by Barbara Rose Johns in 1951 in Farmville against segregated schools led to the lawsuit Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County. This case, filed by Richmond natives Spottswood Robinson and Oliver Hill, was decided in 1954 with Brown v. Board of Education, which rejected the segregationist doctrine of "separate but equal". But, in 1958, under the policy of "massive resistance" led by the influential segregationist Senator Harry F. Byrd and his Byrd Organization, the Commonwealth prohibited desegregated local schools from receiving state funding.[91]
The Civil Rights Movement gained many participants in the 1960s. It achieved the moral force and support to gain passage of national legislation with the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. In 1964 the United States Supreme Court ordered Prince Edward County and others to integrate schools.[92] In 1967, the Court also struck down the state's ban on interracial marriage with Loving v. Virginia. From 1969 to 1971, state legislators under Governor Mills Godwin rewrote the constitution, after goals such as the repeal of Jim Crow laws had been achieved. In 1989, Douglas Wilder became the first African American elected as governor in the United States.[93]
The Cold War led to the expansion of national defense government programs housed in offices in Northern Virginia near Washington, D.C., and correlative population growth.[94] Among the federal developments was the Pentagon, built during World War II as the headquarters for the Department of Defense. It was one of the targets of the September 11 attacks; 189 people died at the site when a jet passenger plane crashed into the building.[95]
Virginia is divided into 95 counties and 39 independent cities, which both operate the same way since independent cities are considered to be county-equivalent.[96] This method of treating cities and counties equally is unique to Virginia, with only three other independent cities in the United States outside Virginia.[97] Virginia limits the authority of cities and counties to countermand laws expressly allowed by the Virginia General Assembly under what is known as Dillon's Rule.[98] In addition to independent cities, there are also incorporated towns which operate under their own governments, but are part of a county. Finally there are hundreds of unincorporated communities within the counties. Virginia does not have any further political subdivisions, such as villages or townships.
Virginia has 11 Metropolitan Statistical Areas; Northern Virginia, Hampton Roads, and Richmond-Petersburg are the three most populous. Richmond is the capital of Virginia, and its metropolitan area has a population of over 1.2 million.[99] As of 2010[update], Virginia Beach is the most populous city in the Commonwealth, with Norfolk and Chesapeake second and third, respectively.[100] Norfolk forms the urban core of the Hampton Roads metropolitan area, which has a population over 1.6 million people and is the site of the world's largest naval base, Naval Station Norfolk.[99][101] Suffolk, which includes a portion of the Great Dismal Swamp, is the largest city by area at 429.1 square miles (1,111 km2).[102]
Fairfax County is the most populous locality in Virginia, with over one million residents, although that does not include its county seat Fairfax, which is one of the independent cities.[103] Fairfax County has a major urban business and shopping center in Tysons Corner, Virginia's largest office market.[104] Neighboring Loudoun County, with the county seat at Leesburg, is both the fastest-growing county in Virginia and has the highest median household income ($114,204) in the country as of 2010[update].[105] Arlington County, the smallest self-governing county in the United States by land area, is an urban community organized as a county.[106] The Roanoke area, with an estimated population of 300,399, is the largest Metropolitan Statistical Area in western Virginia.[107]
| Historical populations |
| Census |
Pop. |
|
%± |
| 1790 |
691,737 |
|
—
|
| 1800 |
807,557 |
|
16.7% |
| 1810 |
877,683 |
|
8.7% |
| 1820 |
938,261 |
|
6.9% |
| 1830 |
1,044,054 |
|
11.3% |
| 1840 |
1,025,227 |
|
−1.8% |
| 1850 |
1,119,348 |
|
9.2% |
| 1860 |
1,219,630 |
|
9.0% |
| 1870 |
1,225,163 |
|
0.5% |
| 1880 |
1,512,565 |
|
23.5% |
| 1890 |
1,655,980 |
|
9.5% |
| 1900 |
1,854,184 |
|
12.0% |
| 1910 |
2,061,612 |
|
11.2% |
| 1920 |
2,309,187 |
|
12.0% |
| 1930 |
2,421,851 |
|
4.9% |
| 1940 |
2,677,773 |
|
10.6% |
| 1950 |
3,318,680 |
|
23.9% |
| 1960 |
3,966,949 |
|
19.5% |
| 1970 |
4,648,494 |
|
17.2% |
| 1980 |
5,346,818 |
|
15.0% |
| 1990 |
6,187,358 |
|
15.7% |
| 2000 |
7,078,515 |
|
14.4% |
| 2010 |
8,001,024 |
|
13.0% |
Virginia has metropolitan areas located throughout the state.
|
The United States Census Bureau estimates that the state population was 8,096,604 on July 1, 2011, a 1.19% increase since the 2010 United States Census,[2] which showed Virginia had a population of 8,001,024.[108] This includes an increase from net migration of 314,832 people into the Commonwealth since the 2000 census. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 159,627 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 155,205 people.[109] The center of population is located in Goochland County outside of Richmond.[110]
English was passed as the Commonwealth's official language by statutes in 1981 and again in 1996, though the status is not mandated by the Constitution of Virginia.[111] English is the only language spoken by 6,245,517 (86.7%) Virginians, though it is spoken "very well" by an additional 570,638 (7.9%) for a total of 94.6% of the Commonwealth. Among speakers of other languages, Spanish is the most common with 424,381 (5.9%). 226,911 (3.2%) speak Asian and Pacific Islander languages, including Korean, Vietnamese, and Filipino.[112]
The state's most populous ethnic group, Non-Hispanic White, has declined from 76% in 1990 to 64.8% in 2010.[113][114] People of English heritage settled throughout the Commonwealth during the colonial period, and others of British and Irish heritage have since immigrated.[115] Those who self-identify as having "American ethnicity" are predominantly of English descent, but have ancestry that has been in North America for so long that they choose to identify simply as American.[116][117] Of the English immigrants to Virginia in the 1600s, 75% came as indentured servants.[118] The western mountains have many settlements that were founded by Scots-Irish immigrants before the American Revolution.[119][120] There are also sizable numbers of people of German descent in the northwestern mountains and Shenandoah Valley.[121]
The largest minority group in Virginia is African American, at 19.4% as of 2010[update].[114] Most African American Virginians have been descendants of enslaved Africans who worked on tobacco, cotton, and hemp plantations. These men, women and children were brought from west-central Africa, primarily from Angola and the Bight of Biafra. The Igbo ethnic group of what is now southern Nigeria were the single largest African group among slaves in Virginia.[122][123] Though the black population was reduced by the Great Migration, since 1965 there has been a reverse migration of blacks returning south.[124] 2.9% of Virginians also describe themselves as biracial.[125] Additionally, 0.4% of Virginians are American Indian or Alaska Native, and 0.1% are Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander.[114] Virginia has extended state recognition to eight Native American tribes resident in the state, though all lack federal recognition status. Most Native American groups are located in the Tidewater region.[126]
More recent immigration in the late 20th century and early 21st century has fueled new communities of Hispanics and Asians. As of 2010[update], 7.9% of Virginians are Hispanic or Latino (of any race), and 5.5% are Asian.[114] The state's Hispanic population rose by 92% from 2000 to 2010, with two-thirds of Hispanics living in Northern Virginia.[125] Hispanic citizens in Virginia have higher median household incomes and educational attainment than the general Virginia population.[127] Northern Virginia also has a signigicant population of Vietnamese Americans, whose major wave of immigration followed the Vietnam War,[128] and Korean Americans, whose migration has been more recent and was induced in part by the quality school system.[129] The Filipino American community has about 45,000 in the Hampton Roads area, many of whom have ties to the U.S. Navy and armed forces.[130]
| Ethnicity (2010) |
|
Largest Ancestries by County |
Ancestry (2000) |
| Non-Hispanic White |
64.8% |
U.S. Census Bureau, Census 2000 special tabulation. American Factfinder provides census data and maps. |
|
African American |
19.6% |
| Black or African American |
19.4% |
|
German |
11.7% |
| Hispanic or Latino (of any race) |
7.9% |
|
American |
11.4% |
| Asian |
5.5% |
|
English |
11.1% |
| American Indian and Alaska Native |
0.4% |
|
Irish |
9.8% |
|
Virginia is predominantly Christian and Protestant; Baptists are the largest single group with 27% of the population as of 2008[update].[131] Baptist denominational groups in Virginia include the Baptist General Association of Virginia, with about 1,400 member churches, which supports both the Southern Baptist Convention and the moderate Cooperative Baptist Fellowship; and the Southern Baptist Conservatives of Virginia with more than 500 affiliated churches, which supports the Southern Baptist Convention.[132][133] Roman Catholics are the second-largest religious group, and the group which grew the most in the 1990s.[134][135] The Roman Catholic Diocese of Arlington includes most of Northern Virginia's Catholic churches, while the Diocese of Richmond covers the rest.
