- published: 23 Feb 2010
- views: 24167
- author: Publius4321
Vimeo results:
Youtube results:
More Videos
Loading...
Branches of Mathematics
Pure mathematics
Applied mathematics
- Dynamical systems and differential equations
- Mathematical physics
- Computing
- Information theory and signal processing
- Probability and statistics
- Game theory
- Operations research
Related Topics
- Electromagnetic Spectrum
- Linear Equations
- Applied Physics
- Nano Technology
- Engineering Sciences
- Mathematical Medicine
- Fluid dynamics
- Computational Mathematics
- Gamma Ray Optics
- Onfrared Optics
- Relative Velocity
- Iciam
- Intelligent Imaging Neuroscience
- Biomedical Engineering
- Neuroscience Research
- Quantum Cosmology
- Brain Research
Open Collage in a new Window
Email the Collage
- Loading...
Loading suggestions ...
- Abbas Tyabji
- Abhinandannath
- Abrahamic religions
- Acharya
- Acharya Bhikshu
- Acharya Hemachandra
- Acharya Kripalani
- Acharya Rajendrasuri
- Adikavi Pampa
- Adrsta
- Agnosticism
- Agra
- Ahimsa
- Ahimsa in Jainism
- Ahl-e Haqq
- Ajitnath
- American Jainism
- Anantnath
- Anekantavada
- Anglicanism
- Aniconic
- Animism
- Antwerp
- Apabhramsha
- Apabhraṃśa
- Aparigraha
- Apostasy
- Aranath
- Architecture
- Ardhakathanaka
- Arihant (Jainism)
- Art
- Arun Manilal Gandhi
- Ascetic
- Ashoka
- Ashram
- Asteya
- Atheism
- Atman (Hinduism)
- Aung San Suu Kyi
- Australia
- Ayyavazhi
- Bahubali
- Bahá'í Faith
- Bal Gangadhar Tilak
- Banarasidas
- Bardoli Satyagraha
- Belgium
- Bhagavad Gita
- Bhattaraka
- Bhubaneswar
- Bihar
- Bisapanthi
- Bombay Samachar
- Brahmacharya
- Brahmana
- Braj Bhasha
- Brāhmī script
- Buddhism
- Buddhism and Jainism
- Bön
- Cao Dai
- Carrot
- Cassava
- Category Jainism
- Category Religion
- Catholicism
- Celtic polytheism
- Chalukya dynasty
- Chamundaraya
- Chandragupta Maurya
- Chandraprabha
- Chaturdashi
- Chauri Chaura
- Cheondoism
- Christianity
- Civaka Cintamani
- Civil disobedience
- Clergy
- Colette Caillat
- Comparative religion
- Confucianism
- Conservative Judaism
- Culture of India
- Dada Dharmadhikari
- Deism
- Deity
- Deva Devali
- Devdas Gandhi
- Dharma
- Dharma (Jainism)
- Dharmacakra
- Dharmanath
- Dhundari language
- Digambar
- Digambar Terapanth
- Digambara
- Dilwara Temples
- Discordianism
- Divali
- Diwali
- Dravya (Jainism)
- Druze
- East Africa
- East Asian religions
- Eckankar
- Egalitarianism
- Eggplant
- English language
- Ethics
- Evangelism
- Faith
- Far East
- Fasting
- Fasting in Jainism
- Fiji
- Finnish paganism
- Fire worship
- Ford (crossing)
- Freedom of religion
- Fundamentalism
- Ganadhara
- Gandhi Jayanti
- Gandhi Peace Prize
- Gandhi Smriti
- Gandhian economics
- Gandhigiri
- Gandhism
- Garlic
- Gautama Buddha
- Germanic paganism
- Ginger
- Gnosticism
- God
- God in Jainism
- Gopalkrishna Gandhi
- Gujarat
- Gujarat Vidyapith
- Gujarati cuisine
- Gujarati Jain
- Gujarati language
- Gunasthana
- Guru Vandana
- Gurung Dharma
- Haribhadra
- Harilal Gandhi
- Harry Oldmeadow
- Hemacandra
- Henry David Thoreau
- Hermann Kallenbach
- Hindi language
- Hinduism
- History of religions
- Hoa Hao
- I-Kuan Tao
- Indian literature
- Indian philosophy
- Indian religions
- Indigenous religion
- Indo-Aryan migration
- Insects
- Iranian religions
- Irreligion
- Islam
- Islam and Jainism
- J. C. Kumarappa
- Jain Agamas
- Jain community
- Jain cosmology
- Jain Cosmology
- Jain flag
- Jain meditation
- Jain monasticism
- Jain philosophy
- Jain Prakrit
- Jain symbol
- Jain symbols
- Jain vegetarianism
- Jaina
- Jainism
- Jainism and Sikhism
- Jainism in Belgium
- Jainism in Canada
- Jainism in Europe
- Jainism in Gujarat
- Jainism in Hong Kong
- Jainism in India
- Jainism in Japan
- Jainism in Karnataka
- Jainism in Pakistan
- Jainism in Rajasthan
- Jainism in Singapore
- James Bevel
- James Prinsep
- Jamia Millia Islamia
- Javanese beliefs
- Jaykumar Jalaj
- Jiva
- John Ruskin
- Judaism
- Kalinga (India)
- Kalpasutra (Jainism)
- Kanji Swami
- Kannada
- Kannada language
- Kannada literature
- Kanyakumari
- Karaite Judaism
- Karma in Jainism
- Karnataka
- Kasturba Gandhi
- Kenya
- Kevala Jnana
- Khandagiri
- Kharavela
- Koenraad Elst
- Kumarpal
- Kundakunda
- Kunthunath
- Kushan Empire
- Lahore
- Lanza del Vasto
- LaVeyan Satanism
- Leo Tolstoy
- Lingayatism
- List of deities
- Liturgy
- Ludhiana
- Madhya Pradesh
- Mahabharata
- Mahadev Desai
- Mahapadma Nanda
- Mahatma Gandhi
- Mahavir
- Mahavir Jayanti
- Mahavira
- Mahavrata
- Mahayana
- Malayalam
- Malaysia
- Mallinath
- Mandaeism
- Mandamus
- Manichaeism
- Manilal Gandhi
- Manimekalai
- Mantra
- Marathi language
- Marwari language
- Mazdak
- Meditation
- Meghaduta
- Micchami Dukkadam
- Middle way
- Minority religion
- Mirabehn
- Missionary
- Mithraic mysteries
- Mohanlal Pandya
- Moksa (Jainism)
- Moksh Marg Prakashak
- Moksha
- Mombasa
- Monasticism
- Monk
- Monotheism
- Mormonism
- Mount Abu
- Mula Sangh
- Munisuvrata
- Murtipujaka
- Mysore
- Mysticism
- Nalatiyar
- Nami Natha
- Naminatha
- Namokar Mantra
- Naraka (Jainism)
- Narhari Parikh
- National church
- Nature worship
- Navakar Mantra
- Nelson Mandela
- Neminath
- Neopaganism
- Neoplatonism
- Nepal
- Neurotheology
- New Age
- New Thought
- Nigoda
- Nirgrantha
- Nirjara
- Nirvana
- Nirvana (Jainism)
- Nontheism
- Nonviolence
- North America
- Nun
- Nālaṭiyār
- Onion
- Ordination
- Orissa
- Orthodox Judaism
- Orthodoxy
- Orthopraxy
- Oswal
- Outline of religion
- Pacifism
- Padmaprabha
- Paleolithic religion
- Pali canon
- Palitana Tirtha
- Panentheism
- Pantheism
- Paramatman
- Parshva
- Parshvanath
- Parshvanatha
- Parsva
- Partition of India
- Paryushana
- Pataliputra
- Patiala
- Philippine mythology
- Pietermaritzburg
- Pithunda
- Plantain
- Politics
- Polynesian mythology
- Polytheism
- Ponna
- Poona Pact
- Portal Jainism
- Portal Religion
- Potato
- Pratikramana
- Prayer
- Prehistoric religion
- Proselytism
- Protestanism
- Pumpkin
- Punjab, India
- Puranas
- Puranic
- Purna Swaraj
- Purva
- Pushpadanta
- Quit India Movement
- Radish
- Rajasthan
- Rajasthani language
- Rajmohan Gandhi
- Ramayana
- Ramdas Gandhi
- Ranna
- Rashtrakuta Dynasty
- Rastafari movement
- Ratnatraya
- Ravi Shankar Vyas
- Ravidassia religion
- Raëlism
- Reform Judaism
- Religion
- Religious behaviour
- Religious belief
- Religious conversion
- Religious education
- Religious fanaticism
- Religious pluralism
- Religious studies
- Religious symbolism
- Religious terrorism
- Religious violence
- Religious war
- Rhizome
- Ritual
- Root vegetable
- Rushabh
- Sacrifice
- Sadhu
- Sallekhana
- Salt Satyagraha
- Samaldas Gandhi
- Saman Suttam
- Samaritan
- Samayika
- Sambhavanath
- Samsara
- Samsara (Jainism)
- Sangam literature
- Sangam period
- Sangha (Jainism)
- Sanskrit
- Sanskrit language
- Sarvodaya
- Satkhandagama
- Satya
- Satyagraha
- Schism (religion)
- Science
- Scientology
- Sect
- Secular theology
- Secularism
- Secularization
- Seicho-no-Ie
- Self control
- Sermon on the Mount
- Shaivism
- Shaktism
- Shantinath
- Shauraseni language
- Sheetalnath
- Shia Islam
- Shinto
- Shramana
- Shravana Belagola
- Shravanabelagola
- Shreyansanath
- Shrimad Rajchandra
- Siddha
- Siddhasena Divakara
- Sikhism
- Silappatikaram
- Singapore
- Slavic mythology
- Smartism
- Solanki
- Soul (spirit)
- South Africa
- Spirituality
- Standard Hindi
- State religion
- Steve Biko
- Sthanakavasi
- Sthanakvasi
- Sufism
- Sumatinath
- Sunni Islam
- Suparshvanath
- Supernatural
- Suriname
- Svetambar Terapanth
- Svetambara
- Swadeshi movement
- Swami Vivekananda
- Swaraj
- Swastika
- Sweet potato
- Syadvada
- Syncretism
- Syādvāda
- Tamil Jain
- Tamil language
- Tamil Nadu
- Tanzania
- Taoism
- Taran Panth
- Tattva (Jainism)
- Tattvartha Sutra
- Tattvārthasūtra
- Template Jainism
- Tenrikyo
- The Asiatic Society
- Theism
- Thelema
- Theocracy
- Theology
- Theories of religion
- Theravada
- Timeline of Jainism
- Timeline of religion
- Tirthankara
- Tirthankaras
- Toleration
- Transtheistic
- Tulu language
- Turmeric
- Turnip
- Tushar Gandhi
- Udaygiri
- Uganda
- Unification Church
- Universalism
- Universe
- Unto This Last
- Vaddaradhane
- Vaikom Satyagraha
- Vaishnava
- Vaishnavism
- Vajrayana
- Valabhi
- Valayapathi
- Vallabhbhai Patel
- Vasupujya
- Vedanta
- Vedas
- Vegetarian
- Vegetarianism
- Vikramarjuna Vijaya
- Vimalnath
- Vinoba Bhave
- Vow
- Water and religion
- Wealth and religion
- Western Europe
- Who is a Hindu?
- Wicca
- Wikipedia Link rot
- Women and religion
- Worship
- Yaksha
- Yakshini
- Yapaniya
- Yazidi
- Zen
- Zoroastrianism
- Zurvanism
-
Agra
Agra (
i/ˈɑːɡrə/; Hindi: आगरा, Urdu: آ گرہ), the erstwhile capital of Hindustan, is a city on the banks of the river Yamuna in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh, India, 363 kilometres (226 mi) west of state capital, Lucknow and 200 kilometres (124 mi) south of the national capital New Delhi. With a population of 1,686,976 (2010 est.), it is one of the most populous cities in Uttar Pradesh and the 19th most populous in India. Because 80 percent of the city's sewage flows into Yamuna River, it is 20th most polluted city in India. Agra can also refer to the administrative district that has its headquarters in Agra city.
The city finds mention in the epic Mahābhārata where it was called Agrevaṇa, or 'the border of the forest'. Legend ascribes the founding of the city to Rājā Badal Singh, a Sikarwar Rajput king (circa 1475), whose fort, Badalgarh, stood on or near the site of the present Fort. However, the 11th century Persian poet Mas'ūd Sa'd Salmān writes of a desperate assault on the fortress of Agra, then held by the Shāhī King Jayapala, by Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni. Sultan Sikandar Lodī was the first to move his capital from Delhi to Agra in the year 1506; he died in 1517 and his son Ibrāhīm Lodī remained in power there for nine more years, finally being defeated at the Battle of Panipat in 1526. It achieved fame as the capital of the Mughal emperors from 1526 to 1658 and remains a major tourist destination because of its many splendid Mughal-era buildings, most notably the Tāj Mahal, Agra Fort and Fatehpūr Sikrī, all three of which are UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
wn.com/Agra -
Australia
Australia (
/əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent as well as the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.
For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups. After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.
wn.com/Australia -
Belgium
Belgium (i/ˈbɛldʒəm/ BEL-jəm), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO. Belgium covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi), and it has a population of about 11 million people. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Latin Europe, Belgium is home to two main linguistic groups, the Dutch-speakers, mostly Flemish (about 60%), and the French-speakers, mostly Walloons (about 40%), plus a small group of German-speakers. Belgium's two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region, officially bilingual, is a mostly French-speaking enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia. Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in the political history and a complex system of government.
wn.com/Belgium -
Bhubaneswar
Bhubaneswar /ˌbʊvəˈneɪʃwər/, also spelled Bhubaneshwar (Oriya: ଭୁବନେଶ୍ଵର Bhubanēsbara pronunciation (help·info)), is the capital of the Indian state of Orissa, officially spelled Odisha. The city has a history of over 2000 years starting with the Chhedi dynasty (around 2nd century BCE) who had Sisupalgarh near present-day Bhubaneswar as their capital. Bhubaneswar has been known by names such as Toshali, Kalinga Nagari, Nagar Kalinga, Ekamra Kanan, Ekamra Kshetra and Mandira Malini Nagari (City of Temples) otherwise known as the Temple City of India. Bhubaneswar, literally means the Lord (Eeswar) of the Universe (Bhuban). It is the largest city of Orissa, and a center of economic and religious importance in the region today.
Bhubaneswar's possession of magnificent sculptures and architectural heritage, coupled with the sanctity as Ekamrakshetra make this one of the great religious centres of Orissa since early medieval days. With its large number of Hindu temples (over 600 in number), which span the entire spectrum of Kalinga architecture, Bhubaneswar is often referred to as a Temple City of India and together with Puri and Konark it forms the Swarna Tribhuja (Golden Triangle); one of the most visited destinations in East India.
wn.com/Bhubaneswar -
Bihar
Bihar (/bɨˈhɑr/, pronounced [bɪˈɦaːr] (
listen)) is a state in eastern India. It is the 12th largest state in terms of geographical size at 38,202 sq mi (98,940 km2) and 3rd largest by population. Almost 58% of Biharis are below the age of 25, which is the highest proportion in India.
Bihar lies mid-way between West Bengal in the east and Uttar Pradesh in the west. It is bounded by the country of Nepal to the north and by Jharkhand to the south. The Bihar plain is divided into two parts by the river Ganges which flows through the middle from west to east. Bihar has notified forest area of 6,764.14 km2, which is 6.8% of its geographical area. Hindi and Urdu are the official languages of the state, while the majority of the people speak Angika, Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Maithili and Bajjika. In 2000, Bihar was divided into 2 parts, the Southern part known as Jharkhand.
Ancient Bihar (which consisted of Anga, Videha/Mithila, Magadha and Vajji/Vrijji) was a centre of power, learning and culture in ancient and classical India. Out of five "The Greats" from India, four greats belonged to this region of India, Magadh: Chandragupta Maurya, Ashoka, Samudragupta and Vikramaditya. From Magadha arose India's first and greatest empire, the Maurya empire as well as one of the world's most widely adhered-to religions, Buddhism. Magadha empires, notably under the Maurya and Gupta dynasties, unified large parts of South Asia under a central rule. Its capital Patna, earlier known as Pataliputra, was an important centre of Indian civilization.Nalanda and Vikramshila were centres of learning established in the 5th and 8th century respectively in Bihar, and are counted amongst the oldest and truly international universities, where people all over the world came to study. Bihar has distinction of giving the world its first democracy through Lichchivi (modern days Vaishali) during ancient era.
wn.com/Bihar -
Dilwara Temples
The Jain Dilwara temples of India are located about 2½ kilometers from Mount Abu, Rajasthan's only hill station. These temples built by Chalukya between the 11th and 13th centuries AD are world famous for their stunning use of marble. The five legendary marble temples of Dilwara are a sacred pilgrimage place of the Jains. Some consider them to be one of the most beautiful Jain pilgrimage sites in the world. The marble temples have an opulent entranceway, the simplicity in architecture reflecting Jain values like honesty and frugality. The temples are in the midst of a range of forested hills. A high wall shrouds the temple complex.
Although the Jains built some beautiful temples at other places in Rajasthan, some believe that none come close to these in terms of architectural perfection. The ornamental detail spreading over the minutely carved ceilings, doorways, pillars and panels is simply marvellous.
For the people who come to perform puja here, there are facilities to bathe and get ready. The facilities use passive solar power to heat up the water for bathing and other things. Guided tour hours for tourists are posted outside the temple. You might see occasional monkeys looking for food outside the temple area.
wn.com/Dilwara_Temples -
Fiji
Fijii/ˈfiːdʒiː/ (Fijian: Viti; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी), officially the Republic of Fiji (Fijian: Matanitu ko Viti; Fiji Hindi: फ़िजी गणराज्यFijī Gaṇarājya), is an island nation in Melanesia in the South Pacific Ocean about 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km; 1,300 mi) northeast of New Zealand's North Island. Its closest neighbours are Vanuatu to the west, France's New Caledonia to the southwest, New Zealand's Kermadec to the southeast, Tonga to the east, the Samoas, France's Wallis and Futuna to the northeast and Tuvalu to the north.
The majority of Fiji's islands were formed through volcanic activity started around 150 million years ago. Today, some geothermal activity still occurs on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni. Fiji has been inhabited since the second millennium BC. The country comprises an archipelago of more than 332 islands, of which 110 are permanently inhabited, and more than 500 islets, amounting to a total land area of circa 18,300 square kilometres (7,100 sq mi). The two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu, account for 87% of the population of almost 850,000. The former contains Suva, the capital and largest city. Most of Fijians live on Viti Levu's coasts, either in Suva or in smaller urban centres. Viti Levu's interior is sparsely inhabited due to its terrain.
wn.com/Fiji -
Gandhi Smriti
Gandhi Smriti formerly known as Birla House or Birla Bhavan, is a museum dedicated to Mahatma Gandhi, situated on Tees January Road, in New Delhi, India. It is the location where Mahatma Gandhi spent the last 144 days of his life and was assassinated on January 30, 1948. It was originally the house of the Indian business tycoons, the Birlas. It now houses the Eternal Gandhi Multimedia Museum established in 2005.
It was acquired by the Government of India in 1971 and opened for the public on August 15, 1973, renamed the Gandhi Smriti (or Gandhi Remembrance). The museum in the building houses a number of articles associated with Gandhi's life and death. Visitors can tour the building and grounds, viewing the preserved room where Gandhi lived and the place on the grounds where he was shot while holding his nightly public walk.
The Martyr's Column now marks the place where Gandhi, the "Father of the Nation" was assassinated.
The Gandhi Smriti or Birla House is located at 5 Tees January Marg, a couple of kilometres from the Connaught Place, one of the CBDs of New Delhi.
wn.com/Gandhi_Smriti -
Gujarat
Gujarat /ˌɡʊdʒəˈrɑːt/ (Gujarati: ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt [ɡudʒ(ə)ɾat] ( listen)) is a state in western India. It has an area of 75,686 sq mi (196,030 km2) with a coastline of 1,600 km, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula, and a population in excess of 60 million. The state is bordered by Rajasthan to the north, Maharashtra to the south, Madhya Pradesh to the east and the Arabian Sea as well as the Pakistani province of Sindh on the west. Its capital is Gandhinagar, while its largest city is Ahmedabad. Gujarat is home to the Gujarati-speaking people of India.
The state encompasses major sites of the ancient Indus Valley Civilization, such as Lothal and Dholavira. Lothal is believed to be one of the world's first ports. Gujarat's coastal cities, chiefly Bharuch and Khambhat, served as ports and trading centers in the Maurya and Gupta empires. Mahatma Gandhi, India's "father of the nation", who led the Indian Independence Movement against the British colonial rule was a Gujarati.Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, independent India's first Deputy Prime Minister and Home Minister was also from Gujarat.
wn.com/Gujarat -
Jamia Millia Islamia
Jamia Millia Islamia (Urdu: جامعہ ملیہ اسلامیہ, Hindi: जामिया मिलिया इस्लामिया, translation: National Islamic University[citation needed]) is an Indian Central University located in Delhi. It was established at Aligarh in United Provinces, India in 1920. It became a Central University by an act of the Indian Parliament in 1988. In Urdu and Arabic, Jamia means University[citation needed], and Millia means National[citation needed]. Coordinates: 28°33′41.79″N 77°16′48.54″E / 28.5616083°N 77.28015°E / 28.5616083; 77.28015
The university was established by nationalist Muslim leaders in 1920 prior to partition. Its campus is located in South Delhi. The university provides undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate courses.
The Foundation Committee met on 29 October 1920. Its members were:
On 22 November 1920, Hakim Ajmal Khan was elected the first chancellor of Jamia. Mohamed Ali Jauhar became Jamia’s first Vice Chancellor, as Allama Iqbal could not accept the offer made through Mohandas K. Gandhi. It also elected a syndicate and created a syllabus subcommittee.The known freedom fighter and Muslim theologian, Maulana Mehmud Hasan, laid the foundation stone of Jamia Millia Islamia at Aligarh on Friday, 29 October 1920.
wn.com/Jamia_Millia_Islamia -
Karnataka
Karnataka /kɑrˈnɑːtəkə/ is a state in South West India. It was created on 1 November 1956, with the passing of the States Reorganisation Act and this day is annually celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava (Formation Day). Originally known as the State of Mysore /maɪˈsɔər/, it was renamed Karnataka in 1973. It is the land of the Kannadigas, Tuluvas, Konkanis and Kodavas. The capital and largest city is Bangalore.
Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea to the west, Goa to the northwest, Maharashtra to the north, Andhra Pradesh to the east, Tamil Nadu to the southeast, and Kerala to the southwest. The state covers an area of 191,976 square kilometres (74,122 sq mi), or 5.83% of the total geographical area of India. It is the eighth largest Indian state by area. With over 61 million inhabitants (2011), Karnataka is the ninth largest state by population, comprising 30 districts. Kannada is the most widely spoken and official language of the state.
The two main river systems of the state are Krishna and its tributaries (Bhima, Ghataprabha, Vedavati, Malaprabha, and Tungabhadra) in the north, and the Cauvery and its tributaries (Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavathi, Lakshmana Thirtha and Kabini) in the south. Both these rivers flow eastward and fall into the Bay of Bengal.
wn.com/Karnataka -
Kenya
Kenya ( /ˈkɛnjə/ or /ˈkiːnjə/), officially the Republic of Kenya, is a country in East Africa that lies on the equator. With the Indian Ocean to its south-east, it is bordered by Tanzania to the south, Uganda to the west, South Sudan to the north-west, Ethiopia to the north and Somalia to the north-east. Kenya has a land area of 580,000 km2 and a population of nearly 41 million, representing 42 different peoples and cultures. The country is named after Mount Kenya, a significant landmark and second among Africa's highest mountain peaks. Kenya's capital and largest city is Nairobi.
Kenya has a warm and humid climate along its coastline on the Indian Ocean which changes to wildlife-rich savannah grasslands moving inland towards the capital Nairobi. Nairobi has a cool climate that gets colder approaching Mount Kenya, which has three permanently snow-capped peaks. The warm and humid tropical climate reappears further inland towards lake Victoria, before giving way to temperate forested and hilly areas in the western region. The North Eastern regions along the border with Somalia and Ethiopia are arid and semi-arid areas with near-desert landscapes. Lake Victoria, the world's second largest fresh-water lake (after Lake Superior in the US and Canada) and the world's largest tropical lake, is situated to the southwest and is shared with Uganda and Tanzania. Kenya is famous for its safaris and diverse world-famous wildlife reserves such as Tsavo National Park, the Maasai Mara, Nakuru National Park, and Aberdares National Park.
wn.com/Kenya -
Lahore
Lahore (Punjabi: لہور, Urdu: لاہور) is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and the second largest city in the country. With a rich history dating back over a millennium, Lahore is a main cultural centre of Pakistan. One of the most densely populated cities in the world, Lahore remains an economic, political, transportation, entertainment, and educational hub.
Lahore successively served as regional capital of the empires of the Shahi kingdoms in the 11th century, the Ghaznavids in the 12th century, the Ghurid State in the 12th and 13th centuries the Mughal Empire in the 16th century, the Sikh expansion in the early 19th century, and it was the capital of the Punjab region under the British Raj in the mid 19th and early 20th century. The traditional capital of Punjab for a thousand years, Lahore was the cultural center of the northern Indian subcontinent which extends from the eastern banks of the Indus River to New Delhi. Mughal structures such as the Badshahi Mosque, the Lahore Fort, Shalimar Gardens, and the mausolea of Jehangir and Nur Jehan are tourist attractions. Lahore is also home to many British colonial structures built in the Indo-Saracenic style, such as the Lahore High Court, the General Post Office, Lahore Museum and many older universities including the University of the Punjab. The Lahore Zoo, thought to be the fourth oldest in the world, is also situated here.
wn.com/Lahore -
Ludhiana
Ludhiana /ˌluːdiˈɑːnə/ (also Ludhyana; Punjabi: ਲੁਧਿਆਣਾ) is a city and a municipal corporation in Ludhiana district in the Indian state of Punjab. It is the largest city in the state, with an estimated population of 1,613,878 in 2011. The population increases substantially during the crop harvesting season due to migration of laborers from states like Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and Delhi. It has an area of about 310 km². The city stands on the Sutlej River's old bank, 13 km south of its present course. It is a major industrial center of northern India. Residents of the city may be referred to as Ludhianvis.[citation needed]
Ludhiana is located 100 km west from state capital Chandigarh on NH 95 and is centrally located on National Highway 1 from Indian capital New Delhi to Amritsar, and is well connected to New Delhi by road, frequent train service and by air.
Ludhiana is a well known NRI district of Punjab with a large population living abroad in Canada, and the U.S.
wn.com/Ludhiana -
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh /ˈmɑːdjə prəˈdɛʃ/, abbreviated MP, often called the Heart of India, is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and Indore is the largest city.
Madhya Pradesh is the second largest state by area and with over 75 million inhabitants the sixth largest state in India by population. It borders the states of Uttar Pradesh to the northeast, Chhattisgarh to the southeast, Maharashtra to the south, Gujarat to the west, and Rajasthan to the northwest.
The city of Ujjain (also known as Avanti) arose as a major center in the second wave of Indian urbanization in the sixth century BC, and served as the chief city of the kingdom of Malwa or Avanti. Further east, the kingdom of Chedi lie in Bundelkhand. Chandragupta Maurya united northern India c. 320 BC, establishing the Maurya empire (321 to 185 BC), which included all of modern-day Madhya Pradesh. King Ashoka's wife was said to come from Vidisha- a town north of today's Bhopal. The Maurya empire went into decline after the death of Asoka the Great, and Central India was contested among the Sakas, Kushanas, and local dynasties during the 3rd to 1st centuries BCE. Ujjain emerged as the predominant commercial center of western India from the first century BCE, located on the trade routes between the Ganges plain and India's Arabian Sea ports. It was also an important Hindu and Buddhist center.
wn.com/Madhya_Pradesh -
Malaysia
Malaysia (i/məˈleɪʒə/ mə-LAY-zhə or i/məˈleɪsiə/ mə-LAY-see-ə) is a federal constitutional monarchy in Southeast Asia. It consists of thirteen states and three federal territories and has a total landmass of 329,847 square kilometres (127,350 sq mi) separated by the South China Sea into two similarly sized regions, Peninsular Malaysia and Malaysian Borneo. Land borders are shared with Thailand, Indonesia, and Brunei, and maritime borders exist with Singapore, Vietnam, and the Philippines. The capital city is Kuala Lumpur, while Putrajaya is the seat of the federal government. In 2010 the population exceeded 27.5 million, with over 20 million living on the Peninsula.
