- published: 03 Feb 2012
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- author: shenryyr2
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- Absolute monarchy
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Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire (German: Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling Kaisertum Österreich) was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867 to 1918) was itself dissolved by the victors at the end of World War I and broken into separate new states.
The term "Austrian Empire" is also used for the Habsburg possessions before 1804, which had no official collective name, although Austria is more frequent; the term of Austria-Hungary has also been used.[citation needed]
The Austrian Empire was founded by the Habsburg monarch Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (who became Emperor Francis I of Austria), as a state comprising his personal lands within and outside of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.
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Austro-Prussian War
The Austro-Prussian War or Seven Weeks' War (in Germany also known as German War, Seven Weeks War, Unification War, German–German War, German Civil War or Fraternal War) was a war fought in 1866 between the German Confederation under the leadership of the Austrian Empire and its German allies on one side and the Kingdom of Prussia with its German allies and Italy on the other, that resulted in Prussian dominance over the German states. In the Italian unification process, this is called the Third Independence War.
The major result of the war was a shift in power among the German states away from Austrian and towards Prussian hegemony, and impetus towards the unification of all of the northern German states in a Kleindeutschland that excluded Austria. It saw the abolition of the German Confederation and its partial replacement by a North German Confederation that excluded Austria and the South German states. The war also resulted in the Italian annexation of the Austrian province of Venetia.
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Basra Vilayet
The Vilayet of Basra (Ottoman language: ولايت بصره, Vilâyet-i Basra) was a vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. It was a vilayet from 1875 to 1880, and again after 1884, when it was recreated from the southern sanjaks of the Vilayet of Baghdad. It covered an area stretching from Nasiriyah and Amarah in the north to Qatar and Hufuf in the south.
At the beginning of the 20th century it reportedly had an area of 16,482 square miles (42,690 km2), while the preliminary results of the first Ottoman census of 1885 (published in 1908) gave the population as 200,000. The accuracy of the population figures ranges from "approximate" to "merely conjectural" depending on the region from which they were gathered.
The capital of the vilayet, Basra, was an important military centre, with a permanent garrison of 400 to 500 men, and was home to the Ottoman navy in the Persian gulf.
Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Basra". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Basra.
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Bessarabia
Bessarabia (Romanian: Basarabia; Russian: Бессарабия Bessarabiya, Ukrainian: Бессарабія Bessarabiya) is a historical term for the geographic region in Eastern Europe bounded by the Dniester River on the east and the Prut River on the west.
In the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War, 1806-1812, and ensuing Peace of Bucharest, the eastern portion of the Principality of Moldavia, an Ottoman vassal, was ceded to Imperial Russia and designated "Bessarabia". While this eastern part became the Governorate of Bessarabia, the western part of Moldavia united, in 1859, with Wallachia in what would become the Kingdom of Romania. For a short period between 1856 and 1878, two of the nine traditional counties of Bessarabia were also part of Moldavia and then Romania.
Three months after declaring its independence from Russia, in 1918, as the Moldavian Democratic Republic (shortly before the end of World War I); it united with the Kingdom of Romania. In 1940, Bessarabia was occupied by the USSR in accordance with the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact with Nazi Germany. Subsequently, Romania joined the Axis Powers and recaptured it in 1941 and lost again in 1944. In 1947, the Soviet-Romanian border set along the Prut River was internationally recognised by the Paris Treaty that ended World War II. The core part of Bessarabia was joined with parts of the Moldavian ASSR (Transnistria) to form the Moldavian SSR. At the same time, smaller parts of Bessarabia, in the south (two traditional counties; Budjak) and north (half of one county), were transferred to the Ukrainian SSR.
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Braşov
Brașov (Romanian pronunciation: [braˈʃov] (
listen); German: Kronstadt; Hungarian: Brassó, Hungarian pronunciation: [’brɒʃʃoː]; Medieval Latin: Brassovia or Corona; 1950–1960: Orașul Stalin) is a city in Romania and the capital of Brașov County.
According to the last Romanian census, from 2011, there were 227,961 people living within the city of Brașov, making it the 8th most populated city in Romania, and the metropolitan area is home to 335,668 residents.
Brașov is located in the central part of the country, about 166 km north of Bucharest. It is surrounded by the Southern Carpathians and is part of the Transylvania region.
The city is notable for being the birthplace of the national anthem of Romania and for hosting the Golden Stag International Music Festival.
The city was first attested in 1235 AD under the name Corona, a Latin word meaning "crown", a name given by the German colonists. The current Romanian and Hungarian names are derived from the Turkic word barasu, meaning "white water" with a Slavic suffix -ov.
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Brăila
Brăila (Romanian pronunciation: [brəˈila] ( listen); Greek: Μπράιλα; Turkish: İbrail) is a city in Muntenia, eastern Romania, a port on the Danube and the capital of Brăila County, in the close vicinity of Galaţi.
According to the 2011 Romanian census there were 168,389 people living within the city of Brăila, making it the 11th most populous city in Romania.
A settlement at this location on the left bank of the Danube, in Wallachia, was mentioned with the name Drinago in a Spanish Libro de conoscimiento ("Book of knowledge", circa 1350) and in several Catalan portolan charts (Angelino de Dalorto, 1325/1330 and Angelino Dulcert, 1339). This may have been an erroneous transcription of Brillago. In Greek documents of roughly that time, the city is referred to as Proilabum or Proilava, a Greek language adaptation of its Slavic name, Brailov. In German language sources, it is mentioned as Uebereyl. The origin and meaning of the name is unknown.
As a kaza, the town and its surrounding area was controlled by Ottoman Turks from 1538–1540 until 1829 (it was restored to Wallachia through the Akkerman Convention); the Ottomans called it Ibrail or Ibraila.
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Bucharest
Bucharest (Romanian: București pronounced [bukuˈreʃtʲ] ( listen)) is the capital municipality, cultural, industrial, and financial centre of Romania. It is the largest city in Romania, located in the southeast of the country, at 44°25′57″N 26°06′14″E / 44.4325°N 26.10389°E / 44.4325; 26.10389Coordinates: 44°25′57″N 26°06′14″E / 44.4325°N 26.10389°E / 44.4325; 26.10389, and lies on the banks of the Dâmbovița River.
Bucharest was first mentioned in documents as early as 1459. Since then it has gone through a variety of changes, becoming the state capital of Romania in 1862 and steadily consolidating its position as the centre of the Romanian mass media, culture and arts. Its eclectic architecture is a mix of historical (neo-classical), interbellum (Bauhaus and Art Deco), Communist-era and modern. In the period between the two World Wars, the city's elegant architecture and the sophistication of its elite earned Bucharest the nickname of "Little Paris" (Micul Paris). Although many buildings and districts in the historic centre were damaged or destroyed by war, earthquakes, and Nicolae Ceaușescu's program of systematization, many survived. In recent years, the city has been experiencing an economic and cultural boom..
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Bulgaria
Coordinates: 42°45′N 25°30′E / 42.75°N 25.5°E / 42.75; 25.5
Bulgaria
i/bʌlˈɡɛəriə/ (Bulgarian: България, IPA: [bɤ̞ɫˈɡarijɐ]), is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and the Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south and the Black Sea to the east. With a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi), Bulgaria is Europe's 14th-largest country. Its location has made it a historical crossroad for various civilisations and as such it is the home of some of the earliest metalworking, religious and other cultural artifacts in the world.
Prehistoric cultures began developing on Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period. Its ancient history was marked by the presence of the Thracians, and later by the Greeks and Romans. The emergence of a unified Bulgarian ethnicity and state dates back to the First Bulgarian Empire, which dominated most of the Balkans and functioned as a cultural hub for Slavic peoples during the Middle Ages. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for nearly five hundred years. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 resulted in the Third Bulgarian State, recognised in 1908. The following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both World Wars. In 1946 it became a Communist republic with a single-party system until 1989, when the Communist Party allowed multi-party elections. After 1990 Bulgaria transitioned to democracy and a market-based economy.
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Buzău
The city of Buzău (formerly Buzeu, or Buzĕu; Romanian pronunciation: [buˈzəw]) is the county seat of Buzău County, Romania, in the historical region of Wallachia. It lies near the right bank of the Buzău River, between the south-eastern curvature of the Carpathian Mountains and the lowlands of Bărăgan Plain.
The city's name dates back to 376 AD when the name appeared on a letter that spoke about the martyrdom of Sabbas the Goth. During the Middle Ages, Buzău was as an important Wallachian market town and Eastern Orthodox episcopal see. It faced a period of repeated destruction during the 17th and 18th century, nowadays symbolized on the city seal by the Phoenix bird. Those destructions are the main reason for which no building older than the 18th century exists in the city. After that, Buzău slowly recovered to become nowadays an important modern city in south-eastern Romania.
The city's landmark building is the Communal Palace, located in the central Dacia Square. The Nicolae Bălcescu Boulevard links it to the Crâng park, Buzău's main recreational area.
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Cahul
Cahul (Romanian pronunciation: [kaˈhul], Russian: Kagul/Кагул) is a city in southern Moldova. The city is the administrative center of Cahul District; it also administers one village, Cotihana. As of 1 January 2009, it has an estimated population of 39,400.
The city of Cahul is believed to have been inhabited for many centuries, although it has had a number of different names over the years – the name Scheia (Old Romanian for "Bulgarian") was recorded in 1502, and the name Frumoasa ("Beautiful" in Romanian) was recorded in 1716. The modern name was given to the settlement after the Battle of Kagul, which was fought nearby.
The city's location had made it a frequent battleground for a number of armies, with possession of frequently switching between countries such as Principality of Moldavia, Russian Empire, Ottoman Empire.
The city was a part of the Moldavia before 1812, then Russia from 1812 to 1856, then again Moldavia/Romanian Principalities (1856–1878), then Russia again (1878–1918), then Romania again (1918–1940), then the Soviet Union (1940–1941), then again Romania, the Soviet Union again (1944–1991) and finally Moldova (1991 to the present).
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Chiajna
Chiajna is a commune in the south-west of Ilfov County, Romania, immediately west of the capital, Bucharest. It is composed of three villages: Chiajna, Dudu and Roşu.
Chiajna is a Romanian female name, being a feminine version of "cneaz" (Knyaz).
In one version Chiajna was named after the wife of Cernică Ştirbey, a Wallachian vornic who owned the area where people from Cernavodă settled and founded the village.
Another story says that Lady Chiajna (ca. 1525–1588, Constantinople) was the daughter of Petru Rareş, the voievod of Moldavia, an illegitimate child of Ştefan cel Mare. Lady Chiajna was the wife of Wallachian prince Mircea V Ciobanul. In Romanian literature (e.g.: the novella Doamna Chiajna, published in 1860 by author Alexandru Odobescu), she is a famous and frightening female character, similar to Lady Macbeth.
The mayor of Chiajna is Mircea Minea (National Liberal Party).
The commune contains Lady Chiajna High School (Grupul Şcolar Doamna Chiajna), with the following specializations: Promotional Design, Football, Yachting, Wrestling, Boxing, and Public Alimentation.
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Constantinople
Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις, Konstantinoúpolis; Latin: Constantinopolis; Ottoman Turkish: قسطنطینیه, Qostantiniyye; and modern Turkish: İstanbul) was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, the Latin and the Ottoman Empires. It was founded in AD 330, at ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Constantine I, after whom it was named. The city was the largest and wealthiest European city of the Middle Ages, and shared the glories of the Byzantine Empire, which was eventually reduced to the city and its environs.
Although besieged on numerous occasions by various peoples, it was taken only in 1204 by the army of the Fourth Crusade, in 1261 by Michael VIII, and in 1453 by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. An inner wall was erected by Constantine I, and the city was surrounded by a triple wall of fortifications, begun during the 5th century by Theodosius II. The city was built on seven hills as well as on the Bosporus, and thus presented an impregnable fortress enclosing magnificent palaces, domes and towers. The Church of Hagia Sophia, the sacred palace of the emperors, the hippodrome, and the Golden Gate were among the largest of the many churches, public edifices, and monuments lining the arcaded avenues and squares.
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Cornwall
Cornwall (
/ˈkɔrnwɔːl/ or /ˈkɔrnwəl/;Cornish: Kernow [ˈkɛrnɔʊ]; Latin: Cornubia or Cornuvia) is a unitary authority and ceremonial county of England, within the United Kingdom. It is bordered to the north and west by the Celtic Sea, to the south by the English Channel, and to the east by the county of Devon, over the River Tamar. Cornwall has a population of 537,400 and covers an area of 3,563 km2 (1,376 sq mi). The administrative centre and only city is Truro.
The area now known as Cornwall was first inhabited in the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic periods. It continued to be occupied by Neolithic and then Bronze Age peoples, and later (in the Iron Age) by Brythons with distinctive cultural relations to neighbouring Wales and Brittany. There is little evidence that Roman rule was effective west of Exeter and few Roman remains have been found. Cornwall was a division of the Dumnonii tribe—whose tribal centre was in the modern county of Devon—known as the Cornovii, separated from Wales after the Battle of Deorham, often coming into conflict with the expanding English kingdom of Wessex before King Athelstan in AD 936 set the boundary between English and Cornish at the Tamar. From the early Middle Ages, British language and culture was apparently shared by Brythons trading across both sides of the Channel, evidenced by the corresponding high medieval Breton kingdoms of Domnonee and Cornouaille and the Celtic Christianity common to both territories.
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Craiova
Coordinates: 44°20′00″N 23°49′00″E / 44.333333°N 23.816667°E / 44.333333; 23.816667
Craiova (Romanian pronunciation: [kraˈjova]), Romania's 6th largest city and capital of Dolj County, is situated near the east bank of the river Jiu in central Oltenia. It is a longstanding political center, and is located at approximately equal distances from the Southern Carpathians (north) and the River Danube (south). Craiova is the chief commercial city west of Bucharest and the most important city of Oltenia. The city prospered as a regional trading centre despite an earthquake in 1790, a plague in 1795, and a Turkish assault in 1802 during which it was burned.
Eight villages are administered by the city: Făcăi, Mofleni, Popoveni, Şimnicu de Jos, Cernele, Cernelele de Sus, Izvoru Rece and Rovine. The last four were a separate commune called Cernele until 1996, when they were merged into the city.
Craiova, which occupied the site of the Dacian and Roman city Pelendava, was formerly the capital of Oltenia. One of the most important geto - dacian settlement of the Craiova aeria (Mofleni zone) was Pelendava, dating since the period 400 - 350 BC as the archaeological findings indicate. At the beginning of the second century AD, the Romans have built here a Roman camp, made from hard soil, afterwards made from rock and bricks (during the time of Hadrian, 117 - 138). Due to the favourabile geographical position, the protection of the Roman camp and the military garrison, the Roman Pelendava has known a thriving life. The settlement is mentioned in the Tabula Peutingeriana - a map of the Roman Empire, made at the request of the Roman emperor Caracalla. The year 225 (when this map was finished during Severus Alexander) is considered the first documentation mentioned of the oldest settlement from the nowadays city area.