The Virginia Conference is the regional body of the United Methodist Church and the Virginia Synod is responsible for the congregations of the Lutheran Church. Presbyterians, Pentecostals, Congregationalists, and Episcopalians each composed 1–3% of the population as of 2001[update].[136] The Episcopal Diocese of Virginia, Southern Virginia, and Southwestern Virginia support the various Episcopal churches.
In November 2006, 15 conservative Episcopal churches voted to split from the Diocese of Virginia over the ordination of openly gay bishops and clergy in other dioceses of the Episcopal Church; these churches continue to claim affiliation with the larger Anglican Communion through other bodies outside the United States. Though Virginia law allows parishioners to determine their church's affiliation, the diocese claims the secessionist churches' properties. The resulting property law case is a test for Episcopal churches nationwide.[137]
Among other religions, adherents of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints constitute 1% of the population, with 190 congregations in Virginia as of 2010[update].[138] Fairfax Station is the site of the Ekoji Buddhist Temple, of the Jodo Shinshu school, and the Hindu Durga Temple. While the state's Jewish population is small, organized Jewish sites date to 1789 with Congregation Beth Ahabah.[139] Muslims are a growing religious group throughout the Commonwealth through immigration.[140] Megachurches in the Commonwealth include Thomas Road Baptist Church, Immanuel Bible Church, and McLean Bible Church.[141] Several Christian universities are also based in the state, including Regent University, Liberty University, and Lynchburg College.
While Virginia is an employment-at-will state,[143] its economy has diverse sources of income, including local and federal government, military, farming and business. Virginia has 4.1 million civilian workers, and one-third of the jobs are in the service sector.[144][145] The unemployment in Virginia in among the lowest in the nation, at 5.6%, as of March 2012.[146] The second fastest job growth town in the nation is Leesburg, as of 2011.[147] The Gross Domestic Product of Virginia was $24 billion in 2010.[148] According to the Bureau of Economic Analysis, Virginia had the most counties in the top 100 wealthiest in the United States based upon median income in 2007.[149] Northern Virginia is the highest-income region in Virginia, having six of the twenty highest-income counties in the United States, including the three highest as of 2011[update].[150] According to CNN Money Magazine the highest-income town in the nation is Great Falls, as of 2011.[151]
Virginia has the highest concentration of technology workers of any state.[152] Computer chips became the state's highest-grossing export in 2006, surpassing its traditional top exports of coal and tobacco combined.[8] Northern Virginia, once considered the state's dairy capital, now hosts software, communication technology, and consulting companies, particularly in the Dulles Technology Corridor. Northern Virginia's data centers currently carry more than 50% of the nation's internet traffic, and by 2012 Dominion Power expects that 10% of all its electricity in Northern Virginia will be used by data centers.[153] Loudoun and Fairfax counties in Northern Virginia have the highest and second highest median household income, respectively, of all counties in the United States as of 2011[update].[105]
Virginia companies received the fourth-highest amount of venture capital funding in the first half of 2011 after California, Massachusetts, and New York.[154] In 2009, Forbes Magazine named Virginia the best state in the nation for business for the fourth year in a row,[155] while CNBC named it the top state for business in 2007, 2009, and 2011.[156] Virginia has 20 Fortune 500 companies, ranking the state eighth nationwide.[157]
Virginia has the highest defense spending of any state per capita, providing the Commonwealth with around 900,000 jobs, and 10% of all U.S. federal procurement money is spent in Virginia.[158][159] Virginia has over 800,000 veterans, more than any other state, and is second to California in total Department of Defense employees.[159][160] Many Virginians work for federal agencies in Northern Virginia, which include the Central Intelligence Agency and the Department of Defense, as well as the National Science Foundation, the United States Geological Survey and the United States Patent and Trademark Office. Many others work for government contractors, including defense and security firms, which hold more than 15,000 federal contracts.[161] The Hampton Roads area has the largest concentration of military bases and facilities of any metropolitan area in the world. The largest of the bases is Naval Station Norfolk.[101]
Agriculture occupies 24% of the land in Virginia. As of 2007[update], about 357,000 Virginian jobs were in agriculture, with over 47,000 farms, averaging 171 acres (0.27 sq mi; 0.69 km2), in a total farmland area of 8.1 million acres (12,656 sq mi; 32,780 km2). Though agriculture has declined significantly since 1960 when there were twice as many farms, it remains the largest single industry in Virginia.[162] Tomatoes surpassed soy as the most profitable crop in Virginia in 2006, with peanuts and hay as other agricultural products.[163] Although it is no longer the primary crop, Virginia is still the fifth-largest producer of tobacco nationwide.[164] Eastern oyster harvests are an important part of the Chesapeake Bay economy, but declining oyster populations from disease, pollution, and overfishing have diminished catches.[165] Wineries and vineyards in the Northern Neck and along the Blue Ridge Mountains also have begun to generate income and attract tourists.[166]
Virginia collects personal income tax in five income brackets, ranging from 3.0% to 5.75%. The state sales and use tax rate is 4%, while the tax rate on food is 1.5%. There is an additional 1% local tax, for a total of a 5% combined sales tax on most Virginia purchases and 2.5% on most food.[167] Virginia's property tax is set and collected at the local government level and varies throughout the Commonwealth. Real estate is also taxed at the local level based on 100% of fair market value. Tangible personal property also is taxed at the local level and is based on a percentage or percentages of original cost.[168]
Colonial Virginian culture, language, and style are reenacted in
Williamsburg.