Malaysia has its origins in the Malay Kingdoms present in the area which, from the 18th century, became subject to the British Empire. The first British territories were known as the Straits Settlements, whose establishment was followed by the Malay kingdoms becoming British protectorates. The territories on Peninsular Malaysia were first unified as the Malayan Union in 1946. Malaya was restructured as the Federation of Malaya in 1948, and achieved independence on 31 August 1957. Malaya united with Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore on 16 September 1963, with si being added to give the new country the name Malaysia. However, less than two years later in 1965, Singapore was expelled from the federation. Since independence, Malaysia has had one of the best economic records in Asia, with GDP growing an average 6.5% for almost 50 years. The economy has traditionally been fuelled by its natural resources, but is expanding in the sectors of science, tourism, commerce and medical tourism.
wn.com/Malaysia -
Mombasa
Mombasa is the second-largest city in Kenya. Lying next to the Indian Ocean, it has a major port and an international airport. The city also serves as the centre of the coastal tourism industry.
Also known as Mombas in colonial times, its name derives from Manbasa. This was the Arabic name of the former sultanate of Mvita, which had its capital here. In modern times the town is the headquarters of Mombasa District, which, like most other districts in Kenya, is named after its chief town.
The city has a population of 939,370, as per the 2009 census,[citation needed] and is located on Mombasa Island, which is separated from the mainland by two creeks: Tudor Creek and Kilindini Harbour. The island is connected to the mainland to the north by the Nyali Bridge, to the south by the Likoni Ferry and to the west by the Makupa Causeway, alongside which runs the Kenya-Uganda Railway. The port serves both Kenya and countries of the interior, linking them to the Ocean. The city is served by Moi International Airport located in the northwest mainland suburb of Chaani, northwest of Changamwe area.
wn.com/Mombasa -
Mysore
Mysore (i/ˈmaɪsɔər/; Maisūru in Kannada) is the second-largest city in the state of Karnataka, India. Located at the base of the Chamundi Hills about 146 km (91 mi) southwest of the state capital Bangalore, it is spread across an area of 128.42 km2 (50 sq mi). According to the provisional results of the 2011 national census of India, the population of Mysore is 887,446 and Hinduism is its major religion. Mysore City Corporation is responsible for the civic administration of the city, which is also the headquarters of the Mysore district and the Mysore division.
Until 1947, Mysore served as the capital of the Kingdom of Mysore. The kingdom was ruled by the Wodeyar dynasty, except for a brief period in the late 18th century when Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan usurped power. Patrons of art and culture, the Wodeyars contributed significantly to the cultural growth of the city. The cultural ambience and achievements of Mysore earned it the sobriquet Cultural capital of Karnataka.
Mysore is noted for its palaces including the Mysore Palace, and the festivities that take place during the Dasara festival when the city receives a large number of tourists. It lends its name to the Mysore style of painting, the sweet dish Mysore Pak, the Mysore Peta (a traditional silk turban) and the garment known as the Mysore silk saree. Tourism is the major industry, while information technology has emerged as a major employer alongside the traditional industries. With no airport, Mysore depends on rail and bus transport for inter-city connections. The city was the location of the first private radio station in India. Mysore houses Mysore University which has produced several notable authors, particularly in the field of Kannada literature. Cricket is the most popular sport in the city.
wn.com/Mysore -
Orissa
Orissa /ɔːˈrɪsə/ (Oriya: ଓଡ଼ିଶା [oˑɽisaˑ], Hindi: ओड़िशा – Oṛiśā), officially spelled Odisha, is a state of India, located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. It is the modern name of the ancient nation of Kalinga, which was invaded by the Maurya Emperor Ashoka in 261 BCE. The modern state of Orissa was established on April 1, 1936, as a province in India, and consists predominantly of Oriya speakers. April 1st is therefore celebrated as Utkala Dibasa (formation day of Orissa). Cuttack remained the capital of the state for over eight centuries until April 13, 1948 when Bhubaneswar was officially declared as the new capital of Orissa, and is the present capital of this state.
Orissa is the ninth largest state by area in India, and the eleventh largest by population. Oriya (officially spelled Odia) is the official and most widely spoken language, spoken by three quarters of the population. Orissa has a relatively unindented coastline (about 480 km long) and lacked good ports, except for the deepwater facility at Paradip, until the recent launch of the Dhamara Port (The Dhamra Port Company Limited (DPCL) is a 50:50 joint venture of L&T and Tata Steel. DPCL has been awarded a concession by Government of Orissa to build and operate a port north of the mouth of river Dhamra in Bhadrak district). The narrow, level coastal strip, including the Mahanadi River delta supports the bulk of the population. The interior of the state is mountainous and sparsely populated.Deomali at 1672 m is the highest point of the state. Orissa is subject to intense cyclones. The most intense one, in October 1999, Tropical Cyclone 05B caused severe damage and nearly 15,000 deaths.
wn.com/Orissa -
Pataliputra
Pāṭaliputra (Devanagari: पाटलिपुत्र), modern-day Patna, was a city in ancient India, originally built by Ajatashatru in 490 BC as a small fort (Pāṭaligrama) near the River Ganges, and later the capital of the ancient Mahājanapadas kingdom of Magadha. Its key central location in north central India led rulers of successive dynasties to base their administrative capital here, from the Nandas, Mauryans, Sungas and the Guptas down to the Palas. In the Lord Buddha's day it was a village known as Pataligrama. He visited it shortly before his death and prophesied it would be great but would face destruction either by fire, water, or civil war.[citation needed] Two important councils were held here, the first at the death of the Buddha and the second in the reign of Asoka. During the reign of Emperor Asoka in the 3rd century BCE, it was one of the world's largest cities, with a population of 150,000-300,000.[citation needed] Pataliputra reached the pinnacle of prosperity when it was the capital of the great Mauryan Emperors, Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka the Great. The city prospered under the Mauryas and a Greek ambassador Megasthenes resided there and left a detailed account of its splendour. The city also became a flourishing Buddhist centre boasting a number of important monasteries. It remained the capital of the Gupta dynasty (3rd–6th centuries CE) and the Pala Dynasty (8th-12th centuries CE). The city was largely in ruins when visited by Hsüan-tsang, and suffered further damage at the hands of Muslim raiders in the 12th century. Afterwards Sher Shah Suri made Pataliputra his capital and changed the name to modern Patna.
wn.com/Pataliputra -
Pietermaritzburg
Pietermaritzburg is the capital and second largest city in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It was founded in 1838, and is currently governed by the Msunduzi Local Municipality. Its "purist" Zulu name is umGungundlovu, and this is the name used for the district municipality. Pietermaritzburg is popularly called Maritzburg in English and Zulu alike, and often informally abbreviated to PMB. It is a regionally important industrial hub, producing aluminium, timber and dairy products. It is home to many schools and tertiary education institutions, including a campus of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. It had a population of 228,549 in 1991; the estimated current population is around 500,000 (including neighbouring townships) and has one of the largest populations of Indian South Africans in South Africa.
The city was originally founded by the Voortrekkers, following the defeat of Dingane at the Battle of Blood River, and was the capital of the short-lived Boer republic, Natalia. Britain took over Pietermaritzburg in 1843 and it became the seat of the Natal Colony's administration with the first lieutenant-governor, Martin West, making it his home. Fort Napier, named after the governor of the Cape Colony, Sir George Thomas Napier, was built to house a garrison. In 1893 Natal received responsibility for their own government and an assembly building was built along with the city hall. In 1910, when the Union of South Africa was formed, Natal became a province of the union, and Pietermaritzburg remained the capital.
wn.com/Pietermaritzburg -
Ponna
Ponna is a comune (municipality) in the Province of Como in the Italian region Lombardy, located about 60 km north of Milan and about 20 km north of Como. As of 31 December 2004, it had a population of 264 and an area of 6.0 km².
Ponna borders the following municipalities: Claino con Osteno, Colonno, Laino, Ossuccio, Porlezza, Sala Comacina.
<timeline> Colors=
ImageSize = width:455 height:303 PlotArea = left:50 bottom:50 top:30 right:30 DateFormat = x.y Period = from:0 till:1000 TimeAxis = orientation:vertical AlignBars = justify ScaleMajor = gridcolor:darkgrey increment:1000 start:0 ScaleMinor = gridcolor:lightgrey increment:200 start:0 BackgroundColors = canvas:sfondo
BarData=
PlotData=
PlotData=
TextData=
</timeline>
wn.com/Ponna -
Punjab, India
Punjab (i/pʌnˈdʒɑːb/) (Punjabi: ਪੰਜਾਬ Hindi: पंजाब) is a state in the northwest of the Republic of India, forming part of the larger Punjab region. The state is bordered by the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh to the east, Haryana to the south and southeast and Rajasthan to the southwest as well as the Pakistani province of Punjab to the west, it is also bounded to the north by Jammu and Kashmir. The state capital is Chandigarh, which is a Union Territory and also the capital of neighbouring state of Haryana. Major cities of Punjab includes Ludhiana, Amritsar, Patiala, Jalandhar, Bathinda and Mohali.
After the partition of India in 1947, the Punjab province of British India was divided between India and Pakistan. The Indian Punjab was divided in 1966 with the formation of the new states of Haryana and Himachal Pradesh as well as the current state of Punjab. Punjab is the only state in India with a majority Sikh population.
The Greeks referred to Punjab as Pentapotamia, an inland delta of five converging rivers. In Avesta, the sacred text of Zoroastrians, the Punjab region is associated with the ancient hapta həndu or Sapta Sindhu, the Land of Seven Rivers. The British used to call Punjab "Our Prussia."[citation needed] Historically, the Punjab region has been the gateway to the Indian subcontinent for people from Greece, Central Asia, Iran and Afghanistan and Vice-versa.
wn.com/Punjab,_India -
Rajasthan
Rājasthān /ˈrɑːdʒəstæn/ (Hindustani pronunciation: [raːdʒəsˈt̪ʰaːn] ( listen)) the land of Rajasthanis, ("the land of kings"), is the largest state of the Republic of India by area. It is located in the northwest of India. It encompasses most of the area of the large, inhospitable Great Indian Desert (Thar Desert), which has an edge paralleling the Sutlej-Indus river valley along its border with Pakistan. The state is bordered by Pakistan to the west, Gujarat to the southwest, Madhya Pradesh to the southeast, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana to the northeast and Punjab to the north. Rajasthan covers 10.4% of India, an area of 342,269 square kilometres (132,151 sq mi).
Jaipur is the capital and the largest city of the state. Geographical features include the Thar Desert along north-western Rajasthan and the termination of the Ghaggar River near the archaeological ruins at Kalibanga of the Indus Valley Civilization, which are the oldest in the Indian subcontinent discovered so far.
One of the world's oldest mountain ranges, the Aravalli Range, cradles the only hill station of Rajasthan, Mount Abu, famous for Dilwara Temples, a sacred pilgrimage for Jains. Eastern Rajasthan has the world famous Keoladeo National Park near Bharatpur, a World Heritage Site known for its bird life. It also has two national tiger reserves, Ranthambore and Sariska Tiger Reserve, and a famous temple in Khatu, Sikar district, dedicated to Khatu Shyam Ji. Rajasthan was formed on 30 March 1949, when the region known until then as Rajputana, consisting of erstwhile princely states ruled mainly by Rajputs.
wn.com/Rajasthan -
Singapore
Singapore (i/ˈsɪŋəpɔər/ SI-ngə-pohr), officially the Republic of Singapore, is a Southeast Asian city-state off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, 137 kilometres (85 mi) north of the equator. An island country made up of 63 islands, it is separated from Malaysia by the Straits of Johor to its north and from Indonesia's Riau Islands by the Singapore Strait to its south. Singapore is highly urbanised but almost half of the country is covered by greenery. More land is being created for development through land reclamation.
wn.com/Singapore -
South Africa
Coordinates: 30°S 25°E / 30°S 25°E / -30; 25
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is a country located at the southern tip of Africa. It is divided into nine provinces and has 2,798 kilometres (1,739 mi) of coastline. To the north of the country lie the neighbouring territories of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while Lesotho is an enclave surrounded by South African territory.
South Africa is multi-ethnic and has diverse cultures and languages. Eleven official languages are recognised in the constitution. Two of these languages are of European origin: South African English and Afrikaans, a language which originated mainly from Dutch that is spoken by the majority of white and Coloured South Africans. Though English is commonly used in public and commercial life, it is only the fifth most-spoken home language. All ethnic and language groups have political representation in the country's constitutional democracy comprising a parliamentary republic; unlike most parliamentary republics, the positions of head of state and head of government are merged in a parliament-dependent President.
wn.com/South_Africa -
Suriname
Suriname, officially the Republic of Suriname (Dutch: Republiek Suriname, Dutch pronunciation: [ˌrepyˈblik ˌsyriˈnaːmə]), is a country in northern South America. It borders French Guiana to the east, Guyana to the west, Brazil to the south, and the Atlantic Ocean to the north. Suriname was first colonized by the British, and captured by the Dutch in 1667, who governed it as the colony of Suriname until 1954. The country of Suriname achieved independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands, in which Suriname, the Netherlands Antilles, and the Netherlands itself cooperated on a basis of equality since 1954, on 25 November 1975.
At just under 165,000 km2 (64,000 sq mi) Suriname is the smallest sovereign state in South America (French Guiana comprises less territory, but is French territory). It has an estimated population of approximately 560,000, most of whom live on the country's north coast, where the capital Paramaribo is located.
The name Suriname may derive from a Taino (Arawak-speaking) group called "Surinen" who first inhabited the region prior to European arrival.
wn.com/Suriname -
Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu /ˈtæmɨl ˈnɑːduː/ (Tamiḻ Nāṭu [t̪amɨɭ naːɖɯ] ( listen)) is one of the 28 states of India. Its capital is Chennai, the largest city. Tamil Nadu lies in the southernmost part of the Indian Peninsula and is bordered by the union territory of Pondicherry, and the states of Kerala, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh. It is bound by the Eastern Ghats in the north, the Nilgiri, the Anamalai Hills, and Palakkad on the west, by the Bay of Bengal in the east, the Gulf of Mannar, the Palk Strait in the south east, and by the Indian Ocean in the south.
Tamil Nadu is the eleventh largest state in India by area and the seventh most populous state. It is the fourth largest contributor (as of 2010) to India's GDP and ranks tenth in Human Development Index as of 2006. Tamil Nadu is also the most urbanised state in India. The state has the highest number (10.56%) of business enterprises and stands second in total employment (9.97%) in India, compared to the population share of about 6%.
The region has been the home of the Tamil people since at least 500 BCE. Its official language Tamil has been in use in inscriptions and literature for over 2000 years. Tamil Nadu is home to many natural resources, Hindu temples of Dravidian architecture, hill stations, beach resorts, multi-religious pilgrimage sites and eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites.
wn.com/Tamil_Nadu -
Tanzania
Coordinates: 6°18′25″S 34°51′14″E / 6.307°S 34.854°E / -6.307; 34.854 Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( /ˌtænzəˈniːə/ Swahili: Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya and Uganda to the north, Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and Zambia, Malawi, and Mozambique to the south. The country's eastern border lies on the Indian Ocean.
Tanzania is a state composed of 26 regions (mikoa), including those of the semi-autonomous region of Zanzibar. The head of state is President Jakaya Mrisho Kikwete, elected in 2005. Since 1996, the official capital of Tanzania has been Dodoma, where Parliament and some government offices are located. Between independence and 1996, the main coastal city of Dar es Salaam served as the country's political capital. Today, Dar es Salaam remains the principal commercial city of Tanzania and the de facto seat of most government institutions. It is the major seaport for the country and its landlocked neighbours.
wn.com/Tanzania -
Uganda
Coordinates: 1°17′N 32°23′E / 1.28°N 32.39°E / 1.28; 32.39
Uganda (
/juːˈɡændə/ yew-GAN-də or /juːˈɡɑːndə/ yew-GAHN-də), officially the Republic of Uganda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. Uganda is bordered on the east by Kenya, on the north by South Sudan, on the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, on the southwest by Rwanda, and on the south by Tanzania. The southern part of the country includes a substantial portion of Lake Victoria, which is also shared by Kenya and Tanzania.
Uganda takes its name from the Buganda kingdom, which encompasses a large portion of the south of the country including the capital Kampala.
The people of Uganda were hunter-gatherers until 1,700 to 2,300 years ago, when Bantu-speaking populations migrated to the southern parts of the country. Uganda gained independence from Britain on 9 October 1962.
The official languages are English and Swahili, although multiple other languages are spoken in the country.
wn.com/Uganda
-
14th Dalai Lama
The 14th Dalai Lama (religious name: Tenzin Gyatso, shortened from Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso, born Lhamo Dondrub, 6 July 1935) is the 14th and current Dalai Lama, as well as the longest lived incumbent. Dalai Lamas are the most influential figures in the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, although the 14th has consolidated control over the other lineages in recent years. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989, and is also well known for his lifelong advocacy for Tibetans inside and outside Tibet. Tibetans traditionally believe him to be the reincarnation of his predecessors and a manifestation of the Bodhisattva of Compassion.
The Dalai Lama was born in Taktser, Qinghai (also known to Tibetans as Amdo), and was selected as the rebirth of the 13th Dalai Lama two years later, although he was only formally recognized as the 14th Dalai Lama on 17 November 1950, at the age of 15. He inherited control over a government controlling an area roughly corresponding to the Tibet Autonomous Region just as the nascent People's Republic of China wished to assert central control over it. There is a dispute over whether the respective governments reached an agreement for a joint Chinese-Tibetan administration.
wn.com/14th_Dalai_Lama -
Abbas Tyabji
Abbas Tyabji (Gujarati: અબ્બાસ તૈયબજી, Hindi: अब्बास तैयबजी; 1853 – June 9, 1936) was an Indian freedom fighter from Gujarat, who once served as the Chief Justice of the (Baroda) Gujarat High Court. Mahatma Gandhi appointed Tyabji, at age seventy-six, to replace him as leader of the Salt Satyagraha in May, 1930 after Gandhi’s arrest. Tyabji was arrested soon afterward and imprisoned by the British Indian Government. Gandhi and others respectfully called Tyabji the "Grand Old Man of Gujarat".
A Sulaimani Bohra Muslim and grandson of the merchant prince Mullah Tyab Ali Bhai Mian, Abbas Tyabji was educated in England, where he lived for eleven years. He was an early proponent of women’s rights, supporting women’s education and social reform. He broke with the prevailing custom of the times by disregarding purdah restrictions and sending his daughters to school.
His nephew, Salim Ali, states that before 1919 Tyabji:
Though a moderate nationalist at heart, he would stand no adverse criticism of the British as a people, or of the Raj, and even a mildly disparaging remark about the King-Emperor or the royal family was anathema to him. . . If he had any strong sentiments about Swadeshi he certainly didn't show it by precept or example. . . This being so, he naturally disagreed vehemently with Gandhiji and his methods of political mass agitation. . . In other respects his moderate but simmering nationalism and his absolute integrity and fairness as a judge were widely recognized and lauded, even by leftist Congressmen and anti-British extremists.
wn.com/Abbas_Tyabji -
Acharya Bhikshu
Acharya Bhikshu (1726–1803) was one of the great revolutionary saints and reformer of Jainism. He was the founder and first spiritual head of the Svetambar Terapanth sect of Jainism.
He was a staunch disciple of Mahavira and completely immersed his life onto the path given by him. In the initial phase of his spiritual revolution, he moved out from the group of Sthanakvasi Acharya Raghunath. That time he had 13 saints,13 followers and 13 the basic rules. This coincidence results in the name of "Terapanth" (Thirteen Path).
The various beliefs and teachings of the religious orders of those times greatly influenced his thinking and he choose to follow the way of the search for truth and to understand it. He studied and analyzed the various disciplines of the Jain religion thoroughly and on this basis he compiled his own ideologies and principles of the Jain way of life. Based on the doctrines propagated, Acharya Bhikshu rigorously followed the principles and thus set an example for all to follow. He showed the importance of discipline, purity and self-control. It was this way of life that was demonstrated by Acharya Bhikshu which became the foundation principle of Terapanth. The Letter of Conduct was written by him is still followed in the same manner with due respect with slight changes as per the time & situation. The original copy of letter written in Rajasthani language is still available. His followers piously referred this great visionary monk as 'Swamiji'.
wn.com/Acharya_Bhikshu -
Acharya Rajendrasuri
Acharya Rajendrasuri (December 3, 1826 – 1906) (Hindi: आचार्य राजेंद्रसूरीजी) was the major Svetambara Jain reformer of the 18th and 19th centuries. He was born on 3 December 1826 at Bharatpur, Rajasthan. In 1880, as the leader of the Tapa Gaccha, he led a movement to restore the orders of wandering monks, leading to near extinction of the Yati institution. He restored the shramana tradition by forming the Agama or Samakit Gaccha, which is now known as the Tristutik Gaccha. He opposed the worship of gods and goddesses. He founded the Mohankheda as a centre for learning and a tirtha around 1940 in Dhar, Madhya Pradesh.
Acharya Rajendrasuri wrote many books on Jainism, the most famous being the Abhidhānarājaindrakōśa (Sanskrit: अभिधानराजैंद्रकोश), which is the only available encyclopedia of Prakrit, Sanskrit, and Pali words used in Jain works.
Acharya Rajendrasuri was born to a the family of the businessman Rishabhadas Parakh. His birth name was Ratna Raj.
He was Having religious bent of mind he renounced the worldly life and was initiated as Jain yati by Hemavijayaji at Udaipur on Friday, Vaishakh shukala 5 Vikram Samvat 1904 (in 1848 AD) and he was now known as Ratnavijay (early name of Rajendrasuri). He had studied diligently the Jain scriptures, philosophy, literature, grammar, rhetoric, lexicography, etc. under Acharya Pramodsuri and Jain Monk Sagarchandji, the well-known yatis of the age and soon he acquired proficiency. Jain Acharya Dharanendrasuri was so much impressed by the profound scholarship of Rajendrasuri that he appointed him his daftari and entrusted the task of teaching the groups of yati disciples.
wn.com/Acharya_Rajendrasuri -
Adikavi Pampa
Pampa (Kannada: ಪಂಪ, 902 CE -975 CE), called by the honorific Ādikavi (ಆದಿಕವಿ "Original Poet") is one of the greatest Kannada poets of all time.He is very famous even today for his philosophical beliefs. A court poet of Chalukya King Arikesari II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory, he is most known for his epics, Vikramārjuna Vijaya or Pampa Bharata and the Adipurana, both written in the Champu style, which he created and served as the model for all future works in Kannada.
The works of Jain writers Ādikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna, collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature", heralded the 10th century era of Medieval Kannada literature.
Pampa was born either in Annigeri or Banavasi in modern Karnataka or in Vemulavada, Karimnagar District in modern Andhra Pradesh.
Very little is known about Pampa's early life. Whatever is known has been obtained from inscriptions, references by other poets, Pampa's own accounts in some of his poems and a few other such meager sources. It is believed that he was born in Annigeri near Gadag to a Jaina family of Brahmin ancestry. His father was Abhiramaradevaraya (also Bheemappayya as per Pampa's younger brother Jinavallabha's Gangadharam inscription) and mother Abbanabbe.
wn.com/Adikavi_Pampa -
Ahl-e Haqq
The Ahl-e Haqq or Yârsân (Kurdish: یارسان Yâresân,Persian: اهل حق Ahl-e Haqq "People of Truth"), are members of a religion founded by Sultan Sahak in the late 14th century in western Iran. The total number of members is estimated at around 1,000,000, primarily found in western Iran and Iraq, mostly ethnic Kurds, though there are also smaller groups of Persian, Luri, Azeri and Arab adherents. Some Yârsânî in Iraq are called Kaka'i.
The Yârsân have a distinct religious literature primarily written in Gorani and partly in Persian, although few modern Yâresânî can speak or read Gorani, as their mother tongues are Gorani and Soranî. The Sarl living near Eski Kalak are adherents, as Edmonds (1957: 195) surmised and Moosa (1988: 168) observed. Their central religious book is called as Kalâm-e Saranjâm, written in the 15th century based on the teachings of Sultan Sahak.
Up to the 20th century, the Yârsânî faith was strictly for Kurds who were born into it, called checkedea ("a drop of"), as opposed to individuals who married into a Yârsânî family, called chasbedea ("attached"). Adherents today are mainly found among the Kurdish tribes of the Guran, Qalkhani, Bajalani and Sanjabi, located in western Iran, forming approximately a third of the population in the religiously diverse province of Kermanshah. There are some groups located around Kirkuk in Iraq. The Arabic-speaking adherents are based in the Iraqi cities of Mandali, Baquba, and Khanaqin. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "The chief source of information about the Ahl-e Haqq is the Firqan al-Akhbar, written in... early 20th century by Hajj Nematollah"
wn.com/Ahl-e_Haqq -
Ajitnath
Ajitnatha was the second Jain Tirthankar of the present age (Avasarpini). According to Jain beliefs, he became a siddha, a liberated soul which has destroyed all of its karma. The soul that became Bhagavan Ajitnath, in its earlier incarnation, was the great king Vimalvahan of Susima city in Mahavideh area. He led a pious life in spite of the available princely grandeur. At an appropriate time, he became an ascetic under Arindam Suri.
Ajitnatha was born to King Jitashatru Raja and Queen Vijaya at Ayodhya in the Ikshvaku clan.
Queen Vijaya Devi saw fourteen auspicious dreams. Vaijayanti, the wife of king Jitshatru’s younger brother, Sumitra, also saw the same fourteen dreams. This was a queer coincidence. When the augurs were consulted they advised that Vijaya Devi would give birth to a Tirthankar and Vaijayanti to a Chakravarti (Emperor).
During the queen’s pregnancy, the influence of king Jitshatru was enhanced to such an extant that even the enemy kingdoms sought and negotiated friendly treaties with him. It became a common practice to say, "King Jitshatru is invincible (Ajit)."
wn.com/Ajitnath -
Arun Manilal Gandhi
Arun Manilal Gandhi (born April 14, 1934) is the fifth grandson of Mohandas Gandhi through his second son Manilal. Following the footsteps of his grandfather, he is also a socio-political activist, although he eschews the ascetic lifestyle of his grandfather.
Born in Durban, South Africa on April 14, 1934 to Sushila and Manilal Gandhi, Arun's childhood days under South Africa's apartheid for someone of Indian heritage was difficult. Like many Indians, he was demeaned by Europeans for not being white, ostracized by Africans for not being black, and subject to racially motivated violence from extremists in both groups.
While living with his grandfather Mahatma Gandhi from 1946 until his assassination in 1948, Arun experienced the most tumultuous period in India's struggle to free itself from British rule. He saw the first-hand effects of a national campaign for liberation which was carried out through both violent and nonviolent means. Both the events and Mahatma Gandhi's teachings strongly influenced Arun.
wn.com/Arun_Manilal_Gandhi -
Ashoka
Ashoka (Devanāgarī: अशोक, IAST: Aśoka, IPA: [aˈɕoːkə], ca. 304–232 BC), also known as Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from ca. 269 BC to 232 BC. One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military conquests. His empire stretched from present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan in the west, to the present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of Assam in the east, and as far south as northern Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. He conquered the kingdom named Kalinga, which none of his ancestors had conquered starting from Chandragupta Maurya. His reign was headquartered in Magadha (present-day Bihar). He embraced Buddhism after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia and established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha. Ashoka was a devotee of ahimsa (nonviolence), love, truth, tolerance and vegetarianism. Ashoka is remembered in history as a philanthropic administrator. In the history of India, Ashoka is referred to as Samraat Chakravartin Ashoka – the "Emperor of Emperors Ashoka".
wn.com/Ashoka -
Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi MP AC (Burmese:
; MLCTS: aung hcan: cu. krany, IPA: [ʔàʊɴ sʰáɴ sṵ tɕì]; born 19 June 1945) is a Burmese opposition politician and General Secretary of the National League for Democracy (NLD) in Burma. In the 1990 general election, the NLD won 59% of the national votes and 81% (392 of 485) of the seats in Parliament. She had, however, already been detained under house arrest before the elections. She remained under house arrest in Burma for almost 15 of the 21 years from 20 July 1989 until her most recent release on 13 November 2010, becoming one of the world's most prominent (now former) political prisoners.
Suu Kyi received the Rafto Prize and the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought in 1990 and the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. In 1992 she was awarded the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding by the government of India and the International Simón Bolívar Prize from the government of Venezuela. In 2007, the Government of Canada made her an honorary citizen of that country; at the time, she was one of only four people ever to receive the honor. In 2011, she was awarded the Wallenberg Medal.
wn.com/Aung_San_Suu_Kyi -
Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Lokmanya Tilak (Marathi: लोकमान्य बाळ गंगाधर टिळक pronunciation (help·info)), born as Keshav Bal Gangadhar Tilak ((1856-07-23)23 July 1856 – 1 August 1920(1920-08-01), age 64), was an Indian nationalist, teacher, social reformer, lawyer and independence fighter who was the first popular leader of the Indian Independence Movement. The British colonial authorities derogatorily called him "Father of the Indian unrest". He was also conferred with the honorary title of "Lokmanya", which literally means "Accepted by the people (as their leader)". Tilak was one of the first and strongest advocates of "Swaraj" (self-rule) and a strong radical in Indian consciousness. His famous quote, "Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it!" is well-remembered in India even today.