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Cretan State
The Cretan State (Greek: Κρητική Πολιτεία, Kritiki Politia) was established in 1898, following the intervention by the Great Powers (Britain, France, Italy and Russia) on the island of Crete. In 1897 an insurrection in Crete led the Ottoman Empire to declare war on Greece, which led the United Kingdom, France, Italy and Russia to intervene on the grounds that the Ottoman Empire could no longer maintain control. It was the prelude of the island's final annexation to the Kingdom of Greece, which occurred de facto in 1908 and de jure in 1913.
The island of Crete, an Ottoman possession since the end of the Cretan War (1645–1669), was inhabited by a mostly Greek-speaking population, whose majority was Christian. During and after the Greek War of Independence, the Christians of the island rebelled several times against external Ottoman rule, pursuing union with Greece. These were brutally subdued, but secured some concessions from the Ottoman government under the pressure of European public opinion. In 1878, the Pact of Halepa established the island as an autonomous state under Ottoman suzerainty, until the Ottomans reneged on that agreement in 1889.
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Curtea de Argeş
Curtea de Argeș (Romanian pronunciation: [ˌkurte̯a de ˈard͡ʒeʃ]) is a city in Romania on the right bank of the Argeş River, where it flows through a valley of the lower Carpathians (the Făgăraş Mountains), on the railway from Pitești to the Turnu Roşu Pass. It is part of Argeș County. The city administers one village, Noapteș. On July 7th, 1947 in Curtea de Argeș rainfall total was 205,7 mm (8,10 in.) in just 20 minutes, which is the world record.
According to tradition it was founded early in the 13th century by Radu Vodă (or Radu Negru), succeeding Câmpulung as the capital of Wallachia; hence its name (The Court upon Arges).
The city is the site of couple medieval churches (among them the Curtea de Argeş Cathedral) having been a bishopric since the close of the 18th century.
The most important church is the Biserica Domnească (Royal Church) built by Basarab I, completely renovated in 2003-2004. It resembles a stone fortress, connected through catacombs to a guard tower on a nearby hill. Ruins of the Prince's Palace Complex are still visible. It is mentioned in Alexandru Odobescu's Doamna Chiajna. One of the most enduring and famous Romanian legends, the legend of Meşterul Manole, is related to the monastery's construction.
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Câmpulung
Câmpulung (also spelled Cîmpulung, Romanian pronunciation: [kɨmpuˈluŋɡ]), or Câmpulung Muscel, is a city in the Argeş County, Muntenia, Romania. It is situated among the outlying hills of the Carpathian mountains, at the head of a long well-wooded glen traversed by the Râul Târgului, a tributary of the Argeş.
Its pure air and fine scenery render Câmpulung a popular summer resort. In the city there are more than twenty churches, besides a monastery and a cathedral, which both claim to have been founded in the 13th century by Radu Negru, legendary first Prince of Wallachia.
Câmpulung was one of the earliest urban settlements in Wallachia, the Transylvanian Saxons contributing to its development by bringing the German urban culture. The earliest written evidence of the town's existence is dated 1300, and is to be found in the Câmpulung church. The inscription is an epitaph of Laurencius de Longo Campo, the mayor of the German community, the full text being Hic sepultus est comes Laurencius de Longo-Campo, pie memorie, Anno Domini MCCC ("Here is buried Laurentius of Longus-Campus, in pious memory, Anno Domini 1300").
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Danube Delta
The Danube Delta (Romanian: Delta Dunării pronounced [ˈdelta ˈdunərij]; Ukrainian: Дельта Дунаю, Del'ta Dunaju) is the second largest river delta in Europe, after the Volga Delta, and is the best preserved on the continent. The greater part of the Danube Delta lies in Romania (Tulcea county), while its northern part, on the left bank of the Chilia arm, is situated in Ukraine (Odessa Oblast). The approximate surface is 4152 km², of which 3446 km² are in Romania. If one includes the lagoons of Razim-Sinoe (1015 km² of which 865 km² water surface), which are located south of the delta proper, but are related to it geologically and ecologically (their combined territory is part of the World Heritage Site), the total area of the Danube Delta reaches 5165 km².
The modern Danube Delta began forming after 4,000 BC in a gulf of the Black Sea, when the sea rose to its present level. A sandy barrier blocked the Danube gulf where the river initially built its delta. Upon filling the gulf with sediments, the delta advanced outside the barrier-blocked estuary after 3,500 BC building several successive lobes: the St. George I (3,500-1,600 BC), the Sulina (1,600-0 BC), the St. George II (0 BC-Present) and the Chilia or Kilia (1600 AD-Present).
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Danube Vilayet
The Vilayet of the Danube or Danubian Vilayet (Ottoman Turkish: ولايت طونه, Vilâyet-i Tuna) was a vilayet of the Ottoman Empire from 1864 to 1878. In the late 19th century it reportedly had an area of 34,120 square miles (88,400 km2).
The vilayet was created from the northern parts of Silistria Province along the Danube River and eyalets of Niš, Vidin and Silistra. This vilayet was meant to become a model province, showcasing all the progress achieved by the Porte through the modernising Tanzimat reforms. Other vilayets modelled on the vilayet of the Danube were ultimately established throughout the empire by 1876, with the exception of the Arabian peninsula and the by then semi-independent Egypt.
Midhat Pasha was the first governor of the vilayet (1864–1868). During his time as a governor, steamship lines were established on the Danube River; the Ruse-Varna railroad was completed; agricultural credit cooperatives providing farmers with low-interest loans were introduced; tax incentives were also offered to encourage new industrial enterprises.
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Drăgăşani
Drăgăşani (Romanian pronunciation: [drəɡəˈʃanʲ], archaic English: Dragashan) is a city in Vâlcea County, Romania, near the right bank of the Olt river, and on the railway between Caracal and Râmnicu Vâlcea. The city is well known for the vineyards on the neighboring hills that produce some of the best Wallachian wines.
The city administers four villages: Capu Dealului, Valea Caselor, Zărneni and Zlătărei.
Drăgăşani stands on the site of the Daco-Roman Rusidava. On 19 June 1821, during the Greek War of Independence, the Ottomans routed the Filiki Eteria troops of Alexander Ypsilantis near the city in the Battle of Dragashani.
Dana Maria Dezotell (born Vasile)- writer, journalist under the name "Dana Achim"
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Duchy of Prussia
The Duchy of Prussia or Ducal Prussia (German: Herzogtum Preußen; Latin: Ducatus Prussiae; Polish: Prusy Książęce; Lithuanian: Prūsijos kunigaikštystė; Old Prussian: Ercōgista Prūsija[citation needed]) was a duchy in the eastern part of Prussia from 1525–1701. It was the first Protestant (Lutheran) duchy with a dominant German-speaking population, as well as Polish and Lithuanian minorities. In old texts and in Latin, the term Prut(h)enia refers alike to Ducal Prussia, its western neighbor Royal Prussia, and their common predecessor, Teutonic Prussia. The adjectival form of the name was "Prut(h)enic".
In 1525 during the Protestant Reformation, the Grand Master of the Teutonic Knights, Albert, secularized the order's Prussian territory, becoming Albert, Duke of Prussia. His duchy, which had its capital in Königsberg (Polish: Królewiec), was established as fief of the Crown of Poland. It was inherited by the Hohenzollern prince-electors of Brandenburg in 1618; this personal union is referred to as Brandenburg-Prussia. Frederick William, the "Great Elector" of Brandenburg, achieved full sovereignty over the territory in the 1657 Treaty of Wehlau, which was confirmed in the 1660 Treaty of Oliva. The Duchy of Prussia was elevated to the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701.
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Făgăraş
Făgăraș (Romanian pronunciation: [fəɡəˈraʃ]; German: Fogarasch, Fugreschmarkt, Hungarian: Fogaras) is a city in central Romania, located in Braşov County. It lies on the Olt River and has a population of 28,330 as of 2011.
Romanians now form 91.3% of the population following Saxon and Hungarian emigration, the diverse background is still obvious. The most important attraction points in the city are the fortress, Radu Negru High school, the Reformed Church and the local Catholic church.
The name is alleged to derive from the Romanian word for "beech" (fag). Another source of the name is alleged to derive from the Hungarian language word for "partridge" (fogor). A more plausible explanation is that the name is given by Fogaras river coming from the Pecheneg "Fagar šu", which means ash water. Another source of the name is given by folk etymology to be Hungarian, as the rendering of "wood" (fa) and "money" (garas), with legends stating that money made of wood had been used to pay the peasants who built the fortress around 1310.
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Giurgiu
Giurgiu (Romanian pronunciation: [ˈd͡ʒjurd͡ʒju]) is the capital city of Giurgiu County, Romania, in the Greater Wallachia. It is situated amid mud-flats and marshes on the left bank of the Danube facing the Bulgarian city of Ruse on the opposite bank. Three small islands face the city, and a larger one shelters its port, Smarda. The rich grain-growing land to the north is traversed by a railway to Bucharest, the first line opened in Romania, which was built in 1869 and afterwards extended to Smarda. Giurgiu exports timber, grain, salt and petroleum, and imports coal, iron, and textiles.
The Giurgiu-Ruse Friendship Bridge, the only one in the shared Bulgarian-Romanian section of the Danube, crosses the river in the outskirts of the city.
According to the 2002 census, Giurgiu has a population of 69,345. In 1900 its population was 13,977; in 1930 it had a population of 30,348.
The area around Giurgiu was densely populated at the time of the Dacians (first century BC) as archeological evidence shows, and Burebista's capital was in this area (it is thought to be in Popeşti on the Argeş river). During Roman times this was the site of Theodorapolis, a city built by the Roman emperor Justinian (483-565).
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Haţeg
Hațeg (Romanian pronunciation: [ˈhat͡seɡ]; German: Wallenthal; Hungarian: Hátszeg) is a town in Hunedoara County, Romania with a population of 12,507. Three villages are administered by the town: Nălațvad, Silvașu de Jos, and Silvașu de Sus.
Țara Hațegului (the Hațeg area) is the region around the town of Hațeg. The fossils found in the Hațeg area span over 300 million years of Earth's geologic history, showing tropical coral reefs and volcanic island in the Tethys Sea, dinosaurs, primitive mammals, birds, and flying reptiles (such as Hatzegopteryx, which was named for the region).
Hațeg Island was an island during the Cretaceous Period where a dwarf species of sauropod dinosaur, Europasaurus holgeri, lived until their extinction at the end of the Cretaceous. Baron Franz Nopcsa published articles about these Mesozoic-era archosaurs on Hațeg Island. His studies led to his theory of insular dwarfism, the notion that "limited resources" on small islands can lead to a down-sizing of the indigenous vertebrate animals.
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Hungarian Kingdom
The Kingdom of Hungary was a country in Central Europe covering what is today Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania (now part of Romania), Carpatho Ruthenia (now part of Ukraine), Vojvodina (now part of Serbia), Burgenland (now part of Austria), and other smaller territories surrounding present-day Hungary's borders. From 1102 it also included Croatia (except Istria), being in personal union with it, united under the Hungarian king. The kingdom existed for almost one thousand years (1000–1918 and 1920–1946) and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centers of the Western world.
The Latin Regnum Hungariae/Vngarie (Regnum meaning kingdom); Regnum Marianum (Kingdom of St. Mary); or simply Hungaria was the form used in official Latin documents from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s. The German name (Königreich Ungarn) was used from 1849 to the 1860s, and the Hungarian name (Magyar Királyság) was used in the 1840s, and again from the 1860s to 1918. The names in other languages of the kingdom were: Polish: Królestwo Węgier, Romanian: Regatul Ungariei, Croatian: Kraljevina Ugarska, Slovene: Kraljevina Ogrska, Czech: Uherské království, Slovak: Uhorské kráľovstvo, Italian (for the city of Fiume), Regno d'Ungheria.
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Hungary
Hungaryi/ˈhʌŋɡəri/ (Hungarian: Magyarország [ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ] ( listen)) is a country, which is located in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The country's capital, and largest city, is Budapest. Hungary is a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, and is a Schengen state. The official language is Hungarian, also known as Magyar, which is part of the Finno-Ugric group and is the most widely spoken non-Indo-European language in Europe.
Following a Celt (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (AD 9 - c. 430) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late 9th century by the Hungarian prince Árpád, whose great-grandson Saint Stephen I was crowned with a crown sent by the pope from Rome in 1000 AD. The Kingdom of Hungary lasted for 946 years, and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centres of the Western world. After about 150 years of partial Ottoman occupation (1541–1699), Hungary was integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy, and later constituted half of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy (1867–1918).
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Iaşi
Iași (Romanian pronunciation: [jaʃʲ]; also historically referred to as Jassy or Iassy) is one of the largest cities and a municipality in Romania. Located in the historical Moldavia region, Iași has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Romanian social, cultural, academic and artistic life. The city was the capital of the Principality of Moldavia from 1564 to 1859, then of the United Principalities from 1859 to 1862, and the capital of Romania from 1916 to 1918.
Known as The Cultural Capital of Romania, Iași is a symbol in Romanian history. The historian Nicolae Iorga said "There should be no Romanian who does not know of it". Still referred to as The Moldavian Capital, Iași is the seat of Iași County and the main economic centre of the Romanian region of Moldavia.
As of 2011, Iași itself has a population of 263,410 (the fourth most populous Romanian city), the metropolitan area is home to about 350,000 residents, while the population of the peri-urban area exceeds 500,000 residents. Home to the first Romanian university and to the first engineering school, it is the second largest university centre in the country and accommodates over 75,000 students in 5 public and 7 private universities. The social and cultural life revolves around the Vasile Alecsandri National Theater (the oldest in Romania), the Moldova State Philharmonic, the Opera House, the Tătărași Athenaeum, a famous Botanical Garden (the oldest and largest in Romania), the Central University Library (the oldest in Romania), the high quality cultural centres and festivals, an array of museums, memorial houses, religious and historical monuments.
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Khedivate of Egypt
The Khedivate of Egypt (Arabic: خديوية مصر, Egyptian Arabic pronunciation: [xedeˈwejjet ˈmɑsˤɾ]) was an autonomous tributary state of the Ottoman Empire.
The Egypt Eyalet was an eyalet (province) of the Ottoman Empire. The eyalet was ruled locally by the Mamluk military caste and their various beys (chieftains), who started to fight amongst themselves for control of the region. Napoleon Bonaparte saw an opportunity, and France invaded in 1798.
Between 1799 and 1801, the Ottoman Porte (government), working at times with the British, undertook various campaigns to restore Ottoman rule in Egypt. By August, 1801, the remaining French forces of General Jacques-François Menou withdrew from Egypt.
The period between 1801 and 1805 was, effectively, a three way civil war in the eyalet of Egypt between the Ottoman Turks, the local Mamluks, and troops the Ottoman Porte dispatched from Rumelia (their European eyalets), under the command of Muhammad Ali Pasha, to restore the Empire's authority.
Following the defeat of the French, the Ottoman Porte assigned Husrev Pasha as the new Wāli govenor of Egypt, tasking him to kill or imprison the surviving beys of the Mamluk. Many of these were freed by or fled with the British, while others held Minia between Upper and Lower Egypt.