Virginia's culture was popularized and spread across America and the South by figures such as George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and Robert E. Lee. Their homes in Virginia represent the birthplace of America and the South.[169] Modern Virginia culture has many sources, and is part of the culture of the Southern United States.[170] The Smithsonian Institution divides Virginia into nine cultural regions.[171] The Piedmont region is one of the most famous for its dialect's strong influence on Southern American English. While a more homogenized American English is found in urban areas, various accents are also used, including the Tidewater accent, the Old Virginia accent, and the anachronistic Elizabethan of Tangier Island.[172][173]
Besides the general cuisine of the Southern United States, Virginia maintains its own particular traditions. Virginia wine is made in many parts of the state.[166] Smithfield ham, sometimes called "Virginia ham", is a type of country ham which is protected by state law, and can only be produced in the town of Smithfield.[174] Virginia furniture and architecture are typical of American colonial architecture. Thomas Jefferson and many of the state's early leaders favored the Neoclassical architecture style, leading to its use for important state buildings. The Pennsylvania Dutch and their style can also be found in parts of the state.[121]
Literature in Virginia often deals with the state's extensive and sometimes troubled past. The works of Pulitzer Prize winner Ellen Glasgow often dealt with social inequalities and the role of women in her culture.[175] Glasgow's peer and close friend James Branch Cabell wrote extensively about the changing position of gentry in the Reconstruction era, and challenged its moral code with Jurgen, A Comedy of Justice.[176] William Styron approached history in works such as The Confessions of Nat Turner and Sophie's Choice.[177] Tom Wolfe has occasionally dealt with his southern heritage in bestsellers like I Am Charlotte Simmons.[178] Mount Vernon native Matt Bondurant received critical acclaim for his historic novel The Wettest County in the World about moonshiners in Franklin County during prohibition.[179] Virginia also names a state Poet Laureate, currently Kelly Cherry of Halifax County, who will serve until mid-2012.[180]
Though rich in cultural heritage, Virginia ranks near the bottom of U.S. states in terms of public spending on the arts, at nearly half of the national average.[181] The state government does fund some institutions, including the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts and the Science Museum of Virginia. Other museums include the popular Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air and Space Museum and the Chrysler Museum of Art.[182] Besides these sites, many open-air museums are located in the Commonwealth, such as Colonial Williamsburg, the Frontier Culture Museum, and various historic battlefields.[183] The Virginia Foundation for the Humanities works to improve the Commonwealth's civic, cultural, and intellectual life.[184]
Theaters and venues in the Commonwealth are found both in the cities and suburbs. Wolf Trap National Park for the Performing Arts is located in Vienna and is the only national park intended for use as a performing arts center.[185] The Harrison Opera House, in Norfolk, is home of the Virginia Opera. The Virginia Symphony Orchestra operates in and around Hampton Roads.[186] Resident and touring theater troupes operate from the American Shakespeare Center in Staunton.[187] The Barter Theatre in Abingdon won the first ever Regional Theatre Tony Award in 1948, while the Signature Theatre in Arlington won it in 2009. There's also a Children's Theater of Virginia, Theatre IV, which is the second largest touring troupe nationwide.[188] Virginia has launched many award-winning traditional musical artists and internationally successful popular music acts, as well as Hollywood actors.[1] Notable performance venues include The Birchmere, the Landmark Theater, and Jiffy Lube Live.[189]
Many counties and localities host county fairs and festivals. The Virginia State Fair is held at the Meadow Event Park every September. Also in September is the Neptune Festival in Virginia Beach, which celebrates the city, the waterfront, and regional artists. Norfolk's Harborfest, in June, features boat racing and air shows.[190] Fairfax County also sponsors Celebrate Fairfax! with popular and traditional music performances.[191] The Virginia Lake Festival is held during the third weekend in July in Clarksville.[192] Wolf Trap hosts the Wolf Trap Opera Company, which produces an opera festival every summer.[185] Each September, Bay Days celebrates the Chesapeake Bay as well as Hampton's 400 year history since 1610, and Isle of Wight County holds a County Fair on the second week of September as well. Both feature live music performances, and other unique events.
On the Eastern Shore island of Chincoteague the annual Pony Swim & Auction of feral Chincoteague ponies at the end of July is a unique local tradition expanded into a week-long carnival. The Shenandoah Apple Blossom Festival is a six-day festival held annually in Winchester that includes parades and bluegrass concerts. The Old Time Fiddlers' Convention in Galax, begun in 1935, is one of the oldest and largest such events worldwide. Two important film festivals, the Virginia Film Festival and the VCU French Film Festival, are held annually in Charlottesville and Richmond, respectively.[193]
USA Today, the nation's most circulated newspaper, has its headquarters in McLean.
The Hampton Roads area is the 43rd-largest media market in the United States as ranked by Nielsen Media Research, while the Richmond-Petersburg area is 57th and Roanoke-Lynchburg is 66th as of 2010[update].[194] Northern Virginia is part of the much larger Washington, D.C. media market.
There are 36 television stations in Virginia, representing each major U.S. network, part of 42 stations which serve Virginia viewers.[195] More than 720 FCC-licensed FM radio stations broadcast in Virginia, with about 300 such AM stations.[196][197] The nationally available Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) is headquartered in Arlington. Independent PBS affiliates exist throughout Virginia, and the Arlington PBS member station WETA-TV produces programs such as the PBS NewsHour and Washington Week.
The most circulated native newspapers in the Commonwealth are Norfolk's The Virginian-Pilot (156,968 daily subscribers), the Richmond Times-Dispatch (118,489), The Roanoke Times (75,740), and Newport News' Daily Press (63,366), as of 2010[update].[198] Several Washington, D.C. papers are based in Northern Virginia, such as The Washington Examiner and Politico. The paper with the nation's widest circulation, USA Today, with 1.83 million daily subscriptions, is headquartered in McLean.[199] Besides traditional forms of media, Virginia is the home base for telecommunication companies such as Voxant and XO Communications. In Northern Virginia, The Washington Post is the dominant newspaper, since Northern VA is located in the Washington, DC metropolitan area.