Lokmanya Tilak was born at Chummakachu Lane (Ranjani Aaleea) in Chikhalgaon, Ratnagiri, Maharashtra to a Chitpavan Brahmin family. His father, Shri Gangadhar Tilak was a famous school teacher and a Sanskrit scholar who died when Tilak was sixteen. His brilliance rubbed off on young Tilak, who graduated from Deccan College, Pune in 1877. Tilak was among one of the first generation of Indians to receive a college education.
wn.com/Bal_Gangadhar_Tilak -
Banarasidas
Banarasidas (Hindi: बनारसीदास) (b. Jaunpur 1586-1643) was a Shrimal Jain businessman and poet of Mughal India. He is known for his poetic autobiography - Ardhakathānaka, (The Half Story), composed in Braj Bhasa, an early dialect of Hindi linked with the region around Mathura. It is the first autobiography written in an Indian language. At the time, he was living in Agra and was 55 years old - the "half" story refers to the Jain tradition, where a "full" lifespan is 110 years.
Banarasidas was born in a Shrimal Shvetambara Jain family. His father Kharagsen was a jeweller in Jaunpur. He spent his childhood in Jaunpur but later shifted to Agra. He is one of the leading proponents of the Adyatma movement, which eventually led to the Terapanth sect of the Digambar Jains.
Banarasidas appears to have been a better poet than a businessman; at one stage he relates how after incurring several business losses (which he lied about), his wife gave him twenty rupees that she had saved up. At times a friend of the nawab of Jaunpur Chini Kilechkhan, at other times persecuted, he had to flee to other cities.
wn.com/Banarasidas -
Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in Sanskrit and Pāli). The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end ignorance (avidyā), craving (taṇhā), and suffering (dukkha), by recognizing dependent origination and sunyata, and attain Nirvana.
Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, Tiantai (Tendai) and Shinnyo-en. In some classifications, Vajrayana—practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russia—is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana. There are other categorisations of these three Vehicles or Yanas.
wn.com/Buddhism -
Chamundaraya
Chavundraya (Kannada: ಚಾಮುಂಡರಾಯ; ಚಾವುಂಡರಾಯ) (or Chamundaraya) (940–989) was a military commander, poet and a minister in the court of the Western Ganga Dynasty of Talakad (in present day Karnataka, India). A person of many talents, in 982 he commissioned the Gomateshwara, a monolithic sculpture in Shravanabelagola, an important place of pilgrimage for Jains. He was a devotee of the Jain Acharya Nemichandra and Ajitasena Bhattaraka and was an influential person during the reign of Kings Marasimha II, Rachamalla IV, and Rachamalla V (Rakkasa Ganga). A courageous commander with the title of Samara Parashurama, he found time to pursue his literary interests as well and became a renowned writer in Kannada and Sanskrit. He wrote an important and existing prose piece called Chavundaraya Purana (also known as Trishasthi Lakshana Purana) in Kannada (978) and Charitrasara in Sanskrit. In his writing, he claims he was from the Brahmakshatriya Vamsa (Brahmin and converted to the Kshatriya caste). He patronised the famous Kannada grammarians Gunavarma and Nagavarma I and the poet Ranna whose writing Parusharama Charite may have been a eulogy of his patron. Because of his many lasting contributions, Chavundaraya is an important figure in the history of medieval Karnataka.
wn.com/Chamundaraya -
Chandragupta Maurya
Chandragupta Maurya (Sanskrit: चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य महान Hindi: चन्द्रगुप्त मौर्य महान), (born c. 340 BCE, ruled c. 320 BCE, – 298 BCE) was the founder of the Maurya Empire. He succeeded in conquering most of the Indian subcontinent and is considered the first unifier of India as well as its first genuine emperor. In foreign Greek and Latin accounts, Chandragupta is known as Sandrokyptos (Σανδρόκυπτος), Sandrokottos (Σανδρόκοττος) or Androcottus.
Prior to Chandragupta's consolidation of power, small regional kingdoms dominated the northwestern subcontinent, while the Nanda Dynasty dominated the middle and lower basin of the Ganges. After Chandragupta's conquests, the Maurya Empire extended from Bengal and Assam in the east, to Afghanistan and Balochistan,some part of the easten and south-east Iran in the west, to Kashmir and Nepal in the north, and to the Deccan Plateau in the south. Tradition holds that Chandragupta abdicated his throne to become a monk and led such an ascetic life that he starved himself to death. Whether or not this is factually accurate, he was succeeded by his son in 298 BC.
wn.com/Chandragupta_Maurya -
Chandraprabha
In Jainism, Chandraprabhu was the eighth Tirthankara of the present age or Avasarpini. According to Jain beliefs, he became a siddha, a liberated soul which has destroyed all of its karma. Chandraprabhu was born to King Mahasena and Queen Lakshmana Devi at Chandrapuri to the Ikshvaku dynasty. His birth-date was the twelfth day of the Posh Krishna month of the Indian calendar.
In his birth as king Padma of Mangalavati town of Dhatkikhand, the being that was to become Bhagavan Chandraprabhu earned Tirthankar-nam-and-gotra-karma. Spending a lifetime as a god in Anuttar Vijay dimension he descended into the womb of queen Lakshmana, wife of king Mahasen of Chandranana town.
During her pregnancy, one day the queen was looking at the splendors and glowing full-moon. All of a sudden she had a strange desire to drink the glowing streak of moon light. The king cleverly managed to satisfy this strange desire of a pregnant mother. On the thirteenth day of the dark half of the month of Paush the queen gave birth to a healthy son who was fair and glowing like the moon. He was named Chandraprabhu (glow of the moon). Chandraprabhu was apathetic towards the mundane pleasures and princely grandeur. After he ascended the throne his reign was short lived. He became an ascetic in the prime of his youth and just after three months of acute spiritual practices he became an omniscient. For a considerably long period he continued to enlighten the people and propagate the true religion. When his end approached he went to Sammetshikhar and after a month of long fast and meditation attained Nirvana.
wn.com/Chandraprabha -
Colette Caillat
Prof. Dr. Colette Caillat (1921–2007) was a French professor of Sanskrit and comparative grammar. She was also one of the world's leading Jain scholars.
Caillat was born in Saint-Leu-la-Forêt, Seine-et-Oise, January 15, 1921. She embarked upon her academic career with the study of Classical Latin and Greek, focusing on their literary and grammatical aspects. This led her to the study of Sanskrit under Louis Renou and Jules Bloch when he replaced Prof. Renou who was visiting India. Prof. Bloch played a key role in exposing his students to Indian classical languages such as Pali, Prakrit and Apabhramsha as well as modern Indo-Aryan languages. Encouraged by the strong presence of Indian students in his class, Bloch taught his students various details of Indian life.
After clearing the French “Agrégation” civil service examination, Mme Caillat taught at various secondary schools, until she found a post at the Centre national de la recherche scientifique. She was then free to devote all her time to Indian studies, starting with a Mémoire on nominal derivation in Middle Indo-Aryan which led her to read Jain texts under the supervision of Prof. Walther Schubring in Hamburg. Prof. Schubring led Mme Caillat firmly on the path of Jain studies and encouraged her to participate in the Critical Pali Dictionary.
wn.com/Colette_Caillat -
Devdas Gandhi
Devdas Gandhi (Hindi: देवदास गाँधी) (1900–1957) was the fourth and youngest son of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He was born in South Africa on the 2.October and returned to India with his parents as a young man. He became active in his father's movement, spending many terms in jail. He spent a lot of time with his father. He also became a prominent journalist, serving as editor of Hindustan Times.
Devdas fell in love with Lakshmi, the daughter of Rajaji, Devdas's father's associate in the Indian independence struggle. Due to Lakshmi's age at that time – she was only fifteen, whereas Devdas was twenty eight years – both Devdas's father and Rajaji asked the couple to wait for five years without seeing each other. After five years had passed, they were married with their fathers' permissions in 1933. Devdas and Lakshmi had four children, Rajmohan Gandhi, Gopalkrishna Gandhi, Ramchandra Gandhi and Tara (Bhattacharya).
wn.com/Devdas_Gandhi -
Gautama Buddha
Gautama Buddha or Siddhārtha Gautama Buddha (Sanskrit: सिद्धार्थ गौतम बुद्ध; Pali: Siddhattha Gotama) was a spiritual teacher from the Indian subcontinent, on whose teachings Buddhism was founded. The word Buddha is a title for the first awakened being in an era. In most Buddhist traditions, Siddhartha Gautama is regarded as the Supreme Buddha (P. sammāsambuddha, S. samyaksaṃbuddha) of our age, "Buddha" meaning "awakened one" or "the enlightened one." Gautama Buddha may also be referred to as Śākyamuni (Sanskrit: शाक्यमुनि "Sage of the Śākyas"). The Buddha found a Middle Way that ameliorated the extreme asceticism found in the Sramana religions.
The time of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain: most early 20th-century historians dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE, but more recent opinion dates his death to between 486 and 483 BCE or, according to some, between 411 and 400 BCE. UNESCO lists Lumbini, Nepal, as a world heritage site and birthplace of Gautama Buddha. There are also claims about birth place of Gautama Buddha to be Kapileswara, Orissa or Kapilavastu at Piprahwa, Uttar Pradesh He later taught throughout regions of eastern India such as Magadha and Kośala.
wn.com/Gautama_Buddha -
Gopalkrishna Gandhi
Gopalkrishna Gandhi (Bengali: গোপালকৃষ্ণ গান্ধী Gopalkrishno Gandhi; born April 22, 1945) was the Governor of West Bengal serving from 2004 to 2009. He is the grandson of Mahatma Gandhi, and son of Devadas Gandhi and Lakshmi Gandhi. His maternal grandfather was C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji). Gopalkrishna Gandhi is the younger brother of Rajmohan Gandhi, and the late Ramchandra Gandhi, and Smt. Tara Bhattacharjee (Gandhi), all of whom are distinguished in their own right.
As a former member of the Indian Administrative Service, he served as Secretary to the President of India and as High Commissioner to South Africa and Sri Lanka, among other administrative and diplomatic posts.
Gandhi graduated with a master's degree in Literature from St. Stephen's College of Delhi University. He has authored one novel (Saranam - "Refuge" in English) and a play in verse (Dara Shukoh).His other books are - "Gandhi and South Africa", "Koi Acchha Sa Ladka" (translation into Hindustani of Vikram Seth's novel 'A Suitable Boy'), "Gandhi and Sri Lanka", "Nehru and Sri Lanka", "India House, Colombo - Portrait of a Residence", "Gandhi Is Gone. Who Will Guide Us Now?" (edited), "A Frank Friendship/ Gandhi and Bengal: A Descriptive Chronology" (compiled and edited).
wn.com/Gopalkrishna_Gandhi -
Haribhadra
Haribhadra Suri (c.700-c.770, or 459-529, traditional) was a Svetambara mendicant Jain leader and author.
There are multiple contradictory dates assigned to his birth. These include 459, 478, and 529. However, given his familiarity with Dharmakirti, a more likely choice would be sometime after 650. In his writings, Haribhadra identifies himself as a student of Jinabhadra and Jinadatta of the Vidyadhara Kula. There are several, somewhat contradictory, accounts of his life.
The earlier of these, which dates to the 12th century, says that Haribhadra was an educated Brahmin who made the boast that he would become a pupil of anyone who stated a sentence which he could not understand. After hearing a Jain nun named Yākinī Mahattarā recite a verse that he could not understand, he was sent to her teacher Jinabhaṭa, who promised Haribhadra that he would instruct him if Haribhadra accepted initiation into Jainism. Haribhadra agreed, and took the name Yākinīputra, or "Spiritual Son of Yākinī".
The second account, which bears similarities to the story of Akalanka Digambara, also shows the state of relations between Buddhist and Jain mendicants at the time. In this story, Haribhadra was teaching two of his nephews. These nephews went to secretly study logic at a Buddhist temple, and fled after being discovered there. One of them was killed by the Buddhists, and the other died of grief later. Haribhadra engaged the monks of this monastery in a philosophical debate, and emerged victorious. He then ordered the losing monks to jump into a vat of hot oil. When Haribhadra's own teacher heard of this, he ordered Haribhadra to undertake severe penances for his unseemly display of anger and attachment. Haribhadra did so, and took the title "Virahānka", which means "having separation (or viraha, from his nephews) as a distinguishing characteristic".
wn.com/Haribhadra -
Harilal Gandhi
Harilal Mohandas Gandhi (Devanagari: हरीलाल गांधी), (1888 – 18 June 1948) was the first son of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.
Harilal for higher studies and hoped to become a barrister as his father had once been. His father firmly opposed this, believing that a Western-style education would not be helpful in the struggle against British rule over India. Eventually rebelling against his father's decision, in 1911 Harilal renounced all family ties.
He converted to Islam but later reverted back to Hinduism. That did not bother his father, who believed that all religions were to be respected. His mother felt he should not be publicly displaying this back-and-forth type of behavior.
Harilal was married to Gulab Gandhi. They had five children, two of whom died at an early age. Nilam Parikh, the daughter of Ramibehn, who was the eldest of Harilal's children has written a biography on him, titled Gandhiji's Lost Jewel: Harilal Gandhi.
He appeared at his father's funeral in such derelict condition that few recognized him. He died from liver disease on 18 June 1948 in a municipal hospital in Bombay, Union of India.
wn.com/Harilal_Gandhi -
Harry Oldmeadow
Kenneth "Harry" Oldmeadow is an Australian author, editor and educator whose works focus on Eastern religion and philosophy.
Qualifications: BA Hons (ANU), Dip Ed (Syd), MA Hons (Syd), PhD (LaT)
Born in Melbourne in 1947 to Christian missionaries in India, he spent the first nine years of his childhood there and developed an early interest in the civilizations of the East.
He studied history, politics and literature at the Australian National University and the University of Sydney, as well as working as a history tutor at La Trobe University in Melbourne. In 1971 a Commonwealth Overseas Research Scholarship allowed him to study at Oxford University, followed by extensive travel in Europe and North Africa.
In 1980 he achieved a masters degree in religious studies at the University of Sydney where he completed a dissertation on the work of Frithjof Schuon and the other principal traditionalist writers. This study was awarded the University of Sydney Medal for excellence in research and was eventually published by the Sri Lanka Institute of Traditional Studies under the title Traditionalism: Religion in the Light of the Perennial Philosophy (Colombo, 2000). Under the auspices of this institute, Oldmeadow delivered the Inaugural Ananda Coomaraswamy Memorial Lecture in Colombo on "The Religious Tradition of the Australian Aborigines".
wn.com/Harry_Oldmeadow -
Henry David Thoreau
Henry David Thoreau (July 12, 1817 – May 6, 1862) was an American author, poet, philosopher, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state.
Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry total over 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions were his writings on natural history and philosophy, where he anticipated the methods and findings of ecology and environmental history, two sources of modern day environmentalism. His literary style interweaves close natural observation, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, symbolic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical austerity, and "Yankee" love of practical detail. He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and illusion in order to discover life's true essential needs.
wn.com/Henry_David_Thoreau -
Hermann Kallenbach
Hermann Kallenbach (1871–1945) was a German born Jewish South African architect who was one of the foremost friends and associates of Mahatma Gandhi. Kallenbach was introduced to the young Mohandas Gandhi while they were both working in South Africa and after a series of discussions they developed an intimate and long lasting friendship.
Kallenbach was born in 1871 in East Prussia as the third eldest out of seven children of a German-Jewish family.. His father Kalman Leib Kallenbach was a Hebrew teacher and, later, a timber merchant. Hermann's childhood centered round education, sports and friendships with the village youth and later he studied architecture in Stuttgart and Munich.[citation needed] In 1896, he went to South Africa to join his uncles in Johannesburg, where he practiced as an architect and became a South African citizen. A skilled ice-skater, swimmer, cyclist and gymnast, and a successful architect, Kallenbach acquired considerable property in South Africa.[citation needed] Yet a major transformation in his life took place after he met Mahatma Gandhi.
wn.com/Hermann_Kallenbach -
J. C. Kumarappa
J. C. Kumarappa (born Joseph Chelladurai Cornelius) (January 4, 1892 - January 30, 1960) was an Indian Christian economist and a close associate of Indian leader Mahatma Gandhi. A pioneer of rural economic development theories, Kumarappa is credited for developing economic theories based on Gandhism — a school of economic thought he coined "Gandhian economics."
Joseph Chelladurai Cornelius was born on 4 January 1892 in Tanjore, Tamil Nadu. He changed his name following his return from studying economics and chartered accountancy in Britain in 1919. In 1928 he travelled to the United States to obtain degrees in economics and business administration at Syracuse University and Columbia University, studying under Edwin Robert Anderson Seligman.
On his return to India Kumarappa published an article on the British tax policy and its exploitation of the Indian economy. At Gandhi's request he prepared an economic survey of rural Gujarat, which he published as A Survey of Matar Taluka in the Kheda District. He strongly supported Gandhi's notion of village industries and promoted Village Industries Associations.
wn.com/J._C._Kumarappa -
James Bevel
James L. Bevel (October 19, 1936 – December 19, 2008) was an American minister and leader of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement who, as the Director of Direct Action and Director of Nonviolent Education of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) initiated, strategized, directed, and developed SCLC's three major successes of the era: the 1963 Birmingham Children's Crusade, the 1965 Selma Voting Rights Movement, and the 1966 Chicago Open Housing Movement. James Bevel also called for and initially organized the 1963 March on Washington and initiated and strategized the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches, SCLC's two main public gatherings of the era. For his work in the 1960s he has been referred to as the "Father of Voting Rights", the "Strategist and Architect of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement", and as half of the Bevel/King team that formulated and communicated the actions, issues, and dialogues which created the historical changes of the era.
Prior to his time with SCLC, Bevel worked in the Nashville Student Movement, where he participated in the 1960 Nashville Sit-In movement, directed the 1961 Open Theater Movement, chose the riders for the 1961 Nashville Student Movement continuation of the Freedom Rides, and initiated and directed the Mississippi Voting Rights Movement. Later, in 1967, he took a leave from SCLC to direct the Anti-Vietnam War Movement, and in 1995 co-initiated the Day of Atonement/Million Man March.
wn.com/James_Bevel -
James Prinsep
James Prinsep (20 August 1799 – 22 April 1840) was an English scholar and antiquary. He was the seventh son of John Prinsep, a wealthy East India merchant and Member of Parliament (1746–1830) and his wife, Sophia Elizabeth Auriol (1760–1850). He married in Calcutta cathedral (25 April 1835) Harriet Sophia Aubert, the elder daughter of Lieutenant-Colonel Jeremiah Aubert of the Bengal Army (grandson of Alexander Aubert) and his wife, Hannah. There was only one surviving child, a daughter, Eliza, born in 1837.
From 1832 to 1838 he was assay-master in the India Government Mint, Kolkata, Apart from architectural work (chiefly at Benares), his leisure was devoted to Indian inscriptions and numismatics. He is most noted as a philologist for fully deciphering and translating the rock edicts of Asoka from the Brāhmī script.
He arrived in Calcutta on September 15, 1819 and at the age of twenty, joined the service of the East India Company as Assay Master at the Government mint in Banares under Dr. Horace Hayman Wilson, the distinguished Sanscrit Scholar. He ultimately became assay-master at the main Government mint at Calcutta in 1832, succeeding Dr. Wilson, whom he likewise succeeded as secretary of the Asiatic Society. During James Prinsep's years in the mint he reformed weights and measures, introduced a uniform coinage and devised a balance so delicate as to indicate the three-thousandth part of a grain (.1944 mg).
wn.com/James_Prinsep -
John Ruskin
John Ruskin (8 February 1819 – 20 January 1900) was the leading English art critic of the Victorian era, also an art patron, draughtsman, watercolourist, a prominent social thinker and philanthropist. He wrote on subjects ranging from geology to architecture, myth to ornithology, literature to education, and botany to political economy. His writing styles and literary forms were equally varied. Ruskin penned essays and treatises, poetry and lectures, travel guides and manuals, letters and even a fairy tale. The elaborate style that characterised his earliest writing on art was later superseded by a preference for plainer language designed to communicate his ideas more effectively. In all of his writing, he emphasised the connections between nature, art and society. He also made detailed sketches and paintings of rocks, plants, birds, landscapes, and architectural structures and ornamentation.
He was hugely influential in the latter half of the 19th century up to the First World War. After a period of relative decline, his reputation has steadily improved since the 1960s with the publication of numerous academic studies of his work. Today, his ideas and concerns are widely recognised as having anticipated interest in environmentalism, sustainability and craft.
wn.com/John_Ruskin -
Kasturba Gandhi
Kastürbā Gāndhi (born Kasturba Makhanji) (Gujarati: કસ્તુરબા ગાંધી, Hindi: कस्तूरबा गाँधी) (11 April 1869 – 22 February 1944) was the wife of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, marrying him in an arranged marriage in 1882.
Born to wealthy businessman Gokuladas Kapadia of Porbandar, Kasturba was arranged to be married to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Both were thirteen years old at their wedding. When Gandhi left to study in London in 1888, she remained in India to raise their newborn son Harilal. She had three more sons: Manilal (1892), Ramdas (1897), and Devdas (1900).
Working closely with her husband, Kasturba Gandhi became a political activist fighting for civil rights and Indian independence from the British. After Gandhi moved to South Africa to practice law, she traveled to South Africa in 1897 to be with her husband. From 1904 to 1914, she was active in the Phoenix Settlement near Durban. During the 1913 protest against working conditions for Indians in South Africa, Kasturba was arrested and sentenced to three months in a hard labor prison. Later, in India, she sometimes took her husband's place when he was under arrest. In 1915, when Gandhi returned to India to support indigo planters, Kasturba accompanied him. She taught hygiene, discipline, reading and writing.
wn.com/Kasturba_Gandhi -
Koenraad Elst
Koenraad Elst (born 7 August 1959) is a Belgian writer and orientalist (without institutional affiliation). He was an editor of the New Right Flemish nationalist journal Teksten, Kommentaren en Studies from 1992 to 1995, focusing on criticism of Islam, various other conservative and Flemish separatist publications such as Nucleus, 't Pallieterke, Secessie and The Brussels Journal. Having authored fifteen English language books on topics related to Indian politics and communalismhis writings are frequently featured in right-wing publications.
Elst was born in Leuven, Belgium into a Flemish Catholic family. Some of his family members were Christian missionaries or priests. He graduated in Indology, Sinology and Philosophy at the Catholic University of Leuven. He then obtained a Ph.D. from the same university. The main portion of his Ph.D. dissertation on Hindu revivalism and Hindu reform movements eventually became his book Decolonizing the Hindu Mind. Other parts of his Ph.D. thesis were published in Who is a Hindu and The Saffron Swastika. He also studied at the Banaras Hindu University in India. Several of his books on communalism and Indian politics are published by the Voice of India publishing house.
wn.com/Koenraad_Elst -
Kundakunda
Kundakunda (also Kundkund) is a celebrated Jain Acharya, Jain scholar monk, 2nd century CE, composer of spiritual classics such as: Samayasara, Niyamasara, Panchastikayasara, Pravachansara, Atthapahuda and Barasanuvekkha. He occupies the highest place in the tradition of the Jain acharyas.
He belonged to the Mula Sangh order. His proper name was Padmanandi, he is popularly referred to as Kundakunda because he was born in a place named Kaundakunda in south India. He is closely associated with the Digambara sect, also in recent decades, his books have become popular among Svetambaras also. He was known also as:
For Digambaras, his name has auspicious significance and occupies third place after Bhagavan Mahavira and Gautama Ganadhara in the sacred litany. Kundakunda's singular contribution consists in his compiling a number of liturgical tracts and creating several masterly doctrinal works of his own, which provided a parallel canon for the Digambara tradition. This earned him the everlasting gratitude of the Digambaras, who have for centuries invoked his name together with that of Mahavira and his chief ganadhara Indrabhuti Gautama, placing him ahead even of Bhadrabahu, Visakha, and some forty other elders (sthaviras ) in the lineage, thus making him virtually the founder of the Digambara sect, as illustrated by the following verse:
wn.com/Kundakunda -
Lanza del Vasto
Lanza del Vasto, (Giuseppe Giovanni Luigi Enrico Lanza di Trabia), (September 29, 1901 – January 5, 1981) was a philosopher, poet, artist, catholic and nonviolent activist.
He was born in San Vito dei Normanni, Italy and died in Elche de la Sierra, Spain.
A western disciple of Mohandas K. Gandhi, he worked for inter-religious dialogue, spiritual renewal, ecological activism and nonviolence.
In December 1936, Lanza went to India, joining the movement for Indian independence led by Gandhi. He knew of Gandhi through a book by Romain Rolland. He spent six months with the Mahatma, then in June 1937, went to the source of the Ganges river in the Himalayas, a famous pilgrimage site. There he saw a vision who told him "Go back and found!"
He left then India and went back to Europe. In 1938, he went to Palestine, then in the midst of civil war, to Jerusalem and Bethlehem, "between two lines of tanks".
He came back to Paris at the time when the Second World War started. He wrote some poetry books and in 1943 he published the story of his trip to India, Return to the Source, which became a huge success.
wn.com/Lanza_del_Vasto -
Leo Tolstoy
Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (Russian: Лев Никола́евич Толсто́й, pronounced [lʲev nʲɪkɐˈlaɪvʲɪtɕ tɐlˈstoj] (
listen); known in the Anglosphere as Leo Tolstoy) (September 9, 1828 – November 20, 1910) was a Russian writer who primarily wrote novels and short stories. Later in life, he also wrote plays and essays. His two most famous works, the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, are acknowledged as two of the greatest novels of all time and a pinnacle of realist fiction. Many consider Tolstoy to have been one of the world's greatest novelists. Tolstoy is equally known for his complicated and paradoxical persona and for his extreme moralistic and ascetic views, which he adopted after a moral crisis and spiritual awakening in the 1870s, after which he also became noted as a moral thinker and social reformer.
His literal interpretation of the ethical teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him in later life to become a fervent Christian anarchist and anarcho-pacifist. His ideas on nonviolent resistance, expressed in such works as The Kingdom of God Is Within You, were to have a profound impact on such pivotal twentieth-century figures as Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.
wn.com/Leo_Tolstoy -
Mahadev Desai
Mahadev Desai (January 1, 1892 – August 15, 1942) was an Indian independence activist and nationalist writer; he was most famously known for being the personal secretary of Mahatma Gandhi.
Desai was a young lawyer in Ahmedabad when he decided to join Gandhi along with Narhari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas, and became his most devoted secretary for 25 years, from 1917 to 1942. The four were the earliest supporters of Gandhi.
Mahadev Desai was arrested with Gandhi during all the nationalist revolts. The chief period of interest is the time Gandhi was incarcerated in the Yeravda Jail near Pune, Maharashtra from 1931 to 1934. Desai wrote most of his important works on Gandhi during this period. He was arrested on the morning of August 9 after Gandhi's call to the British to Quit India and sent to the Aga Khan Palace for imprisonment. On August 15, 1942, Mahadev Desai died of a massive heart-attack at the age of 51.
Gandhi was devastated by Desai's death at a young age. Both Gandhi and his wife Kasturba Gandhi had seen him as their son, and his death was mourned by Gandhi's supporters across the country.
wn.com/Mahadev_Desai -
Mahatma Gandhi
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (pronounced: [ˈmoːɦənd̪aːs ˈkərəmtʃənd̪ ˈɡaːnd̪ʱi]; 2 October 1869 – 30 January 1948), commonly known as Mahatma Gandhi, was the preeminent leader of Indian nationalism in British-ruled India. Employing non-violent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for non-violence, civil rights and freedom across the world.
Son of a senior government official, Gandhi was born and raised in a Hindu Bania community in coastal Gujarat, and trained in law in London. Gandhi became famous by fighting for the civil rights of Muslim and Hindu Indians in South Africa, using the new techniques of non-violent civil disobedience that he developed. Returning to India in 1915, he set about organising peasants to protest excessive land-taxes. A lifelong opponent of "communalism" (i.e. basing politics on religion) he reached out widely to all religious groups. He became a leader of Muslims protesting the declining status of the Caliphate. Assuming leadership of the Indian National Congress in 1921, Gandhi led nationwide campaigns for easing poverty, expanding women's rights, building religious and ethnic amity, ending untouchability, increasing economic self-reliance, and above all for achieving Swaraj—the independence of India from British domination.
wn.com/Mahatma_Gandhi -
Mahavir
Mahāvīra (Sanskrit: महावीर "Great Hero", Kannada: ಮಹಾವೀರ Mahāvīra, Malayalam: മഹാവീരൻ Mahāvīran and Tamil: அருகன் Arukaṉ) is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamāna (Sanskrit: वर्धमान; traditionally 599–527 BCE) who established what are today considered to be the central tenets of Jainism. According to Jain tradition, he was the 24th and the last Tirthankara. In Tamil, he is referred to as Arukaṉ or Arukadevan. He is also known in texts as Vira or Viraprabhu, Sanmati, Ativira,and Gnatputra. In the Buddhist Pali Canon, he is referred to as Nigantha Nātaputta and Gyatra Putta.