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Kingdom of Hungary
The Kingdom of Hungary was a country in Central Europe covering what is today Hungary, Slovakia, Transylvania (now part of Romania), Carpatho Ruthenia (now part of Ukraine), Vojvodina (now part of Serbia), Burgenland (now part of Austria), and other smaller territories surrounding present-day Hungary's borders. From 1102 it also included Croatia (except Istria), being in personal union with it, united under the Hungarian king. The kingdom existed for almost one thousand years (1000–1918 and 1920–1946) and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centers of the Western world.
The Latin Regnum Hungariae/Vngarie (Regnum meaning kingdom); Regnum Marianum (Kingdom of St. Mary); or simply Hungaria was the form used in official Latin documents from the beginning of the kingdom to the 1840s. The German name (Königreich Ungarn) was used from 1849 to the 1860s, and the Hungarian name (Magyar Királyság) was used in the 1840s, and again from the 1860s to 1918. The names in other languages of the kingdom were: Polish: Królestwo Węgier, Romanian: Regatul Ungariei, Croatian: Kraljevina Ugarska, Slovene: Kraljevina Ogrska, Czech: Uherské království, Slovak: Uhorské kráľovstvo, Italian (for the city of Fiume), Regno d'Ungheria.
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Milcov River (Siret)
The Milcov River is a tributary of the Putna River in eastern Romania. The city of Focşani used to lie on it. Due to floods, however, the riverbed moved a few kilometers away, south of the city.
In 1482, Stephen the Great declared Milcov as the boundary between Wallachia and Moldavia. In 19th century, the river was perceived by unionists as a symbol of discord between Wallachia and Moldavia—see Hora Unirii, a poem by Vasile Alecsandri. The Milcov border was dispensed with in 1859, when Wallachia and Moldavia united to form the United Principalities.
The Milcov Valley
Coordinates: 45°39′45″N 27°18′19″E / 45.6626°N 27.3052°E / 45.6626; 27.3052
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Oescus
Oescus, or Palatiolon Palatiolum, (in Bulgarian Улпия Ескус) was an ancient town in Moesia, northwest of the modern Bulgarian city of Pleven, near the village of Gigen. It is a Daco-Moesian toponym. Ptolemy calls it a Triballian town, but it later became Roman. It was linked by a bridge over Danube with ancient city Sucidava (modern day Corabia - Romania) by Constantin the Great.
The link with the rest of the empire were the roads:
Heraclea Lyncestis – Stobi – Pautalia – Serdica – Oescus, having the following stations: Heraclea Lyncestis – Ceramiae – Stobi – Astibos – Tranupara – Pautalia – Aelea – Serdica
Philippopolis ‐ Viamata (Vojnjagovo‐„Gorni Stenici”) – Sub Radice (Hristo Danovo) – Montemno (Beklemeto‐„Karcovija Buk”) – Ad Radices (Beli Osăm/Kamen Most) – Sostra (Lomec) – Melta (Loveč) – Doriones – Storgosia (Pleven) – Ad Putea (Riben) – Oescus
Coordinates: 43°42′N 24°29′E / 43.7°N 24.483°E / 43.7; 24.483
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Piteşti
Pitești (Romanian pronunciation: [piˈteʃtʲ]) is a city in Romania, located on the Argeș River. The capital and largest city of Argeș County, it is an important commercial and industrial center, as well as the home of two universities. Pitești is situated on the A1 freeway connecting it directly to the national capital Bucharest, being an important railway junction, with a classification yard in nearby Bălilești. The city houses the Arpechim oil refinery, and is a marketing center for the automotive industry, in particular Automobile Dacia.
Inhabited since prehistoric times but first mentioned in the 14th century, it developed as a trading town in northern Wallachia, serving as an informal residence for various Wallachian Princes until the 18th century. From the 19th century and until the interwar period, it was an important political center for the National Liberal Party and the main residence of the Brătianu family of politicians. During the early stages of the communist regime, it was one of the main sites of political repression, with the Pitești prison becoming home to an experiment in brainwashing techniques.
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Ploieşti
Ploiești (Romanian pronunciation: [ploˈjeʃtʲ]; older spelling: Ploești) is the county seat of Prahova County and lies in the historical region of Wallachia in Romania. The city is located 56 km (35 mi) north of Bucharest.
According to the 2011 Romanian census, there were 197,542 people living within the city of Ploiești, making it the 9th most populous city in Romania.
WWII refineries
(monthly metric tonnes):
The town was established in 1596, during the reign of Mihai Viteazul (Michael the Brave). It rapidly flourished as a center for trade and handicraft manufacturing in the 17th and 18th centuries. The road connecting Ploieşti to Braşov was opened in 1864, and the railway arrived in 1882. Many schools and hospitals were built around this time.
In the mid-19th century, the Ploieşti region was one of the world's leading oil extraction and refinery sites. The city is also remembered as the site of the self-styled Republic of Ploieşti, a short-lived 1870 revolt against the Romanian monarchy.
Although badly damaged after the November 1940 earthquake, the city was a significant source of oil for Nazi Germany. A target of the Oil Campaign of World War II, Ploieşti was attacked repeatedly, such as during the HALPRO raid, and Operation Tidal Wave. Ploieşti was captured by Soviet troops in August 1944.
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Romania
Romania (i/roʊˈmeɪniə/ roh-MAY-nee-ə; dated: Roumania; or Rumania;Romanian: România [romɨˈni.a] ( listen)) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and Moldova to the northeast and east, and Bulgaria to the south.
At 238,400 square kilometers (92,000 sq mi), Romania is the ninth largest country of the European Union by area, and has the seventh largest population of the European Union with over 19 million people. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest, the tenth largest city in the EU with about two million people.
The Kingdom of Romania emerged when the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were united under Prince Alexander Ioan Cuza in 1859. Independence from the Ottoman Empire was declared on 9 May 1877, and was internationally recognized the following year. At the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the Kingdom of Romania. Greater Romania emerged into an era of progression and prosperity that would continue until World War II. By the end of the War, many north-eastern areas of Romania's territories were occupied by the Soviet Union, and Romania forcibly became a socialist republic and a member of the Warsaw Pact.
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Rucăr
Rucăr is a commune in the north-eastern part of Argeş County, Romania. At the 2002 census, the population of the commune was 6,207. It is composed of two villages, Rucăr and Sătic.
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Râmnicu Vâlcea
Râmnicu Vâlcea (also spelled Rîmnicu Vîlcea, Romanian pronunciation: [ˈrɨmniku ˈvɨlt͡ʃe̯a]) (population: 92,573) is the capital city of Vâlcea County, Romania (in the historical province of Oltenia).
Râmnicu Vâlcea is situated in the central-south area of Romania. Set at the foothills of the Southern Carpathians, the city is located at about 12 kilometres (7.5 mi) the Cozia Mountains and about 40 kilometres (25 mi) from the Făgăraş and Lotrului Mountains. The southern limit of Râmnicu Vâlcea is formed by the Getic Plateau and the Oltului Valley.
The Olt River crosses the town of Râmnicu Vâlcea as well as the E81 road of European interest and one of the main national railway routes.
The area has been inhabited since Dacian and Roman times, and was the site of a castrum. A new fortress was built on the location during the Middle Ages. Râmnicu Vâlcea was first attested during the rule of Prince Mircea cel Bătrân, as "the princely town of Râmnic" (September 4, 1388), and confirmed as the seat of a Vâlcea County during the same period (January 8, 1392).
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Second French Empire
The Second French Empire (French: Le Second Empire Français) was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.
Although the machinery of government was almost the same under the Second Empire as it had been under the First, its founding principles were different. The function of the Empire, as Emperor Napoleon III often repeated, was to guide the people internally towards justice and externally towards perpetual peace. Holding his power by universal male suffrage, and having frequently, from his prison or in exile, reproached previous oligarchical governments with neglecting social questions, he set out to solve them by organising a system of government based on the principles of the "Napoleonic Idea", i.e. of the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, and as such supreme; and of himself, the representative of the great Napoleon I of France, "who had sprung armed from the French Revolution like Minerva from the head of Jove", as the guardian of the social gains of the revolutionary period.
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Serbia
Serbiai/ˈsɜrbiə/, officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija, pronounced [rɛpǔblika sř̩bija]), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; additionally, it borders Albania through Kosovo, whose status as part of Serbia is disputed. Serbia covers an area of 88,361 km2 and has a population of just over 7.1 million, while the capital and largest city is Belgrade.
The arrival of the Serbs to the Balkans in the 7th century, established several states, eventually forming the Serbian Empire in the 14th century. By the 16th century, Serbia was conquered and occupied by the Ottoman Empire, at times interrupted by the Habsburgs. In the early 19th century the Serbian revolution re-established the country as the region's first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory and pioneered the abolition of feudalism in the Balkans. The former Habsburg crownland of Vojvodina united with Serbia in 1918. Following World War I, Serbia formed Yugoslavia with other South Slavic peoples which existed in several forms up until 2006, when the National Assembly of Serbia declared independence and the legal succession to the former State Union. In February 2008 the parliament of UNMIK-governed Kosovo, Serbia's southern province, declared independence, with mixed responses from international governments.
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Sibiu
Sibiu (Romanian pronunciation: [siˈbiw], antiquated, Sibiiu; German: Hermannstadt, Hungarian: Nagyszeben) is a city in Transylvania, Romania, with a population of 155,000. Located some 282 km north-west of Bucharest, the city straddles the Cibin River, a tributary of the river Olt. Nowadays the capital of Sibiu County, between 1692 and 1791 Sibiu was the capital of the Principality of Transylvania.
Sibiu is one of the most important cultural centres of Romania and, in tandem with Luxembourg, it was designated a European Capital of Culture for the year 2007. Formerly the centre of the Transylvanian Saxons, the old city of Sibiu was ranked as "Europe's 8th most idyllic place to live" by Forbes.
The city administers the ski resort Păltiniş.
Sibiu is situated near the geographical center of Romania at 45°47′34″N 24°09′07″E / 45.792784°N 24.152069°E / 45.792784; 24.152069 (Sibiu)Coordinates: 45°47′34″N 24°09′07″E / 45.792784°N 24.152069°E / 45.792784; 24.152069 (Sibiu). Set in the Cibin Depression, the city is about 20 km from the Făgăraş Mountains, 12 km from the Cibin Mountains, and about 15 km from the Lotrului Mountains, which border the depression in its southwestern section. The northern and eastern limits of Sibiu are formed by the Târnavelor Plateau, which descends to the Cibin Valley through Guşteriţei Hill.
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Silistra
Silistra (Bulgarian: Силистра, pronounced [siˈlistrɐ], historically Bulgarian: Дръстър, Drastar [ˈdrɤstəɐr]) is a port city of northeastern Bulgaria, lying on the southern bank of the lower Danube at the country's border with Romania. Silistra is the administrative centre of the Silistra Province and one of the important cities of the historical region of Southern Dobrudzha. As of February 2011, the town has a population of 35,607 inhabitants.
Silistra is a major cultural, industrial, transportation, and educational center of northeastern Bulgaria. There are many historical landmarks including a Roman tomb, remains of the Medieval fortress, an Ottoman fort, and an art gallery.
Silistra is in the northeastern part of Bulgaria on the right bank of the Danube River. It is located in the Bulgarian part of Dobrudzha.
The municipality of Silistra covers an area of 516 km2 and includes the city and 18 villages. The area of the city-proper is 27.159 km2. The total population of the municipality, as of February 2011, is 50,448 of which 35,607 live in the city.
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Southern Carpathians
The Southern Carpathians or the Transylvanian Alps (Romanian: Carpații Meridionali, Serbian: Južni Karpati, German: Transsilvanischen Alpen, Hungarian: Déli-Kárpátok) are a group of mountain ranges which divide central and southern Romania, on one side, and Serbia, on the other side. They cover part of the Carpathian Mountains that is located between the Prahova River in the east and the Timiș and Cerna Rivers in the west. To the south they are bounded by the Balkan mountain range in Serbia.
The Southern Carpathian group are the second highest group of mountains in the Carpathian Mountain range (after Tatra), reaching heights of over 2,500m. Although considerably smaller than the Alps, they are classified as having an alpine landscape. Their high mountain character, combined with great accessibility, makes them popular with tourist and scientists.
The highest peaks are:
In spite of the heights, some of the most accessible passings in the Carpathians in Romania are along the rivers who cross the mountain range (the Olt River) or who form wide valleys (along the Prahova River Valley or along the Jiu River Valley).
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Sucidava
Sucidava (Sykibid after Procopius, Σucidava after Pârvan, where Σ is pronounced "sh") is a Dacian and Daco-Roman historical site, situated in Corabia, Romania on the north bank of the Danube. There can be found: the first Christian Basilica in Romania and the foot of a Roman bridge over the Danube built by Constantine the Great to link Sucidava with Oescus (today in Bulgaria, in Moesia); there is also a secret underground fountain which flows under the walls of the town to a water spring situated outside.
From archeological point of view the coins found at Sucidava show an uninterrupted series from Aurelian (270-275) to Theodosius II (408-450). The archeological evidence show that in AD 443 or 447 the city suffered from attacks of the Huns, still the city was restored under Justin I 518-527 or Justinian I 527-565. Around 600, it seems that the Roman garrison abandoned the city.
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Turnu Măgurele
Turnu Măgurele (Romanian pronunciation: [ˌturnu məɡuˈrele]) is a city in Teleorman County, Romania (in the informal region of Wallachia). Developed nearby the site once occupied by the medieval port of Turnu, it is situated north-east of the confluence between the Olt River and the Danube.
A ferry plies across the Danube to the Bulgarian city of Nikopol. There are some vestiges of a Roman bridge across the Danube, built in 330 by Constantine the Great. It is build in the Danube plain in a fertile land called Burnas plain. At 4 km south-west from it the river Olt joins the Danube. Its medium altitude is 33 m above sea level.
The name of the city means "Hill Tower" in Romanian, in reference to the defense-wall tower of a fort built on the spot by Byzantine Emperor Justinian I in 6th century (ruins of the facilities can still be seen).
Bulgarians maintained in this place a fortress named Holavnik. The town was occupied by the Ottoman Empire in 1417[citation needed], towards the end of Prince Mircea I's rule, and, like Giurgiu and Brăila, constituted a kaza on the left bank of the Danube. With short interruptions during the anti-Ottoman rebellions of Vlad III the Impaler and Michael the Brave, destroyed by Iancu Jianu's hajduks in their campaign against Osman Pazvantoğlu and his successor (1809) and never rebuilt under Turkish rule, Turnu, like the other two kazas, was due to be returned to Wallachia through the 1826 Akkerman Convention - and was ultimately ceded in 1829, through the Treaty of Adrianopole. It became the capital of Teleorman County in 1839.
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Târgovişte
Târgoviște (alternative spelling: Tîrgoviște; Romanian pronunciation: [tɨrˈɡoviʃte]) is a city in the Dâmbovița county of Romania. It is situated on the right bank of the Ialomiţa River. As of 2011 census data, Târgoviște has a population of 73,964, making it the 26th largest city in Romania. One village, Priseaca, is administered by the city.
The name Târgoviște is a Slavic name which the city acquired in the Middle Ages. It is derived from the Bulgarian word for marketplace "търговище" (pronounced: [tərgoviʃtɛ]) and the city's name is phonetically entirely identical to it. The Romanian and a Bulgarian town with the same name are also twinned.