Virginia's educational system consistently ranks in the top ten states on the U.S. Department of Education's National Assessment of Educational Progress, with Virginia students outperforming the average in all subject areas and grade levels tested.[201] The 2011 Quality Counts report ranked Virginia's K–12 education fourth best in the country.[202] All school divisions must adhere to educational standards set forth by the Virginia Department of Education, which maintains an assessment and accreditation regime known as the Standards of Learning to ensure accountability.[203] In 2010, 85% of high school students graduated on-time after four years.[204] Between 2000 and 2008, school enrollment increased 5%, the number of teachers 21%.[205]
Public K–12 schools in Virginia are generally operated by the counties and cities, and not by the state. As of April 2011[update], a total of 1,267,063 students were enrolled in 1,873 local and regional schools in the Commonwealth, including three charter schools, and an additional 109 alternative and special education centers across 132 school divisions.[206][207] Besides the general public schools in Virginia, there are Governor's Schools and selective magnet schools. The Governor's Schools are a collection of more than 40 regional high schools and summer programs intended for gifted students.[208] The Virginia Council for Private Education oversees the regulation of 320 state accredited and 130 non-accredited private schools.[209][210] An additional 24,682 students receive homeschooling.[211]
As of 2011[update], there are 176 colleges and universities in Virginia.[212] In the U.S. News and World Report ranking of public colleges, the University of Virginia is second and The College of William & Mary is sixth.[213][214] Virginia Commonwealth University is ranked the top public graduate school in fine arts, while James Madison University has been recognized as the top regional public master's program in The South since 1993.[215][216] The Virginia Military Institute is the oldest state military college and a top ranked public liberal arts college.[217][218] George Mason University is the largest university in Virginia with over 32,000 students.[219] Virginia Tech and Virginia State University are the state's land-grant universities. Virginia also operates 23 community colleges on 40 campuses serving over 260,000 students.[220] There are 129 private institutions, including Washington and Lee University, Randolph-Macon College, Hampden–Sydney College, Emory & Henry College, Roanoke College, and the University of Richmond.[212]
Virginia has a mixed health record, and is ranked as the 22nd overall healthiest state according to the 2010 United Health Foundation's Health Rankings.[221] Virginia also ranks 21st among the states in the rate of premature deaths, 7,104 per 100,000. In 2008, Virginia reached its lowest ever rate of infant mortality, at 6.7 deaths per 1,000.[222] There are however racial and social health disparities, with African Americans experiencing 27.9% more premature deaths than whites, while 12.7% of Virginians lack any health insurance.[221] According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's 2009 survey, 25.5% of Virginians are obese and another 35.1% are overweight. 78.1% of residents claim to have exercised at least once in the past three months.[223][224] About 30% of Virginia's 10- to 17-year-olds are overweight or obese.[225] Virginia banned smoking in bars and restaurants in January 2010.[226] 19% of Virginians smoke tobacco.[221] Residents of Virginia's 8th congressional district share the longest average life expectancy rate in the nation, over 83 years.[227]
There are 89 hospitals in Virginia listed with the United States Department of Health and Human Services.[228] Notable examples include Inova Fairfax Hospital, the largest hospital in the Washington Metropolitan Area, and the VCU Medical Center, located on the medical campus of Virginia Commonwealth University. The University of Virginia Medical Center, part of the University of Virginia Health System, is highly ranked in endocrinology according to U.S.News & World Report.[229] Sentara Norfolk General Hospital, part of the Hampton Roads based Sentara Health System and a teaching institution of Eastern Virginia Medical School, was the site of the first successful in-vitro fertilization birth.[230][231] Virginia has a ratio of 124 primary care physicians per 10,000 residents, which is the 13th highest nationally.[221] Virginia was one of five states to receive a perfect score in disaster preparedness according to a 2008 report by the Trust for America's Health, based on criteria such as detecting pathogens and distributing vaccines and medical supplies.[232]
Because of the 1932 Byrd Road Act, the state government controls most of Virginia's roads, instead of a local county authority as is usual in other states.[233] As of 2011[update], the Virginia Department of Transportation owns and operates 57,867 miles (93,128 km) of the total 70,105 miles (112,823 km) of roads in the state, making it the third largest state highway system in the United States.[234] Although the Washington Metropolitan Area, which includes Northern Virginia, has the second worst traffic in the nation, Virginia as a whole has the 21st-lowest congestion and the average commute time is 26.9 minutes.[235][236]
Virginia has Amtrak passenger rail service along several corridors, and Virginia Railway Express (VRE) maintains two commuter lines into Washington, D.C. from Fredericksburg and Manassas. VRE is one of the nation's fastest growing commuter rail services, handling nearly 20,000 passengers a day.[237] The Washington Metro rapid transit system serves Northern Virginia as far west as communities along I-66 in Fairfax County, with expansion plans to reach Tysons Corner by 2013, and Loudoun County by 2017.[238] Major freight railroads in Virginia include Norfolk Southern and CSX Transportation. Commuter buses include the Fairfax Connector and the Shenandoah Valley Commuter Bus. The Virginia Department of Transportation operates several free ferries throughout Virginia, the most notable being the Jamestown-Scotland ferry which crosses the James River in Surry County.[239]
Virginia has five major airports: Washington Dulles International handling over 23 million passengers a year, Reagan Washington National, Norfolk International serving the Hampton Roads area, Richmond International, and Newport News/Williamsburg International Airport. Several other airports offer limited commercial passenger service, and sixty-six public airports serve the state's aviation needs.[240] The Virginia Port Authority's main seaports are those in Hampton Roads, which carried 17,726,251 short tons (16,080,984 t) of bulk cargo in 2007, the sixth most of United States ports.[241] The Eastern Shore of Virginia is the site of Wallops Flight Facility, a rocket testing center owned by NASA, and the Mid-Atlantic Regional Spaceport, a commercial spaceport.[242][243] Space tourism is also offered through Vienna-based Space Adventures.[244]
In colonial Virginia, free men elected the lower house of the legislature, called the House of Burgesses, which together with the Governor's Council, made the "General Assembly". Founded in 1619, the Virginia General Assembly is still in existence as the oldest legislature in the Western Hemisphere.[245] The modern government is ranked by the Pew Center on the States with an A− in terms of its efficiency, effectiveness, and infrastructure. This is the second time Virginia received the highest grade in the nation, which it shares with two others.[7]
Since 1971, the government has functioned under the seventh Constitution of Virginia, which provides for a strong legislature and a unified judicial system. Similar to the federal structure, the government is divided in three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. The legislature is the General Assembly, a bicameral body whose 100-member House of Delegates and 40-member Senate write the laws for the Commonwealth. The Assembly is stronger than the executive, as it selects judges and justices. The Governor and Lieutenant Governor are elected every four years in separate elections. Incumbent governors cannot run for re-election, however the Lieutenant Governor and Attorney General can, and governors may serve non-consecutive terms.[246] The judicial system, the oldest in America, consists of a hierarchy from the Supreme Court of Virginia and the Court of Appeals of Virginia to the Circuit Courts, the trial courts of general jurisdiction, and the lower General District Courts and Juvenile and Domestic Relations District Courts.[247]
The Code of Virginia is the statutory law, and consists of the codified legislation of the General Assembly. The Virginia State Police is the largest law enforcement agency in Virginia. The Virginia Capitol Police is the oldest police department in the United States.[248] The Virginia National Guard consists of 7,500 soldiers in the Virginia Army National Guard and 1,200 airmen in the Virginia Air National Guard.[249] Since the resumption of capital punishment in Virginia in 1982, 107 people have been executed, the second highest number in the nation.[250] The "total crime risk" is 28% lower than the national average.[251] Since Virginia ended prisoner parole in 1995, the rate of recidivism has fallen to 28.3%, among the lowest nationwide.[252]