In a place called Kundalagrama (Vaishali district) situated close to Besadha Patti, 27 miles from Patna in modern day Bihar, India, Mahavira was born in a royal family to King Siddartha and Queen Trishala on the 13th day under the rising moon of Chaitra (12 April according to the Gregorian calendar). While still in his mother's womb it is believed he brought wealth and prosperity to the entire kingdom, which is why he was named Vardhaman. An increase of all good things, like the abundant bloom of beautiful flowers, was noticed in the kingdom after his conception. Trishala had a number of auspicious dreams before giving birth to Vardhaman (14 according to the Svetambaras and 16 according to the Digambaras), signs foretelling the advent of a great soul.He found "Nirvana" at the age of 72 in 527 BC near Rajgir, Bihar .Vardhaman's birthday is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti, the most important religious holiday of Jains around the world.
wn.com/Mahavir -
Mahavira
Mahāvīra (Sanskrit: महावीर "Great Hero", Kannada: ಮಹಾವೀರ Mahāvīra, Malayalam: മഹാവീരൻ Mahāvīran and Tamil: அருகன் Arukaṉ) is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamāna (Sanskrit: वर्धमान; traditionally 599–527 BCE) who established what are today considered to be the central tenets of Jainism. According to Jain tradition, he was the 24th and the last Tirthankara. In Tamil, he is referred to as Arukaṉ or Arukadevan. He is also known in texts as Vira or Viraprabhu, Sanmati, Ativira,and Gnatputra. In the Buddhist Pali Canon, he is referred to as Nigantha Nātaputta and Gyatra Putta.
In a place called Kundalagrama (Vaishali district) situated close to Besadha Patti, 27 miles from Patna in modern day Bihar, India, Mahavira was born in a royal family to King Siddartha and Queen Trishala on the 13th day under the rising moon of Chaitra (12 April according to the Gregorian calendar). While still in his mother's womb it is believed he brought wealth and prosperity to the entire kingdom, which is why he was named Vardhaman. An increase of all good things, like the abundant bloom of beautiful flowers, was noticed in the kingdom after his conception. Trishala had a number of auspicious dreams before giving birth to Vardhaman (14 according to the Svetambaras and 16 according to the Digambaras), signs foretelling the advent of a great soul.He found "Nirvana" at the age of 72 in 527 BC near Rajgir, Bihar .Vardhaman's birthday is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti, the most important religious holiday of Jains around the world.
wn.com/Mahavira -
Mandaeism
Mandaeism or Mandaeanism (Modern Mandaic: Mandaʻiūtā (מנדעיותא); Arabic: مندائية Mandāʼīyah/Mandāʾiyyah; Persian: مندائیان Mandâ'iyân) is a gnostic religion[citation needed] (Aramaic manda means "knowledge", as does Greek gnosis) with a strongly dualistic worldview.
Its adherents, the Mandaeans, revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram and especially John the Baptist, but reject Jesus of Nazareth and are hostile to Christianity. They are sometimes identified with mentions in the Quran of the Sabian religion, particularly in an Arabian context, but the Sabian religious community is extinct today.
According to most scholars, Mandaeans migrated from the Southern Levant to Mesopotamia in the first centuries CE and are certainly of pre-Arab and pre-Islamic origin. They are Semites and speak a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic. They may well be related to the "Nabateans of Iraq" who were pagan, Aramaic speaking indigenous pre-Arab and pre-Islamic inhabitants of southern Iraq.
wn.com/Mandaeism -
Manichaeism
Manichaeism ( /ˈmænɨkiːɪzəm/; in Modern Persian آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese: 摩尼教; pinyin: Móní Jiào) was a major gnostic religion, originating in Sassanid era Babylonia. Although most of the original writings of the founding prophet Mani (in Persian: مانی, Syriac: ܡܐܢܝ, Latin: Manichaeus or Manes) (c. 216–276 CE) have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.
Manichaeism taught an elaborate cosmology describing the struggle between a good, spiritual world of light, and an evil, material world of darkness. Through an ongoing process which takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light from which it came. Its beliefs, based on local Mesopotamian gnostic and religious movements, contained elements of Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.
Manichaeism thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman Empire. It was widespread among the legions of the Roman Empire, who considered it a soldier's religion, and it was briefly the main rival to Christianity in the competition to replace classical paganism. Manichaeism survived longer in the East than in the West, and it appears to have finally faded away after the 14th century in southern China, contemporary to the decline in China of the Church of the East – see Ming Dynasty.
wn.com/Manichaeism -
Manilal Gandhi
Manilal Mohandas Gandhi (28 October 1892 – 4 April 1956) was the second of four sons of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Kasturba Gandhi. Manilal was born in Rajkot, India. In 1897 Manilal traveled to South Africa for the first time, where he spent time working at the Phoenix Ashram near Durban. After a brief visit to India, in 1917 Manilal returned to South Africa to assist in printing the Indian Opinion a Gujarati-English weekly publication, at Phoenix, Durban. By 1918, Manilal was doing most of the work for the press and took over in 1920 as editor. Like his father, Manilal was also sent to jail several times by the British colonial government after protesting against unjust laws. He remained editor until 1956, the year of his death. Manilal died from a cerebral thrombosis following a stroke.
In 1927, Manilal married Sushila Mashruwala, and had two daughters, Sita (1928) and Ela (1940), and one son, Arun (1934). Arun and Ela are also social-political activists. Uma D. Mesthrie, Manilal's Granddaughter (Sita's daughter), recently published a biography on Manilal.
wn.com/Manilal_Gandhi -
Mazdak
Mazdak (in Persian مزدک) (died c. 524 or 528) was a proto-socialistPersian reformer and religious activist who gained influence under the reign of the Sassanian Shahanshah Kavadh I. He claimed to be a prophet of God, and instituted communal possessions and social welfare programs.
Mazdak was the chief representative of a religious and philosophical teaching called Mazdakism, which he viewed as a reformed and purified version of Zoroastrianism, although his teaching has been argued to display influences from Manichaeism as well. Zoroastrianism was the dominant religion of Sassanid Persia, and Mazdak himself was a Zoroastrian priest, or mobed, but most of the Zoroastrian clergy regarded his teaching as a heresy. Information about it is scarce and little is known beyond what is listed below; some further details may be inferred from the later doctrine of Khurramism, which has been seen as a continuation of Mazdakism.
Some sources claim that the original founders of this sect lived earlier than Mazdak. These were another mobed named Zardusht (of the same name, but not the same person as the founder of Zoroastrianism) and/or a Zoroastrian philosopher known as Mazdak the Elder, who taught a combination of altruism and hedonism: "he directed his followers to enjoy the pleasures of life and satisfy their appetite in the highest degree with regard to eating and drinking in the spirit of equality,to aim at good deeds; to abstain from shedding blood and inflicting harm on others; and to practice hospitality without reservation". This doctrine was further developed by the best known Mazdak, Mazdak the Younger, son of Bāmdād. At later stages the opposition to Mazdak blamed them for heresy and sharing women etc. which is not true. They are considered to be the first real socialists of human history who emphasized the community work and benefits for all.
wn.com/Mazdak -
Mohanlal Pandya
Mohanlal Pandya was an Indian freedom fighter, social reformer and one of the earliest followers of Mahatma Gandhi. Along with fellow Gandhians like Narhari Parikh and Ravi Shankar Vyas, Pandya was a key organizer of nationalist revolts in Gujarat, and a leading figure in the fight against alcoholism, illiteracy, untouchability, and a major proponent of women's freedoms and Gandhian values.
Pandya was a close associate of both Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel during the Indian Independence Movement.
Mohanlal Pandya was nicknamed as Onion Thief'''' (Dungli Chor)'' by Gandhiji because he has harvested onion from the land which was taken away by the British Government.
wn.com/Mohanlal_Pandya -
Narhari Parikh
Narhari Parikh was an Indian freedom fighter and social reformer, who was a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi and the chief architect of the Indian Independence Movement in Gujarat.[citation needed]
wn.com/Narhari_Parikh -
Rajmohan Gandhi
Rajmohan Gandhi (born 1935, New Delhi, India) is a biographer and grandson of Mahatma Gandhi, and a research professor at the Center for South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA.
Gandhi's maternal grandfather was C. Rajagopalachari, free India's first Head of State, the first Indian Governor General of independent India and one of the foremost fighters for Indian independence. His father was Devdas Gandhi, who was the Managing Editor of the Daily Hindustan Times. He attended St. Stephen's College, New Delhi, India. Associated from 1956 with Initiatives of Change (formerly known as Moral Re-Armament), Rajmohan Gandhi has been engaged for half a century in efforts for trust-building, reconciliation and democracy and in battles against corruption and inequalities. These efforts, made in India and across the world, have involved writing, speaking, public interventions, and organizing dialogues.
In the 1960s and early 1970s, he played a leading role in establishing Asia Plateau, the 80-acre (320,000 m2) conference centre of Initiatives of Change in the mountains of western India. Asia Plateau has been recognized in the Indian subcontinent for its ecological contribution. During the 1975-77 Emergency in India, he was active for democratic rights personally and through his weekly journal Himmat, published in Bombay from 1964 to 1981. He contested the Lok Sabha elections in 1989 but was defeated. He served (1990-92) in the Rajya Sabha (the upper house of the Indian Parliament) and led the Indian delegation to the UN Human Rights Commission in Geneva in 1990. In the Indian Parliament he was the convener of the all-party joint committee of both houses addressing the condition of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
wn.com/Rajmohan_Gandhi -
Ramdas Gandhi
Ramdas Gandhi (1896–1969) was the third son of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He was born in South Africa. He outlived his parents and all of his brothers. He and his wife Nirmal had three children; Sumitra Gandhi, Kanu Gandhi and Usha Gandhi. He was active in his father's Indian independence movement.
He had no taste for asceticism, yet participated in the grueling civil protests of the 1930s. Numerous jailings had serious effects on his health. Born and raised in South Africa, he never adjusted to the idealistic poverty imposed by his father. He had a taste for hunting. He died in the year of his father's centenary. At his fathers funeral, Ramdas Gandhi was the one who lit the fire to start the cremation, as Mahatma had wished for. He was joined by his younger brother Devdas Gandhi at the funeral.
wn.com/Ramdas_Gandhi -
Ranna
Ranna (Kannada: ರನ್ನ) was one of the earliest poets of Kannada language. Ranna, Adikavi Pampa and Sri Ponna together are called "three gems of Kannada literature".
Ranna was born on 949 C.E. in Muduvolalu (Mudhol) Bagalkot district, Karnataka. His ancenstors were from Balegara community (bangle sellers) of Jains. He took up to learning Sanskrit, Prakrit and Kannada at a young age. He took education from Ajitsenacharya.
Ranna was perhaps the classmate of Chavundaraya, the famous minister of the Western Ganga Dynasty during his youth. Later he came to be patronised by Chavundaraya when he became a Ganga minister.
Ranna was later a poet in the court of King Tailapa II and his successor King Satyasraya of the Western Chalukya Empire. He was rewarded with the title of Kavi Chakravarti (Emperor of Poets). The entire literature written by Ranna were in Halegannada (old Kannada, older version of Kannada language). There were four major literary works from Ranna.He is also attributed with writing the first extant Lexicons in Kannada named Rannakanda. Three of his works are currently available.
wn.com/Ranna -
Ravi Shankar Vyas
Ravi Shankar Vyas (1884–1984) was an Indian freedom fighter and social reformer, hailing from and working in the state of Gujarat. He was one of the earliest and closest associates of Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and along with Narhari Parikh and Mohanlal Pandya, the chief organizer of nationalist revolts in Gujarat in the 1920s and 1930s. Jhaverchand Meghani wrote a novel Maansaee na deeva about the social upliftment work done by Ravi Shankar Maharaj. The novel was very well received by Gujarati readers.
wn.com/Ravi_Shankar_Vyas -
Samaldas Gandhi
Samaldas Gandhi was an Indian freedom fighter who headed the Aarzi Hukumat or Temporary Government of the erstwhile princely state of Junagadh.
Samaldas was a relative and close follower of Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of the Indian independence movement.
When the Nawab of Junagadh acceded his state to Pakistan in 1947, Samaldas headed a government-in-exile created by citizens of Junagadh to reflect the wishes of its majority population who wished the state to become part of India instead.
When Indian forces entered Junagadh and its principalities, Mangrol and Manavadar, at the invitation of the Nawab's dewan, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, Samaldas was invited to accept the reins of the state but deferred to the Government of India.
Samaldas Gandhi is widely remembered in Junagadh and the state of Gujarat today as a hero and patriot. There are several schools, public foundations and hospitals named after him.
wn.com/Samaldas_Gandhi -
Samaritan
The Samaritans (Hebrew: שומרונים Shomronim, Arabic: السامريون as-Sāmariyyūn) are an ethnoreligious group of the Levant. Religiously the Samaritans are adherents of Samaritanism, an Abrahamic religion closely related to Judaism. Based on the Samaritan Torah, Samaritans claim their worship is the true religion of the ancient Israelites prior to the Babylonian Exile, preserved by those who remained in the Land of Israel, as opposed to Judaism, which they assert is a related but altered and amended religion brought back by those returning from exile.
Ancestrally, Samaritans claim descent from a group of Israelite inhabitants from the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons of Joseph) as well as some descendants from the priestly tribe of Levi, who have connections to ancient Samaria from the period of their entry into the land of Canaan, while some suggest that it was from the beginning of the Babylonian Exile up to the Samaritan Kingdom of Baba Rabba. The Samaritans, however, derive their name not from this geographical designation, but rather from the Hebrew term Shamerim שַמֶרִים, "Keepers [of the Law]".
wn.com/Samaritan -
Shrimad Rajchandra
Raychandbhai Ravajibhai Mehta, popularly known as Shrimad Rajchandra by his followers, was a prominent Jain philosopher. He is highly respected for His remarkable exposition of Bhagwan Mahavira’s teachings, great spiritual state, extraordinary personality and literary genius. He was born on November 9, 1867 in Vavania Bandar, India, and left His body on April 9, 1901 in Rajkot, India. He is especially notable for being "a guide and helper" to Mahatma Gandhi. Shrimad was also one of Gandhi's best friends, and they exchanged a series of letters about religion and philosophy until the end of Shrimad's life.
At the age of seven, on witnessing the burning pyre of a recently deceased acquaintance, He underwent unprecedented mental churning and reportedly attained 'Jatismaran jnan' (a recollection of several past lives) at the cremation ground itself. This vivid recollection of the past reportedly established continuity with his previously attained state of knowledge, meditation and penance. As a result of this purification of his consciousness, many unusual mnemonic and psychic powers reportedly manifested in him, but he chose to ignore them, focusing solely on self-realization.
wn.com/Shrimad_Rajchandra -
Steve Biko
Stephen Biko (18 December 1946 – 12 September 1977) was an anti-apartheid activist in South Africa in the 1960s and 1970s.
A student leader, he later founded the Black Consciousness Movement which would empower and mobilize much of the urban black population. Since his death in police custody, he has been called a martyr of the anti-apartheid movement. While living, his writings and activism attempted to empower black people, and he was famous for his slogan "black is beautiful", which he described as meaning: "man, you are okay as you are, begin to look upon yourself as a human being".
Despite friction between the African National Congress and Biko throughout the 1970s[Need quotation to verify] the ANC has included Biko in the pantheon of struggle heroes, going as far as using his image for campaign posters in South Africa's first non-racial elections in 1994.
Biko was born in King William's Town, in the present-day Eastern Cape province of South Africa. He studied to be a doctor at the University of Natal Medical School. Biko was a Xhosa. In addition to Xhosa, he spoke fluent English and fairly fluent Afrikaans.
wn.com/Steve_Biko -
Swami Vivekananda
Swami Vivekananda (pronounced: IPA: [ʂāmiː biːbeːkānoːnɗoː] listen (help·info)) (12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendra Nath Datta (IPA: [nôreːnd̪roː naːt̪ʰ d̪ôttoː] was the chief disciple of the 19th century saint Ramakrishna and the founder of the Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission. He is considered a key figure in the introduction of Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the western world, mainly in America and Europe and is also credited with raising interfaith awareness, bringing Hinduism to the status of a major world religion during the end of the 19th century CE. Vivekananda is considered to be a major force in the revival of Hinduism in modern India. He is perhaps best known for his inspiring speech which began: "Sisters and Brothers of America," through which he introduced Hinduism at the Parliament of the World's Religions in Chicago in 1893.
Swami Vivekananda was born in an aristocratic Bengali Kayastha family of Calcutta on 12 January 1863. Vivekananda's parents influenced his thinking—his father by his rationality and his mother by her religious temperament. From his childhood, he showed an inclination towards spirituality and God realisation. His guru, Ramakrishna, taught him Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism); that all religions are true and that service to man was the most effective worship of God. After the Mahasamadhi of his guru, Vivekananda became a wandering monk, touring the Indian subcontinent and acquiring first-hand knowledge of conditions in India. He later travelled to Chicago and represented India as a delegate in the 1893 Parliament of World Religions. He conducted hundreds of public and private lectures and classes, disseminating Vedanta and Yoga in America, England and Europe. He also established the Vedanta societies in America and England.
wn.com/Swami_Vivekananda -
Vallabhbhai Patel
Sardar Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel (Hindi pronunciation: [ʋəlləbˈbʱaːi pəˈʈeːl] ( listen)) (31 October 1875 – 15 December 1950) was an Indian barrister and statesman, one of the leaders of the Indian National Congress and one of the founding fathers of India. He is known to be a social leader of India who played an unparalleled role in the country's struggle for independence and guided its integration into a united, independent nation.Therefore he is also regarded as "Bismarck of India". He was known as the "Iron Man of India". In India and across the world, he was often addressed as Sardar, which means Chief in Hindi, Urdu, and Persian.
He was raised in the countryside of Gujarat in a family of Gurjar Leva-Patidars Vallabhbhai Patel was employed in successful practice as a lawyer when he was first inspired by the work and philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. Patel subsequently organised the peasants of Kheda, Borsad, and Bardoli in Gujarat in non-violent civil disobedience against oppressive policies imposed by the British Raj; in this role, he became one of the most influential leaders in Gujarat. He rose to the leadership of the Indian National Congress and was at the forefront of rebellions and political events, organising the party for elections in 1934 and 1937, and promoting the Quit India movement.
wn.com/Vallabhbhai_Patel -
Vinoba Bhave
Vinoba Bhave (Marathi: विनोबा भावे),Vinayak Narahari Bhave (September 11, 1895 - November 15, 1982) often called Acharya (Sanskrit for teacher), was an Indian advocate of nonviolence and human rights. He is best known for the Bhoodan Andolan. He is considered as a National Teacher of India and the spiritual successor of Mahatma Gandhi.
He was born in Gagode village in Colaba (now Raigad District of Mumbai State, Maharashtra) on September 11, 1895 into a pious family of the Chitpavan Brahmin clan. He was brought-up in Baroda. He was highly inspired after reading the Bhagavad Gita, Mahabharat, Ramayan at a very early age. His father, Naraharishumbhurao Bhave was a devout Hindu and his mother, Rukmini Devi who died in 1918, was a great influence on him. In his memoir, Bhave states that, "there is nothing to equal the part my mother played in shaping my mind". Specifically, her devotion and spirituality.
His two brothers, Balkoba Bhave and Shivaji Bhave, were also bachelors devoted to social work.
wn.com/Vinoba_Bhave
Send this Playlist by SMS
Email this Page
Jainism 1/5
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:55
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
Jainism -- [Uploaded using YT-Splitter] in20s.com
http://wn.com/Jainism_1_5
Jainism -- [Uploaded using YT-Splitter] in20s.com
Jainism and Buddhism: A Comparative Study
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 17 Dec 2012
by Justin Blaha through Professor Rev. Dr. James Kenneth Powell II, opensourcebuddhism.org This piece offers a fairly thorough and basic introduction to the ancient Jain tradition and compares it with core aspects of Buddhism. The similarities and contrasts are apparent in this very competent production.
http://wn.com/Jainism_and_Buddhism_A_Comparative_Study
by Justin Blaha through Professor Rev. Dr. James Kenneth Powell II, opensourcebuddhism.org This piece offers a fairly thorough and basic introduction to the ancient Jain tradition and compares it with core aspects of Buddhism. The similarities and contrasts are apparent in this very competent production.
- published: 02 Sep 2008
- views: 29794
- author: JAMES K POWELL II
Non-Violence - Jain Way of Life Jainism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:54
- Updated: 16 Dec 2012
Jain Way of Life - Non-Violence, Non-Absolutism, Non-Possessiveness Developed by JAINA - Long Range Planning Committee, Jain Center of Boston and Memphis, Jain,Dr.Manoj Jain, Ashi Pandya, and many other team members. For more information, contact Yogendra Jain at yokjain@yahoo.com
http://wn.com/Non-Violence_Jain_Way_of_Life_Jainism
Jain Way of Life - Non-Violence, Non-Absolutism, Non-Possessiveness Developed by JAINA - Long Range Planning Committee, Jain Center of Boston and Memphis, Jain,Dr.Manoj Jain, Ashi Pandya, and many other team members. For more information, contact Yogendra Jain at yokjain@yahoo.com
- published: 07 Nov 2006
- views: 80546
- author: Yogendra Jain
Why Islam is violent and Buddhism & Jainism are not - Sam Harris
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:34
- Updated: 23 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/Why_Islam_is_violent_and_Buddhism_Jainism_are_not_Sam_Harris
Jainism 3 Loka - Narak Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 23:55
- Updated: 14 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/Jainism_3_Loka_Narak_Part_1
Jainism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:10
- Updated: 10 Dec 2012
A video that describes the teachings of Vardhamana Mahavira and the spread of Jainism. This is a product of Mexus Education Pvt. Ltd., an education innovations company based in Mumbai, India. www.mexuseducation.com, http
http://wn.com/Jainism
A video that describes the teachings of Vardhamana Mahavira and the spread of Jainism. This is a product of Mexus Education Pvt. Ltd., an education innovations company based in Mumbai, India. www.mexuseducation.com, http
- published: 28 May 2012
- views: 8452
- author: Iken Edu
JAINISM PART 1 OF 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:58
- Updated: 03 Nov 2012
This video tries to explain Jainism importance by highlighting some interesting facts. Concept/Written/Edited By: Minal Dagli.
http://wn.com/JAINISM_PART_1_OF_2
This video tries to explain Jainism importance by highlighting some interesting facts. Concept/Written/Edited By: Minal Dagli.
- published: 17 Jul 2009
- views: 16199
- author: minalrocks
Jainism PART 1/2 - AE #594
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:33
- Updated: 10 Dec 2012
The Atheist Experience is a weekly cable access television show in Austin, Texas geared at a non-atheist audience. Every week we field live calls from atheists and believers alike, and you never know what you're going to get! Sometimes it can get quite feisty indeed! You don't want to miss it. Episode: #594 1 March, 2009 Topic: Live Calls. Jen takes on live calls. Atheistic Experience: www.atheist-experience.com Atheist Community of Austin: www.atheist-community.org AE Blog: atheistexperience.blogspot.com Non-Prophets Radio: www.nonprophetsradio.com
http://wn.com/Jainism_PART_1_2_AE_594
The Atheist Experience is a weekly cable access television show in Austin, Texas geared at a non-atheist audience. Every week we field live calls from atheists and believers alike, and you never know what you're going to get! Sometimes it can get quite feisty indeed! You don't want to miss it. Episode: #594 1 March, 2009 Topic: Live Calls. Jen takes on live calls. Atheistic Experience: www.atheist-experience.com Atheist Community of Austin: www.atheist-community.org AE Blog: atheistexperience.blogspot.com Non-Prophets Radio: www.nonprophetsradio.com
- published: 04 Mar 2009
- views: 13110
- author: kyokumajr
Narendra Modi pays respect to Jain monk, declares closure of slaughter houses
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:01
- Updated: 13 Oct 2012
Gujarat Chief Minister Shri Narendra Modi on Monday visited Ahmedabad's Naherunagar Jain Upashraya and paid respect to Jain monk Shri Chandrashekhar Vijayji Maharaj Saheb(79)'s body. Shri Modi on this occassion recollected his relation with Maharaj Saheb and announced closure of slaughter houses in the state on 9th August when Maharaj Saheb's last rites are to be performed.
http://wn.com/Narendra_Modi_pays_respect_to_Jain_monk,_declares_closure_of_slaughter_houses
Gujarat Chief Minister Shri Narendra Modi on Monday visited Ahmedabad's Naherunagar Jain Upashraya and paid respect to Jain monk Shri Chandrashekhar Vijayji Maharaj Saheb(79)'s body. Shri Modi on this occassion recollected his relation with Maharaj Saheb and announced closure of slaughter houses in the state on 9th August when Maharaj Saheb's last rites are to be performed.
- published: 08 Aug 2011
- views: 11498
- author: DeshGujaratHD
Jainism 3/5
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:55
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
Jainism -- [Uploaded using YT-Splitter] in20s.com
http://wn.com/Jainism_3_5
Jainism -- [Uploaded using YT-Splitter] in20s.com
- published: 23 Feb 2010
- views: 10751
- author: Publius4321
Jain, Buddhist and Hindu Creation Myths
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:18
- Updated: 14 Dec 2012
By Mackenzie Meitner through Professor Rev. Dr. James Kenneth Powell II, opensourcebuddhism.org In this project we are first introduced to the Hindu notion of the Golden Egg, a cosmic egg from which all sprang. The next segment introduces Jain cosmology as a series of four ages, slowly degenerating from giants to modern human sizes. At one point during the documentary, an image of Shiva is referenced as Rishabha Deva, the first tirthankara or ford-maker. Also, the Jain ultimate state is not nirvana but kevalajnana or wisdom-only as one becomes a being of pure wisdom. 18000years remain for this age and the disappearance of Jainism and its re-emergence anew. Buddhism has no particular opinion and the importance of creation is far less relevant that stopping mental turbulence. Nevertheless, a parody of creation exists in Buddhism as beings became greedy for edibles, particularly ancient fungi. Social hierarchies emerge as ignorance descends on the wise beings through their desire. For Hindus, the universes cycle again and again like the other too. From the cosmic egg, Brahma creates as part of Vishnus dream. Meitner has a nice way with crisp and clear visuals, the panning and transitions are excellent. No video elements in this would mean a loss of a point, but I am counting the brilliance of the other components as an A for this interesting work. jp
http://wn.com/Jain,_Buddhist_and_Hindu_Creation_Myths
By Mackenzie Meitner through Professor Rev. Dr. James Kenneth Powell II, opensourcebuddhism.org In this project we are first introduced to the Hindu notion of the Golden Egg, a cosmic egg from which all sprang. The next segment introduces Jain cosmology as a series of four ages, slowly degenerating from giants to modern human sizes. At one point during the documentary, an image of Shiva is referenced as Rishabha Deva, the first tirthankara or ford-maker. Also, the Jain ultimate state is not nirvana but kevalajnana or wisdom-only as one becomes a being of pure wisdom. 18000years remain for this age and the disappearance of Jainism and its re-emergence anew. Buddhism has no particular opinion and the importance of creation is far less relevant that stopping mental turbulence. Nevertheless, a parody of creation exists in Buddhism as beings became greedy for edibles, particularly ancient fungi. Social hierarchies emerge as ignorance descends on the wise beings through their desire. For Hindus, the universes cycle again and again like the other too. From the cosmic egg, Brahma creates as part of Vishnus dream. Meitner has a nice way with crisp and clear visuals, the panning and transitions are excellent. No video elements in this would mean a loss of a point, but I am counting the brilliance of the other components as an A for this interesting work. jp
- published: 02 Jul 2009
- views: 15797
- author: JAMES K POWELL II
7 Wonders of India: Ranakpur Jain Temples
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:22
- Updated: 11 Dec 2012
Ranakpur is located in the mountain ranges of Pali district, 23 kms away from the Phalna railway station. An enormous basement covers 48000 sq feet area. There are four subsidiary shrines, 24 pillared halls and eligibly domes supported by over 400 columns. The artistically carved nymphs playing the flute in various dance postures at a height of 45 feet are an engrossing sight. Light coloured marble has been used for the construction of this grand temple, which occupies an area of approximately 60 x 62 meters. The Ranakpur Jain Temples were built during the reign of the liberal and gifted monarch Rana Kumbha in the 15th century. Ranakpur is one of the five most important pilgrimage sites of Jainism. In the assembly hall, there are two big bells weighing 108 kgs whose sound echoes in the entire complex.
http://wn.com/7_Wonders_of_India_Ranakpur_Jain_Temples
Ranakpur is located in the mountain ranges of Pali district, 23 kms away from the Phalna railway station. An enormous basement covers 48000 sq feet area. There are four subsidiary shrines, 24 pillared halls and eligibly domes supported by over 400 columns. The artistically carved nymphs playing the flute in various dance postures at a height of 45 feet are an engrossing sight. Light coloured marble has been used for the construction of this grand temple, which occupies an area of approximately 60 x 62 meters. The Ranakpur Jain Temples were built during the reign of the liberal and gifted monarch Rana Kumbha in the 15th century. Ranakpur is one of the five most important pilgrimage sites of Jainism. In the assembly hall, there are two big bells weighing 108 kgs whose sound echoes in the entire complex.