The city was first founded during the period of the Second Bulgarian Empire in the 12th century, the Royal Court ("Curtea Domnească"), was probably built during this time by the early Vlach Voievods. It became the capital of the Wallachian voivodship, probably during the reign of Mircea cel Bătrân. Vlad III Dracula later added the Chindia Tower, now a symbol of the city.
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Wales
Walesi/ˈweɪlz/ (Welsh: Cymru;Welsh pronunciation: [ˈkəm.rɨ] ( listen)) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain,bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km2 (8,023 sq mi). Wales has over 1,200 km (750 mi) of coastline, including its offshore islands; the largest, Anglesey (Ynys Môn), is also the largest island in the Irish Sea. Wales is largely mountainous, with its highest peaks in the north and central areas, especially in Snowdonia (Eryri), which contains Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), its highest summit.
During the Iron Age and early medieval period, Wales was inhabited by the Celtic Britons. A distinct Welsh national identity emerged in the centuries after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, and Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic nations today. Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was recognised as King of Wales in 1057. Llywelyn ap Gruffydd's death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of England's conquest of Wales. The castles and town walls erected to ensure its permanence are now UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to what was to become modern Wales, in the early 15th century. Wales was subsequently annexed by England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 since when, excluding those matters now devolved to Wales, English law has been the legal system of Wales and England. Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party. Welsh national feeling grew over the century; Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and The Welsh Language Society in 1962. The National Assembly for Wales, created in 1999 following a referendum, holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters.
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Wallachia
Wallachia or Walachia (Romanian: Țara Românească pronounced [ˈt͡sara romɨˈne̯askə] or Valahia pronounced [vaˈlahi.a]; archaic: Țeara Rumânească, Cyrillic: Цѣра Румѫнѣскъ / Цѣра Рȣмѫнѣскъ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia is sometimes referred to as Muntenia (Greater Wallachia), through identification with the larger of its two traditional sections; the smaller being Oltenia (Lesser Wallachia).
Wallachia was founded as a principality in the early 14th century by Basarab I, after a rebellion against Charles I of Hungary, although the first mention of the territory of Wallachia west of the river Olt dates to a charter given to the voievod Seneslau in 1246 by Béla IV of Hungary. In 1415, Wallachia accepted the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire; this lasted until the 19th century, albeit with brief periods of Russian occupation between 1768 and 1854. In 1859, Wallachia united with Moldavia (as United Principalities), to form the basis of the modern state of Romania, with Transylvania joining 59 years later (1918) to form the new Kingdom of Romania which was first established 1881.
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Wallonia
Wallonia (French: Wallonie [wa.lɔ.ni], German: Wallonie(n), Dutch: Wallonië [wɐˈloːnɪə] ( listen) or [βɐˈloːnɪə], Walloon: Walonreye) is the predominantly French-speaking southern region of Belgium. It is governed as the Walloon Region, which makes up 55% of the territory of Belgium but with only a third of its population. Contrary to the situation in Flanders, the Walloon Region was not merged with the French Community of Belgium, a political level responsible for matters related mainly to culture and education. The small German-speaking minority in the east forms the German-speaking Community of Belgium, which has its own government and parliament for culture-related issues. The demonym for Wallonia is Walloon.
During the industrial revolution, Wallonia trailed only the United Kingdom in industrialization, capitalizing on its extensive deposits of coal and iron. This brought the region wealth, and, from the beginning of the 19th to the middle of the 20th centuries, Wallonia was the more prosperous half of Belgium. Since World War II, however, the importance of heavy industry has greatly declined, and the Flemish Region surpassed Wallonia in wealth as Wallonia economically declined. Wallonia now suffers from high unemployment and has a significantly lower GDP per capita than Flanders. The economic inequalities and linguistic divide between the two are major sources of political conflict in Belgium.
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Ahmed III
Ahmed III (Ottoman Turkish: احمد ثالث Aḥmed-i sālis) (December 30/31, 1673 – July 1, 1736) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and a son of Sultan Mehmed IV (1648–87). His mother was Mâh-Pâre Ummatullah (Emetullah) Râbi'a Gül-Nûş Valide Sultan, originally named Evmania Voria, who was an ethnic Greek. He was born at Hajioglupazari, in Dobruja. He succeeded to the throne in 1703 on the abdication of his brother Mustafa II (1695–1703). Nevşehirli Damat İbrahim Pasha and his daughter, Princess Hatice (wife of the former) directed the government from 1718 to 1730, a period referred to as the Tulip Era.
Ahmed III cultivated good relations with France, doubtless in view of Russia's menacing attitude - in fact, both his wives were Frenchwomen. He afforded refuge in Ottoman territory to Charles XII of Sweden (1682–1718) after the Swedish defeat at the hands of Peter I of Russia (1672–1725) in the Battle of Poltava of 1709. In 1710 he convinced the Ottoman Sultan Ahmed III to declare war against Russia, and the Ottoman forces under Baltacı Mehmet Pasha won a major victory at the Battle of Prut. In the aftermath, Russia returned Azov back to the Ottomans, agreed to demolish the fortress of Taganrog and others in the area, and to stop interfering in the affairs of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.
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Alexander John Cuza
Alexandru Ioan Cuza (pronounced [alekˈsandru iˈo̯an ˈkuza] ( listen), or Alexandru Ioan I, also anglicised as Alexander John Cuza; 20 March 1820 – 15 May 1873) was Prince of Moldavia, Prince of Wallachia, and later Domnitor (ruler) of the Romanian Principalities. He was a prominent figure of the Revolution of 1848 in Moldavia. He initiated a series of reforms that contributed to the modernization of Romanian society and of state structures.
Born in Bârlad, Cuza belonged to the traditional boyar class in Moldavia, being the son of Ispravnic Ioan Cuza (who was also a landowner in Fălciu County) and his wife Sultana (or Soltana), a member of the Cozadini family of Phanariote origins. Alexander received an urbane European education, becoming an officer in the Moldavian Army (rising to the rank of colonel). He married Elena Rosetti in 1844.
In 1848, known as the year of European revolutions, Moldavia and Wallachia fell into revolt. The Moldavian unrest was quickly suppressed, but in Wallachia the revolutionaries took power and governed during the summer (see 1848 Wallachian revolution). Young Cuza played a prominent enough part to establish his liberal credentials during the Moldavian episode and to be shipped to Vienna as a prisoner, where he soon made his escape with British support.
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Alexander Mourousis
Alexander Mourousis (Greek: Αλέξανδρος Μουρούζης, Alexandros Mourouzis; Romanian: Alexandru Moruzi; died 1816) was a Great Dragoman of the Ottoman Empire who served as Prince of Moldavia and Prince of Wallachia. Open to Enlightenment ideas, and noted for his interest in hydrological engineering, Mourousis was forced to deal with the intrusions of Osman Pazvantoğlu's rebellious troops. In a rare gesture for his period, he renounced the throne in Wallachia, and his second rule in Moldavia was cut short by the intrigues of French diplomat Horace Sébastiani.
A member of the Mourousis family of Phanariotes and the son of Constantine Mourousis (one of the few Ottoman-appointed Princes to die in office), he was educated to speak six languages in addition to his native Greek. Alexander was Great Dragoman under Sultan Selim III, in which capacity he helped mediate the 1791 Treaty of Jassy, ending the Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792. Selim rewarded his service by appointing him to the throne in Iaşi (Moldavia) in January 1792, and transferred a year later to the throne of Bucharest (1793–1796), where his first year in office coincided with a bubonic plague outbreak (which he dealt with by quarantining and confining the ill to the village of Dudeşti).
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Alexandru I Aldea
Alexander I Aldea (1397–1436) was Prince of Wallachia (1431–1436).
Alexandru I was the brother of Vlad II Dracul, father to Mircea II and Vlad Tepes (inspiration for the novel Dracula). He came to rule Wallachia during an extremely turbulent time, when rule of the country changed hands by violence eighteen times during the 15th century. Alexandru I took the throne by ousting Dan II of Wallachia, father to Basarab II. Dan II was on his 5th rule of Wallachia, having gone back and forth with Radu II several times over the course of seven years during the 1420s. He was strong enough to hold the throne for what was then a considerable time, a stretch of five years. However, in the winter of 1436 he died, most probably from illness as there are no rumors to the contrary. Upon his death, his half brother Vlad Dracul assumed the throne and would hold it off and on until he was killed in 1447.
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Alexandru II Ghica
Alexandru II or Alexandru D. Ghica (1796–1862), a member of the Ghica family, was Prince of Wallachia from April 1834 to 7 October 1842 and later caimacam (regent) from July 1856 to October 1858.
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Alexandru Suţu
Alexandros Soutzos (Greek: Αλέξανδρος Σούτζος, Romanian: Alexandru Suţu, 1758 – January 18/19, 1821, Bucharest) was a Phanariote Greek who ruled as Prince of Moldavia (July 10, 1801 – October 1, 1802 and Prince of Wallachia (July 2, 1802 – August 30, 1802; August 24, 1806 – October 15, 1806; December 1806; November 17, 1818 – January 19, 1821). Born in Istanbul, he had earlier been a Dragoman of the Ottoman Empire.
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Attila
Attila ( /ˈætɨlə/ or /əˈtɪlə/; ?–453), more frequently referred to as Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in 453. He was leader of the Hunnic Empire, which stretched from the Ural River to the Rhine River and from the Danube River to the Baltic Sea.
During his reign he was one of the most feared enemies of the Western and Eastern Roman Empires. He crossed the Danube twice and plundered the Balkans, but was unable to take Constantinople. He also attempted to conquer Roman Gaul (modern France), crossing the Rhine in 451 and marching as far as Aurelianum (Orléans) before being defeated at the Battle of the Catalaunian Plains.
Subsequently he invaded Italy, devastating the northern provinces, but was unable to take Rome. He planned for further campaigns against the Romans but died in 453.
There is no surviving first-person account of Attila's appearance. There is, however, a possible second-hand source, provided by Jordanes, who cites a description given by Priscus. It suggests a person of Asian features.
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Basarab I
Basarab I the Founder (Romanian: Basarab Întemeietorul, also Basarab I the Great, Basarab cel Mare;Romanian pronunciation: [basaˈrab] ( listen)) was voivode or prince of Wallachia (c. 1310/1319–1352). His rise seems to have taken place in the context of the war between the Kingdom of Hungary and the Orthodox states in the north of the Balkan Peninsula. Around 1324 Basarab became a vassal of King Charles I of Hungary (1308–1342), but later the king called him ‘unfaithful’ on the pretext that Basarab had occupied crown territories.
Basarab I's name was originally Basarabai and lost the ending -a when it was borrowed into Romanian. The name is of Cuman or Pecheneg origin and most likely meant "father ruler". Basar was the present participle of the verb "to rule", derivatives attested in both old and modern Kypchak languages. The Romanian historian Nicolae Iorga believed the second part of the name, -aba ("father"), to be an honorary title, as recognizable in many Cuman names, such as Terteroba, Arslanapa, and Ursoba.
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Bogdan III cel Orb
Bogdan III the One-Eyed (Romanian: Bogdan al III-lea cel Chior) or Bogdan III the Blind (Romanian: Bogdan al III-lea cel Orb) (1470/71–April 20, 1517) Voivode of Moldavia from July 2, 1504 to 1517.
He was born in Huşi as the son of Voivode Ştefan cel Mare (Stephen the Great) and his wife Maria Voichiţa. He was his father's only surviving legitimate son.
Immediately after Bogdan came to the throne, he expressed his wish to marry Elisabeth, sister of Polish King Alexander the Jagiellonian; after being twice refused despite offering generous gifts (including territorial concessions), he raided southern Poland, and was conceded his demands—based on his promise to be more lenient towards the status of the Roman Catholic Church in Moldavia—in 1506. Alexander's death and Sigismund the Old's ascendancy led to a breaking of the previous agreement, provoking further incursions on each side. In October 1509, Bogdan was severely defeated on the Dniester river; a peace was signed on January 17, 1510, when the ruler finally renounced his pretensions.
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Béla IV of Hungary
Béla IV (English: /ˈbɛlə/; 1206–1270), King of Hungary (1235–70) and of Croatia (1235–70), duke of Styria 1254–58. One of the most famous kings of Hungary, he distinguished himself through his policy of strengthening of the royal power following the example of his grandfather Bela III, and by the rebuilding Hungary after the catastrophe of the Mongolian invasion in 1241. For this reason he is called by the Hungarians "the second founder of our country".
Béla was the eldest son of King Andrew II of Hungary and his first wife, Gertrude of Merania. Upon Pope Innocent III's request, the ecclesiastic and temporal dignitaries of the Kingdom of Hungary took an oath before his birth that they would accept him as his father's successor.
The infant Béla was probably present when a group of conspirators murdered his mother on 28 September 1213. Following the murder, his father ordered only the execution of the conspirators' leader and forgave the other members of the group, which resulted in Béla's emerging antipathy against his father.
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Bărbat
Bărbat was the brother and successor of voivode Litovoi whose territory had comprised northern Oltenia (Romania).
In 1277 (or between 1277 and 1280), Litovoi renounced fealty to king Ladislaus IV of Hungary (1272–1290) when the king claimed lands for the crown, but Litovoi refused to pay tribute for them. King Ladislaus IV dispatched a punitive force, and Litovoi was killed during the battle against the Hungarian army. Bărbat was taken prisoner and sent to the royal court where he was forced not only to pay ransom but also to recognize Hungarian rule. After Bărbat accepted Hungarian suzerainty under the stress of circumstances, he returned to his country.
All these events are recounted in the king’s letter of grant of 8 January 1285, in which king Ladislaus IV donated villages in Sáros County (today in Slovakia) to Master George, son of Simon, who had been sent against Litovoi.
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Cantacuzino family
The Cantacuzino or Cantacuzène family is a princely family of Wallachia, Moldavia and Russia, a branch of the Greek Kantakouzinos family, descended from the Byzantine Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus. The genealogical links between the Byzantine Greek and Romanian Cantacuzinos have been extensively documented. In Russia, the family received princely (Knyaz) status. In 1944, Prince Ștefan Cantacuzino settled in Sweden, where his descendants form part of the unintroduced nobility of the country.
The origin of the Byzantine Kantakouzenos family can be traced back to Smyrna. The name allegedly originates in a corruption of the Greek language phrase identifying their estates on a mountain just outside of Smyrna.
The Greek Kantakouzenos family had been active in Constantinople, Greece and the Greek war of independence, however several branches of the original Greek family were created via the migrations and establishment of Kantakouzenos family members to different parts of Europe. One of those new branches was the Romanian (Wallachian and Moldavian) Cantacuzino as well as the Russian branch (which is an offshoot of the Moldavian branch). As a consequence of the Russian Revolution and the Soviet occupation of Romania after World War II, the last two branches now mostly live in Western Europe and North America.[verification needed]
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Carol I of Romania
Carol I (20 April 1839 – 27 September (O.S.) / 10 October (N.S.) 1914), born Prince Karl of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was reigning prince and then King of Romania from 1866 to 1914. He was elected prince of the Romanian United Principalities on 20 April 1866 following the overthrow of Alexandru Ioan Cuza by a palace coup. Following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire in the Russo-Turkish War, he was proclaimed King of Romania on 26 March [O.S. 14 March] 1881. He was the first ruler of the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen dynasty, which ruled the country until the proclamation of a republic in 1947.