Over the 20th century, Virginia shifted from a largely rural, politically Southern and conservative state to a more urbanized, pluralistic, and politically moderate environment. Up until the 1970s, Virginia was a racially divided single-party state dominated by the Byrd Organization.[253] The legacy of slavery in the state effectively disfranchised African Americans until after passage of civil rights legislation in the mid-1960s.[254] Enfranchisement and immigration of other groups, especially Hispanics, have placed growing importance on minority voting.[255] Regional differences play a large part in Virginia politics.[256] Rural southern and western areas moved to support the Republican Party in response to its "southern strategy", while urban and growing suburban areas, including much of Northern Virginia, form the Democratic Party base.[257][258] Democratic support also persists in union-influenced parts of Southwest Virginia, college towns such as Charlottesville and Blacksburg, and the southeastern Black Belt Region.[259]
Political party strength in Virginia has likewise been in flux. In the 2007 state elections, Democrats regained control of the State Senate, and narrowed the Republican majority in the House of Delegates to eight seats.[260] Yet elections in 2009 resulted in the election of Republican Robert McDonnell as governor by a 17 point margin, the election of a Republican Lieutenant Governor and Attorney General, as well as Republican gains of six seats in the House of Delegates.[261] In 2011, the Republican caucus took over two-thirds of the seats in the House of Delegates, and a majority of the Senate based on the Lieutenant Governor Bill Bolling as the tie-breaker.[262] State election seasons traditionally start with the annual Shad Planking event in Wakefield.[263]
In federal elections since 2006, both parties have seen success. In the 2006 Senate election, Democrat Jim Webb won on a populist platform over the Republican incumbent following a very close race.[264] The party took both U.S. Senate seats with the election of former Governor Mark Warner to replace retiring Republican John Warner.[265] Virginia, which has 13 electoral votes, was won by Democrat Barack Obama in 2008, after being won by Republican candidates in the previous ten presidential elections.[266] In the 2010 elections, Republicans picked up three House seats from Democrats. Of the state's 11 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives, Republicans hold eight and Democrats hold three. Virginia may be considered a "swing state" in future presidential elections.[6]
Virginia is the most populous U.S. state without a major professional sports league franchise.[268] The reasons for this include the lack of any dominant city or market within the state, the proximity of teams in Washington, D.C. and North Carolina, and a reluctance to publicly finance stadiums.[269] Virginia has several minor league clubs, especially in baseball and soccer, and the Virginia Destroyers are the 2011 champions of the United Football League.[270] Additionally, the Washington Redskins have Redskins Park, their headquarters and training facility, in Ashburn and the Washington Capitals train at Kettler Capitals Iceplex in Ballston.[271] Virginia has many professional caliber golf courses including the Greg Norman course at Lansdowne Resort and Kingsmill Resort, home of the Michelob ULTRA Open. NASCAR currently schedules Sprint Cup races on two tracks in Virginia: Martinsville Speedway and Richmond International Raceway. Current Virginia drivers in the series include Jeff Burton, Denny Hamlin, and Elliott Sadler.[272]
The Washington Nationals and Baltimore Orioles also have followings due to their proximity, and both are broadcast in the state on MASN.[273] When the New York Mets ended their long affiliation with the Norfolk Tides in 2007, the Orioles adopted the minor league club as their top level (AAA) minor league affiliate.[274] The San Francisco Giants' AA team, the Richmond Flying Squirrels, began play at The Diamond in 2010, replacing the AAA Richmond Braves, who relocated after 2008.[275] Additionally, the Nationals, Boston Red Sox, Seattle Mariners, Chicago White Sox, and Atlanta Braves also have Single-A and Rookie-level farm teams in Virginia.[276]
Virginia does not allow state appropriated funds to be used for either operational or capital expenses for intercollegiate athletics.[277] Despite this, both the Virginia Cavaliers and Virginia Tech Hokies have been able to field competitive teams in the Atlantic Coast Conference and maintain modern facilities. Their rivalry is followed statewide. Several other universities compete in NCAA Division I, particularly in the Colonial Athletic Association. Three historically black schools compete in the Division II Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association, and two others compete in the Division I Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference. Several smaller schools compete in the Old Dominion Athletic Conference and the USA South Athletic Conference of NCAA Division III. The NCAA currently holds its Division III championships in football, men's basketball, volleyball and softball in Salem.[278]
The state nickname is its oldest symbol, though it has never been made official by law. Virginia was given the title "Dominion" by King Charles II of England at the time of The Restoration, because it had remained loyal to the crown during the English Civil War, and the present moniker, "Old Dominion" is a reference to that title. The other nickname, "Mother of Presidents", is also historic, as eight Virginians have served as President of the United States, including four of the first five.[1]
The state's motto, Sic Semper Tyrannis, translates from Latin as "Thus Always to Tyrants", and is used on the state seal, which is then used on the flag. While the seal was designed in 1776, and the flag was first used in the 1830s, both were made official in 1930.[1] The majority of the other symbols were made official in the late 20th century.[279] The Virginia reel is among the square dances classified as the state dance.[15] Virginia currently has no state song. In 1940, Virginia made "Carry Me Back to Old Virginny" the state song, but it was retired in 1997 and reclassified as the state song emeritus.[280] Various alternatives, including a version of "Oh Shenandoah", have met with resistance in the Virginia House of Delegates.[281]
- ^ a b c d "Factpack" (PDF). Virginia General Assembly. January 11, 2007. http://legis.state.va.us/1_cap_class/class_media/4_5_pdfs/factpack-1.pdf. Retrieved October 14, 2008.
- ^ a b c "Annual Estimates of the Resident Population for the United States, Regions, States, and Puerto Rico: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2011" (CSV). 2011 Population Estimates. United States Census Bureau, Population Division. December 2011. http://www.census.gov/popest/data/state/totals/2011/tables/NST-EST2011-01.csv. Retrieved December 21, 2011.
- ^ "Median household income in the past 12 months (in 2007 inflation-adjusted dollars)". American Community Survey. United States Census Bureau. 2007. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/STTable?_bm=y&-geo_id=04000US51&-qr_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_S1901&-ds_name=ACS_2008_3YR_G00_. Retrieved September 2, 2008.
- ^ a b "Elevations and Distances in the United States". United States Geological Survey. 2001. http://egsc.usgs.gov/isb/pubs/booklets/elvadist/elvadist.html. Retrieved October 24, 2011.
- ^ Elevation adjusted to North American Vertical Datum of 1988.
- ^ a b Balz, Dan (October 12, 2007). "Painting America Purple". The Washington Post. http://blog.washingtonpost.com/44/2007/10/12/the_purpling_of_america.html. Retrieved November 24, 2007.
- ^ a b Somashekhar, Sandhya (March 4, 2008). "Government Takes Top Honors in Efficiency". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2008/03/03/ST2008030303550.html. Retrieved March 11, 2008.
- ^ a b Richards, Gregory (February 24, 2007). "Computer chips now lead Virginia exports". The Virginian-Pilot. Archived from the original on March 10, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070310155937/http://content.hamptonroads.com/story.cfm?story=120082&ran=25886. Retrieved September 29, 2008.
- ^ "2000 Census of Population and Housing" (PDF). United States Census Bureau. April 2004. p. 71. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2000/phc3-us-pt1.pdf. Retrieved November 3, 2009.
- ^ "Supreme Court Rules for Virginia in Potomac Conflict". The Sea Grant Law Center. University of Mississippi. 2003. http://nsglc.olemiss.edu/SandBar/SandBar2/2.4supreme.htm. Retrieved November 24, 2007.