- published: 14 Feb 2009
- views: 17914
- author: 7wondersofindia
Ratnakar Pachisi - Jain Stotra
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 29:13
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
Watch the Devotional Track "Ratnakar Pachisi" from the album "Kanwariya Kanwar Sambhal" For more devotional songs log on to www.youtube.com
http://wn.com/Ratnakar_Pachisi_Jain_Stotra
Watch the Devotional Track "Ratnakar Pachisi" from the album "Kanwariya Kanwar Sambhal" For more devotional songs log on to www.youtube.com
- published: 13 Jun 2011
- views: 50958
- author: tipsdevotional
Inclusive Story of Vishal Jain, MBA student at IIM, Lucknow
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:59
- Updated: 06 Dec 2012
This is a story of Vishal Jain, a visually impaired MBA student at IIM Lucknow, India. Coming from a small town in Karnataka state, Vishal had to stop his studies after 9th standrd due to deterioration of his eyesight and lack of awareness to handle it. However his inner urge to learn brought Vishal to Bangalore to learn to operate the computer and continue his studies. This video is a part of Inclusive Stories project run by Inclusive Planet. To see more videos visit www.inclusiveplanet.com/stories Visit Vishal Jain's website tinyURL.com
http://wn.com/Inclusive_Story_of_Vishal_Jain,_MBA_student_at_IIM,_Lucknow
This is a story of Vishal Jain, a visually impaired MBA student at IIM Lucknow, India. Coming from a small town in Karnataka state, Vishal had to stop his studies after 9th standrd due to deterioration of his eyesight and lack of awareness to handle it. However his inner urge to learn brought Vishal to Bangalore to learn to operate the computer and continue his studies. This video is a part of Inclusive Stories project run by Inclusive Planet. To see more videos visit www.inclusiveplanet.com/stories Visit Vishal Jain's website tinyURL.com
- published: 12 Jun 2011
- views: 5799
- author: inclusiveplanet
jain bhajan padmavati strotra
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:51
- Updated: 21 Dec 2012
jain bhajan, jain song, jain parshvanath, jain, bhajan,
http://wn.com/jain_bhajan_padmavati_strotra
jain bhajan, jain song, jain parshvanath, jain, bhajan,
- published: 31 May 2010
- views: 34094
- author: mayank jain
Chirag Jain Hasya Kavi (Laugh India Laugh)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:55
- Updated: 20 Nov 2012
chirag jain (hasya kavi) performing in Institute of Financial management Faridabad Haryana. Chirag Jain as a Stand up comedian as well as famous Hasya Kavi.
http://wn.com/Chirag_Jain_Hasya_Kavi_Laugh_India_Laugh
chirag jain (hasya kavi) performing in Institute of Financial management Faridabad Haryana. Chirag Jain as a Stand up comedian as well as famous Hasya Kavi.
- published: 02 Aug 2011
- views: 15223
- author: kavyanchal
The JAIN sect of INDIA : The torchbearers of Non-Violence
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:12
- Updated: 28 Oct 2012
video about the Jain sect of India, who believe in higher principles like non-violence and vegetarianism, love for all living creatures whether big , small or even microscopic.Even Mahatma Gandhi was vastly influenced by the philosophies of the Jain sect.In todays world torn apart by violence, war and hatred , these principles of the Jains are all the more relevant now.
http://wn.com/The_JAIN_sect_of_INDIA_The_torchbearers_of_Non-Violence
video about the Jain sect of India, who believe in higher principles like non-violence and vegetarianism, love for all living creatures whether big , small or even microscopic.Even Mahatma Gandhi was vastly influenced by the philosophies of the Jain sect.In todays world torn apart by violence, war and hatred , these principles of the Jains are all the more relevant now.
- published: 25 Nov 2006
- views: 23964
- author: Subhash Sharma
Jain Stavan Samaro Mantra Bhalo Navkar
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:56
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/Jain_Stavan_Samaro_Mantra_Bhalo_Navkar
Ranakpur - a most amazing Jain Temple!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:47
- Updated: 01 Oct 2012
Amazing Jain Temple in Ranakpur, Rajasthan, India. Worth a visit! Can you believe, what an incredible artwork to carve 1424 individual pillars from white marble? When you enter the temple you feel taken back a thousand years. And the atmosphere is so peaceful. What a setting admidst the hills! When you seat yourself at one of the windows and bath in the soft rays of the evening sun, you never want to move away from there again!
http://wn.com/Ranakpur_a_most_amazing_Jain_Temple!
Amazing Jain Temple in Ranakpur, Rajasthan, India. Worth a visit! Can you believe, what an incredible artwork to carve 1424 individual pillars from white marble? When you enter the temple you feel taken back a thousand years. And the atmosphere is so peaceful. What a setting admidst the hills! When you seat yourself at one of the windows and bath in the soft rays of the evening sun, you never want to move away from there again!
- published: 25 Jan 2009
- views: 2714
- author: creagenzia
Tu Mane Bhagwan ek Vardan aapi de Jain Stavan with Lyrics
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:59
- Updated: 20 Dec 2012
Famous Gujrati Jain Prathan of Jainism
http://wn.com/Tu_Mane_Bhagwan_ek_Vardan_aapi_de_Jain_Stavan_with_Lyrics
Famous Gujrati Jain Prathan of Jainism
- published: 15 May 2011
- views: 26548
- author: Prashant Chourdia
jain song for children jain
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:20
- Updated: 22 Dec 2012
This song is useful of jain children.This Digamvar song tell about smyakdarshan which is the core of jainism jay adinath,shantinath,parshavnath,mahaveer,kundkund and all jain gods and jain Digamvar archaryas
http://wn.com/jain_song_for_children_jain
This song is useful of jain children.This Digamvar song tell about smyakdarshan which is the core of jainism jay adinath,shantinath,parshavnath,mahaveer,kundkund and all jain gods and jain Digamvar archaryas
- published: 06 Jun 2009
- views: 39492
- author: Saurabh Jain
photo: AP / Aijaz Rahi
22 Dec 2012
Tweet. 0 Email. Report. Photo 1 of 18. In 2009, ELLE Magazine named Mrs Assad the most stylish woman in world politics. She is an icon of fashion in her country. Credit. Aimee Kligman. In 2009, ELLE Magazine named Mrs Assad the most stylish woman in world politics. She is an icon of fashion in her country.In 2009, ELLE Magazine named Mrs Assad the most stylish woman in world politics ... Syrians detained by the Assad regime. 13 Photos ... 10 Photos ... ....(size: 6.3Kb)
photo: AP
23 Dec 2012
North Korea's launching of a rocket into space last week amounted to the test of a ballistic missile capable of carrying a half-ton payload over 10,000km, the South Korean defence ministry says. "Based on our analysis and simulation, the missile is capable of flying more than 10,000km with a warhead of 500-600kg," a defence ministry official told reporters on Sunday ... 415 Source.. Agencies. Share. Send Feedback. Featured on Al Jazeera. Jaws....(size: 18.8Kb)
photo: AP / Eranga Jayawardena
22 Dec 2012
Salman Khan's Dabangg 2 has broken the record for the biggest non-holiday opener ... "Biggest opener [holiday] #EkThaTiger 32.92 cr ... Biggest opener [non-holiday] #RowdyRathore 15.1 cr ... ....(size: 0.9Kb)
photo: AP / Altaf Qadri
23 Dec 2012
A commission will be set up to probe the gang-rape and torture of a 23-year-old woman in Delhi and measures to ensure such crimes do not recur while laws will be amended to enhance punishment for rape, Home Minister Sushilkumar Shinde said . He also appealed the thousands of protesters on the capital’s streets, demanding justice for the victim, to withdraw ... “The government is serious on the issue. ... . . ....(size: 2.4Kb)
photo: AP / Virginie Nguyen Huang
23 Dec 2012
Tweet. Moscow, Dec 23 (IANS/RIA Novosti) Chemical weapons in Syria are under the control of the government, which has consolidated them in one or two locations, Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov said. "As of right now, the (Syrian) government is doing all it can to safeguard those weapons," he said. "We are following all leads concerning chemical weapons," Lavrov said ... "My answer is very simple. Why use us as a postman ... pm/ ... ) .. ). ... . ....(size: 3.2Kb)
The Hindu
21 Dec 2012
Devraj Dakoji’s canvas is inhabited by birds, birds and more birds. But the master printer didn’t discover what was to be a recurring figure in his work, in India. He discovered it after shifting base to New York ... Here artists working in different mediums could come, work and collaborate to produce prints ... He spent $5000 buying paper in various colours.” The subjects of his prints were Jainism, Hinduism and Taoism....(size: 4.2Kb)
Indian Express
19 Dec 2012
An estimated 58 million people ¿ slightly less than one per cent of the global population ¿ belong to other religions, including the Baha'i faith, Jainism, Sikhism, Shintoism, Taoism, Tenrikyo, Wicca and Zoroastrianism, to mention just a few, it said. Pew said overwhelmingly, Hindus and Christians tend to live in countries where they are in the majority ... contd. PAGE. 12 . Single Page Format ....(size: 1.8Kb)
Irish Times
19 Dec 2012
PATSY McGARRY, Religious Affairs Correspondent. Christians are by far the most numerous of people in the world who claim a religious identity, according to a new international study ... These include those of the Baha’i faith, and adherents of Jainism, Sikhism, Shintoism, Taoism, Tenrikyo, Wicca and Zoroastrianism. In general more than 80 per cent of people worldwide identify with a religious group, saysthis new study ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
Zeenews
19 Dec 2012
Washington ... India, which accounts for majority of world's Hindus, is also home to almost all the major religions of the world, a Pew research said Tuesday ... An estimated 58 million people - slightly less than one per cent of the global population - belong to other religions, including the Baha'i faith, Jainism, Sikhism, Shintoism, Taoism, Tenrikyo, Wicca and Zoroastrianism, to mention just a few, it said ... PTI ... First Published ... ....(size: 3.8Kb)
Khaleej Times
19 Dec 2012
People with no religious affiliation make up the third-largest global group in a new study of the size of the world’s faiths, placing after Christians and Muslims and just before Hindus ... — Reuters ... Another 58 million, or nearly 1 per cent of the world population, belonged to “other religions” including Baha’i, Taoism, Jainism, Shintoism, Sikhism, Tenrikyo, Wicca and Zoroastrianism ... ....(size: 4.7Kb)
The Examiner
19 Dec 2012
Despite predictions to the contrary, the U.S. government, NASA and local emergency officials say the world will not end on Dec. 21, 2012, four days before Christmas. (Gee. And I was hoping not to have to do any Christmas shopping this year.). So what's all the hubbub about? ... Rev. Dr ... “Because Hinduism and Buddhism, (and others—Jainism, for example), have cyclical cosmologies, they don’t really have a kind of doomsday apocalyptic scenario ... ....(size: 7.2Kb)
Irish Times
18 Dec 2012
PATSY McGARRY Religious Affairs Correspondent ... An estimated 58 million people, slightly less than one per cent of the world’s population, belong to other religions, including the Baha’i faith, Jainism, Sikhism, Shintoism, Taoism, Tenrikyo, Wicca and Zoroastrianism. More than eight-in-10 people worldwide identify with a religious group, according to the study ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
The Examiner
18 Dec 2012
Put together the school shooting in Connecticut, the stabbing of children in China, drone attacks killing children and everything else that has brought the power of violence to light in the media recently and it is easy to feel helpless, like there is nothing you can do to change the fate of the world ... There is a solution ... Christianity - The Golden Rule ... Jainism - One should treat all beings as he himself would be treated ... Citation. ... ....(size: 2.9Kb)
Reuters
18 Dec 2012
n">(Reuters) - People with no religious affiliation make up the third-largest global group in a new study of the size of the world's faiths, placing after Christians and Muslims and just before Hindus ... adults," it said. ISLAM EXPANDS ... WORLDWIDE BREAKDOWN ... Another 58 million, or nearly 1 percent of the world population, belonged to "other religions" including Baha'i, Taoism, Jainism, Shintoism, Sikhism, Tenrikyo, Wicca and Zoroastrianism....(size: 4.5Kb)
DNA India
18 Dec 2012
People with no religious affiliation make up the third-largest global group in a new study of the size of the world's faiths, placing after Christians and Muslims and just before Hindus ... adults," it said ... Another 58 million, or nearly 1 percent of the world population, belonged to "other religions" including Baha'i, Taoism, Jainism, Shintoism, Sikhism, Tenrikyo, Wicca and Zoroastrianism ... ....(size: 4.6Kb)
The Washington Post
18 Dec 2012
The study, released Tuesday (Dec ... Loading... Comments Weigh In Corrections?. Recommend. Personal Post ... 1 billion, or 16 percent ... An additional 58 million people — slightly less than 1 percent of the global population — belong to “other” religions, such as the Baha’i faith, Jainism, Sikhism, Shintoism, Taoism, Tenrikyo, Wicca and Zoroastrianism ... population ... population ... Other findings include. ... Copyright ... ....(size: 5.3Kb)
Stuff
18 Dec 2012
People with no religious affiliation make up the third-largest global group in a new study of the size of the world's faiths, placing after Christians and Muslims and just before Hindus ... ISLAM EXPANDS ... Ad Feedback ... WORLDWIDE BREAKDOWN ... Another 58 million, or nearly 1 percent of the world population, belonged to "other religions" including Baha'i, Taoism, Jainism, Shintoism, Sikhism, Tenrikyo, Wicca and Zoroastrianism ... - Reuters. ....(size: 5.3Kb)
Huffington Post
18 Dec 2012
REUTERS - People with no religious affiliation make up the third-largest global group in a new study of the size of the world's faiths, placing after Christians and Muslims and just before Hindus ... adults," it said. ISLAM EXPANDS ... WORLDWIDE BREAKDOWN ... Another 58 million, or nearly 1 percent of the world population, belonged to "other religions" including Baha'i, Taoism, Jainism, Shintoism, Sikhism, Tenrikyo, Wicca and Zoroastrianism ... #1 ... ....(size: 7.7Kb)
"Jain" and "Jainas" redirect here. For other uses, see Jain (disambiguation) and Jaina.
| Jainism | |
|---|---|
This article is part of a series on Jainism |
|
|
|
|
| Ṇamōkāra mantra · Micchami Dukkadam | |
|
|
|
| Anekāntavāda · Syādvāda · Nayavāda · Cosmology · Ahimsa · Karma · Dharma · Nirvana · Kevala Jñāna · Mokṣa · Dravya · Navatattva · Asteya · Aparigraha · Gunasthana · Samsara | |
|
|
|
| The 24 Tirthankaras · Rishabha · Mahavira · Acharya · Ganadhara · Siddhasena Divakara · Haribhadra | |
|
|
|
| Digambara · Śvētāmbara | |
|
|
|
| Kalpa Sūtra · Āgama · Tattvartha Sutra · Naaladiyar · Sanmatti Prakaran | |
|
|
|
| Parasparopagraho_Jivanam · Jain symbol · Jain flag · Timeline · Topics list | |
|
|
|
| Mahavir Jayanti · Paryushana · Diwali | |
|
Jainism Portal |
Jainism ( /ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm/; Sanskrit: जैनधर्म - Jainadharma, Tamil: சமணம் - Samaṇam Kannada: ಜೈನ ಧರ್ಮ - Jaina Dharma), is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called a jina ("conqueror" or "victor"). The ultimate status of these perfect souls is called siddha. Ancient texts also refer to Jainism as shramana dharma (self-reliant) or the "path of the niganthas" (those without attachments or aversions).
Jain doctrine teaches that Jainism has always existed and will always exist,[2][3][4] although historians date the foundation of the organized or present form of Jainism to sometime between the 9th and the 6th century BCE.[5][6] Like most ancient Indian religions, Jainism may have its roots in the Indus Valley Civilization, reflecting native spirituality prior to the Indo-Aryan migration into India.[7][8][9] Other scholars suggested the shramana traditions were separate and contemporaneous with Indo-Aryan religious practices of the historical Vedic religion.[10]
Contemporary Jainism is a small but influential religious minority with as many as 6 million followers in India,[11] and growing immigrant communities in North America, Western Europe, the Far East, Australia and elsewhere.[12] Jains have significantly influenced and contributed to ethical, political and economic spheres in India. Jains have an ancient tradition of scholarship and have the highest degree of literacy for a religious community in India.[13][14] Jain libraries are the oldest in the country.[15]
Main principles[link]
See also: Ratnatraya and Mahavrata
Jainism encourages spiritual development through cultivation of one's own personal wisdom and reliance on self control through vows (Sanskrit: व्रत, vrata).[16] The triple gems of Jainism - right vision or view (Samyak Darshana), right knowledge (Samyak Gyana) and right conduct (Samyak Charitra) - provide the path for attaining liberation from the cycles of birth and death. When the soul sheds its karmic bonds completely, it attains divine consciousness. Those who have attained moksha are called siddhas, while those attached to the world through their karma are called samsarin. Every soul has to follow the path, as explained by the Jinas and revived by the tirthankaras, to attain complete liberation or nirvana. Jains do not believe in a creator deity that could be responsible for the manifestation, creation, or maintenance of this universe. The universe is self regulated by the laws of nature. Jains believe that life exists in various forms in different parts of the universe including earth. Jainism has extensive classification of various living organisms including micro-organisms that live in mud, air and water. All living organisms have soul and therefore need to be interacted with, without causing much harm.
Jains believe that to attain enlightenment and ultimately liberation from all karmic bonding, one must practice the following ethical principles not only in thought, but also in words (speech) and action. Such a practise through lifelong work towards oneself is called as observing the Mahavrata ("Great Vows"). These vows are:
- Ahimsa (Non-violence)
- To cause "no harm" to living beings (on the lines of "live" and "let live"). The vow involves "minimizing" intentional as well as unintentional harm to another living creature. There should even be no room for any thought conjuring injury to others, let alone talking about it or performing of such an act.[17] Besides, it also includes respecting the views of others (non-absolutism and acceptance of multiple views).
- Satya (Truthfulness)
- To always speak of truth such that no harm is caused to others. A person who speaks truth becomes trustworthy like a mother, venerable like a preceptor and dear to everyone like a kinsman. Given that non-violence has priority, all other principles yield to it whenever there is a conflict. For example, in a situation where speaking truth would lead to violence, it would be perfectly moral to remain silent (for you are neither being untrue, nor causing violence by way of truth)
- Asteya (Non-stealing)
- Not to take into possession, anything that is not willingly offered. It is the strict adherence to one's own possessions without desiring for the ones that belong to others. One should remain satisfied by whatever is earned through honest labour. Any attempt to squeeze material wealth from others and/or exploit the weak is considered theft. Some of the guidelines for this principle follow as under:
- Always give people fair value for their labor or product.
- Not to take into possession materials that are not earned or offered by others.
- Not to take materials into personal possession that have been dropped off or forgotten by others.
- Not to purchase materials as a result of being cheaper in value, if the resultant price reduction is a result of improper method of preparation. For instance, products made out of raw materials obtained by way of pyramid schemes, illegal businesses, stolen goods, etc., should be strictly prohibited
- Brahmacharya (Celibacy)
- To exercise control over senses (including mind) from indulgence. The basic intent of this vow is to conquer passion, thus preventing wastage of energy in the direction of pleasurable desires. During observance of this vow, the householder must not have a sensual relationship with anybody other than one's own spouse. Jain monks and nuns practice complete abstinence from any sexual activity.[18]
- Aparigraha (Non-possession, Non-materialism)
- To observe detachment from people, places and material things. Ownership of an object itself is not possessiveness; however, attachment to the owned object is possessiveness. For householders, non-possession is owning without attachment, because the notion of possession is illusory. The basic principle behind observance of this vow lies in the fact that life changes. What you own today may not be rightfully yours tomorrow. Hence the householder is encouraged to discharge his or her duties to related people and objects as a trustee, without excessive attachment or aversion. For monks and nuns, non-possession involves complete renunciation of property and human relations.[19]
Jains hold that the universe and its natural laws are eternal, and have always existed in time. However, the world constantly undergoes cyclical changes as per governing universal laws. The universe is occupied by both living beings (jīva) and non-living objects (Ajīva). The samsarin soul incarnates in various life forms during its journey over time. Human, sub-human (category catering to inclusion of animals, birds, insects and other forms of living creatures), super-human (heavenly beings) and hellish-beings are the four forms of samsarin soul incarnations. A living being's thoughts, expressions and actions, executed with intent of attachment and aversion, give rise to the accumulation of karma. These influxes of karma in turn contribute to determination of circumstances that would hold up in our future in the form of rewards or punishment. Jain scholars have explained in-depth methods and techniques that are said to result in clearance of past accumulated karmas as well as stopping the inflow of fresh karmas. This is the path to salvation in Jainism.
A major characteristic of Jain belief is the emphasis on the consequences of not only physical but also mental behaviours.[20] One's unconquered mind tainted with anger, pride (ego), deceit, and greed joined with uncontrolled sense organs are powerful enemies of humans. Anger comes in the way of good human relations, pride destroys humility, deceit destroys peace, and greed destroys good judgement. Jainism recommends conquering anger by forgiveness, pride (ego) by humility, deceit by straight-forwardness, and greed by contentment.[21]
The principle of non-violence seeks to minimize karmas that limit the capabilities of one's own soul. Jainism views every soul as worthy of respect because it has the potential to become siddha (paramatma "highest soul"). Because all living beings possess a soul, great care and awareness is essential in one's actions. Jainism emphasizes the equality of all life, advocating harmlessness towards all, whether great or small. This policy extends even to microscopic organisms.
Jainism acknowledges that every person has different capabilities and capacities to practice and therefore accepts different levels of compliance for ascetics and householders. The Great Vows are prescribed for Jain monastics while limited vows (anuvrata) are prescribed for householders. Householders are encouraged to practice five cardinal principles of non-violence, truthfulness, non-stealing, celibacy, and non-possessiveness with their current practical limitations, while monks and nuns have to observe them very strictly. With consistent practice, it is possible to overcome the limitations gradually, accelerating spiritual progress. [22]
Core beliefs[link]
- Every living being has a soul.[23]
- Every soul is potentially divine, with innate qualities of infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss (masked by its karmas).
- Therefore regard every living being as you do yourself, harming no one and being kind to all living beings.
- Every soul is born as a heavenly being, human, sub-human or hellish being according to its own karma.
- Every soul is the architect of its own life, here or hereafter.[24]
- When a soul is freed from karmas, it becomes free and attains divine consciousness, experiencing infinite knowledge, perception, power, and bliss (Moksha).[25]
- The triple gems of Jainism ("Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct") provide the way to this realisation.[26] There is no supreme divine creator, owner, preserver, or destroyer. The universe is self-regulated, and every soul has the potential to achieve divine consciousness (siddha) through its own efforts.
- Non-violence (to be in soul consciousness rather than body consciousness) is the foundation of right view, the condition of right knowledge and the kernel of right conduct. It leads to a state of being unattached to worldly things and being non-judgmental and non-violent; this includes compassion and forgiveness in thoughts, words and actions toward all living beings and respecting views of others (non-absolutism).
- Jainism stresses the importance of controlling the senses including the mind, as they can drag one far away from true nature of the soul.
- Limit possessions and lead a life that is useful to yourself and others. Owning an object by itself is not possessiveness; however, attachment to an object is possessiveness.[27] Non-possessiveness is the balancing of needs and desires while staying detached from our possessions.
- Enjoy the company of the holy and better-qualified, be merciful to afflicted souls, and tolerate the perversely inclined.[28]
- Four things are difficult for a soul to attain: 1. human birth, 2. knowledge of the laws governing the souls, 3. absolute conviction in the philosophy of non-violence, and 4. practicing this knowledge with conviction in everyday life activities.
- It is, therefore, important not to waste human life in evil ways. Rather, strive to rise on the ladder of spiritual evolution.
- The goal of Jainism is liberation of the soul from the negative effects of unenlightened thoughts, speech, and action. This goal is achieved through clearance of karmic obstructions by following the triple gems of Jainism.
- Namokar Mantra is the fundamental prayer in Jainism and can be recited at any time of the day. Praying by reciting this mantra, the devotee bows in respect to liberated souls still in human form (arihants), fully liberated souls forever free from rebirth (siddhas), spiritual leaders (Acharyas), teachers, and all the monks and nuns.[29] By saluting them saying "namo namaha", Jains receive inspiration from them to follow their path to achieve true bliss and total freedom from the karmas binding their souls. In this main prayer, Jains do not ask for any favours or material benefits. This mantra serves as a simple gesture of deep respect toward beings that are more spiritually advanced. The mantra also reminds followers of the ultimate goal of reaching nirvana or moksha.[30]
- Jains worship the icons of jinas, arihants and Tirthankaras, who have conquered their inner passions and attained divine consciousness, and study the Scriptures of these liberated beings.
- Jainism acknowledges the existence of powerful heavenly souls that look after the well-being of Tirthankaras. Usually they are found in pairs around the icons as male (yaksha) and female (yakshini) guardian deities. Even though they have supernatural powers, these deities are also souls wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like most other souls. Over time, people began worshiping these deities as well.[31]
Non-violence in thought and practice[link]
Main articles: Ahimsa in Jainism and Anekantavada
.jpg)
Jains hold the above five major vows at the center of their lives. These vows cannot be fully implemented without the acceptance of a philosophy of non-absolutism. Anēkāntavāda ("multiple points of view") is a foundation of Jain philosophy. This philosophy allows the Jains to accept the truth in other philosophies from their perspective and thus inculcating a tolerance for other viewpoints. Jain scholars have devised methods to view both physical objects and abstract ideas from different perspectives systematically. This is the application of non-violence in the sphere of thought. It is a Jain philosophical standpoint just as there is the Advaitic standpoint of Sankara and the standpoint of the "middle way" of the Buddhists.[32] This search to view things from different angles leads to understanding and toleration of different and even conflicting views. When this happens prejudices subside and a tendency to accommodate increases. The doctrine of Anēkānta is therefore a unique experiment of non-violence at the root.[23]
A derivation of this principle is the doctrine of Syādvāda that highlights every model relative to its view point. It is a matter of our daily experience that the same object that gives pleasure to us under certain circumstances becomes boring under different situations. Nonetheless, relative truth is useful, as it is a stepping-stone to the ultimate realization and understanding of reality. The doctrine of Syādvāda is based on the premise that every proposition is only relatively true. It all depends on the particular aspect from which we approach that proposition. Jains, therefore, developed logic that encompasses seven-fold predication so as to assist in the construction of proper judgment about any proposition.
Syādvāda provides Jains with a systematic methodology to explore the real nature of reality and consider the problem in a non-violent way from different perspectives. This process ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions, and thus it is known as theory of conditioned predication. These seven propositions are described as follows:
- 1.Syād-asti — "in some ways it is"
- 2.Syād-nāsti — "in some ways it is not"
- 3.Syād-asti-nāsti — "in some ways it is and it is not"
- 4.Syād-asti-avaktavya — "in some ways it is and it is indescribable"
- 5.Syād-nāsti-avaktavya — "in some ways it is not and it is indescribable"
- 6.Syād-asti-nāsti-avaktavya — "in some ways it is, it is not and it is indescribable"
- 7.Syād-avaktavya — "in some ways it is indescribable"
For example, a tree could be stationary with respect to an observer on earth, however it will be viewed as moving along with planet Earth for an observer in space.
Jains are very welcoming and friendly toward other faiths and often help with interfaith functions. Several non-Jain temples in India are administered by Jains. A palpable presence in Indian culture, Jains have contributed to Indian philosophy, art, architecture, and science.
Concept of karma[link]
Main article: Karma in Jainism
Karma in Jainism conveys a totally different meaning than commonly understood in the Hindu philosophy and western civilization.[33] It is not the so called inaccessible force that controls the fate of living beings in inexplicable ways. It does not simply mean "deed", "work", nor mystical force (adrsta), but a complex of very fine matter, imperceptible to the senses, which interacts with the soul in intensity and quantity proportional to the thoughts, speech and physical actions carried out with attachments and aversions, causing further bondages. Karma in Jainism is something material (karmapaudgalam), which produces certain conditions, like a medical pill has many effects.[34] The effects of karma in Jainism is therefore a system of natural laws rather than moral laws. When one holds an apple in one's hand and then lets go of the apple, the apple will fall due to gravitational force. In this example, there is no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of a physical action.[35] The concept of Karma in Jainism is basically a reaction due to the attachment or aversion with which an activity (both positive and negative) is executed in thought, verbal and physical sense. Extending on the example outlined, the same apple dropped within a zero gravity environment such as a spacecraft circling around earth, will float in its place. Similarly, when one acts without attachment and aversion there will be no further karmic bonding to the soul.