During his reign, he personally led Romanian troops during the Russo-Turkish War and assumed command of the Russo/Romanian army during the siege of Plevna. The country achieved full independence from the Ottoman Empire (Treaty of Berlin, 1878) and acquired the Cadrilater from Bulgaria in 1913. Domestic political life, still dominated by the country's wealthy landowning families organised around the rival Liberal and Conservative parties, was punctuated by two widespread peasant uprisings, in Wallachia (the southern half of the country) in April 1888 and in Moldavia (the northern half) in March 1907.
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Charles I of Hungary
Charles I (1288 – 16 July 1342), also known as Charles Robert (Caroberto), was the first King of Hungary and Croatia (1308–42) of the House of Anjou. He was also descended from the old Hungarian Árpád dynasty. His claim to the throne of Hungary was contested by several pretenders. Nevertheless, although he was only a child when his grandfather, King Charles II of Naples sent him to Hungary in 1300, Charles would strengthen his rule in the kingdom against his opponents and the powerful magnates following a long series of internal struggles. Charles also carried out numerous important political and economical reforms: he established the so called honor system which made the powerful barons dependent of his favour, and he introduced new coins with a consistently high purity of gold. Charles's foreign policy largely stemmed from dynastic alliances. His most successful achievement was the mutual defense union with Poland and Bohemia against the Habsburgs. Charles also endeavoured to enforce his or his descendants' claim to the Kingdom of Naples, but he could achieve only sham results. Nevertheless, he was one of the most successful rulers of the Kingdom of Hungary whose efforts established his successor's achievements.
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Constantin Şerban
Constantin Şerban was Prince of Wallachia between 1654 and 1658, illegitimate son to Radu Şerban (according to custom, being born out of wedlock (social term bastard) did not disqualify Constantin from becoming Prince).
His rule saw the rebellion of the seimeni mercenaries (1655). In order to deal with the issue, Constantin Şerban allied himself with the Transylvanian Prince George II Rákóczi, including himself in the latter's plans for emancipation from Ottoman rule.
In 1657, the Porte deposed him; Constantin Şerban went on to fight alongside Rákóczi, managing to upset Ottoman presence in Moldavia and briefly occupying the throne in Iaşi, at two different moments (in 1659 and 1661). Paul of Aleppo documents the derelict state of Wallachia during the Ottoman intervention, including an account of the rural population fleeing for the Transylvanian Alps ("where the Wallachians were accustomed to take refuge in time of need").
In 1656, the Prince ordered the building of the Bucharest Metropolitan Cathedral (today: Patriarchal), partly modeled on the Curtea de Argeş Monastery - but larger and more austere. In his honour, the church was given the patronage of Eastern Orthodox Saints Constantine (his namesake) and Helena. In 1658, he set fire to the city, trying to prevent his adversary Mihnea III from making use of its facilities.
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Constantine Hangerli
Constantine or Constantin Hangerli (also known as Constantin Hangerliu; died February 18, 1799) was a Prince of Wallachia between 1797 and the time of his death. He was the brother of Alexander Hangerli, who served as Prince of Moldavia in 1807.
A Phanariote, Hangerli claimed heritage from the Byzantine family of the Palaiologos. He was married to Doamna Roxana, who survived his death. According to one account, the surname Hangerli (Hanjeri) had been assigned to one of his ancestors by Sultan Mehmed IV, after allegedly rescuing his life by curing him of a potentially fatal illness. The name was based on the word handjer, which was indicative of closeness to the Sultan's person. The Hangerlis were related to other high-ranking Greek families, including the Ypsilantis and the Mourousis.
After serving as dragoman of the Ottoman Empire's Fleet, Constantine amazed foreign diplomats through his appointment to the throne in Bucharest, in competition with the much more prestigious Alexander Ypsilantis. He probably owed this rise to the influence of his friend and former associate, Kapudan Pasha Husein Küçük: the latter had been dispatched to quell the rebellion of Osman Pazvantoğlu in Rumelia, and requested that Wallachia be made secure through the investiture of a trustworthy prince.
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Constantine I
Constantine the Great (Latin: Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus Augustus; c. 27 February 272 – 22 May 337), also known as Constantine I or Saint Constantine, was Roman Emperor from 306 to 337. Well known for being the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity, Constantine and co-Emperor Licinius issued the Edict of Milan in 313, which proclaimed religious tolerance of all religions throughout the empire.
The foremost general of his time, Constantine defeated the emperors Maxentius and Licinius during civil wars. He also fought successfully against the Franks, Alamanni, Visigoths, and Sarmatians during his reign—even resettling parts of Dacia which had been abandoned during the previous century. Constantine built a new imperial residence in place of Byzantium, naming it New Rome. However, in Constantine's honour, people called it Constantinople, which would later be the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire for over one thousand years. Because of this, he is thought of as the founder of the Eastern Roman Empire.
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Dacians
The Dacians ([pronunciation?]; Latin: Daci, Ancient Greek: Δάκοι Dakoi, Δάοι Daoi, Δάκες "Dakes"; Medieval Greek Δάκαι Dákai[citation needed]) were an Indo-European people, very close or part of the Thracians.[citation needed] Dacians were the ancient inhabitants of Dacia (located in the area in and around the Carpathian Mountains and east of there to the Black Sea). This area includes the present-day countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as parts of Sarmatia (mostly in eastern Ukraine), Moesia (Eastern Serbia, Northern Bulgaria), Slovakia and Poland. They spoke the Dacian language, believed to have been closely related to Thracian, but were culturally influenced by the neighbouring Scythians and by the Celtic invaders of the 4th century BC.
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Dan I of Wallachia
Dan I was a voivode (prince, ruler) of the principality of Wallachia (reigned c. 1383 – 1386). During the war with Bulgaria (1384–1386) he perished in battle against the troops of Tsar Ivan Shishman. His descendants were members of the House of Dăneşti, one of the two factions descended from Basarab I, that were claimants to the voivodeship of the Principality of Wallachia in subsequent centuries. The other rival faction was the House of Drăculeşti.
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Dan II of Wallachia
Dan II (? – June 1, 1432) was a voivode (prince) of the principality of Wallachia in the 15th Century, ruling an extraordinary five times, and succeeded four times by Radu II Chelul, his rival for the throne. Of those five periods on the throne of Wallachia (1420–1421, 1421–1423, 1423–1424, 1426–1427, and 1427–1431), four were within a period of only seven years.
Dan II first took the throne in 1420, losing it in 1421, but regaining it that same year. He was primarily able to regain the throne many times because he was an able military commander in the field. In 1423, Dan II led an army against the invading Ottoman Turks, defeating them in battle.[citation needed] The Ottomans were invading in an effort to place Radu II back on the throne. In 1425, he again defeated the Ottomans,[citation needed] winning an important victory in a battle that was the first recorded mention of Wallachia using mercenaries in their army. In that battle Dan II had employed a large number of Bulgarian soldiers. In the spring of 1427, Dan II removes Radu II from the throne for the last time, again defeating the Ottomans in battle,[citation needed] taking back the fortress at Giurgiu. In all likelihood, Dan II killed Radu II either during or after that battle, as the latter disappears from historical records afterward. However, written accounts of the time are sparse at best, and it is not known for certain. On June 3, 1428, Dan II led an army against the Ottomans at Golubac Fortress, which ended with a treaty that would allow Dan II a semi-peaceful rule until 1432.
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Drăculeşti
The Drăculeşti were one of two major rival lines of Wallachian voivodes of the House of Basarab, the other being the Dăneşti. These lines were in constant contest for the throne from the late fourteenth to the early sixteenth centuries. Descendents of the line of Drăculeşti would eventually come to dominate the rule of this principality until its unification with Transylvania and Moldavia by Mihai Viteazul in 1600.
The line of the Drăculeşti began with Vlad II Dracul, one of the sons of one of the most important rulers of the Basarab dynasty, Mircea cel Bătrân. The name Drăculeşti is derived from the membership of Vlad II Dracul, "the Dragon," in the Order of the Dragon (founded 1408). One of the sons of Vlad II was Vlad III Drăculea, known also simply as "Dracula", i.e. "[son] of Dracul".
Members of the Drăculeşti line who held the throne of Wallachia include the following:
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Eurasian Avars
The Eurasian Avars or Ancient Avars ( /ˈævɑrz/) were a Turkic people from the steppes of Central Asia, and later they became a confederation of Eurasian tribes of mixed origin. They were ruled by a khagan, who was surrounded by a tight-knit entourage of nomad warriors. Although the name Avar first appeared in the mid-fifth century, the Avars of Europe enter the historical scene in the mid-sixth century AD, when they established a pax spanning considerable areas of Central and Eastern Europe. Their state was the Avar Khaganate. The rule of their country over much of the Pannonian Plain persisted until the early 9th century.
The origin of the Eurasian Avars is unclear. Information about origins is derived primarily from the works of Byzantine historians Menander Protector and Theophylact Simocatta. John of Ephesus used the term "those, who are called "Avars," because of their long hair." The confusion is compounded by the fact that many clans carried a particular name because they believed it to be prestigious, or it was attributed to them by outsiders describing their common characteristics, believed place of origin or reputation.[citation needed] Such a case has been seen repeatedly for many nomadic confederacies.
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George Ducas
Voivode George Ducas (Greek: Γεώργιος Δούκας, Romanian: Gheorghe Duca) (d. 1685) was three times Prince of Moldavia (September 1665 – May 1666, November 1668 – 20 August 1672, November 1678 – January 1684) and one time Prince of Wallachia (1673 – 29 November 1678).
He was married to Anastasia, the daughter of Eustratie Dabija, and later to Dafina Doamna; George Ducas fathered Constantine Ducas.
A Greek,[citation needed] George Ducas had been kept in Vasile Lupu's retinue and slowly overcame the obstacles set by his modest social origin.
Supported by Dafina Doamna and some of the boyars, he came to the throne in Iaşi after Dabija's death, but was soon ousted after his opponents appealed to the Ottomans, unjustly claiming Duca's rule was corrupt.
He contracted large debts in order to reclaim the throne, which he managed to following Alexandru Iliaş' rule. The policy of increased taxation led to the uprising of Mihalcea Hâncu in October 1671, crushed the next year after Ducas received Ottoman help. But, as Ducas failed to provide supplies needed for the War against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, with the Sultan Mehmed Dördüncü's life placed in peril at the attack of Kamianets-Podilskyi, the Turks swiftly replaced him with Ştefan Petriceicu.
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George II Rákóczi
György Rákóczi II (30 January 1621 – 7 June 1660), a Transylvanian Hungarian ruler, was the eldest son of George I and Susanna Lorantffy.
Born in Sárospatak, Hungary, he was elected prince of Transylvania during his father's lifetime (19 February 1642), and married (3 February 1643), Sophia Bathory, who was previously compelled by his mother to reject the Roman Catholic faith and turn Calvinist.
On ascending the throne (October 1648), his first thought was to realize his father's Polish ambitions. With this object in view, he allied himself, in the beginning of 1649, with the Cossack hetman, Bohdan Khmelnytsky, and the hospodars of Moldavia and Wallachia (Vasile Lupu and Matei Basarab). It was not, however, until the Treaty of Radnot of late 1656, when in early 1657, as the ally of Charles X Gustav, that he led a force of 40,000 men against the Polish king, John Casimir in the third part of Second Northern War (1655-1660), also known as The Deluge.
He took Cracow and entered Warsaw with the Swedes, but the moment his allies withdrew the whole scheme collapsed. In July 1657, his forces were defeated by the Polish army in the battle at Czarny Ostrów, and it was only on the most humiliating terms that the Poles finally allowed him to return to Transylvania. Here (3 November 1657) the diet, at the command of the Porte, deposed him for undertaking an unauthorized war, but in January 1658 he was reinstated by the Medgyes Diet. Again he was deposed by the grand vizier, and again reinstated as if nothing had happened, but all in vain. The Turks again invaded Transylvania, and Rákóczy died at Nagyvarad of the wounds received at the battle of Gyalu (Gilău) (May 1660).
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Germanic peoples
The Germanic peoples (also called Teutonic or Gothic in older literature) are an Indo-European ethno-linguistic group of Northern European origin, identified by their use of the Germanic languages which diversified out of Proto-Germanic during the Pre-Roman Iron Age.
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Gheorghe Bibescu
Gheorghe Bibescu (1804–1873) was a hospodar (Prince) of Wallachia between 1843 and 1848. His rule coincided with the revolutionary tide that culminated in the 1848 Wallachian revolution.
Born in Craiova as the first son of Dimitrie Bibescu, a member of the Bibescu boyar family, he studied Law in Paris. After his return to Wallachia, he was elected deputy in the Extraordinary Public Assembly, the legislative forum established by the Imperial Russian overseers at the end of the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829, representing the Dolj County during the Pavel Kiseleff administration. He subsequently took on different offices, including that of secretary of state. Before his election as hospodar, he was seen as an opponent of his predecessor, Alexandru II Ghica.
On January 1, 1843, the first (and only) elections carried out in accordance with the Organic Statute took place in Wallachia; these were carried out by a representative assembly, and had been prompted by Ghica's abuse. Of many candidates, Bibescu and his older brother, Barbu Ştirbei, were the most popular choices with Imperial Russia. Bibescu was elected hospodar, supported by both the conservative boyars and the younger liberals. One of his first gestures in office was to grant pardon to radicals who had conspired against Ghica (including Mitică Filipescu and Nicolae Bălcescu).
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Gheorghe Ştefan
Gheorghe Ştefan (seldom referred to as Burduja; d. 1668 in Szczecin) was Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia between April 13 and May 8, 1653, and again from July 16, 1653 to March 13, 1658; he was the son of boyar Dumitraşcu Ceaur; Gheorghe Ştefan was Chancellor (logofăt) during the reign of Vasile Lupu.
Citing Vasile's reliance on his Greek and Levantine retinue, as well as an alleged dishonoring of his wife by the Prince, he allied himself with Wallachian Prince Matei Basarab and Transylvanian ruler George II Rákóczi. He managed to expel Vasile Lupu, but the latter was helped to regain his position by Bohdan Khmelnytsky's force (under the command of the Hetman's son Tymofiy/Tymish), sent to Moldavia to depose him. Tymish and Lupu followed him to Wallachia, but their armies were crushed by Matei Basarab in the Battle of Finta. Gheorghe Ştefan regained Iaşi and remained on the throne, making sure that the Ottoman power was appeased - he bought his power in Istanbul, having to increase taxes in order to cover the expenses, and pay for the maintenance of his large mercenary force.
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Goths
The Goths (Gothic: *Gut-þiuda, *Gutans; Old Norse: Gutar/Gotar; German: Goten; Latin: Gothi; Greek: Γότθοι, Gótthoi) were an East Germanic tribe of Scandinavian origin whose two branches, the Visigoths and the Ostrogoths, played an important role in the fall of the Roman Empire and the emergence of Medieval Europe.