- ^ Hubbard, Jr. 2009, p. 140
- ^ "Fact Sheet 102–98 – The Chesapeake Bay: Geologic Product of Rising Sea Level". United States Geological Survey. November 18, 1998. http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs102-98/. Retrieved August 24, 2009.
- ^ Burnham & Burnham 2004, pp. 7, 56–57
- ^ "Rivers and Watersheds". The Geology of Virginia. College of William and Mary. February 23, 2007. http://web.wm.edu/geology/virginia/rivers/rivers.html. Retrieved April 11, 2008.
- ^ a b The Encyclopedia of Virginia 1999, pp. 2–15
- ^ Pazzaglia 2006, pp. 135–138
- ^ "Virginia's Agricultural Resources". Natural Resource Education Guide. Virginia Department of Environmental Quality. January 21, 2008. http://www.deq.state.va.us/vanaturally/guide/agriculture.html. Retrieved February 8, 2008.
- ^ Burnham & Burnham 2004, p. 277
- ^ "Physiographic Regions of Virginia". The Geology of Virginia. College of William and Mary. February 16, 2007. http://web.wm.edu/geology/virginia/provinces/phys_regions.html. Retrieved April 7, 2008.
- ^ Palmer 1998, pp. 49–51
- ^ Heinemann et al. 2007, p. 3
- ^ "Caves" (PDF). Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals and Energy. July 2008. http://www.dmme.virginia.gov/DMR3/dmrpdfs/CAVES.pdf. Retrieved August 24, 2009.
- ^ "Largest Earthquake in Virginia". United States Geological Survey. January 25, 2008. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/states/events/1897_05_31.php. Retrieved April 12, 2008.
- ^ "Magnitude 5.8 – Virginia". United States Geological Survey. August 23, 2011. http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/recenteqsww/Quakes/se082311a.php#summary. Retrieved November 13, 2011.
- ^ "Coal". Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals, and Energy. 2006. http://www.dmme.virginia.gov/DMR3/coal.shtml. Retrieved August 24, 2009.
- ^ "About DMME". Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals and Energy. 2006. http://www.dmme.virginia.gov/aboutus.shtml. Retrieved September 11, 2009.
- ^ a b c d Burnham & Burnham 2004, pp. 1–3
- ^ a b Hayden, Bruce P.; Michaels, Patrick J. (January 20, 2000). "Virginia's Climate". Department of Environmental Sciences. University of Virginia. http://climate.virginia.edu/description.htm. Retrieved October 20, 2008.
- ^ "Thunderstorms and Lightening". Virginia Department of Emergency Management. April 2, 2001. http://www.vaemergency.com/news/history/thunderstorms-lightening. Retrieved November 26, 2011.
- ^ "The Natural Communities of Virginia". Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation. 2006. http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural_heritage/ncoverview.shtml. Retrieved April 12, 2008.
- ^ Ricketts, Lauryn (February 7, 2008). "Tornadoes DO happen in Virginia!". TV3 Winchester. http://www.tv3winchester.com/blogs/laurynrickettsblog/15421801.html. Retrieved February 13, 2009.
- ^ "Advisory 01/07: The Hot Get Hotter? Urban Warming and Air Quality". University of Virginia Climatology Office. Archived from the original on September 22, 2002. http://web.archive.org/web/20020922182906/http://climate.virginia.edu/advisory/2001/ad01-07.htm. Retrieved July 30, 2007.
- ^ "Report Card: Virginia". State of the Air: 2011. American Lung Association. April 27, 2011. http://www.stateoftheair.org/2011/states/virginia/. Retrieved May 10, 2011.
- ^ "Fairfax County Residents Can Play Their Part to Reduce Air Pollution". Fairfax County, Virginia. May 26, 2004. http://www.fairfaxcounty.gov/news/2004/04145.htm. Retrieved September 29, 2008.
- ^ Fahrenthold, David A. (June 25, 2008). "Debating Coal's Cost in Rural Va.". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2008/06/25/ST2008062500042.html. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- ^ a b "Virginia's Forest Resources". Natural Resource Education Guide. Virginia Department of Environmental Quality. January 21, 2008. http://www.deq.virginia.gov/vanaturally/guide/forests.html. Retrieved February 8, 2008.
- ^ "Shenandoah National Park — Forests". National Park Service. July 25, 2006. http://www.nps.gov/shen/naturescience/forests.htm. Retrieved September 10, 2007.
- ^ Carroll & Miller 2002, pp. xi−xii
- ^ "Species Information: Mammals". Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. 2008. http://www.dgif.virginia.gov/wildlife/information/?t=2. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- ^ "Shenandoah National Park — Birds". National Park Service. July 25, 2006. http://www.nps.gov/shen/naturescience/birds.htm. Retrieved September 1, 2007.
- ^ "Virginia Fishes". Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries. 2008. http://www.dgif.virginia.gov/wildlife/fish/. Retrieved November 15, 2008.
- ^ "Bay Biology". Chesapeake Bay Program. January 5, 2006. http://www.chesapeakebay.net/info/baybio1.cfm. Retrieved February 4, 2008.
- ^ "Virginia". National Park Service. 2008. http://www.nps.gov/state/VA/index.htm. Retrieved November 29, 2008.
- ^ Carroll & Miller 2002, p. 158
- ^ "Park Locations". Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation. November 9, 2007. http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/state_parks/state_park.shtml. Retrieved January 26, 2008.
- ^ Smith 2008, pp. 152–153, 356
- ^ Wallenstein 2007, pp. 406–407
- ^ Kunkle, Fredrick; Vogel, Steve (May 14, 2007). "President Bush Caps Celebration Of Success in Face of Adversity". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/05/13/AR2007051300412.html. Retrieved November 11, 2009.
- ^ "Virginia Military Dead Database Introduction". Library of Virginia. Government of Virginia. 2009. http://www.lva.virginia.gov/public/guides/vmd/vmdintro.htm. Retrieved April 26, 2009.
- ^ Abrams 1999, p. xv
- ^ Karenne Wood, ed., The Virginia Indian Heritage Trail, Charlottesville, VA: Virginia Foundation for the Humanities, 2007.
- ^ Heinemann et al. 2007, pp. 4–11
- ^ Cotton, Lee (July 1999). "Powhatan Indian Lifeways". National Park Service. Archived from the original on September 24, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080924132642/http://www.nps.gov/jame/historyculture/powhatan-indian-lifeways.htm. Retrieved June 26, 2008.
- ^ Wallenstein 2007, pp. 8–9
- ^ Moran 2007, p. 8
- ^ Stewart 2008, p. 22
- ^ Vollmann 2002, pp. 695–696
- ^ Conlin 2009, pp. 30–31
- ^ Gordon 2004, p. 17
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- ^ Listman, Jr., John W.; Carter, III, Lt. Col. Chester C. (August 20, 2007). "Serving Commonwealth and Country". Virginia Army National Guard. http://vko.va.ngb.army.mil/VirginiaGuard/history/overview.html. Retrieved February 11, 2008.