Karmas are grouped as Destructive Karmas, that obstruct the true nature of the soul and Non-Destructive Karmas that only affect the body in which the soul resides. As long as there are Destructive Karmas, the soul is caged in a body and will have to experience pain and suffering in many different forms. Jainism has extensive sub-classifications and detailed explanations of each of these major categories. Jain liturgy and scriptures explains ways to stop the influx as well as get rid of the accumulated karmas.
Shedding of past karmas (Nirjara)[link]
Main article: Nirjara
Jainism prescribes mainly two methods for shedding karmas (Nirjara), accumulated by the soul.
- Passive Method – By allowing past karmas to ripen in due course of time and experiencing the results, both good and bad with equanimity. If the fruits of the past karmas are received with attachment or with agitation then the soul earns fresh karmic bondages. It is also not possible for the soul to know before-hand when and which karma will start to produce results. Therefore, a person should practice equanimity under all circumstances.
- Active Method – By practicing internal and external austerities (penances or tapas) so as to accelerate the ripening process as well as reducing the effects produced. This is the recommended approach as it prepares and conditions the soul and reminds one to be vigilant.
The internal austerities are
- Atonement of sinful acts
- Practice politeness and humility - in spite of having comparatively more wealth, wisdom, social status, power, etc.
- Service to others, especially monks, nuns, elders and the weaker souls without any expectations in return
- Scriptural study, questioning and expanding the spiritual knowledge
- Abandonment of passions – especially anger, ego, deceit and greed
- Meditation
The external austerities are meant to discipline the sensual cravings. They are
- Fasting
- Eating less than one's normal diet
- Abstention from tasty and stimulating food
- Practising humility and thankfulness – by seeking help and offering assistance without egoistic tendencies
- Practising solitude and introspection
- Mastering demands of the body
Tirthankaras[link]
Main article: Tirthankara
The purpose of life is to undo the negative effects of karma through mental and physical purification. This process leads to liberation accompanied by a great natural inner peace. A soul is called a 'victor' (in Sanskrit/Pali language, Jina) because one has achieved liberation by one's own efforts. A Jain is a follower of Jinas ("conquerors").[36][37] Jinas are spiritually advanced human beings who rediscovered the dharma, became fully liberated from the bondages of karma by conquering attachments and aversions, and taught the spiritual path to benefit all living beings.
Jains believe that dharma and true living declines and revives cyclically through time. The special Jinas who not only rediscover dharma but also preach it for the Jain community are called Tirthankara. The literal meaning of Tirthankara is "ford-builder". Jains compare the process of becoming a pure soul to crossing a swift river, an endeavour requiring patience and care. A ford-builder has already crossed the river and can therefore guide others. Only a few souls that reach Arihant status become Thirthankars who take a leadership role in assisting the other souls to move up on the spiritual path.
Jaina tradition identifies Rishabha (also known as Adinath) as the first tirthankar of this declining (avasarpini) time cycle (kalachakra).[38] The 24th, and last Tirthankar is Mahavira, who lived from 599 to 527 BCE. The 23rd Tirthankar, Parsva, lived from 877 to 777 BCE.[23][39] The last two Tirthankaras, Parshva and Mahavira, are historical figures whose existence is recorded.[39] The 24 Tirthankaras in chronological order are: Rishabha, Ajitnath, Sambhavanath, Abhinandannath, Sumatinath, Padmaprabha, Suparshvanath, Chandraprabha, Pushpadanta (Suvidhinath), Sheetalnath, Shreyansanath, Vasupujya, Vimalnath, Anantnath, Dharmanath, Shantinath, Kunthunath, Aranath, Mallinath, Munisuvrata, Naminatha, Neminath, Parshva and Mahavira (Vardhamana).
These special Jinas are also referred to in different languages as Bhagvān and Iṟaivaṉ (Kannada: ತೀರ್ಥಂಕರ Tīrthaṅkara, Tamil: இறைவன் Iṟaivaṉ and Hindi: भगवान Bhagvān). Tirthankaras are not regarded as deities in the pantheistic or polytheistic sense, but rather as pure souls that have awakened the divine spiritual qualities that lie dormant within each of us. Apart from the Tirthankaras, Jains worship special Arihants such as Bahubali. According to the scriptures, Bahubali, also known as Gommateshvara, was the second of the one hundred sons of Rishabha and king of Podanpur. A statue of Bahubali is located at Shravana Belagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka State. It is a sacred place of pilgrimage for Jains. When standing at the statue's feet looking up, one sees the saint against the vastness of the sky. This statue of Bahubali is carved from a single large stone that is fifty-seven feet high. The giant image was carved in 981 AD., by order of Chavundaraya, the minister of the Ganga King Rachamalla, and is considered the largest stone sculpture in the world.
Cosmology[link]
Main article: Jain cosmology
Structure of Universe as per the Jain Scriptures.
Depiction of Siddha Shila as per Jain cosmology, which is abode of infinite Siddhas.
According to Jain beliefs, the universe was never created, nor will it ever cease to exist. Therefore, it is shaswat (eternal) from that point of view. It has no beginning or end, but time is cyclical with progressive and regressive spirituality phases. In other words, within the universe itself there will be constant changes, movements and modifications in line with the macro phases of the time cycles.
Jain text claims that the universe consists of infinite amount of Jiva (life force or souls), and infinite amount of Ajiva (lifeless objects). The shape of the Universe as described in Jainism is shown alongside. At the very top end of the universe is the residence of the liberated souls that reached the siddha status. This supreme abode is above a crescent like boundary. Below this arch is the Deva Loka (Heaven), where all devas, powerful souls enjoying the positive karmic effects, reside. According to Jainism, there are sixteen heavens in total.[40] The enjoyment in heaven is time limited and eventually the soul has to be reborn after its positive karmic effect is exhausted. Similarly, beneath the "waist" like area are the Narka Loka (Hells). There are seven hells, each for a varying degree of suffering a soul has to go through as consequences of its negative karmic effects. From the first to the seventh hell, the degree of suffering increases and light reaching it decreases (with no light in the seventh hell). The ray of hope is that the suffering in hell is also time limited and the soul will be reborn somewhere else in the universe after its negative karmic effects are exhausted. Human, animal, insect, plant and microscopic life forms reside on the middle part of the universe. Ultimate liberation is possible only from this region of the universe.
In Jainism, time is divided into Utsarpinis (Progressive Time Cycle) and Avasarpinis (Regressive Time Cycle). An Utsarpini and an Avasarpini constitute one Time Cycle (Kalachakra). Every Utsarpini and Avasarpini is divided into six unequal periods known as Aras. During the Utsarpini half cycle, humanity develops from its worst to its best: ethics, progress, happiness, strength, health, and religion each start the cycle at their worst, before eventually completing the cycle at their best and starting the process again. During the Avasarpini half-cycle, these human experiences deteriorate from the best to the worst. Jains believe we are currently in the fifth Ara of the Avasarpini phase.
During the first and last two Aras, the knowledge and practice of dharma lapse among humanity and then reappear through the teachings of enlightened humans, those who have reached liberation from their karma, during the third and fourth Aras. Traditionally, in our universe and in this time cycle, Rishabha is regarded as the first to realize the truth. Mahavira (Vardhamana) was the last (24th) Tirthankara to attain enlightenment. For further reading on this aspect of Jainism refer to 'The Jaina Path of Purification' by P.S. Jaini.[41]
Customs and practices[link]
Jains are vegetarians. They avoid eating root vegetables in general, as cutting root from a plant kills it unlike other parts of the plant (leaf, fruit, seed, etc.). Furthermore, according to Jain texts, root vegetables contain infinite microorganisms called nigodas. Followers of Jain dharma eat before the night falls. They filter water regularly so as to remove any small insects that may be present and boil water prior to consumption.
Jain monks and nuns practice strict asceticism and strive to make their current birth their last, thus ending their cycle of transmigration.[42] The lay men and women also pursue the same five major vows to the limited extent depending on their capability and circumstances. Following the primary non-violence vow, the laity usually choose professions that revere and protect life and totally avoid violent livelihoods.
Jain monks and nuns walk barefoot and sweep the ground in front of them to avoid killing insects or other tiny beings. Even though all life is considered sacred by the Jains, human life is deemed the highest form of life. For this reason, it is considered vital never to harm or upset any person. Along with the Five Vows, Jains avoid harboring ill will and practice forgiveness. They believe that atma (soul) can lead one to becoming parmatma (liberated soul) and this must come from one's inner self. Jains refrain from all violence (ahimsa) and recommend that sinful activities be avoided.
Pratikraman (turning back from transgression) is a practice of confession and repentance. This is a process of looking back at the bad thoughts and actions carried out during daily activities and learn from this process so as to resolve not to commit those mistakes again. Forgiving others for their faults, extending friendship and asking forgiveness for their own wrongful acts without reservation is part of this process. This enables Jains to get away from the tendency of finding fault in others, criticizing others and to develop habit of self-analysis, self-improvement and introspection.
Jains practice Samayika, which is a Sanskrit word meaning equanimity. During this practice, they remain calm and undisturbed. This helps in recollecting the teachings of Thirthankars and discarding sinful activities for a minimum of 48 minutes.
Mahatma Gandhi was deeply influenced (particularly through the guidance of Shrimad Rajchandra) by Jain tenets such as peaceful, protective living and honesty, and made them an integral part of his own philosophy.[43]
Jainism has several different traditions. Historically, this has led to traditions refusing to recognize each other's religious texts as authoritative. For example, the Digamabaras reject the Svetambara canon.[44] Even though there are some differences in customs and practices among them, the core belief systems are the same. Each tradition brings a unique perspective and completes the picture in the true sense of Non-Absolutism (Anekantvad). For this reason Jains are encouraged to keep their tradition, and at the same time respect other practices so as to complete the Jain view. All traditions unanimously accept and believe in the core Jain philosophies including the major vows of Non-violence, Truthfulness, Non-stealing, Celibacy and Non-possession.
Jainism is mainly divided into two major sects, namely Svetambara and Digambara. Jainism has a distinct idea underlying Tirthankara worship. The physical form is not worshipped, but the characteristics of the Tirthankara (virtues, qualities) are praised and emulated. Tirthankaras remain role-models, and sects such as the Sthanakavasi and Terapanth stringently reject idol worship. However, Murtipujak and Digambara sects allow praying before idols so as to assist in stimulating and focusing thoughts while praying.
Pacifism[link]
Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to Jainism. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment; to kill any person, no matter what crime he may have committed, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. It is a religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Some Indian regions, such as Rajasthan, Gujarat and Karnataka, have been strongly influenced by Jains and often the majority of the local Hindus of every denomination have also become vegetarian.[45]
Meditation[link]
Main article: Jain meditation
Jain scriptures offer extensive guidance on meditation techniques to achieve full knowledge and awareness. It offers tremendous physical and mental benefits. Jain meditation techniques are designed to assist the practitioner to remain apart from clinging and hatred thereby liberating from karmic bondages through the Ratnatraya: right perception, right knowledge and right conduct.[46] Meditation in Jainism aims at taking the soul to status of complete freedom from bondages.[47]
Meditation assists greatly in managing and balancing one's passion. Great emphasis is placed on the control of internal thoughts, as they influence the behavior, actions and goals. It prescribes twelve mindful reflections or contemplations to help in this process. They are called Bhavanas or Anuprekshas that assist one to remain on the right course of life, and not stray away. Please note that Jains apply the sevenfold predicate methodology of Syadvada, which includes the consideration of different views on each of these topics including the opposite view. The twelve contemplations for meditation are:
- Impermanence - Everything in this world is subject to change and transformation. Spiritual values are therefore worth striving for as they alone offer the soul, its ultimate freedom and stability.
- Protection - Under this reflection, one thinks about how helpless one is against old age, disease and death. The soul is its own saviour and to achieve total freedom one needs to follow the non-violent path of Arihants, Siddhas and practicing saints. Leaders with their powerful armies, scientists with their latest advances in technology cannot provide the protection from the eventual decay and death. The refuge to things other than the non-violent path are due to delusion, is unfortunate, and must be avoided.
- Worldly Existence - The soul transmigrates from one life form to another and is full of pain and miseries. There are no permanent relationships as the soul moves from one body form to another and can only exit this illusion through liberation from the cycles of birth, growth, decay and death.
- Solitude of the Soul - The soul has to bear the consequences of the positive and negative karmas alone. Such thoughts will stimulate to get rid of the existing karmas by one's own efforts and lead a peaceful life of co-existence.
- Separateness of Soul - Under this reflection, one thinks that the soul is separate from other objects or living beings. One should think even the current body is not owned by the soul. It is however an important vehicle to lead a useful life to progress the soul further. The soul therefore should not develop attachment or aversion to any worldly objects.
- Impureness of the body - Under this section of thought, one is urged to think about constituent elements of one's body so as to compare and contrast it with the purity of soul. This kind of concentration assists in detaching emotionally from one's body.
- Influx of Karma - Every time the soul enjoys or suffers through the five senses (touch, taste, smell, sight and hearing) with attachment, aversion or ignorance, it attracts new karma. Practising this reflection, reminds the soul to be more careful.
- Stoppage of influx of Karma - In this reflection, one thinks about stopping evil thoughts and cultivates development of right knowledge that assists to control the wandering mind.
- Karma shedding - Under this reflection, one thinks about practising external and internal austerities to shed the previously accumulated karma. This assists in development of right discipline as a matter of routine habit.
- Universe - Universe consists of Souls, Matter, Medium of motion, Medium of Rest, Space and Time. To think of the nature and structure of universe helps one understand the complex dynamics of eternal modifications and work towards the goal of freeing the soul from the seemingly never ending changes.
- Difficulties in developing triple gems of Jainism - It is very difficult for the transmigrating soul in this world to develop the Right View, Right Knowledge and Right Conduct. Just like one cannot aspire to become a doctor or lawyer or engineer without going through the development process starting from the very basic skill set developments in primary and secondary schooling, spiritual development also needs to go through several stages or steps. Depending on one's current spiritual progress and situation, the challenges faced will differ. Working through the difficulties and applying practical solutions will assist one to continuously make improvements, thereby moving the soul to its goal of ultimate liberation.
- Difficulties in practising Jain Dharma - Jain Dharma is characterised by the following;
-
- Forbearance and Forgiveness
- Humility
- Straightforwardness
- Purity
- Truth
- Self-restraint, control of senses and mind
- External Penance
- Renunciation
- Neither attachment nor aversion
- Celibacy
- In this reflection, the practitioner thinks about the difficulties to practice all of these in the practical world and work through the challenges depending on one's current capabilities and circumstances.
Jains are encouraged to reflect on these thoughts with the following four virtues or value systems clearly in force. They are:
- Peace, love and friendship to all.
- Appreciation, respect and delight for the achievements of others.
- Compassion to souls who are suffering.
- Equanimity and tolerance in dealing with other's thoughts, words and actions.
Monasticism[link]
Main article: Jain monasticism
In India there are several Jain Monks, in categories like Acharya, Upadhyaya and Muni. Trainee ascetics are known as Ailaka and Ksullaka in the Digambara tradition. There are two categories of ascetics, Sadhu (monk) and Sadhvi (nun). They practice the five Mahavratas, three Guptis and five Samitis:
Five major vows (Mahavrata)
- Non-violence (Ahinsa): Non-violence in thought, word and deed so as not to cause harm to any living beings
- Truthfulness (Satya): Truth, which is (hita) beneficial, (mita) succinct, and (priya) pleasing. In other words, to speak the harmless truth
- Non-stealing (Astey): Not to take anything that has not been given to them willingly by the owner
- Chastity (Brahmacharya): Absolute purity of mind and body without indulging in sensual pleasure
- Non-possession (Aparigraha): Exercise no attachment or aversion to all people, places, and material objects around.
Three Restraints (Gupti)
- Control of the mind (Mangupti)
- Control of speech (Vachangupti)
- Control of body (Kayagupti)
Five Carefulness (Samiti)
- Carefulness while walking (Irya Samiti)
- Carefulness while communicating (Bhasha Samiti)
- Carefulness while eating (Eshana Samiti)
- Carefulness while handling their fly-whisks, water gourds, etc. (Adan Nikshepan Samiti)
- Carefulness while disposing of bodily waste matter (Pratishthapan Samiti)
Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and are nude. They practice non-attachment to the body and hence, wear no clothes. Svetambara monks and nuns wear white clothes. Svetambaras believe that monks and nuns may wear simple, unstitched white clothes as long as they are not attached to them. Jain monks and nuns travel on foot. They do not use mechanical transport.
Digambaras take up to eleven oaths. Digambara monks eat standing in one place in their palms without using any utensil. They eat only once a day.
Vegetarianism[link]
See also: Jain vegetarianism
Jains practice strict vegetarianism. The practice of vegetarianism is instrumental for the practice of non-violence and peaceful co-operative co-existence. Basic non-violence principles can be performed depending on one's capability and specific situation in terms of meeting one's life's demands and expectations. Jainism acknowledges that it is impossible to discharge one's duties without some degree of himsa/violence, but encourages to minimise as much as possible. Jains are strictly forbidden to use any leather or silk products since they are derived by killing of animals. Jains are prohibited from consuming root vegetables such as potatoes, garlic, onions, carrots, radishes, cassava, sweet potatoes, turnips, etc., as the plant needed to be killed in the process of accessing these prior to their end of life cycle. In addition, the root vegetables interact with soil and therefore contain far more micro-organisms than other vegetables. Also, the root vegetables themselves are composed of infinite smaller organisms, hence, consuming these vegetables would mean killing all those organisms as well. However, they consume rhizomes such as dried turmeric and dried ginger. Eggplants, pumpkins, etc. are also not consumed by some Jains owing to the large number of seeds in the vegetable, as a seed is a form of life. However, tomatoes are consumed normally as its seeds are difficult to be killed (even at high temperatures/pressures). Mushrooms, fungus and yeasts are forbidden because they are parasites, grow in non-hygienic environments and may harbor other life forms. Jains are also not supposed to consume food left overnight because of contamination by microbes. Most Jain recipes substitute potato with plantain.[48]
Apart from all these, Jains also follow strict diets on "teethees" - eleven days (six days in Shukla Paksha - New Moon Fortnight and five days in Krishna Paksha - Full Moon Fortnight). They do not eat greens on these days, also termed as not to touch / use any sharp cutting object in the kitchen. These days and are enlisted below: 1. All Bij - Second day of both the fortnights for aaradhna of "Samyag Darshan" 2. Pacham - Fifth day of Shukla Paksha & Agyiras - Eleventh day of both the fortnights for aaradhna of 14 Purva Gyan 3. Aatham - Eight day of both the fortnights, Chaudas - Fourteenth day of both the fortnights, Punam - Full Moon Day & Amavas - New Moon Day for aaradhna of Charitra. The reason for stricter dietary observance on these eleven days is that the probability of the finalisation of the next birth is much more on these days compared to the other days.
Fasting[link]
Main article: Fasting in Jainism
Fasting is one of the main tools for practicing external austerity. It helps to keep the demands of the body under check and assists in the focus on the upliftment of the soul. Spiritually, it helps in melting away the bad karmas accumulated by an individual. Depending on the capacity of an individual, there are several types of fasting:
- Complete fasting: giving up food and/or water completely for a period
- Partial fasting: eating less than you need to avoid hunger
- Vruti Sankshepa: limiting the number of items of food eaten
- Rasa Parityaga: giving up favourite foods
During fasting one immerses oneself in religious activities such as worshipping, serving the saints (monks and nuns & to be in their proximity), reading scriptures, meditating, and donating to the right recipients. However, before starting the fast Jains take a small vow known as pachhchhakhan. A person taking the vow is bound to it and breaking it is considered to be a bad practice. Also, one gets the fruits of a fast only if he is bound by pachhchhakhan.
Most Jains fast at special times, such as during festivals (known as Parva. Paryushana and Ashthanhika are the main Parvas, which occurs 3 times in a year) and on holy days (eighth & fourteenth days of the moon cycle). Paryushana is the most prominent festival (lasting eight days for Svetambara Jains and ten days for Digambaras) during the monsoon. Most people fast during Paryushana because even the trouble-causing planets Rahu and Ketu become calm and instead help the penancing devotees. However, a Jain may fast at any time of the year. Fasting is also one of the ways of absolving one's Spashta, Baddha, or Nidhatta karmas. Variations in fasts encourage Jains to do whatever they can to maintain self-control over their abdominal desires.
A unique ritual in this religion involves a holy fasting until death called sallekhana. Through this one achieves a death with dignity and dispassion as well as a reduction of negative karma to a great extent.[49] When a person is aware of approaching death, and feels that s/he has completed all duties, s/he willingly ceases to eat or drink gradually. This form of dying is also called Santhara. It can be as long as 12 years with gradual reduction in food intake. Considered extremely spiritual and creditable, with all awareness of the transitory nature of human experience, it has recently led to a controversy. In Rajasthan, a lawyer petitioned the High Court of Rajasthan to declare santhara illegal. Jains see santhara as spiritual detachment, a declaration that a person has finished with this world and now chooses to leave. This choice however requires a great deal of spiritual accomplishment and maturity as a pre-requisite.
Rules of complete fast[link]
A person undergoing a complete fast can eat nothing and drink only boiled water during his fasting period. The water has to be boiled for at least twenty minutes to ensure that all the living organisms in it die, and new ones don't form, thereby reducing the amount of himsa that a fasting person does. The unboiled water called sachet (meaning, full of life) is turned achet (meaning devoid of life) on boiling for this long. The boiled water remains achet for only five hours. So after five hours, it should be boiled again for at least another twenty minutes to ensure that it remains achet - fit for use to a fasting person.
All the different types of complete fasts mandate an individual to do the following steps stringently:
- Initiation of the fast: The person desiring to observe a fast on a particular day has to take the vow of Chauvihar (meaning not eat or drink anything till at least 48 minutes after sunrise the next day) at least 48 minutes before sunset the previous day.
- Ingestion during the fast: On the day of fast, he has to take the pachhchhakhan of fast. He cannot eat anything on the day of fast. However, he may drink boiled water after at least 48 minutes after sunrise till at most 48 minutes before sunset on that day. At least 48 minutes before the sunset, he should take the vow of Chauvihar.
- Termination of the fast: He can break his fast only on the day after the day of fast after at least 48 minutes after sunrise, after taking the vow of Naukaarsi, Porsi, Saadh Porsi, Parimuddhi, etc. Optionally, he may continue his fast for that day also by taking the necessary vows and following them.
Chauvihar Upvas, Chauvihar Chhath, Chauvihaar Attham, Chauvihaar Atthai, etc. are those types of complete fasts in which the person can't drink even boiled water during his fasting period. He can eat nothing and drink nothing. The process of initiation and termination of the fast is the same as mentioned above.
Types of fasting[link]
- Maasakshaman: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for thirty days.
- Atthai: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for eight days. Normally on 8th day of fasting, the success is celebrated by the community by organising a procession to the temple. On the 9th day, the person will stop fasting. The relatives and friends will come and help the person to break the fast.
- Tela/Athham: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for three days.
- Chhathh: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for two days.
- Upvas: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat anything for one whole day.
- Chauvihar Upvas: A person practising this form of fasting will not eat or drink anything for one whole day.
- Varshitap: This is a difficult form of fasting and demands a high level of skill and discipline; it is based on the story of Lord Rishabh not eating or drinking for 400 days. It is possible for people to try a variation of Varshitap by eating every alternate day, in general. They can eat only twice in every alternate day, but in between during some special calendar events, they may have to fast longer periods.
- Ayambil: A person eats only one kind of food per day, In Ayambil green vegetables, milk and milk products (including ghee),oil and/or salt (optional) are not to be used at all. Generally this kind of fast is done during a 9 day religious days called Ayambil Olee which come twice in a year i.e. in March/April and October/November.
- Ekashana: A person eats only once a day and generally they have lunch. For eating his meal, the person has to sit on the floor with his legs folded and the plate on an elevated position (maybe on another inverted plate, or on a patla). Once he starts his meal, he can't get up or even move till he finishes eating. Also, during the entire meal, his plate must not be moved at all, although the spoons and utensils on the plate can be moved. As in every type of fast they can only have food as well as water only till sunset which varies from day to day but in a yearly bases it's the same.
- Beyashana: A person eats only twice a day and generally they have lunch & dinner. All the rules of Ekashana apply to Beashana as well.
- Uunodri Tap: In this type of fast a person is allowed to have food 3 times a day but as soon as the food is served he/she has to remove one item which is his/her favorite, and also eat a morsel less than required to fill his/her stomach.
- Updhyan Tap: A person has to reside out of home for certain days (usually 51 days) and perform various rituals. He has to do upwas (single day fasting) followed by one ayambil, thereafter upwas and two ayambil and so on. It is the biggest tap as defined by Jain Monks.
- Navkarsi : One must take food or water forty-eight minutes after sunrise. Even the brushing of one’s teeth and rinsing of once mouth must be done after sunrise after the vow of Navkarsi.
- Porsi : Taking food or water three hours after sunrise.
- Sadh-porsi : Taking food or water four hours and thirty minutes after sunrise.
- Purimuddh: :Taking food or water six hours after sunrise.
- Navapad oli : During every year for 9 days starting from the 6/7th day of the bright fortnight until the full moon day in Ashwin and Chaitra months, one does Ayambil. This is repeated for the next four and half years. These ayambils can also be restricted to only one kind of food grain per day.
Worship and rituals[link]
Main article: Jain rituals and festivals
Every day most Jains bow and say their universal prayer, the Navakar Mantra which is also known variously as Panch Parmesthi Sutra, Panch Namaskar Sutra. Navakar Mantra is the fundamental prayer in Jainism and can be recited at any time of the day. Praying by reciting this mantra, the devotee bows in respect to liberated souls still in human form (Arihantas), fully liberated souls forever free from re-birth (Siddhas), spiritual leaders (Acharyas), teachers (Upadyayas) and all the monks (sarva sadhus) and nuns (sadhvis). By saluting them saying "namo namaha", Jains receive inspiration from them to follow their path to achieve true bliss and total freedom from the karmas binding their souls. In this main prayer, Jains do not ask for any favours or material benefits. This mantra serves as a simple gesture of deep respect toward beings that are more spiritually advanced. The mantra also reminds followers of the ultimate goal of reaching nirvana or moksha. Jains worship the icons of Jinas, Arihants, and Tirthankars, who have conquered their inner passions and attained divine consciousness, and study the scriptures of these liberated beings.
Jainism acknowledges the existence of powerful heavenly souls (Yaksha and Yakshini) that look after the well-beings of Tirthankarars. Usually, they are found in pair around the icons of Jinas as male (yaksha) and female (yakshini) guardian deities. Even though they have supernatural powers, these deities are also souls wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like most other souls. Over time, people started worshiping these deities as well.
The purpose of Jain worship or prayer is to break the barriers of the worldly attachments and desires, so as to assist in the liberation of the soul. Jain prayers and ritual in general include:
- Panch-kalyanak Pratishtha, Celebration of five auspicious events or milestones in the life of Thirthankars.
- Pratikramana, Repentance of sins.
- Samayika, Meditation for reducing attachments and aversions.
- Guru Vandana, Chaitya Vandana, and other sutras to honor ascetics.
There are basically two types of prayers:
- Dravya Puja (with symbolic offerings of material objects)
- Bhav Puja (with deep feeling and meditation)
The material offerings made during the prayer are merely symbolic and are for the benefit of the offeror. The action and ritual of offering keeps the mind in meditative state. The symbolism of prayer is so strong it assists the devotee to concentrate on the virtues of Arihantas and Thirthankaras. Above all, prayer is not performed with a desire for any material goal. Jains are clear that the Jinas reside in moksha (Siddha-loka, the permanent abode of the siddhas) and are completely detached from the world. Jains have built temples where idols of tirthankaras are revered. Rituals include offering of symbolic objects and praising Tirthankaras in song. There are some traditions within Jainism that have no prayer at all, and are focused on meditation through scripture reading and philosophical discussions.
Preparation for prayer[link]
- Body cleansing: A bath should be taken before the prayer. A clean body prepares and assists the mind to be in spiritual mode. This is also symbolic of washing one's dirt or karmas. In order to assist in the meditative process place saffron paste or sandal paste on ring finger and anoint the forehead. This may be applied to earlobes, neck and other acupressure parts of the body.
- Clothes: Simple, clean washed clothes are worn. White clothing is preferred. Traditionally, men wear non-stitched cloths (dhotis and khes).
Ashta Prakari Puja (Eight Symbolic Offering Prayer)[link]
These eight pujas are enlisted chronologically below
- Jal Puja (Water)
Water Symbolizes the life's ocean of birth, struggle and death. Every living being continuously travels through the cycles of birth, life, death and misery. This prayer reminds the devotee to live with honesty, truth, love and compassion toward all living beings.
- Chandan Puja (Sandal-wood)
Sandal wood paste symbolizes Right Knowledge. The devotee reflects on Right Knowledge with clear, proper understanding of reality from different perspectives.