The most important source is Jordanes' 6th-century, semi-fictional Getica which describes a migration from southern Scandza (Scandinavia), to Gothiscandza, believed to be the lower Vistula region in modern Pomerania, and from there to the coast of the Black Sea. The Pomeranian Wielbark culture and the Chernyakhov culture northeast of the lower Danube are archaeological traces of this migration. In the 3rd century, either through crossing the lower Danube, or travelling by sea, the Goths ravaged the Balkan Peninsula and Anatolia as far as Cyprus, sacking Athens, Byzantium, Sparta. By the fourth century, the Goths conquered Dacia, and were divided into at least two distinct groups separated by the Dniester River, the Thervingi, led by the Balti dynasty, and the Greuthungi, led by the Amali dynasty. Centered around their capital at the Dnieper, the Goths ruled a vast area which at its peak under the Kings Ermanaric and Athanaric stretched from the Danube to the Volga river, and from the Black to the Baltic Sea.
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Great Wallachia
Great Wallachia (Greek: Μεγάλη Βλαχία Megáli Vlachía; Romanian: Vlahia Mare), also Thessaly Wallachia, was a medieval state of the Aromanians (Vlachs), which included the region of Thessaly in Greece that existed between the twelfth and the thirteenth century in the southern and central ranges of Pindus and extending over part of Macedonia.
In the second half of the eleventh century Anna Komnene was the first author to write about the Vlachs in Thessaly. In the 12th century Benjamin of Tudela wrote the earliest account of their independent state of Great Wallachia. He wrote that "No man can go up and battle against them and no king can rule over them".
In his 11th century Strategikon manual, Kekaumenos, a Byzantine historian, described the Vlachs from Great Wallachia as being descendants of ancient Dacians and Bessi, who had invaded Thessaly from the area to the north of Greece, from somewhere on the Danube, supposedly seeking revenge for the defeat inflicted to their ancestors by Trajan during the Dacian Wars.
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Greeks in Romania
There has been a Greek presence in Romania for at least 27 centuries. At times, as during the Phanariote era, this presence has amounted to hegemony; at other times (including the present), the Greeks have simply been one among the many ethnic minorities in Romania.
The Greek presence in what is now Romania dates back as far as the apoikiai (colonies) and emporia (trade stations) founded in and around Dobruja (see Colonies in antiquity and Pontic Greeks), beginning in the 7th century BC. Starting with the Milesian colony at Istros, the process reached its height after Tomis was founded in the 5th century BC. Although forever subject to the Dacian interference and easily disrupted by changes in the politics of neighbour tribal chieftains, the colonies prospered until being briefly submitted in various forms by King Burebista (late 1st century BC). Immediately after, and for the following centuries, they were stripped of their privileges by their new Roman masters, and followed the Empire into its crises.
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Grigore I Ghica
Grigore I Ghica, a member of the Ghica family, was Prince of Wallachia between September 1660 and December 1664 and again between March 1672 and November 1674.
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Grigore IV Ghica
Grigore IV Ghica or Grigore Dimitrie Ghica (June 30, 1755 – April 29, 1834) was Prince of Wallachia between 1822 and 1828. A member of the Ghica family, Grigore IV was the brother of Alexandru Ghica and the uncle of Dora d'Istria.
While many of his relatives had occupied the throne in both Wallachia and Moldavia as Phanariotes, the regime change after the Greek War of Independence, Tudor Vladimirescu's 1821 uprising and the Philikí Etaireía's brief rule in the two Danubian Principalities, led to Grigore IV being considered the first in a succession of non-Phanariote rulers. The elections for Prince in the Divan, although prescribed by the Akkerman Convention of 1826, were not to be organized, due mainly to precipitating events.As a Prince,Grigore watched after the development of agriculture in his region.
The Prince was ousted by the Russian occupation (see Russo-Turkish War, 1828–1829).
Grigore IV Ghica was first married to Maria Hangerly or Chantzeres (relative of Ecumenical Patriarch Samuel I Chatzeres ), with whom he had six sons (Costache, Iorgu, Scarlat, Grigore, Panait, and Dimitrie), and then to Eufrosina Săvescu, with whom he had two daughters (Maria and Alexandrina).
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Huns
The Huns were a group of nomadic people who, appearing from east of the Volga River, migrated into Europe c. AD 370 and established the vast Hunnic Empire there. Since de Guignes linked them with the Xiongnu, who had been northern neighbours of China 300 years prior to the emergence of the Huns, considerable scholarly effort has been devoted to investigating such a connection. However, there is no scholarly consensus on a direct connection between the dominant element of the Xiongnu and that of the Huns.Priscus mentions that the Huns had a language of their own; little of it has survived and its relationships have been the subject of debate for centuries. Most authorities suppose that it may have been a member of the Oghuric branch of the Turkic language family, with the languages Bulgar, Khazar, Turkic Avar and Chuvash. Numerous other languages were spoken within the Hun pax including East Germanic, which was widely used as a lingua franca in the Hunnic territories. Their main military technique was mounted archery.
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Jean Georges Caradja
John Caradja or John George Caradja (Greek: Ἰωάννης Γεώργιος Καρατζάς, Ioannis Georgios Karatzas; Romanian: Ioan Gheorghe Caragea; French: Jean Georges Caradja; 1754, Constantinople – 1844, Athens) was a Phanariote Prince of Wallachia, who reigned between 1812 and 1818. He became famous due to the code of law known as the Legiuirea Caragea ("Caragea's Law" or "Caradja's Law"), which was the first modern code of the Danubian Principalities, but also because of the effective measures taken during the bubonic plague outbreak of 1813. The epidemic became commonly known as Caragea's plague.
A member of the Caradja family, he was related to the Mavrocordatos. His nephew, Prince Alexander Mavrocordatos, was Court Secretary in Bucharest under his rule. Together with his uncle, Alexander Mavrocordatos went into exile to the Italian Peninsula, via the Austrian Empire (1818).
Caradja was named Prince by the Ottoman authorities in 1812, under the rule of Sultan Mahmud II. According to the report of the Imperial French Ambassador to Constantinople, in order to become hospodar, Caradja had to pay 8,000 bags of gold (4 million lei). During the first night he spent in Bucharest, the princely residence of Dealul Spirii (Curtea Nouă) burnt down.
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John Hunyadi
John Hunyadi (Hungarian: Hunyadi János [ˈhuɲɒdi ˈjaːnoʃ], Medieval Latin: Ioannes Corvinus or Ioannes de Hunyad, Romanian: Iancu (Ioan) de Hunedoara, Croatian: Janko Hunjadi, Serbian: Сибињанин Јанко / Sibinjanin Janko, Slovak: Ján Huňady) (c. 1407 – 11 August 1456), nicknamed The White Knight was a general (1444–1446) and Regent-Governor (1446–1453) of the Kingdom of Hungary.
Hunyadi is widely celebrated as a successful and powerful generalissimo. He promoted a revision of dated military doctrine and was an outstanding and iconic military opponent of the Ottoman Empire. Hunyadi was, in a sweeping scope of European military history, the pre-eminent strategist and tactician of the 15th century in Christendom. He was also a Voivode of Transylvania (1440–1456), and father of the Hungarian king, Matthias Corvinus.
Hunyadi's military genius, prowess and wherewithal to prosecute preventive and aggressive crusading warfare policies welded together many Christian nationalities against the onslaught of the vastly numerically superior Ottoman Muslim forces. Hunyadi's leadership achieved a state of integrity, stalemate and détente for the Hungarian Kingdom and the many European states that lay to its periphery.
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Laiotă Basarab
Basarab III cel Bătrân ("the Old"), also known as Laiotă Basarab or Basarab Laiotă was domnitor of the principality of Wallachia in the 1470s, repeating the achievement of his father Dan II in being elected by the boyars as Prince on five different occasions. Moreover, he succeeded the same domnitor (Radu cel Frumos in Dan II's case) on four separate occasions. Two of his reigns also surrounded the last period in which Vlad III the Impaler ruled over Wallachia.
He ruled:
In 1479 he joined in the Battle of Breadfield.
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Litovoi
Litovoi, also Litvoy, was a Vlach voivode in the 13th century whose territory comprised northern Oltenia (Romania).
He is mentioned for the first time in a diploma issued by king Béla IV of Hungary (1235–1270) on 2 July 1247. The diploma granted territories to the Knights Hospitaller in the Banate of Severin and Cumania, “with the exception of the land of the kenazate of Voivode Litovoi,” which the king leaved to the Vlachs “as they had held it”.
The king’s diploma also refers to the kenazates of Farcaş and John and to a certain voivode Seneslau. Although the names of Litovoi and Seneslau are of Slavic origin, they are expressly said to be Vlachs (Olati) in the king's diploma. Bulgarian historian Vasil Zlatarski, based on an information[clarification needed] of Rashid-al-Din and other sources[clarification needed], suggests that the voivodeship of Litovoi was under the suzerainty of the Second Bulgarian Empire.[dubious – discuss]
It seems that Litovoi was the most powerful of all the above local rulers. His territories were exempted from the grant to the knights, but half of the royal taxes generated by his land (terra Lytua) was assigned to the Hospitallers – except for the income from the Haţeg district (terra Harszoc in the diploma’s only surviving, papal copy), which the king kept all for himself. According to the Romanian historian Ioan Aurel Pop, the king had grabbed Haţeg from Litovoi shortly before 1247.
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Louis I of Hungary
Louis the Great (Hungarian: I. (Nagy) Lajos, Croatian: Ludovik I, Polish: Ludwik Węgierski, Ukrainian: Людвік I Великий, Slovak: Ľudovít Veľký, Italian: Luigi I d'Ungheria, German: Ludwig der Große, Bulgarian: Лудвиг I, Serbian: Лајош I Анжујски, Czech: Ludvík I. Veliký, Lithuanian: Liudvikas I Vengras (5 March 1326, Visegrád – 10 September 1382, Nagyszombat/Trnava) was King of Hungary and Croatia from 1342 and King of Poland from 1370 until his death.(See Titles section)
Louis was the head of the senior branch of the Angevin dynasty. He was one of the most active and accomplished monarchs of the Late Middle Ages, extending territorial control to the Adriatic and securing Dalmatia, with part of Bosnia and Bulgaria, within the Holy Crown of Hungary. During his reign Hungary reached the peak of its political influence.
He spent much of his reign in wars with the Republic of Venice. He was in competition for the throne of Naples, with huge military success and the latter with little lasting political results. Louis is the first European monarch who came into collision with the Ottoman Turks.
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Magyars
Hungarians, also known as Magyars (Hungarian: magyarok), are a nation and ethnic group who speak Hungarian and are primarily associated with Hungary. There are around 14-15 million Hungarians, of whom 10 million live in today's Hungary (as of 2011). About 2.2 million Hungarians live in areas that were part of the Kingdom of Hungary before the 1918-1920 dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and the Treaty of Trianon, and are now parts of Hungary's seven neighbour countries, especially Romania, Slovakia, Serbia and Ukraine. Significant groups of people with Hungarian ancestry live in various other parts of the world, most of them in the United States, Germany, the United Kingdom, Brazil, Argentina, Chile, Canada and Australia. Unlike the Hungarians living on the former territory of pre-1918-20 Kingdom of Hungary, only some of the ethnic Hungarians in other areas preserve the Hungarian language and traditions. The Hungarians can be classified into several subgroups according to local linguistic and cultural characteristics; subgroups with distinct identities include the Székely, the Csángó, the Palóc, and the Jassic people.
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Mahmud II
Mahmud II (Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثانى Mahmud-ı sānī) (20 July 1789 – 1 July 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1808 until his death in 1839. He was born in the Topkapi Palace, Constantinople, the posthumously son of Sultan Abdulhamid I. His reign is notable mostly for the extensive administrative, military and fiscal reforms he instituted, which culminated into the Decree of Tanzimat (Reorganization) that was carried out by his sons Abdülmecid I and Abdülaziz I.
His mother was Valide Sultan Naksh-i-Dil Haseki (she was a cousin of Napoleon's wife Josephine. In 1808, Mahmud II's predecessor (and half-brother) Mustafa IV (1807–08) ordered his execution along with his cousin, the deposed Sultan Selim III (1789–1807), in order to defuse the rebellion. Selim III was killed, but Mahmud was safely kept hidden by his mother and was placed on the throne after the rebels deposed Mustafa IV. The leader of this rebellion, Alemdar Mustafa Pasha, then became Mahmud II's vizier.
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Matei Basarab
Matei Basarab (Romanian pronunciation: [maˈtej basaˈrab]; 1588, Brâncoveni, Olt – April 9, 1654, Bucharest) was a Wallachian Voivode (Prince) between 1632 and 1654.
Much of Matei's reign was spent fighting off incursions from Moldavia, which he successfully accomplished in 1637, 1639, and 1653 - see Battle of Finta. He was an enlightened ruler, and is noted for introducing the printing press to Wallachia (1634) and creating the first Wallachian code of laws as well as patronizing art and religion (founder of the first upper school in his Principality). He built more than 45 churches and monasteries, being compared to Stephen the Great, the famous ruler of Moldavia.
His election in 1632 signified the first official exception to a rule set by custom. Basarab was merely a boyar (of the Craioveşti family) and one not related to previous Princes (although it seems that a similar point can be made about such rulers as Michael the Brave). The reason for this choice has been explained as a reaction of indigenous boyars against competition from newly infiltrated Greeks and Levantines. It may also be because of these special circumstances that Matei used the surname "Basarab" - associated as it is with a fabricated legitimate lineage.
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Maurice (emperor)
Maurice (Latin: Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus; Ancient Greek: Φλάβιος Μαυρίκιος Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος) (539 – 27 November 602) was Byzantine Emperor from 582 to 602.
A prominent general in his youth, Maurice fought with success against the Sassanid Persians. Once he became Emperor, he brought the war with Persia to a victorious conclusion: expanding the eastern frontier dramatically and marrying his daughter to Khosrau II, the Persian king.
Maurice also campaigned extensively in the Balkans against the Avars – pushing them back across the Danube by 599. He also conducted campaigns across the Danube, the first Emperor to do so in over two hundred years. In the West, Maurice established two large semi-autonomous provinces called exarchates, ruled by exarchs, viceroys, of the emperor.
In Italy, Maurice established the Exarchate of Ravenna in 584, the first real effort by the Empire to halt the advance of the Lombards. With the creation of the Exarchate of Africa in 590, Maurice further solidified the empire's hold on the western Mediterranean.
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Mehmed I
Mehmed I Çelebi (Ottoman: چلبی محمد, Mehmed I or Mehmed Çelebi) (1390, Bursa – May 26, 1421, Edirne, Ottoman Empire) was a Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (Rûm) from 1413 to 1421. He was one of the sons of Bayezid I and Devlet Hatun.
After the Ottoman Interregnum, when Mehmed stood as victor in 1413, he crowned himself sultan in Edirne. He restored the empire, moved the capital from Bursa to Edirne, and conquered parts of Albania, the Jandarid emirate, and the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia from the Mamelukes. Taking many of his achievements into consideration, Mehmed is widely known as the "second founder" of the Ottoman Empire.
Reign of Mehmed I, as Sultan of the re-united empire, had lasted only eight years. But he had been an independent prince for nearly the whole preceding period of eleven years that passed between his father's captivity at Ankara and his own final victory over his brother Musa Çelebi at Chamurli.