- ^ Williams, Carol J. (September 23, 2010). "Virginia's execution of a woman may signal shift in national thinking". Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-condemned-women-20100924,0,1991421.story. Retrieved September 24, 2010.
- ^ "Quick Facts for Virginia". The Washington Post. 2009. http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/local-explorer/quick-facts?search=VA. Retrieved September 11, 2009.
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- ^ Burchett, Michael H. (Summer 1997). "Promise and prejudice: Wise County, Virginia and the Great Migration, 1910–1920". The Journal of Negro History 82 (3): 312–327. DOI:10.2307/2717675. JSTOR 2717675.
- ^ Eisman, Dale (October 25, 2006). "Webb, Allen court Hispanic, white-collar voters in N. Va.". The Virginian-Pilot. http://hamptonroads.com/node/172411. Retrieved March 29, 2008.
- ^ Turque, Bill; Wiggins, Ovetta; Stewart, Nikita (February 13, 2008). "In Virginia, Results Signal A State in Play for November". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/12/AR2008021203200_pf.html. Retrieved September 29, 2008.
- ^ Miller, Gary; Schofield, Norman (May 2003). "Activists and Partisan Realignment in the United States". The American Political Science Review 97 (2): 245–260. JSTOR 3118207.
- ^ Craig, Tim (December 11, 2007). "Tensions Could Hurt Majority in Va. Senate". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/story/2007/12/10/ST2007121001571.html. Retrieved December 23, 2007.
- ^ Clemons, Michael L.; Jones, Charles E. (July 2000). "African American Legislative Politics in Virginia". Journal of Black Studies 30 (6, Special Issue: African American State Legislative Politics): 744–767. DOI:10.1177/002193470003000603. JSTOR 2645922.
- ^ Craig, Tim; Kumar, Anita (November 8, 2007). "Kaine Hails 'Balance' in New Political Landscape". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/11/07/AR2007110700553_2.html. Retrieved November 7, 2007.
- ^ Helderman, Rosalind S.; Kumar, Anita (November 4, 2009). "GOP reclaims Virginia". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/11/03/AR2009110300371.html. Retrieved November 4, 2009.
- ^ Lewis, Bob (November 10, 2011). "GOP claims Va. Senate majority after Dem concedes". The Boston Globe. Associated Press. http://www.boston.com/news/nation/washington/articles/2011/11/10/gop_claims_va_senate_majority_after_dem_concedes/. Retrieved November 15, 2011.
- ^ Murray, Mark (April 16, 2009). "Shad Planking kicks Virginia race into gear". MSNBC. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/30248457/. Retrieved May 7, 2009.
- ^ Page, Susan (November 26, 2006). "Election '06: Lessons learned by dissecting votes". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/news/washington/2006-11-26-election-lessons_x.htm. Retrieved December 12, 2007.
- ^ Kumar, Anita (November 5, 2008). "Warner Rolls Past His Fellow Former Governor". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/11/04/AR2008110404091.html. Retrieved November 5, 2008.
- ^ Lewis, Bob (November 5, 2008). "Obama first Democrat to take Virginia in 44 years". Associated Press. Fox News. http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Nov05/0,4670,ElectionVirginia,00.html. Retrieved January 9, 2009.
- ^ Wood, Norm (December 28, 2008). "Bowl streak began humbly". Daily Press. http://www.dailypress.com/sports/dp-spt_techbowlstreak_1228dec28,0,2384850.story. Retrieved September 11, 2009.
- ^ Minium, Harry (July 19, 2001). "Region Works to Attract Franchise Area Makes "Short List" for Existing Team’s Move" (PDF). The Virginian-Pilot. Archived from the original on February 26, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080226215152/http://www.facilityplanners.com/news/pdf/Professional+Sports+in+Hampton+Roads.pdf. Retrieved December 9, 2007.
- ^ Utt, Ronald D. (October 2, 1998). "Cities in Denial: The False Promise of Subsidized Tourist and Entertainment Complexes". The Heritage Foundation. http://www.heritage.org/research/urbanissues/bg1223.cfm. Retrieved October 3, 2009.
- ^ Robinson, Tom (October 22, 2011). "Virginia Destroyers capture UFL title in 17–3 victory". The Virginian-Pilot. http://hamptonroads.com/2011/10/virginia-destroyers-capture-ufl-title-173-victory. Retrieved November 15, 2011.
- ^ Fernandes, Deirdre (January 4, 2008). "Beach officials hope to lure Redskins' training camp to Sportsplex". The Virginian-Pilot. http://hamptonroads.com/2008/01/beach-officials-hope-lure-redskins%E2%80%99-training-camp-sportsplex. Retrieved April 12, 2008.
- ^ "NASCAR in Virginia". Virginia is for Lovers. 2011. http://www.virginia.org/nascar/. Retrieved November 26, 2011.
- ^ "Find MASN on your TV". Mid-Atlantic Sports Network. September 7, 2007. http://masnsports.com/2007/09/find-masn.html. Retrieved December 11, 2007.
- ^ Borawski, Brian (September 27, 2006). "Business of Baseball Report". The Orioles Warehouse. http://www.hardballtimes.com/main/article/business-of-baseball-report120/. Retrieved April 12, 2008.
- ^ O'Connor, John (April 2, 2010). "Squirrels will nest at Diamond for several years". Richmond Times-Dispatch. http://www2.timesdispatch.com/rtd/sports/minors/minors_baseball/article/BASE02_20100401-221608/334637/. Retrieved April 27, 2010.
- ^ "Baseball in Virginia". Virginia is for Lovers. 2011. http://www.virginia.org/baseball/. Retrieved November 26, 2011.
- ^ Sylwester, MaryJo; Witosky, Tom (February 18, 2004). "Athletic spending grows as academic funds dry up". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/college/2004-02-18-athletic-spending-cover_x.htm. Retrieved August 16, 2010.
- ^ Brady, Erik (December 14, 2006). "Virginia town is big game central". USA Today. http://www.usatoday.com/sports/college/football/2006-12-13-focus-salem_x.htm. Retrieved February 6, 2008.
- ^ "Capitol Classroom". Virginia General Assembly. December 13, 2007. http://legis.state.va.us/1_cap_class/9-12/9_12_emb_symb.html. Retrieved April 12, 2008.
- ^ Berrier, Ralph (January 11, 2008). "Carry me back to the state song search". The Roanoke Times. http://www.roanoke.com/columnists/berrier/wb/146590. Retrieved September 10, 2009.
- ^ Sluss, Michael (March 2, 2006). "Proposed state song doesn't bring down the House". The Roanoke Times. http://www.roanoke.com/news/roanoke/wb/wb/xp-54991. Retrieved October 14, 2008.
- Abrams, Ann Uhry (1999). The pilgrims and Pocahontas: rival myths of American origin. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3497-7. http://books.google.com/?id=y4-ljMLfwp4C&pg=PR15.
- Accordino, John J. (2000). Captives of the Cold War Economy. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-96561-9. http://books.google.com/?id=S6TuEMY2clQC.
- Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-375-40642-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=-vMxLslZopgC.