- Pushpa Puja (Flower)
Flowers symbolize Right Conduct. The devotee remembers that conduct should be like a flower that provides fragrance and beauty to all living beings without discrimination.
- Deep Puja (Oil Lamp)
The flame of the oil lamp represents pure consciousness or a soul without any karmic bondage. The devotee is reminded to follow the five major vows so as to attain liberation.
- Dhup Puja (Incense)
The incense stick symbolizes renunciation. While burning itself, it provides fragrance to others. This reminds the devotee to live life for the benefit of others, which ultimately leads to liberation.
- Akshat Puja (Rice)
One cannot grow rice plants by seeding with household rice. Symbolically it means that rice is the last birth. With this prayer, the devotee strives to make all effort in this life to get liberation.
- Naivedya Puja (Homemade sweets, sugar, etc.)
With this prayer, the devotee strives to reduce or eliminate attachment.
- Fal Puja (Fruit - Coconut preferred)
Fruit symbolizes moksha or liberation. The devotee is reminded to perform duties without any expectation and have love and compassion for all living beings so as to attain the ultimate fruit - Moksha.
Dev Shastra Guru Puja (Prayer for Arihants/Siddhas, Scriptures, and Teachers)[link]
Invocation begins with Namokar Mantra and Chattari Mangalam. In this prayer the devotee bows to Siddhas, scriptures and monks who are on the path of Right View, Knowledge and Conduct. This prayer is done by taking three full cloves and holding one clove at a time between two ring fingers while keeping the clove head pointed forward while offering and reciting. First Clove: The devotees think of the Arihants/Siddhas/Thirthankaras, Scriptures and Teachers, so that they come into their thoughts.
Second Clove: The devotees take the next step of retaining the above three in their thoughts.
Third Clove: The devotees take the last step of physically requesting them to be near them so as to guide them through on the right path.
The offerings here are similar to the Ashta Prakari Puja with flowers replaced with yellow rice, tasty food with white coconut and fruit with almond in its shell.
Barah Bhavana (12 reflections of mind) is sung as a song. After that prayer of peace for all living beings recited followed by Namokar Mantra.
At the conclusion, Visarjan (closing) prayer is recited, which means knowingly or unknowingly if any mistakes are committed during the prayer please forgive.
Festivals[link]
Jain festivals are characterized by both internal and external celebrations. The internal celebration is through praying (expressing devotion to Jinas), practicing meditation, spiritual studies and renunciation.
- Paryushana is the most important festival among the Jain festivals.It is also known as Dashlakshan parva.It happens during late August/September commencing on the twelfth day of the fortnight of the waning moon cycle and ending in the fourteenth of the fortnight of the waxing moon cycle. This is generally a rainy season in Northern parts of India. During this 18 day period[50] Jain scholars and monks visit temples and explain the Jain philosophy. Jains during this period practice external austerities such as fasting, limiting their normal activities so as to reduce the harm to worms and insects that thrive during this season. At the conclusion of the festivities, a reflection on the past is encouraged, and Pratikraman is done for repentance of faults. Forgiveness is given to and asked for from all those considered.
- Mahavir Jayanti,[51] The birthday of Mahavir, the last Thirthankar is celebrated on the thirteenth day of the fortnight of the waxing moon, in the month of Chaitra. This day occurs in late March or early April on the Gregorian calendar. Lectures are held to preach the path of virtue. People meditate and offer prayers.
- Diwali is celebrated on the new moon day of Kartik, usually in late October or early November on the Gregorian calendar. On the night of that day, Mahavira, the last Tirthankara, attained Nirvana or deliverance and attained liberation from the bondage of all karmas. During the night of Diwali, holy hymns are recited and meditation is done on Mahavira. On the very second day of Diwali they celebrate their New Year.
- Ashadh Chaturdashi, The sacred commencement of Chaturmas takes place on the 14th day of the fortnight of the waxing moon of Ashad. The Jain monks and nuns remain where they happen to be for four months until the 14th day of Kartik Shukla. During these four months the monks give daily discourses, undertake religious ceremonies, etc.
- Shrutha panchami or Gyan Panchami is on the fifth day of the fortnight of the waxing moon of Kartik (the fifth day after Diwali). This day is devoted for pure knowledge. On this day books preserved in the religious libraries are cleaned and studied.
History[link]
 Jainism timeline
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
History
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Further information: Timeline of Jainism
Parshvanatha, the twenty-third Tirthankar, is the earliest Jain leader who can be reliably dated. As noted, however, Jain mythology asserts that the line of Tirthankars in the present era began with Rishabhdeva; moreover, Jains themselves believe that Jainism has no single founder, and that it has always existed and will always exist, although it is occasionally forgotten by humans. Emperor Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism after retiring. At an older age, Chandragupta renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple of Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self purifying Jain ritual of santhara i.e. fast unto death, at Shravana Belagola in Karnataka.
However, his successor, Emperor Bindusara, was a follower of a Hindu ascetic movement, Ajivika and distanced himself from Jain and Buddhist movements. Samprati, the grandson of Ashoka also embraced Jainism. Samrat Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monk Arya Suhasti Suri and he is known[citation needed] to have built 125,000 Jain Temples across India. Some of them are still found in towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain and Palitana. It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers & preachers to Greece, Persia & the Middle East to facilitate the spread of Jainism. But to date no research has been done in this area. Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta & Samprati are credited for the spread of Jainism in Southern India. Hundreds of thousands of Jain Temples and Jain Stupas were erected during their reign. But due to lack of royal patronage and its strict principles, along with the rise of Shankaracharya & Ramanujacharya, Jainism, once the major religion of southern India, began to decline.[2][3]
According to scholars, Parshvanath was a historical figure and lived in the 9th century BCE.[52][53] In the 6th century BCE, Vardhamana Mahavira became one of the most influential Jainism teachers. He built up a large group of disciples that learned from his teachings and followed him as he taught an ascetic doctrine in order to achieve enlightenment. The disciples referred to him as Jina, which means "the conqueror" and later his followers would use a derivation of this title to refer to themselves as Jains, a follower of the Jina.[54]
It is generally accepted that Jainism started spreading in south India from the 3rd century BCE. i.e. since the time when Badrabahu, a preacher of this religion and the head of the monks' community, came to Karnataka from Bihar.[55]
Kalinga (modern Orissa/Osiaji) was home to many Jains in the past. Rishabhnath, the first Tirthankar, was revered and worshipped in the ancient city Pithunda, capital of Kalinga. This was destroyed by Mahapadma Nanda when he conquered Kalinga and brought the statue of Rushabhanatha to his capital in Magadh. Rushabhanatha is revered as the Kalinga Jina. Ashoka's invasion and his Buddhist policy also subjugated Jains greatly in Kalinga. However, in the first century BCE Emperor Kharvela conquered Magadha and brought Rishabhnath's statue back and installed it in Udaygiri, near his capital, Shishupalgadh. The Khandagiri and Udaygiri caves near Bhubaneswar are the only surviving stone Jain monuments in Orissa. Earlier buildings were made of wood and were destroyed.
Deciphering of the Brahmi script by James Prinsep in 1788 enabled the reading of ancient inscriptions in India and established the antiquity of Jainism. The discovery of Jain manuscripts has added significantly to retracing Jain history. Archaeologists have encountered Jain remains and artifacts at Maurya, Sunga, Kishan, Gupta, Kalachuries, Rashtrakut, Chalukya, Chandel and Rajput as well as later sites. Several western and Indian scholars have contributed to the reconstruction of Jain history. Western historians like Bühler, Jacobi, and Indian scholars like Iravatham Mahadevan, worked on Tamil Brahmi inscriptions.
Geographical spread and influence[link]
This pervasive influence of Jain culture and philosophy in ancient Bihar gave rise to Buddhism. The Buddhists have always maintained that during the time of Buddha and Mahavira (who, according to the Pali canon, were contemporaries), Jainism was already an ancient, deeply entrenched faith and culture there. Over several thousand years, Jain influence on Hindu rituals has been observed and similarly the concept of non-violence has been incorporated into Hinduism. Certain Vedic Hindu holy books contain beautiful narrations about various Jain Tirthankaras (e.g. Lord Rushabdev). In the history of mankind, there have been no wars fought in the name of Jainism.
With 10 to 12 million followers,[56] Jainism is among the smallest of the major world religions, but in India its influence is much greater than these numbers would suggest. Jains live throughout India. Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Gujarat have the largest Jain populations among Indian states. Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Bundelkhand and Madhya Pradesh have relatively large Jain populations. There is a large following in Punjab, especially in Ludhiana and Patiala, and there used to be many Jains in Lahore (Punjab's historic capital) and other cities before the Partition of 1947, after which many fled to India. There are many Jain communities in different parts of India and around the world. They may speak local languages or follow different rituals but essentially they follow the same principles.
Outside India, the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, and East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda) have large Jain communities. The first Jain temple to be built outside India was constructed and consecrated in the 1960s in Mombasa, Kenya by the local Gujarati Jain community, although Jainism in the West mostly came about after the Oswal and Jain diaspora spread to the West in the late 1970s and 1980s. Jainism is presently a strong faith in the United States, and several dozen Jain temples have been built there, primarily by the Gujarati community. American Jainism accommodates all the sects. Smaller Jain communities exist in Nepal, South Africa, Japan, Singapore, Malaysia, Australia, Fiji, and Suriname. In Belgium, the very successful Indian diamond community in Antwerp, almost all of whom are Jain, opened the largest Jain temple outside India in 2010, to strengthen Jain values in and across Western Europe.
Denominations[link]
Main articles: Digambara and Svetambara
Timeline of various splits in Jainism
The Jain sangha is divided into two major sects, Digambara and Svetambara. The differences in belief between the two sects are minor and relatively obscure. Digambara monks do not wear clothes because they believe clothes, like other possessions, increase dependency and desire for material things, and desire for anything ultimately leads to sorrow. This also restricts full monastic life (and therefore moksa) to males as Digambaras do not permit women to be nude; female renunciates wear white and are referred to as Aryikas. Svetambara monastics, on the other hand, wear white seamless clothes for practical reasons, and believe there is nothing in the scriptures that condemns wearing clothes. Women are accorded full status as renunciates and are often called sadhvi, the feminine of the term often used for male munis, sadhu. Svetambaras believe women may attain liberation and that Mallinath, a Tirthankara, was female.[57]
The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of the Digambara mendicant Kundakunda (c. 2nd century AD).[58]
Digambaras believe that Mahavira remained unmarried, whereas Svetambaras believe Mahavira married a woman who bore him a daughter. The two sects also differ on the origin of Mata Trishala, Mahavira's mother. Digambaras believe that only the first five lines are formally part of the Namokar Mantra (the main Jain prayer), whereas Svetambaras believe all nine form the mantra. Other differences are minor and not based on major points of doctrine.
Excavations at Mathura revealed many Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire. Tirthankaras, represented without clothes, and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm are identified as Ardhaphalaka "half-clothed" and mentioned in some texts. The Yapaniyas, believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka, followed Digambara nudity, along with several Svetambara beliefs.
Svetambaras sub-sects include Sthanakavasi, Terapanthi, and Murtipujaka. Some revering statues while other Jains are aniconic. Svetambaras follow the 12 agama literature.
Digambara sub-sects include Bisapanthi, Kanjipanthi, Taranapanthi, Terapanthi and Srimadi.
Most simply call themselves Jains and follow general traditions rather than specific sectarian practices. In 1974 a committee with representatives from every sect compiled a new text called the Saman Suttam.
Symbolism[link]
Main article: Jain symbols
- Eight auspicious symbols (The Asta Mangalas). Their names are:
- Swastika - Signifies peace and well-being
- Shrivatsa - A mark manifested on the centre of the Jina's chest, signifying a pure soul.
- Nandyavartya - Large swastika with nine corners
- Vardhamanaka - A shallow earthen dish used for lamps, suggests an increase in wealth, fame and merit due to a Jina's grace.
- Bhadrasana - Throne, considered auspicious because it is sanctified by the blessed Jina's feet.
- Kalasha - Pot filled with pure water signifying wisdom and completeness
- Minayugala - Fish couple. It signfifies conquering over sexual desires
- Darpana - The mirror reflects one's true self because of its clarity
The holiest symbol is a simple swastika. A Jain swastika is normally associated with the three dots on the top accompanied with a crest and a dot.
Other important symbols are:
- Dharma Wheel on the palm of a hand, symbolizing Ahimsa
- 24 Lanchhanas (symbols) of the Tirthankaras. They are in the sequence of the 1st Thirthankara to the 24th are: bull, elephant, horse, monkey, redgoose, lotus flower, swastika, crescent of moon, crocodile, shade providing tree, rhinoceros, buffalo, pig, porcupine, vajra (a kind of weapon), deer, goat, fish, jar, tortoise, lilly flower, conch, snake and lion.
- Triple umbrellas, signifying protection through triple gems of Jainism. The triple umbrella are usually seen with Thirthankar idols
- Dreams of Trishala, 24th Tirthankar's mother prior to giving birth to Mahavir
Culture[link]
Contributions to Indian culture[link]
While Jains represent less than 1% of the Indian constitution and population, their contributions to culture and society in India are extremely significant. Jainism had a major influence in developing a system of philosophy and ethics that had a great impact on all aspects of Indian culture. Scholarly research and evidences have shown that philosophical concepts considered typically Indian – karma, ahimsa, moksa, reincarnation and the like – were propagated and developed by Jain teachers.[59]
Jains have also contributed to the culture and language of the Indian states Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat and Rajasthan. Jain scholars and poets authored Tamil classics of the Sangam period such as the Silappatikaram, Civaka Cintamani, Manimekalai and Nālaṭiyār. In the beginning of the medieval period, between the 9th and 13th centuries, Kannada authors were predominantly of the Jain and Lingayati faiths. Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature, which they dominated until the 12th century. Jains wrote about the Tirthankaras and other aspects of the faith. Adikavi Pampa is one of the greatest Kannada poets of all time and was the court poet of Chalukya king Arikesari, a Rashtrakuta feudatory, and is best known for his Vikramarjuna Vijaya. The works of Adikavi Pampa, Ponna and Ranna, collectively called the "three gems of Kannada literature", heralded the age of classical Kannada in the 10th century. The earliest known Gujarati text, Bharata-Bahubali Rasa, was written by a monk. Some important people in Gujarat's history were Acharya Hemachandra and his pupil, the Solanki ruler Kumarpal.
Jains are among the wealthiest Indians. They run numerous schools, colleges and hospitals and are important patrons of the Somapuras, the traditional temple architects in Gujarat. Jains have greatly influenced Gujarati cuisine. Gujarat is predominantly vegetarian (see Jain vegetarianism), and its food is mild as onions and garlic are omitted.
Jains encourage their monks to do research and obtain higher education. Jain monks and nuns, particularly in Rajasthan, have published numerous research monographs. This is unique among Indian religious groups and parallels Christian clergy. The 2001 census states that Jains are India's most literate community and that India's oldest libraries at Patan and Jaisalmer are preserved by Jain institutions.
Literature[link]
Jains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature. For example, almost all early Kannada literature and many Tamil works were written by Jains.
- Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars. The first autobiography in the ancestor of Hindi, Braj Bhasha, is called Ardhakathānaka and was written by a Jain, Banarasidasa, an ardent follower of Acarya Kundakunda who lived in Agra.
- Many Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject.
- Practically all the known texts in the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.
The oldest Jain literature is in Shauraseni and the Jain Prakrit (the Jain Agamas, Agama-Tulya, the Siddhanta texts, etc.). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tattvartha Sutra, Puranas, Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc.). "Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written by Acharya Rajendrasuri, is only one available Jain encyclopedia or Jain dictionary to understand the Jain Prakrit, Sanskrit, Ardha-Magadhi and other languages, words, their use and references within oldest Jain literature.
Jain literature was written in Apabhraṃśa (Kahas, rasas, and grammars), Standard Hindi (Chhahadhala, Moksh Marg Prakashak, and others), Tamil (Nālaṭiyār, Civaka Cintamani, Valayapathi, and others), and Kannada (Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Jain versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata are found in Sanskrit, the Prakrits, Apabhraṃśa and Kannada.
Jains literature exists mainly in Jain Prakrit, Sanskrit, Marathi, Tamil, Rajasthani, Dhundari, Marwari, Hindi, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam,[60] Tulu and more recently in English.
Constitutional status in India[link]
Main article: Legal status of Jainism as a distinct religion in India
In 2005 the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of mandamus towards granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court noted that Jains have been declared a minority in five states already, and left it to the rest of the States to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.[61]
In 2006 the Indian Supreme Court, in a judgment pertaining to an Indian state, opined that "Jain Religion is indisputably not a part of the Hindu Religion".[62]
Jainism and other religions[link]
Jains are not a part of the Vedic Religion (Hinduism).[63][64][65] Ancient India had two philosophical streams of thought: The Shramana philosophical schools, represented by Jainism movement, and the Brahmana/Vedic/Puranic schools represented by Vedanta, Vaishnava and other movements. Both streams have existed side by side for few thousands of years, influencing each other.[66]
The Hindu scholar, Lokmanya Tilak credited Jainism with influencing Hinduism and thus leading to the cessation of animal sacrifice in Vedic rituals. Bal Gangadhar Tilak has described Jainism as the originator of Ahimsa and wrote in a letter printed in Bombay Samachar, Mumbai:10 December 1904: "In ancient times, innumerable animals were butchered in sacrifices. Evidence in support of this is found in various poetic compositions such as the Meghaduta.
Swami Vivekananda[21][67] also credited Jainism as influencing force behind the Indian culture and said:
"What could have saved Indian society from the ponderous burden of omnifarious ritualistic ceremonialism, with its animal and other sacrifices, which all but crushed the very life of it, except the Jain revolution, which took its strong stand exclusively on chaste morals and philosophical truths? Jains were the first great ascetics and they did some great work. "Don't injure any and do good to all that you can, and that is all the morality and ethics, and that is all the work there is, and the rest is all nonsense." And then they went to work and elaborated this one principle all through, and it is a most wonderful ideal: how all that we call ethics they simply bring out from that one great principle of non-injury and doing good."
- Relationship between Jainism and Hinduism – According to the Encyclopedia Britannica Article on Hinduism,"...With Jainism, which always remained an independent Indian religion. Hinduism has some common concepts and practices that nowadays some Hindus tend to consider Jainism to have derived its roots from Hinduism.
- Independent Religion – From the Encyclopædia Britannica Article on Jainism: "...Along with Hinduism and Buddhism, it is one of the three most ancient Indian religious traditions still in existence. ...While often employing concepts shared with Hinduism and Buddhism, the result of a common cultural and linguistic background, the Jain tradition must be regarded as an independent phenomenon. It is an integral part of South Asian religious belief and practice, but it is not a Hindu sect or Buddhist heresy, as earlier scholars believed."[68] The author Koenraad Elst in his book, Who is a Hindu?, summarises on the similarities between Jains and the mainstream Hindu society.
- Monier Williams, in his article of Jainism, mentions that Jains outdo every other Indian sect in carrying the prohibition of violence to the greatest extent.[69]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ "Jain Symbol". Jainworld. http://www.jainworld.com/education/jainsymbol.htm. Retrieved 29 March 2012.
- ^ a b Helmuth von Glasenapp,Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.15 "Jainas consider that religion is eternal and imperishable. It is without beginning and it will never cease to exist. The darkness of error enveloping the truth in certain, periodically occurring aeons clears up again and again so that the brightness of the Jaina-faith can sparkle again anew."
- ^ a b Dundas, Paul. 2002. The Jains. P.12 "Jainism is believed by its followers to be everlasting, without beginning or end..."
- ^ Varni, Jinendra; Ed. Prof. Sagarmal Jain, Translated Justice T.K. Tukol and Dr. Narendra Bhandari. Samaṇ Suttaṁ. New Delhi: Bhagwan Mahavir memorial Samiti. “The Historians have so far fully recognized the truth that Tirthankara Mahavira was not the founder of the religion. He was preceded by many tirthankaras. He merely reiterated and rejuvenated that religion. It is correct that history has not been able to trace the origin of the Jaina religion; but historical evidence now available and the result of dispassionate researches in literature have established that Jainism is undoubtedly an ancient religion.” Pp. xii – xiii of introduction by Justice T.K.Tutkol and Dr. K.K. Dixit.
- ^ Helmuth von Glasenapp,Shridhar B. Shrotri. 1999. Jainism: an Indian religion of salvation. P.24. "Thus not only nothing, from the philosophical and the historical point of view, comes in the way of the supposition that Jainism was established by Parsva around 800 BCE, but it is rather confirmed in everything that we know of the spiritual life of that period."
- ^ Dundas, Paul. 2002. The Jains. P.17. "Jainism, then, was in origin merely one component of a north Indian ascetic culture that flourished in the Ganges basin from around the eighth or seventh centuries BCE."
- ^ Larson, Gerald James (1995) India’s Agony over religion SUNY Press ISBN 0-7914-2412-X. “There is some evidence that Jain traditions may be even older than the Buddhist traditions, possibly going back to the time of the Indus valley civilization, and that Vardhamana rather than being a “founder” per se was, rather, simply a primary spokesman for much older tradition. Page 27”
- ^ Joel Diederik Beversluis (2000) In: Sourcebook of the World's Religions: An Interfaith Guide to Religion and Spirituality, New World Library : Novato, CA ISBN 1-57731-121-3 Originating on the Indian sub-continent, Jainism is one of the oldest religion of its homeland and indeed the world, having pre-historic origins before 3000 BCE and the propagation of Indo-Aryan culture.... p. 81
- ^ Jainism by Mrs. N.R. Guseva p.44
- ^ Long, Jeffrey D. (2009). Jainism: An Introduction. New York: I.B. Tauris. pp. 45–56. ISBN 978-1-84511-626-2.
- ^ "Indian Census". Censusindia.gov.in. http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/India_at_glance/religion.aspx. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
- ^ Estimates for the population of Jains differ from just over four million to twelve million due to difficulties of Jain identity, with Jains in some areas counted as a Hindu sect. Many Jains do not return Jainism as their religion on census forms for various reasons such as certain Jain castes considering themselves both Hindu and Jain. The 1981 Census of India returned 3.19 million Jains. This was estimated at the time to be at least half the true number. There are an estimated 25,000-30,000 Jains in Europe (mostly in Britain), 20,000 in Africa, 45,000 plus in North America (from Dundas, Paul (2002). The Jains. Routledge. p. 271. ISBN 0-415-26606-8, 9780415266062. http://books.google.com/?id=5ialKAbIyV4C&pg=PA299&dq=jains+britain#v=onepage&q=jains%20britain&f=false. ) and 5,000 in the rest of Asia.
- ^ "Press Information Bureau, Government of India". Pib.nic.in. 2004-09-06. http://pib.nic.in/release/rel_print_page1.asp?relid=3724. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
- ^ "Census of India 2001". Censusindia.net. http://www.censusindia.net. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
- ^ The Jain Knowledge Warehouses: Traditional Libraries in India, John E. Cort, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 115, No. 1 (January – March, 1995), pp. 77–87
- ^ Buswell, Robert E. (2004) "Encyclopedia of Buddhism." p. 383
- ^ Book: Outlines of Jainism pg. 159, Author: S.Gopalan
- ^ Book: Outlines of Jainism pg. 163–164, Author: S.Gopalan
- ^ Book: Outlines of Jainism p. 164-165, Author: S.Gopalan
- ^ Tobias, Michael (1991). Life Force. The World of Jainism. Berkeley, California: Asian manush Press. pp. 6–7, 15. ISBN 0-89581-899-X.
- ^ a b Dulichand Jain (1998) Thus Spake Lord Mahavir, Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai, ISBN 81-7120-825-8 Page 15
- ^ Jain, Yogendra (2007). Jain Way of Life, A Guide to Compassionate, Healthy and Happy Living. Boston, MA: JAINA (Federation of Jain Associations of North America). ISBN 978-0-9773178-5-1.
- ^ a b c Mehta, T.U (1993) (DOC). Path of Arhat – A Religious Democracy. 63. Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha. http://www.ibiblio.org/jainism/database/BOOK/arhat.doc. Retrieved 2008-03-11.
- ^ Fisher, Mary Pat and Bailey, Lee W. An Anthology of Living Religions. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2008.
- ^ Kastenbaum, Robert (2003) "Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying " p. 491
- ^ Tattvartha Sutra
- ^ Dulichand Jain (1998) Thus Spake Lord Mahavir, Sri Ramakrishna Math Chennai, ISBN 81-7120-825-8 Page 69
- ^ Prof. S.A.Jain. Reality – English Translation of Sarvarthasiddhi by Srimat Pujyapadacharya, 2nd Edition, Chapter 7, Page 195.
- ^ The Jaina Path of Purification, Padmanabh S. Jaini, pg 246 footnote 8
- ^ Jainism: The World of Conquerors By Natubhai Shah Published 1998 Sussex Academic Press
- ^ Pramodaben Chitrabhanu, Jain symbols, Ceremonies and Practices
- ^ Singh, Ramjee (1993). Jaina perspective in philosophy and religion. Pārśvanātha śodhapīṭha granthamālā. Varanasi: Pujya Sohanalal Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha. ISBN 81-7054-084-4.
- ^ Kuhn, Hermann (2001). In: Karma, The Mechanism : Create Your Own Fate. Nevada: Crosswind Publishing.
- ^ Dr. H. V. Glasenapp, Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy, Pg 2
- ^ Zydenbos (2006)
- ^ . . .from Hindi jaina, from Sanskrit jinah "saint," lit. "overcomer," from base ji "to conquer," related to jaya "victory." etymonline.com entry
- ^ Hindi jaina, from Sanskrit jaina-, "relating to the saints", from jinaḥ, "saint, victor", from jayati, "he conquers". dictionary.com entry
- ^ Singh, Ramjee Dr. Jaina Perspective in Philosophy and Religion, Faridabad, Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha, 1993.
- ^ a b Jarl Charpentier: The History of the Jains, in: The Cambridge History of India, vol. 1, Cambridge 1922, p. 153; A.M. Ghatage: Jainism, in: The Age of Imperial Unity, ed. R.C. Majumdar/A.D. Pusalkar, Bombay 1951, p. 411-412; Shantaram Bhalchandra Deo: History of Jaina Monachism, Poona 1956, p. 59-60.
- ^ q
- ^ The Jaina Path of Purification, Pg 30 and 31, Padmanabh S. Jaini, University of California Press - ISBN 0-520-03459-7
- ^ Based on the Jain view of the Universe re the Avasarpini and Utsarpini eras, Final Liberation is only possible in the 3rd and 4th Eras of each of the latter. For further reading see 'The Jaina Path of Purification', P.S. Jaini mentioned previously.
- ^ [1].
- ^ Bhattacharyya, Haridas (2006). The Cultural Heritage of India. Kolkota: The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture. p. 154. ISBN 81-87332-48-4.
- ^ Titze, Kurt, Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998
- ^ "Foreword". Jain Yog. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh. 2004.
- ^ "blessings". Sambodhi. Aadarsh Saahitya Sangh. 2004.
- ^ "Jainism". Jainuniversity.org. http://www.jainuniversity.org/jainism.aspx. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
- ^ Kastenbaum, Robert. "Macmillan Encyclopedia of Death and Dying" (2003) pg. 492
- ^ First 8 days observed by Svetambaras and next 10 days followed by Digambaras
- ^ "Mahaveer Janma Kalyanak". JainNet. http://www.jainnet.com/festivals/mahaveer_janma_kalyanak.html. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
- ^ "Parshvanatha". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. http://search.eb.com/eb/article-9058576. Retrieved 2007-10-22.
- ^ Bowker, John (2000). "Parsva". The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t101.e5504. Retrieved 2007-10-22.
- ^ Jerry Bentley and Herbert Ziegler: "Traditions and Encounters", in: "State, Society, and the Quest for SAlvation in India" p187; McGrawHill, 1999
- ^ Jainism by Mrs. N.R. Guseva, p.51
- ^ Basic Faith Group Information
- ^ Anne Vallely; Guardians of the Transcendent: An Ethnography of a Jain Ascetic Community (page 15)
- ^ Gender and Salvation: Jaina Debates on the Spiritual Liberation of Women. Padmanabh S. Jaini University of California Press, 1991
- ^ Zydenbos, Robert J. (2006)
- ^ Banerjee, Satya Ranjan (2005). Prolegomena to Prakritica et Jainica. The Asiatic Society. p. 61. http://books.google.com/?id=cnxjAAAAMAAJ.
- ^ http://judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098[dead link]
- ^ (para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, Uttar Pradesh v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India)
- ^ J. L. Jaini, (1916) Jaina Law, Bhadrabahu Samhita, (Text with translation ) Arrah, Central jaina publishing House) " As to Jains being Hindu dissenters, and, therefore governable by Hindu law, we are not told this date of secession [...] Jainism certainly has a longer history than is consistent with its being a creed of dissenters from Hinduism." P.12-13
- ^ P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism"
- ^ Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 81-208-0815-0 “There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel to native religions of India and have contributed much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times.” Page 18
- ^ Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, World Wisdom, Inc ISBN 1-933316-22-5 "What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with vedic Hinduism known as sramana dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins". Page 141
- ^ Swami Vivekananda (1900) The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda, Volume 3, Buddhistic India] (Lecture delivered at the Shakespeare Club, Pasadena, California, on February 2, 1900)
- ^ Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. "Jainism – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105858/Jainism#cite. Retrieved 2010-09-01.