He was buried in Bursa, in a mausoleum erected by himself near the celebrated mosque which he built there, and which, from its decorations of green porcelain, is called the Green Mosque. Mehmed I also completed the mosque at Bursa, which his grandfather Murad I had commenced, but which had been neglected during in reign of Bayezid. Mehmed founded in the vicinity of his own mosque and mausoleum two other characteristic institutions, one a school, and one a refectory for the poor both of which he endowed with royal munificence.
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Mehmed II
Mehmed II (March 30, 1432 – May 3, 1481) (Ottoman Turkish: محمد ثانى Meḥmed-i s̠ānī, Turkish: II. Mehmet), (also known as el-Fātiḥ (الفاتح, "the Conqueror" in Ottoman Turkish, in modern Turkish, Fatih Sultan Mehmet; also called Mahomet II in early modern Europe) was Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (Rûm until the conquest) for a short time from 1444 to September 1446, and later from February 1451 to 1481. At the age of 21, he conquered Constantinople and brought an end to the Byzantine Empire, absorbing its administrative apparatus into the Ottoman state. Mehmed continued his conquests in Asia, with the Anatolian reunification, and in Europe, as far as Bosnia and Croatia. Mehmed II is regarded as a national hero in Turkey, and his name has been given to Istanbul's Fatih Sultan Mehmet Bridge.
Mehmed II was born on March 30, 1432, in Edirne, then the capital city of the Ottoman state. His father was Sultan Murad II (1404–51) and his mother Valide Sultan Hüma Hatun, born in Devrekani county of Kastamonu province.
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Mehmed IV
Mehmed IV Modern Turkish Mehmet (Ottoman Turkish: محمد رابع Meḥmed-i rābi‘; also known as Avcı Mehmed, Mehmed the Hunter; January 2, 1642 – January 6, 1693) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1648 to 1687. Taking the throne at age six, his reign was significant as he changed the nature of the Sultan's position forever by giving up most of his executive power to his Grand Vizier.
Born at Topkapı Palace, Constantinople, in 1642, he was the son of Sultan Ibrahim (1640–48) by Valide Sultan Turhan Hatice, a Ruthenian (Ukrainian) concubine, and the grandson of Kösem Sultan of Greek origin. Soon after his birth, his father and mother quarreled, and Ibrahim was so enraged that he tore Mehmed from his mother's arms and flung the infant into a cistern. Fortunately, Mehmed was rescued by the harem servants. His father's actions resulted in Mehmed cutting his head, which left him with a lifelong scar.
Mehmed ascended to the throne in 1648 at the age of only six. His ascension marked the end of a very volatile time for the Ottoman Dynasty; there had been a Mustafa I deposed twice and two Sultans killed, including Mehmed’s father and predecessor, Ibrahim I.
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Michael the Brave
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazu(l) pronounced [miˈhaj viˈte̯azu(l)] or Mihai Bravu pronounced [miˈhaj ˈbravu], Hungarian: Vitéz Mihály; 1558 – August 9, 1601) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593–1601), of Transylvania (1599–1600), and of Moldavia (1600). He ruled all three principalities in a personal union for a short period of time.
During his reign, which coincided with the Long War, these three principalities forming the territory of present-day Romania and the Republic of Moldova were ruled for the first time by a single Romanian leader, although the personal union lasted for less than six months. He is regarded as one of Romania's greatest national heroes.
His rule over Wallachia began in the autumn of 1593. Two years a war with the Ottomans began, a conflict in which the Prince fought the Battle of Călugăreni, considered one of the most important battles of his reign. Although the Wallachians emerged victorious from the battle, Michael was forced to retreat with his troops and wait for aid from his allies, Prince Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II. The war continued until a peace finally emerged in January 1597, but this only lasted for a year and a half. Peace was again reached in late 1599, when Michael was unable to continue the war due to lack of support from his allies.
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Migration Period
The Migration Period, also known as the Barbarian Invasions (German: Völkerwanderung "migration of peoples"), was a period of intensified human migration in Europe from about 400 to 800 AD. This period marked the transition from Late Antiquity to the Early Middle Ages. Migrations were catalyzed by profound changes within the Roman Empire and on its "barbarian frontier". The migrants who came first were Germanic tribes such as the Goths, Vandals, Lombards, Suebi, Frisii and Franks; they were later pushed westwards by the Huns, Avars, Slavs, Bulgars and Alans. Later migrations (such as the Arab conquest and Viking, Magyar, Moorish, Turkic, and Mongol invasions) also had significant effects (especially in North Africa, the Iberian peninsula, Anatolia and Central and Eastern Europe); however, they are outside the scope of the Migration Period.
Germanic peoples moved out of southern Scandinavia, Denmark and adjacent lands between the Elbe and Oder rivers after 1000 BC. The first wave moved westward and southward (pushing the resident Celts west to the Rhine River by about 200 BC) and moving into southern Germany up to the Roman province of Gaul by 100 BC, where they were stopped by Gaius Marius and Julius Caesar. It is this western group who was described by the Roman historian Tacitus (56 – 117 AD) and Julius Caesar (100 - 44 BC). A later wave of German tribes migrated eastward and southward from Scandinavia between 600 and 300 BC to the opposite coast of the Baltic Sea, moving up the Vistula near the Carpathians. During Tacitus' era they included lesser-known tribes such as the Tencteri, Cherusci, Hermunduri and Chatti; however, a period of federation and intermarriage resulted in the familiar groups known as the Alamanni, Franks, Saxons, Frisians and Thuringians.
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Mihnea cel Rău
Mihnea cel Rău (Mihnea the Wrongdoer/Mean/Evil; born about 1460, died 1510), the son of Vlad III Dracula (Vlad Ţepeş), and his first wife, was Voivode (Prince) of Wallachia from 1508 to 1509, having replaced his first cousin Radu cel Mare. During his reign, he ruled alongside his son Mircea III Dracul in the year 1509. Unpopular among the boyars, he was overthrown with Ottoman assistance, prompting him to take refuge in Transylvania - where he was to be murdered in front of the Sibiu Cathedral, being buried inside the church.
After his father's death, Mihnea ambitiously attempted to succeed him. He organized several raids with the aid of boyars who supported his father and were eager to support his son. In 1508, Mihnea finally succeeded in gaining the throne, but it would not take long for the tainted majority of noblemen to notice the familiar pattern of Romanian patriotism. Mihnea, like his father, was an exhaustingly driven crusader for Christianity. He too wanted an Eastern Europe free of Turkish rule and aggression. But with corruption in high positions (whether royal or noble), he too would suffer the similar fate of his father.
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Mihnea Turcitul
Mihnea II Turcitul ("Mihnea the Turned-Turk"; 1564–1601) was Prince (Voivode) of Walachia between September 1577 and July 1583, and again from April 1585 to May 1591.
The only son of Alexandru II Mircea and Ecaterina Salvaresso, he ascended to the throne after events characteristic for the decline in prestige of local custom and princely power under pressure from the Ottoman Empire (Wallachia's suzerain): Mihnea had to compete with a foreign pretender, the Lombard physician Rosso, who claimed to be descended from a Wallachian ruler, and ultimately succeeded after enlisting the help of his grandmother, the influential Doamna Chiajna.
He, Ecaterina Salvaresso, and Chiajna subsequently established what would become a highly unpopular rule, which followed the political guidelines imposed by Alexandru II, and saw a major increase in taxes — around 1583, the pressure was leading peasants to abandon their plots and flee to Transylvania in large numbers.
Local boyars unsuccessfully petitioned the Porte citing Mihnea's youth, began talks with a certain Pătraşcu or Radul Popa (who claimed to be the son of Pătraşcu cel Bun), and eventually rebelled in Oltenia (under the leadership of the Craioveşti family). A more powerful pretender was the real son of Pătraşcu cel Bun, Petru Cercel, who held the throne from 1583 to 1585, provoking Mihnea's exile to Tripoli (where he was kept in custody by Ottoman authorities).
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Mircea Ciobanul
Mircea the Shepherd (died 25 September 1559) was the Prince (Voivode) of Wallachia three times: January 1545 (he entered Bucharest on 17 March)–16 November 1552; May 1553–28 February 1554 (leaving Bucharest that March); and January 1558–21 September 1559.
He was the fifth son of Radu cel Mare. His baptismal name was Dumitru and he married Chiajna, the daughter of Petru Rareş, whose name was in fact Ana. He was probably called the Shepherd because he bought sheep for the Istanbul markets before ascending the throne.
The Ottoman Empire (Wallachia's suzerain) named him ruler in January 1545 in place of his stepbrother Radu Paisie and he entered Bucharest on 17 March 1545, ascending the throne on that day. Through his first decree of privilege, of 25 March 1545, he maintained in their functions and even promoted four high officials of his predecessor. A chronicle relates that two weeks after his installation, he ordered that a number of boyars be killed, including Coadă the vornic (internal affairs minister), Radul the comis, Stroe the spătar (second-in-command of the military), and Vintilă, also a comis. The chronicle also mentions that they were tortured so that they would reveal where the money and jewels were hidden, so that these could be poured into the treasury. Following this massacre, some of the wealthiest boyars and the relatives of those killed went into exile in Transylvania and Hungary, where they came together and tried twice to depose him from the throne.
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Mongols
Mongols (Mongolian: Монголчууд (help·info)), Mongolchuud) are a Central-East Asian ethnic group that lives mainly in the countries of Mongolia, China, and Russia. Owing to wars and migrations, Mongols are also found in some Central Asian states such as Kazakhstan. In China, ethnic Mongols can be found mainly in the central north region of China such as Inner Mongolia (a smaller number of Mongols can also be found in Xinjiang in northwest China). The Buryat branch of the Mongol ethnic group can be found in the autonomous republic of Buryatia, Russia. Ethnic Mongols are bound together by a common language and culture. They speak languages belonging to the Mongolic languages. The contiguous territories inhabited by ethnic Mongols is also known as Greater Mongolia[disambiguation needed 
]. There are approximately 10 million ethnic Mongols in total.
A definition includes the Mongols proper, who can be approximately divided into the eastern Mongols (the Khalkha Mongols, the Inner Mongolians, the Buryats), and the Oirats. In a wider sense, the Mongol people includes all people who speak a Mongolic language, such as the Kalmyks of eastern Europe.
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Murad II
Murad II Kodja (June 1404, Amasya – 3 February 1451, Edirne) (Ottoman Turkish: مراد ثانى Murād-ı sānī, Turkish:II. Murat) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1421 to 1451 (except for a period from 1444 to 1446 when his son Mehmed II reigned).
Murad II's reign was marked by the long war he fought against the Christian feudal lords of the Balkans and the Turkish emirates in Anatolia, a conflict that lasted 25 years. He was brought up in Amasya, and ascended the throne on the death of his father Mehmed I. His mother was Valide Sultan Emine Hatun, daughter of Suleyman Bey, ruler of Dulkadirids, his father's third consort. Their marriage served as an alliance between the Ottomans and this buffer state.
Murad II (Murat), when called from his vice-royalty in Asia Minor to become the sovereign of the Ottoman Empire, was only eighteen years of age. He was solemnly recognized as sultan, girded with the sabre of Osman at Bursa and the troops and officers of the state willing paid homage to him as their sovereign.
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Murad III
Murad III (Ottoman Turkish: مراد ثالث Murād-i sālis, Turkish:III.Murat) (4 July 1546 – 15/16 January 1595) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1574 until his death.
Born in Bozdağan or Manisa, Murad III was the eldest son of sultan Selim II (1566–74), and succeeded his father in 1574. Murad began his reign by having his five younger brothers strangled. His authority was undermined by the harem influences, more specifically, those of his mother and later of his favorite wife Safiye Sultan. The power had only been maintained under Selim II by the genius of the all-powerful Grand Vizier Mehmed Sokollu who remained in office until his assassination in October 1579. During his reign the northern borders with the Austro-hungarian empire were defended by the Bosniak kapetan Hasan Predojević. The reign of Murad III was marked by wars with Safavids and Habsburgs and Ottoman economic decline and institutional decay. The Ottomans also faced defeats during battles such as the Battle of Sisak.
Murad took great interest in the arts, particularly miniatures and books. He actively supported the court Society of Miniaturists, commissioning several volumes including the Siyer-i Nebi, the most heavily illustrated biographical work on the life of Muhammad, the Book of Skills, the Book of Festivities and the Book of Victories. He had two large alabaster urns transported from Pergamon and placed on two sides of the nave in the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and a large wax candle dressed in tin which was donated by him to the Rila monastery in Bulgaria is on display in the monastery museum.
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Neagoe Basarab
Neagoe Basarab (Romanian pronunciation: [ˈne̯aɡo.e basaˈrab]) was the Voivode (Prince) of Wallachia between 1512 and 1521. Born into the boyar family of the Craioveşti (his reign marks the climax of the family's political influence) as the son of Pârvu Craiovescu or Basarab Ţepeluş cel Tânăr, Neagoe Basarab, who replaced Vlad cel Tânăr after the latter rejected Craioveşti tutelage, was noted for his abilities and competence.
In the 16th century, Wallachia was independent, but was required to pay an exorbitant tribute to the greater force of the Ottoman Empire. Neagoe encouraged the development of crafts and trade, while maintaining a good relation with Wallachia's other powerful neighbour, Hungary.
His diplomacy attempted to establish connections with the Republic of Venice and the Papacy, even offering to mediate the dispute between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism, with the purpose of uniting Christendom against the Ottoman threat.
He adopted the Byzantine tradition of Church patronage, making generous donations to the Orthodox monasteries, not only in Wallachia but throughout the Balkans. During his reign the Curtea de Argeş Monastery was built (in 1517) - legend names Meşterul Manole as the chief craftsman; the account also fuses Neagoe with yet another legendary figure, Prince Radu (who would've caused Manole's death by ordering for the scaffolding to be removed while the builders were on the roof, ensuring that nobody would use Manole's craft, and thus preserving the uniqueness of the structure).
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Neagu Djuvara
Neagu Djuvara (Romanian pronunciation: [ˈne̯aɡu d͡ʒjuˈvara]; born August 18, 1916) is a Romanian historian, essayist, philosopher, journalist, novelist, and diplomat.
A native of Bucharest, he descended from an aristocratic Aromanian family. His father, Marcel, a graduate of the Technical University of Berlin and a Captain in the Romanian Army's Engineer Corps, died of Spanish flu in 1918; his mother, Tinca, was the last descendant of the Gradişteanu family of boyar origins (according to Djuvara, she was related to all boyar families in Wallachia). Djuvara's uncles Trandafir and Alexandru Djuvara were notable public figures. Djuvara was born during World War I; as an infant, he was taken by his family into refuge in Iaşi after the occupation of southern Romania by the Central Powers, and then, through Imperial Russia, into Belgium (where Trandafir Djuvara was Minister Plenipotentiary).
He attended lycée in Nice, France, and graduated in Letters (1937) and Law (1940) from the University of Paris (his Law thesis dealt with the antisemitic legislation passed by the governments of King Carol II in Romania). Djuvara later stated that, at the time, his political sympathies veered towards the far right: he became a supporter of the Romanian fascist movement, the Iron Guard, and took part in the February 1934 riot against the French Radical-Socialist government of Édouard Daladier.