- Burnham, Bill; Burnham, Mary (2004). Hiking Virginia: A Guide to Virginia's Greatest Hiking Adventures. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot. ISBN 0-7627-2747-0. http://books.google.com/?id=VkKEooYDuToC.
- Carroll, Steven; Miller, Mark (2002). Wild Virginia: A Guide to Thirty Roadless Recreation Areas Including Shenandoah National Park. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot. ISBN 0-7627-2315-7. http://books.google.com/?id=ymATg0mq8jkC.
- Chambers, Douglas B. (2005). Murder at Montpelier: Igbo Africans in Virginia. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi. ISBN 1-57806-706-5. http://books.google.com/?id=vqpoxEl_0_4C&pg=PA10.
- Conlin, Joseph R. (2009). The American Past: A Survey of American History. Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning. ISBN 0-495-56609-8. http://books.google.com/?id=tT2AEMiUXvwC&pg=PT57.
- Cooper, Jean L. (2007). A Guide to Historic Charlottesville and Albemarle County, Virginia. Charleston, SC: The History Press. ISBN 1-59629-173-7. http://books.google.com/?id=nCn4XrP_u0MC.
- Dailey, Jane Elizabeth; Gilmore, Glenda Elizabeth; Simon, Bryant (2000). Jumpin' Jim Crow: Southern Politics from Civil War to Civil Rights. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00193-6. http://books.google.com/?id=yFvjsEYP7hAC&pg=PA90.
- Davis, David Brion (2006). Inhuman Bondage: The Rise and Fall of Slavery in the New World. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514073-7.
- The Encyclopedia of Virginia. 1 (4 ed.). St. Clair Shores, MI: Somerset Publishers. 1999. ISBN 0-403-09753-3.
- Feuer, A.B. (1999). The U.S. Navy in World War I: combat at sea and in the air. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 0-275-96212-1.
- Fischer, David Hackett; Kelly, James C. (2000). Bound Away: Virginia and the Westward Movement. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-1774-3.
- Goodwin, Bill (2012). Frommer's Virginia (11 ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 1-118-22449-3. http://books.google.com/?id=l_JqVwS2krIC.
- Gordon, John Steele (2004). An Empire of Wealth: The Epic History of American Economic Power. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-009362-5. http://books.google.com/?id=rmsUs_KDgHAC&pg=PA17.
- Gray, Richard J.; Robinson, Owen (2004). A Companion to the Literature and Culture of the American South. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22404-1. http://books.google.com/?id=v10uoRwUsuEC.
- Greenspan, Anders (2009). Creating Colonial Williamsburg: The Restoration of Virginia's Eighteenth-Century Capital (2 ed.). Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-3343-6.
- Grizzard, Frank E.; Smith, D. Boyd (2007). Jamestown Colony: a political, social, and cultural history. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-85109-637-X. http://books.google.com/books?id=555CzPsGLDMC&pg=PA128.
- Gutzman, Kevin R. C. (2007). Virginia's American Revolution: From Dominion to Republic, 1776–1840. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. ISBN 0-7391-2131-6.
- Hashaw, Tim (2007). The Birth of Black America. New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 0-7867-1718-1.
- Heinemann, Ronald L.; Kolp, John G.; Parent, Jr., Anthony S.; Shade, William G. (2007). Old Dominion, New Commonwealth. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-2609-2.
- Hoffer, Peter Charles (2006). The Brave New World: A History of Early America. Baltimore: JHU Press. ISBN 0-8018-8483-7.
- Howard, Blair; Burnham, Mary; Burnham, Bill (2006). The Virginia Handbook (3 ed.). Edison, NJ: Hunter Publishing. ISBN 1-58843-512-1. http://books.google.com/?id=bX0t5dMokXYC.
- Hubbard, Jr., Bill (2009). American Boundaries: The Nation, the States, the Rectangular Survey. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-35591-8. http://books.google.com/?id=LMacwod5KLwC&pg=PA140.
- Joseph, John Earl (2006). Language and Politics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 0-7486-2453-8. http://books.google.com/?id=pJu5veUAo7kC&pg=PA63.
- McGraw, Eliza (June 24, 2005). Two Covenants: Representations of Southern Jewishness. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. ISBN 0-8071-3043-5. http://books.google.com/?id=EzR13rJBwc4C&pg=PA14.
- Miller, Kerby A.; Schrier, Arnold; Boling, Bruce D.; Doyle, David N. (2003). Irish immigrants in the land of Canaan. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-504513-0. http://books.google.com/?id=bq79_YZ8ViIC.
- Moran, Michael G. (2007). Inventing Virginia: Sir Walter Raleigh and the Rhetoric of Colonization, 1584–1590. New York: Peter Lang. ISBN 0-8204-8694-9.
- Morgan, Lynda (1992). Emancipation in Virginia's Tobacco Belt, 1850–1870. Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press. ISBN 0-8203-1415-3.
- Morgan, Philip D. (1998). Slave Counterpoint. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 0-8078-4717-8.
- Palmer, Tim (1998). America by Rivers. Washington, D.C.: Island Press. ISBN 1-55963-264-X. http://books.google.com/?id=ctA1eNFvI-oC&pg=PA49.
- Pazzaglia, Frank James (2006). Excursions in Geology and History: Field Trips in the Middle Atlantic States. Boulder, CO: Geological Society of America. ISBN 0-8137-0008-6. http://books.google.com/?id=vQdHRNitfOoC&pg=PA135.
- Pinn, Anthony B. (2009). African American Religious Cultures. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ISBN 1-57607-470-6. http://books.google.com/?id=xEEIY4Q1ZAIC&pg=PA175.
- Olitzky, Kerry (1996). The American Synagogue: A Historical Dictionary and Sourcebook. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-28856-9.
- Scott, David L.; Scott, Kay W. (2004). Guide to the National Park Areas. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot. ISBN 0-7627-2988-0. http://books.google.com/?id=Z8DCRmgPOewC&pg=PA307.
- Smith, Julian (2008). Moon Virginia: Including Washington, D.C. (4 ed.). Berkeley, CA: Avalon Travel. ISBN 1-59880-011-6. http://books.google.com/?id=WNEYCRIIQy4C&pg=PA152.
- Robertson, James I. (1993). Civil War Virginia: Battleground for a Nation. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-1457-4. http://books.google.com/?id=RKDkDZ6GLPcC.
- Stewart, George (2008). Names on the Land: A Historical Account of Place-Naming in the United States. New York: Random House. ISBN 1-59017-273-6.
- Vollmann, William T. (2002). Argall: The True Story of Pocahontas and Captain John Smith. New York: Penguin Group. ISBN 0-14-200150-3. http://books.google.com/?id=hh0WYbclptAC&pg=PA695.
- Wallenstein, Peter (2007). Cradle of America: Four Centuries of Virginia History. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1507-0. http://books.google.com/?id=qiwSAAAAYAAJ.
- Williamson, CiCi (2008). The Best of Virginia Farms Cookbook and Tour Book. Birmingham, AL: Menasha Ridge Press. ISBN 0-89732-657-1. http://books.google.com/?id=pnuFW6zT0T8C&pg=PA41.
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Coordinates: 37°30′N 79°00′W / 37.5°N 79°W / 37.5; -79
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