- ^ Cited in T.G. Kalghati, Jaina View of Life (Sholapur: Jaina Samskriti Samrakshaka Sangha, 1969) p.163
Further reading[link]
- Alsdorf, Ludwig. Jaina Studies: Their Present State and Future Tasks. Eng. tr. Bal Patil. Edited by Willem Bollée. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 1. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Amiel,Pierre. Les Jaïns aujourd'hui dans le monde Ed. L'Harmattan, Paris, 2003 translated in English and printed under the title "Jains today in the world" by Parshwanath Vidyapeeth, Varanasi,India, 2008
- Amiel,Pierre.B.A.-BA du Jaïnisme Editions Pardès,Grez sur Loing,2008
- Balbir, Nalini (Ed.) Catalogue of the Jain Manuscripts of the British Library. Set of 3 books. London: Institute of Jainology, 2006.
- Bollée, Willem. The Story of Paesi Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 2. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2005.
- Bollée, Willem. Vyavahara Bhasya Pithika. Prakrit text with English translation, annotations and exhaustive Index by Willem Bollée. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 4. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Caillat, Colette "La cosmologie jaïna" Ed. du Chêne, Paris 1981.
- Chand, Bool. "Mahavira-Le Grand héros des Jaïns" Maisonneuve et Larose, Paris 1998.
- Hynson, Colin. Discover Jainism. Ed. Mehool Sanghrajka. London: Institute of Jainology, 2007.
- Jain, Champat Rai (1929). Risabha Deva - The Founder of Jainism. K. Mitra, Indian Press, Allahabad. http://www.archive.org/stream/RisabhaDeva-TheFounderOfJainism/RisabhaDeva-TheFounderOfJainismByChampatRaiJain#page/n1/mode/2up.
- Jain, DuliChand. English version of "Baghawan Mahavir ki Vani" – Thus Spake Lord Mahavir. Chennai, Sri Ramakrishna Math, 1998.
- Jain, Duli Chandra (Ed.) Studies in Jainism. Set of 3 books. New York: Jain Stucy Circle, 2004.
- Jalaj, Jaykumar. The Basic Thought of Bhagavan Mahavir. Ed. Elinor Velázquez. (5th edition) Jaipur: Prakrit Bharati Academy, 2007.
- Joindu. Paramatmaprakasha. Apabhramsha text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 9. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2007.
- Joindu. Yogasara. Apabhramsha text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Satyanarayana Hegde. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 10. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2008.
- Kapashi, Vinod. Nava Smarana: Nine Sacred Recitations of Jainism. Ed. Signe Kirde. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2007.
- Kundakunda. Atthapahuda Prakrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 6. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Mardia, K.V. The Scientific Foundations of Jainism. Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, latest edition 2007. ISBN 81-208-0659-X (Jain Dharma ki Vigyanik Adharshila. Parsvanath Vidhyapitha, Varanasi. 2004. ISBN 81-86715-71-1).
- Mehta, T.U. Path of Arhat – A Religious Democracy, Volume 63, Faridabad: Pujya Sohanalala Smaraka Parsvanatha Sodhapitha, 1993.
- Nagendra Kr Singh, Indo-European Jain Research Foundation, Encyclopaedia of Jainism ISBN 81-261-0691-3, ISBN 978-81-261-0691-2
- Natubhai Shah, Jainism: The World of Conquerors, Published by Sussex Academic Press, 1998, ISBN 1-898723-97-4, ISBN 978-1-898723-97-4
- Patil, Bal. Jaya Gommatesha. Foreword by Colette Caillat. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Prabhacandra. Tattvarthasutra. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Preface by Nalini Balbir. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 7. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2008.
- Pujyapada. Samadhitantra. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 5. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Pujyapada. Istopadesha. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Ed. Manish Modi. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 14. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2007.
- Rankin, Aidan. 'The Jain Path: Ancient Wisdom for the West.' Winchester/Washington DC: O Books, 2006.
- Reymond Jean-Pierre "L'Inde des Jaïns" Ed. Atlas 1991.
- Roy, Ashim Kumar. A history of the Jains, New Delhi: Gitanjali Publishing House, 1984.
- Samantabhadra. Ratnakaranda Sravakacara. Sanskrit text with Hindi tr. by Jaykumar Jalaj. Preface by Paul Dundas. Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 3. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalay, 2006.
- Sangave Vilas. 'Le Jaïnisme-Philosophie et Religion de l'Inde" Editions Trédaniel Paris 1999.
- Todarmal. Moksamarga Prakashaka. Jaipur: Todarmal Smarak Trust, 1992.
- Vijayashri. Sachitra Pacchis Bol. Agra: Mahasati Kaushalya Devi Prakashan Trust, 2005.
External links[link]
| Find more about Jainism on Wikipedia's sister projects: | |
 |
Definitions and translations from Wiktionary |
 |
Images and media from Commons |
- Jainism at the Open Directory Project
- Jainworld - World's oldest Jain site
- Jainism at Florida International University
- Ahimsa Times World's Leading Jain News e-letter
- Simplified Jainism in University of Michigan
- Jain University
|
||||||||||||||
|
|||||
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
http://wn.com/Jainism
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Jainismus
http://es.wn.com/Jainismo
http://ru.wn.com/Джайнизм
http://cs.wn.com/Džinismus
http://pt.wn.com/Jainismo
http://pl.wn.com/Dźinizm
http://hi.wn.com/जैन धर्म
http://it.wn.com/Giainismo
http://id.wn.com/Jainisme
http://nl.wn.com/Jaïnisme
http://fr.wn.com/Jaïnisme
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Narendra Modi નરેન્દ્ર મોદી |
|
|---|---|
 |
|
| Chief Minister of Gujarat | |
| Incumbent | |
| Assumed office 7 October 2001 |
|
| Governor | Dr. Kamla Beniwal |
| Preceded by | Keshubhai Patel |
| Constituency | Maninagar |
| Personal details | |
| Born | (1950-09-17) 17 September 1950 (age 61) Vadnagar, Gujarat, India |
| Political party | Bharatiya Janata Party |
| Residence | Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India |
| Alma mater | Gujarat University[1] |
| Religion | Hinduism |
| Website | Narendra Modi |
| As of 9 March, 2009 Source: Government of Gujarat |
|
Narendra Damodardas Modi (Gujarati: નરેન્દ્ર મોદી; born 17 September 1950[1]) is the current Chief Minister of the Indian state of Gujarat. Born in a middle class family in Vadnagar, he was the third of six children born to Damodardas Mulchand Modi and his wife Heeraben.[2] He has been a member of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) since childhood also having interest in politics since adolescence. He holds a master's degree in political science. In 1998, he was chosen by L. K. Advani, the leader of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), to direct the election campaign in Gujarat as well as Himachal Pradesh.
He became Chief Minister of Gujarat in October 2001, promoted to the office at a time when his predecessor Keshubhai Patel had resigned, following the defeat of BJP in the by-elections. His tenure as chief minister of Gujarat began on 7 October 2001, and he is the longest serving Chief Minister of the state of Gujarat.[3] In July 2007 he became the longest serving Chief Minister in Gujarat's history when he had been in power for 2063 days continuously.[4] He was elected again for a third term[5] on 23 December 2007 in the state elections, which he had cast as a "referendum on his rule".[6][7]
Contents |
Personal life[link]
Modi was born in a middle class family in Vadnagar in Mehsana district of what was then Bombay State, India.[8] During the Indo-Pak war in the mid sixties, even as a young boy, he volunteered to serve the soldiers in transit at railway stations.[9] As a young man, he joined the Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad, a student organisation and was involved in the anti-corruption Nav Nirmāṇ ("Reconstruction") Movement. After working as a full time organiser for the organisation, he was later nominated as its representative in the Bharatiya Janata Party.[10] As a teenager Modi used to run a tea stall with his brother.[11] Modi completed his schooling in Vadnagar. He earned a masters degree in political science from Gujarat University.[12]
Early activism and politics[link]
Modi was a pracharak (campaigner) in the RSS during his university years.[12][13] He took up the challenging task of energising the party cadres in right earnest. In partnership with Shankersinh Vaghela, Modi set about creating a strong cadre base in Gujarat. In the initial period, Vaghela was seen as a mass leader, while Modi was recognised as a master strategist.
The party started gaining political mileage and formed a coalition government at the centre in April 1990. This partnership fell apart within a few months, but the BJP came to power with a two-thirds majority on its own in Gujarat in 1995. During this period, Modi was entrusted with the responsibility of organising two crucial national events, the Somnath to Ayodhya Rath Yatra (a political rally through India on a converted Toyota van) of L.K. Advani and a similar march from Kanyakumari (the southernmost part of India) to Kashmir in the North. After the exit of Shankarsingh Vaghela from the BJP, Keshubhai Patel was made Chief Minister while Narendra Modi was sent to New Delhi as a General Secretary of the Party.
In 1995, Modi was appointed the National Secretary of the party and given the charge of five major states in India. In 1998, he was promoted as the General Secretary (Organization), a post he held until October 2001. In 2001, Narendra Modi was chosen by the party to be the Chief Minister of Gujarat after the removal of chief minister Keshubhai Patel.
Tenure as Chief Minister of Gujarat[link]
Personality[link]
Modi is known for leading a frugal lifestyle. He has a personal staff of just three. He is known to be a workaholic Chief Minister and an introvert.[14] He ordered the demolition of many Hindu temples that were built without proper government sanction which earned him the ire of VHP[11] He is a crowd puller as a speaker. Modi has also tried to turn his image from an Hindu Nationalist politician to an image of able administrator. He wears business suits and is improving his command over the English language.[15]
Awards and recognitions[link]
Modi was awarded Gujarat Ratna by Shri Poona Gujarati Bandhu Samaj at Ganesh Kala Krida Manch on celebration of centenary year.[16]
Development of Gujarat[link]
As a Chief Minister, Modi started various 'yojanas' or plans. This includes:
- Panchamrut Yojana,[17][18][19] a five-pronged strategy for an integrated development of the state,
- Sujalam Sufalam, a scheme to create a grid of water resources in Gujarat in an innovative step towards water conservation and its appropriate utilisation.
- Krishi Mahotsav – agricultural research labs for the land
- Chiranjeevi Yojana – To reduce infant mortality rate
- Matru Vandana – Providing preventive and curative services under the Reproductive and Child Health Programme
- Beti Bachao – Campaign against female infanticide to improve sex ratio
- Jyotigram Yojana – Provide electricity to every village
- Karmayogi Abhiyan – To educate and train government employees
- Kanya Kelavani Yojana – To encourage female literacy and education
- Balbhog Yojana – Midday meal scheme for students to encourage school attendance from poor backgrounds.[20]
Vibrant Gujarat[link]
Main article: Vibrant Gujarat
Vibrant Gujarat is a biennial Global Investors' Summit held by the Government of Gujarat in Gujarat, India. The event is aimed at bringing together business leaders, investors, corporations, thought leaders, policy and opinion makers; the summit is advertised as a platform to understand and explore business opportunities in the State of Gujarat. the event has been held continuously since 2003.
Gujarat earthquake[link]
Main article: 2001 Gujarat Earthquake
The biggest challenge which he had to face when he took over as the Chief Minister, was the reconstruction and rehabilitation of the areas affected by the massive Gujarat Earthquake of January 2001.
Gujarat violence[link]
Main article: 2002 Gujarat violence
On 27 February 2002, a train was burned by a Muslim mob in the town of Godhra leading to 59 deaths, most of them Hindu pilgrims and activists returning from the holy city of Ayodhya.[21] Riots broke out in the state after it was suspected to be caused by Muslims, leading to 1180 deaths, many of them Muslims. Modi administration was accused of inaction over the riots and for encouraging them.[15] As an aftermath of the riots, there were calls for Modi to resign from his position as chief minister of Gujarat. The opposition parties stalled the national parliament over the issue. Even Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) and Telugu Desam Party (TDP), allies of the BJP, asked for Modi's resignation.[22][23] Modi submitted his resignation to the Governor and recommended the dissolution of the 10th Gujarat Legislative Assembly.[24][25] In the following state re-elections the BJP, led by Modi, won 127 seats in the 182-member assembly.
In April 2009, the Supreme Court of India appointed a special team of investigators to look into the role Modi had played in the alleged anti-Muslim conspiracy.[15] The team was appointed in response to the complaint of zakia Jafri, the widow of ex-Congress MP Ehsan Jafri, who was murdered in the riots.[26] In December 2010, a Supreme Court-appointed Special Investigation Team (SIT) in its report to the Supreme Court seeking answers pertaining to the Ehsan Jafri case, submitted that they had found no evidence against Narendra Modi.[27]
However in February 2011, the Times of India reported that a confidential report from the SIT indicted Modi on several counts of alleged complicity in the Gujarat riots of 2002.[28] Most other sources have noted that the SIT report does not indict Modi for the riots due to lack of evidence.[29][30] The Indian Express too said the report did not find any Modi involvement in the violence, though it did accuse him of watering down the seriousness of the situation.[31] According to the Hindu, the report not only found that Modi tried to water down the seriousness of the situation, but Modi also implicitly justified the killings of Muslims, and failed to condemn the attacks on them.[32] The Bharatiya Janata Party demanded an investigation into the publication of the report, claiming the leak was politically motivated.[33]
The apex court refused to pass any order on the case and referred it to the Ahmedabad magistrate for a decision.[34] In April 2012, a Special Investigation Team found absolved Modi of any involvement in the Gulberg massacre, arguably the worst episode of the riots.[35]. On 7 May 2012, a Supreme Court-appointed amicus curiae, Raju Ramachandran observed that Modi can be prosecuted under sections 153 A (1) (a) & (b), 153 B (1), 166 and 505 (2) of the Indian Penal Code for promoting enmity among different groups during the 2002 Gujarat riots.[36]. However the amicus report has been criticised by the Special Investigation Team for relying heavily on the testimony of a perjurer[37].
2007 elections[link]
Modi made a speech at Mangrol in which he justified the alleged fake encounter of Sohrabuddin Sheikh, During the election campaign In response to Sonia Gandhi's speech calling him a "merchant of death",[38] and referred to Sohrabuddin's killing. For this speech the Election Commission of India, a constitutional body governing election proceedings in India, cautioned Modi as it considered it as indulging in an activity which may aggravate existing differences between different communities.[39] Modi won the election and continued his post as the Chief Minister Of Gujarat, he won with majority of votes of 122 seats out of 182 total assembly seats.[40]
Conflicts with Governor Kamla Beniwal[link]
On 25 August 2011 Gujarat Governor Kamla Beniwal appointed Justice R A Mehta to the post of Lokyukta of Gujarat, a critical anti-corruption post that had been lying vacant since 2003. Justice R A Mehta was recommended for the post by the Chief Justice of the Gujarat High Court in June. Since Governor Beniwal had made this decision without consulting and getting the approval of the chief minister and his council of ministers, the action angered Narendra Modi and his BJP party.[41]
This marked the beginning of a strained relationship between Modi and the Governor. On 25 September 2011, Narendra Modi accused the Governor of running a parallel government in the state supported by the Congress. He demanded that she be recalled back.[42] He also later accused her of delaying the progress of bills by not passing them.
The decision of the governor in the appointment of R A Mehta was challenged in the high court by the Modi government. The two member high court bench gave a split verdict on 10 October 2011. Later, a third member upheld the governor's decision in January 2012.[43]
Foreign visits[link]
As the Chief Minister of the Gujarat State, to attract foreign investment in the state, Narendra Modi has made visits to foreign countries, including China and Singapore.
Narendra Modi made his first China visit in 2007 to invite investors Vibrant Gujarat Global Investor Summit,[44] and second visit in November 2011. One month after the second visit to China, the Chinese Government released 13 Diamond traders from India jailed by the Shenzhen Customs, which the Chief Minister described as the consequece of his diplomatic efforts and statesmanship.[45]
In 2005 Narendra Modi was denied of diplomatic visa to the United States, in addition to this visa denial, he was also revoked from his already granted B-1/B-2 visa.[46]
Sadbhavna Mission[link]
In the late 2011-early 2012 Narandra Modi practised a series of fasts in the name of Sadbhavna Mission. The mission started on 17 September 2011 in Ahmedabad with 3 day fast with a view to strengthen the atmosphere of peace, unity and harmony in the state. He observed total 36 fasts in 26 districts, 8 cities including Ahmedabad.[47]
Views and opinions[link]
Modi's position on terrorism[link]
On 18 July 2006 Modi delivered a speech criticising Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh "for his reluctance to revive anti-terror legislations" like the Prevention of Terrorism Act. He asked the Centre to empower states to invoke tougher laws in the wake of the blasts in Mumbai.[48] Quoting Modi:
| “ | Terrorism is worse than a war. A terrorist has no rules. A terrorist decides when, how, where and whom to kill. India has lost more people in terror attacks than in its wars.[48] | ” |
Narendra Modi has frequently commented that if the BJP came to power at the Centre, they will honour the 2004 Supreme Court judgement to hang Afzal Guru.[49] Afzal was convicted of terrorism in the 2001 Indian Parliament attack in 2004 by the Supreme Court of India and is in Tihar Jail.[50]
On account of the November 2008 Mumbai attacks, on Thursday 27 November, Narendra Modi held a meeting to discuss waterfront security along the coastline.[51] The meeting decided to ask the Central government to urgently sanction the following:
- Increase the number of police stations along the coast to 50 (from 10)
- Increase the number of police to 1500 from 250
- 30 modern high-speed surveillance boats.
The 30 coastal boats, under construction at Goa's shipbuilding yard, will have the capacity to run at the speed of 25 nautical miles per hour. These are being manufactured under the Centre's Rs 58-crore grant for coastal security.[51]
Views on criticism of Modi's governance[link]
In 2003, when Narendra Modi was asked about the conflict of his dreams for Gujarat's future with international criticism of his past activities, Modi said,[52]
| “ | Yet, no one has asked this question to the USA after 9/11. Delhi is developing fast – no one has asked this question to Delhi after 1984. If it does not matter to Delhi and USA, why should it matter to Gujarat? | ” |
Modi's decision to link Gujarat's violence with the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the US drew criticism from some observers, who contrasted it with the then Deputy Prime Minister L K Advani's unpleasant apology for Gujarat in London a year ago.[52] Modi responded to this criticism by The Guardian,[52]
| “ | I have not read and I would not like to read. But thank you for people spending time on me | ” |
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ a b "Narendra Modi – Biography". Moneycontrol. Archived from the original on 27 April 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090427085814/http://www.moneycontrol.com/biography/Narendra_Modi/550. Retrieved 5 April 2009.
- ^ Jose, Vinod. "The Emperor Uncrowned". Delhi Press. http://caravanmagazine.in/Story.aspx?Storyid=1315&StoryStyle=FullStory. Retrieved 17 March 2012.
- ^ "Narendra Modi". http://legislativebodiesinindia.nic.in/States/Gujarat/loh.htm. Retrieved 28 March 2010.
- ^ Agencies. "Modi becomes longest serving CM of Gujarat". The Indian Express. http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=87512. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
- ^ "Modi begins new term in Gujarat". London: BBC News. 25 December 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7159756.stm. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
- ^ "Hindu Leader Begins 3rd Term in Gujarat". ABC News. http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=4049443. Retrieved 7 May 2008. [dead link]
- ^ "Narendra Modi begins third innings as Gujarat CM". The Times of India. 25 December 2007. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Modi_begins_third_innings_as_Gujarat_CM/articleshow/2650589.cms. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
- ^ Why fasting is no big deal for Narendra Modi, Rediff, 16 September 2011, accessed on 4 February 2012
- ^ Life and Career: An Overview Official Website
- ^ "Biography – Narendra Modi". http://www.narendramodi.org/bio.htm. Retrieved 8 May 2008.
- ^ a b On Race Course road? Times of India, 18 Sep 2011, 05.46 am IST
- ^ a b "Modi proves to be an astute strategist". The Hindu (Chennai, India). 23 December 2007. http://www.hindu.com/thehindu/holnus/000200712231550.htm.
- ^ "Profile: Narendra Modi". BBC News. 23 December 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1958555.stm. Retrieved 19 May 2010.
- ^ The Hawk In Flight, Outlook India, 24 Dec 2007, http://www.outlookindia.com/article.aspx?236315
- ^ a b c Sengupta, Somini (28 April 2009). "Shadows of Violence Cling to Indian Politician". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/04/29/world/asia/29india.html. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
- ^ "Narendra Modi to be presented 'Gujarat Ratna' today". The Times of India. 18 March 2012. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-03-18/pune/31207124_1_gujarati-community-centenary-year-kondhwa. Retrieved 23 March 2012.
- ^ "Modi invites investment in Gujarat". Press Trust of India. Expressindia. 11 January 2003. http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=18327. Retrieved 5 April 2009.
- ^ "Modi Steals The Show At Pravasi Divas". The Financial Express. 12 January 2003. http://www.financialexpress.com/news/modi-steals-the-show-at-pravasi-divas/67951/0. Retrieved 5 April 2009.
- ^ "With Panchamrut, Modi targets 10.2% Growth". The Financial Express. 9 June 2003. http://www.financialexpress.com/news/with-panchamrut-modi-targets-10.2-growth/81673/. Retrieved 5 April 2009.
- ^ Patel, Parbat. "Message By Hon. State Minister of Health and Family Welfare". http://www.gujhealth.gov.in/minister-parbatbhai-patel.htm. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
- ^ "Godhra train fire accidental: Report". Rediff.com. http://www.rediff.com/news/2005/jan/17godhra.htm. Retrieved 18 September 2011.
- ^ "Gujarat Cabinet puts off decision on elections". The Tribune (India). 2002. http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020418/main1.htm. Retrieved 9 May 2006.
- ^ "Congress demands Modi's resignation over Bannerjee report". United News of India. http://www.rediff.com/news/2006/mar/03godhra.htm. Retrieved 17 November 2007.
- ^ "Modi resigns; seeks Assembly dissolution". The Hindu. 2002. http://www.thehindubusinessline.com/2002/07/20/stories/2002072002640100.htm. Retrieved 9 May 2006.
- ^ "Gujarat Chief Minister Narendra Modi resigns; assembly dissolved". Rediff.com. http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/jul/19guj.htm. Retrieved 17 November 2007.
- ^ Mahapatra, Dhananjay (31 July 2009). "SC rejects Modi govt's plea to stall SIT probes". Times of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/NEWS/India/SC-not-to-stall-probe-on-02-riots/articleshow/4839947.cms. Retrieved 25 August 2009.
- ^ Mahapatra, Dhananjay (3 December 2010). "SIT clears Narendra Modi of wilfully allowing post-Godhra riots". The Times Of India. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/SIT-clears-Narendra-Modi-of-wilfully-allowing-post-Godhra-riots/articleshow/7031569.cms#ixzz1721JAJuI.
- ^ "SIT findings ensure Narendra Modi can't shake off riot taint". The Times Of India. 4 February 2011. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/SIT-findings-ensure-Narendra-Modi-cant-shake-off-riot-taint/articleshow/7421365.cms.
- ^ "BJP demands probe into SIT report leak | Ahmedabad, World Snap News". News.worldsnap.com. http://news.worldsnap.com/india/bjp-demands-probe-into-sit-report-leak-100008.html. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
- ^ The rise and rise of tomorrow’s Prime Minister Narendra Modi Sunday Guardian – 7 November 2011
- ^ Narendra Modi not involved in Gujarat riots: SIT report Indian Express – 4 February 2011
- ^ Subrahmaniam, Vidya (4 February 2011). "SIT: Modi tried to dilute seriousness of riots situation". The Hindu (Chennai, India). http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article1154007.ece.
- ^ BJP wants leak of SIT report investigated The Hindu – 5 February 2011
- ^ 'God is Great!' Tweets a Relieved Modi Outlook – 12 September 2011
- ^ It's official: Modi gets clean chit in Gulberg massacre Daily Pioneer – 10 April 2012
- ^ Proceed against Modi for Gujarat riots: amicus The Hindu - 7 May 2012
- ^ SIT rejects amicus curiae's observations against Modi Hindu -10 May 2012
- ^ Agencies (8 December 2007). "Sonia's 'merchants of death' was aimed at Modi: Cong". The Indian Express. http://www.expressindia.com/latest-news/Sonias-merchants-of-death-was-aimed-at-Modi-Cong/248175/. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
- ^ "Election Commission Official Notice to Mr.Narendra Modi" (PDF). http://eci.nic.in/eci_main/press/current/NOTICETO%20CM%20GUJARAT.pdf. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
- ^ "BJP adds 5 seats in Gujarat Assembly by-polls". Deccan Herald. 14 September 2009. http://www.deccanherald.com/content/25090/banner-300x250.swf. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
- ^ Delhi, New (2 September 2011). "Gujarat Lokayukta controversy hots up". The Hindu (Chennai, India). http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2418006.ece. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
- ^ Dasgupta, Manas (25 September 2011). "Beniwal helping Congress run parallel government in Gujarat, says Modi". The Hindu (Chennai, India). http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2484805.ece. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
- ^ "Lokayukta: Modi in apex court after HC upholds Guv decision". The Indian Express. 18 January 2012. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/lokayukta-modi-in-apex-court-after-hc-upholds-guv-decision/901067. Retrieved 19 January 2012.
- ^ Modi, Narendra. "Foreign Visits". narendramodi.in. http://www.narendramodi.in/pages/foreign-visits. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ "China frees 13 diamond traders, Narendra Modi pats his own back". Mumbai Mirror. http://www.mumbaimirror.com/index.aspx?page=article§id=3&contentid=201112082011120802471534470e816ce. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ Indiatimes, News Network (18 March 2005). "No entry for Modi into US: visa denied". The Times of India. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2005-03-18/india/27866126_1_business-visa-gujarat-riots-immigration-and-nationality-act. Retrieved 3 February 2012.
- ^ "CM thanks people of Gujarat for giving huge support to Sadbhavna Mission". deshgujarat.com. http://www.narendramodi.in/news/news_detail/1970. Retrieved 18 February 2012.
- ^ a b "Mahatma on lips, Modi fights Centre". The Telegraph (Kolkota, India). 19 July 2006. http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060719/asp/nation/story_6496620.asp. Retrieved 9 May 2008.
- ^ "Now, Amar Singh says Afzal Guru must be hanged". The Indian Express. 4 November 2008. http://www.indianexpress.com/news/Now--Amar-Singh-says-Afzal-Guru-must-be-hanged/380948. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
- ^ Indo-Asian News Service – Afzal Guru's guilty verdict[dead link]
- ^ a b "Modi wants 3-layer ring to secure coast". The Times of India. 28 November 2008. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Ahmedabad/Modi_wants_3-layer_ring_to_secure_coast/articleshow/3766781.cms. Retrieved 17 September 2011.
- ^ a b c "Modi views on 9/11". The Times Of India. 19 August 2003. http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/Violence-wont-matter-to-Gujarat-Modi/articleshow/137933.cms. Retrieved 5 October 2011.
External links[link]
 |
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Narendra Modi |
- Official
- @narendramodi Official & verified Twitter Account
- Narendra Modi Official website
- Narendra Modi Personal blog
- Other
| Preceded by Keshubhai S. Patel |
Chief Minister of Gujarat 6 October 2001 – present |
Succeeded by incumbent |
|
|||||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Modi, Narendra |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Indian politician |
| Date of birth | 1950-09-17 |
| Place of birth | Vadnagar, Gujarat, India |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Narendra_Modi
Related pages:
http://de.wn.com/Narendra Modi
http://hi.wn.com/नरेन्द्र मोदी
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narendra_Modi
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
More Videos
Wiki Summary
Jainism ( /ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm/; Sanskrit: जैनधर्म - Jainadharma, Tamil: சமணம் - Samaṇam Kannada: ಜೈನ ಧರ್ಮ - Jaina Dharma), is an Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence towards all living beings. Its philosophy and practice emphasize the necessity of self-effort to move the soul towards divine consciousness and liberation. Any soul that has conquered its own inner enemies and achieved the state of supreme being is called a jina ("conqueror" or "victor"). The ultimate status of these perfect souls is called siddha. Ancient texts also refer to Jainism as shramana dharma (self-reliant) or the "path of the niganthas" (those without attachments or aversions).
Jain doctrine teaches that Jainism has always existed and will always exist, although historians date the foundation of the organized or present form of Jainism to sometime between the 9th and the 6th century BCE. Like most ancient Indian religions, Jainism may have its roots in the Indus Valley Civilization, reflecting native spirituality prior to the Indo-Aryan migration into India. Other scholars suggested the shramana traditions were separate and contemporaneous with Indo-Aryan religious practices of the historical Vedic religion.