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Nicolae Alexandru
Nicholas Alexander (Romanian: Nicolae Alexandru) was a Prince of Wallachia between 1352 and November 1364, after having been associate ruler to his father Basarab I.
In the year 1359, he founded the Wallachian Eastern Orthodox Metropolitan seat.
After initially resisting to pressures to become the Kingdom of Hungary's vassal, he yielded to king Louis I in 1354, and recognized the right of the Roman Catholic Church to establish missions in his principality, as well as the privilege of Saxon traders from Braşov to transit Wallachia without paying duties. In 1355 Nicolae Alexandru and King of Hungary reached agreement in return for Severin.
His daughter, Anna of Wallachia, married Tsar Ivan Stratsimir of Bulgaria and became mother of Tsar Constantine II of Bulgaria and of Queen Dorothea of Bosnia.
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Nicolae Bălcescu
Nicolae Bălcescu (Romanian pronunciation: [nikoˈla.e bəlˈt͡ʃesku]) (29 June 1819 – 29 November 1852) was a Romanian Wallachian soldier, historian, journalist, and leader of the 1848 Wallachian Revolution.
Born in Bucharest to a family of low-ranking nobility, he used his mother's maiden name, in place of his father's name, Petrescu (his mother was originally from Bălceşti, Vâlcea County now, then Argeş County). His siblings were Costache, Barbu, Sevasta and Marghioala, and his father died in 1824.
As a boy, Bălcescu studied at the Saint Sava College (from 1832), and was a passionate student of history. At the age of 19, he joined the Wallachian Army, and, in 1840, took part, alongside Eftimie Murgu and Cezar Bolliac, in Mitică Filipescu's conspiracy against Prince Alexandru II Ghica. The plot was uncovered, and Bălcescu was imprisoned in Mărgineni Monastery, where he remained for the following two years. The rough imprisonment conditions left irreversible marks on Bălcescu's health.
Upon his release (after being granted a pardon by the new prince Gheorghe Bibescu), he took part in forming a secret society drawn up from the Freemasonry and named Frăţia ("The Brotherhood"), which he led together with Ion Ghica and Christian Tell (joined soon after by Gheorghe Magheru) in resistance against the new Bibescu.
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Nicolae Iorga
Nicolae Iorga (Romanian pronunciation: [nikoˈla.e ˈjorɡa]; sometimes Neculai Iorga, Nicolas Jorga, Nicolai Jorga or Nicola Jorga, born Nicu N. Iorga; January 17, 1871 – November 27, 1940) was a Romanian historian, politician, literary critic, memoirist, poet and playwright. Co-founder (in 1910) of the Democratic Nationalist Party (PND), he served as a member of Parliament, President of the Deputies' Assembly and Senate, cabinet minister and briefly (1931–32) as Prime Minister. A child prodigy, polymath and polyglot, Iorga produced an unusually large body of scholarly works, consecrating his international reputation as a medievalist, Byzantinist, Latinist, Slavist, art historian and philosopher of history. Holding teaching positions at the University of Bucharest, the University of Paris and several other academic institutions, Iorga was founder of the International Congress of Byzantine Studies and the Institute of South-East European Studies (ISSEE). His activity also included the transformation of Vălenii de Munte town into a cultural and academic center.
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Nicolae Mavrogheni
Nicholas Mavrogenes (or Mavrogenous; Greek: Νικόλαος Μαυρογένης Nikolaos Mavrogenis, Romanian: Nicolae Mavrogheni pronounced [nikoˈla.e mavroˈɡeni]; died 1790) was a Phanariote Prince of Wallachia (reigned 1786–1789). He was the great-uncle of Manto Mavrogenous, a heroine of the Greek War of Independence.
Mavrogenes was born on Paros Island to a family claiming noble origins, and spoke natively one of the many Greek dialects of the Cyclades (Ienăchiţă Văcărescu later attested that he spoke Greek and Turkish poorly, and that he was not able to learn any Romanian). He lived among the sailors (for the rest of his life, he preferred to wear sailor's clothes in private), and was chosen Dragoman of Hasan Pasha, the commander of the Ottoman fleet. Hasan, together with his friend, Grand Vizier Yusuf Pasha, both important figures in the politics of the Ottoman Empire, convinced the Sultan Abdul Hamid I to name Mavrogenes prince of Wallachia on April 6, 1786. He left the Ottoman capital accompanied by a huge and ostentatious retinue.
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Nogais
The Nogai people (also written as Nogay or Noghai) are a Turkic ethnic group who live in southern Russia. Most are found in northern Dagestan and Stavropol Krai, as well as in Karachay–Cherkessia and the Astrakhan Oblast; an unknown number live in Chechnya. They speak the Nogai language and are descendants of various Turkic tribes, mainly Kipchaks, who formed the Nogai Horde.
From the sixteenth century until their removal in the mid-nineteenth century the Nogais were divided into the following sub-groups (west to east along the Black Sea coast of present-day Ukraine):
The name Nogai is derived from Nogai Khan, a general of the Golden Horde.. The Nogais are a ethnic Turkic speaking group of Kipchak descent and live in southern Russia of Dagestan, anthropologically they are an racial mixture of both Mongoloid and Caucasoid and have origins from the Golden horde. The Nogai Horde supported the Astrakhan Khanate, and after the conquest of Astrakhan in 1556 by Russians, they transferred their allegiance to the Crimean Khanate. The Nogais protected the northern borders of the khanate, and through organized raids to the northern steppes prevented Slavic settlement. Many Nogais migrated to the Crimean peninsula to serve as khan's cavalry. Settling there, they contributed to the formation of the Crimean Tatars. However, Nogais were not only good soldiers, they also had considerable agricultural skills. The Nogais mastered skills of growing grain and irrigating on the dry steppes they inhabited. They cultivated spring wheat and drought resistant millet. They raised various herds and migrated seasonally in search of better pastures for their animals. Nogais were proud of their nomadic traditions and independence, which they considered superior to settled agricultural life.
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Oescus
Oescus, or Palatiolon Palatiolum, (in Bulgarian Улпия Ескус) was an ancient town in Moesia, northwest of the modern Bulgarian city of Pleven, near the village of Gigen. It is a Daco-Moesian toponym. Ptolemy calls it a Triballian town, but it later became Roman. It was linked by a bridge over Danube with ancient city Sucidava (modern day Corabia - Romania) by Constantin the Great.
The link with the rest of the empire were the roads:
Heraclea Lyncestis – Stobi – Pautalia – Serdica – Oescus, having the following stations: Heraclea Lyncestis – Ceramiae – Stobi – Astibos – Tranupara – Pautalia – Aelea – Serdica
Philippopolis ‐ Viamata (Vojnjagovo‐„Gorni Stenici”) – Sub Radice (Hristo Danovo) – Montemno (Beklemeto‐„Karcovija Buk”) – Ad Radices (Beli Osăm/Kamen Most) – Sostra (Lomec) – Melta (Loveč) – Doriones – Storgosia (Pleven) – Ad Putea (Riben) – Oescus
Coordinates: 43°42′N 24°29′E / 43.7°N 24.483°E / 43.7; 24.483
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Osman Pazvantoğlu
Osman Pazvantoğlu (also spelled Osman Passvan-Oglou or Pasvanoglu, Pazvan Oglu/Oğlu; 1758 – January 27, 1807, Vidin) was a Bosnian Ottoman soldier, a governor of the Vidin district after 1794, and a rebel against Ottoman rule. He is also remembered as the friend of Rigas Feraios, a Greek revolutionary poet, whom he tried to rescue from the Ottoman authorities in Belgrade.
His grandfather was originally from Bosnia Province, and part of the guards of the city of Sofia, hence Osman's name: pasban-oğlu, "son of the guard". Initially a mercenary in service to the Wallachian prince Nicholas Mavrogenes, Osman Pazvantoğlu disobeyed the latter on one occasion, and was saved from reprisals through Feraios' intervention.
Having gathered a large army of mercenaries, he rebelled against the Ottoman sultan Selim III, and, acting as an independent ruler, he minted his own coins and had diplomatic relations with foreign states (including the French Republic). In 1798, he held territories which spread from the Danube to the Balkan Mountains and from Belgrade to Varna. In 1793, he undertook a military expedition to the Pashaluk of Belgrade but was soundly defeated by the Serbs in Ottoman service at the Battle of Kolar.
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Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire or Turkish Empire or Sublime Ottoman State or sometimes also referred to as Turkey (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye (also عثمانلى دولتى Osmanlı Devleti),Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Devleti or Osmanlı İmparatorluğu) was a Turkish empire which lasted from 27 July 1299 to 1 November 1922, when the Sultanate was abolished.
The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and longest lasting empires in history; such that the Ottoman State, its politics, conflicts, and cultural heritage in a vast geography provide one of the longest continuous narratives. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire was one of the most powerful states in the world – a multinational, multilingual empire that stretched from the southern borders of the Holy Roman Empire to the outskirts of Vienna, Royal Hungary (modern Slovakia) and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the north to Yemen and Eritrea in the south; from Algeria in the west to Azerbaijan in the east; controlling much of southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.
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Pavel Kiselyov
Count Pavel Dmitrievich Kiselyov or Kiseleff (Па́вел Дми́триевич Киселёв) (January 19 [O.S. January 8] 1788, Moscow – November 26 [O.S. November 14] 1872, Paris) is generally regarded as the most brilliant Russian reformer during Nicholas I's generally conservative reign.
Kiselyov first distinguished himself during the Napoleonic Wars, serving as Count Miloradovich's aide-de-camp in the Battle of Borodino, marching with the Russian army all the way to Paris and gaining promotion to Alexander I's aide-de-camp at the close of the campaign.
Five years later, Kiselyov was appointed Chief of Staff of the Second Army, stationed in Tulchyn, Podolia. It was there that he first tried to implement his reforms, including the mitigation and condemnation of corporal punishment, which aroused the animosity of the powerful War Minister, Count Arakcheyev. Pavel Pestel and other Decembrists who formed the southern revolutionary league served under Kiselyov and were supported by him, although the extent to which their collusion was encouraged by Kiselyov's liberalism has been disputed.
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Pechenegs
The Pechenegs or Patzinaks (Russian: Печенег(и), Turkish: Peçenek(ler), Hungarian: Besenyő(k), Croatian: Pečenezi, Greek: Πατζινάκοι, Πετσενέγοι, Πατζινακίται, Georgian: პაჭანიკი, Bulgarian: печенеги, pechenegi or печенези, pechenezi; Serbian: Печенези, Latin: Pacinacae, Bisseni) were a semi-nomadic Turkic people of the Central Asian steppes speaking the Pecheneg language which belonged to the Turkic language family.
In Mahmud Kashgari's 11th-century work Dīwānu Lughati t-Turk (Arabic: ديوان لغات الترك), the name Beçenek is given two meanings. The first is "a Turkish nation living around the country of the Rum", where Rum was the Turkish word for the Eastern Roman Empire or Byzantine Empire. Kashgari's second definition of Beçenek is "a branch of Oghuz Turks"; he subsequently described the Oghuz as being formed of 22 branches, of which the 19th branch was named Beçenek. Max Vasmer derives this name from the Turkic word for "brother-in-law, relative" (Turkmen: bacanak and Turkish: bacanak). According to Kashgari, Pechenegs are one of Üçok tribes of the Oghuz.
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Petru Cercel
Petru II Cercel (Peter Earring or Earring Peter) (died 1590) was a Voivode (Prince) of Wallachia from 1583 to 1585, bastard son to Pătraşcu cel Bun and alleged half-brother of Mihai Viteazul. A polyglot and a minor figure as a poet, Petru is noted for having written his verses in Tuscan. He was homosexual. (Nowhere does it say in that article that he was a homosexual, neither do historical documents mention such a thing. It says that he "might" have been which does not in any way make him homosexual. In historical context, the boyars and the people wouldn't have accepted a homosexual voivode, neither would the Orthodox Church.)
Petru spent his early years constantly traveling, trying to win support in his bid for the Wallachian throne. The fact that, as of 1579, he received unconditional support in France, coupled with the jewellery-wearing that attracted his moniker have led to speculations that Cercel belonged to the group of mignons of Henry III. It is even stated that Henry interceded with the Porte to award Petru the crown because of his affection for him.
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Phanariotes
Phanariots, Phanariotes, or Phanariote Greeks (Greek:Φαναριώτες, Romanian: Fanarioţi) were members of those prominent Greek (including Hellenized Romanian and Albanian) families residing in Phanar (Φανάρι, modern Fener), the chief Greek quarter of Constantinople, where the Ecumenical Patriarchate is situated.
For all their cosmopolitanism and often Western education, the Phanariots were aware of their Hellenism; according to Nicholas Mavrocordatos' Philotheou Parerga "We are a race completely Hellenic".
Phanariots emerged as a class of moneyed ethnically Greek merchants (they commonly claimed noble Byzantine descent) in the latter half of the 16th century and went on to exercise great influence in the administration in the Ottoman Empire's Balkan domains in the 18th century. They tended to build their houses in the Phanar quarter in order to be close to the court of the Patriarch, who under the Ottoman millet system was recognized as both the spiritual and secular head (millet-bashi) of all the Orthodox subjects (the Rum Millet, or the “Roman nation”) of the Empire (except those Orthodox under the spiritual care of the Patriarchs of Antioch, Jerusalem, Alexandria and Peć), often acting as archontes of the Ecumenical See; thus they came to dominate the administration of the Patriarchate frequently intervening in the selection of hierarchs, including the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.
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Pipo of Ozora
Pipo of Ozora (born Filippo Buondelmonti degli Scolari; known as Usora Filip in Croatian; Ozorai Pipó in Hungarian; Filippo Scolari, Lo Scolari or Pippo Spano in Italian, Филип Мађарин, Филип Маџарин or Philip Madzharin, Philip the Magyar in Bulgarian and Serbian epic songs; 1369 - December 1426) was an Italian condottiero, general, strategist and confidant of King Sigismund of Hungary.
Pipo, the son of a Florentine destitute merchant, was born at Tizzano, near Florence. He is first mentioned in Hungary around 1382, when he entered the service of Sigismund's treasurer and was awarded the castle in Simontornya (Simonsthurm). Further services to the Crown, such as providing resources to fight the Ottomans, led to his appointment as administrator of all gold mines in the kingdom. Present in Bosnia, in the context of a Hungarian nobles' rebellion and King Tvrtko I of Bosnia's death, Pipo managed to subdue the main leaders of the revolt.
He took part in the unfortunate anti-Ottoman Last Crusade of September 1396 at Nicopolis (in today's Bulgaria), and, unlike most on the Christian side, managed to flee after the defeat. He, the King, and a number of high dignitaries sailed a small boat up the Danube, all the way to Hungarian and Croatian lands.
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Pătraşcu cel Bun
Pătraşcu cel Bun (Pătraşcu the Good) was the Prince of Wallachia (1554–1558). He was the son of Radu Paisie and the father of Michael the Brave; he was a member of the House of Drăculeşti
His wife was named Voica. Pătraşcu cel Bun was buried at Dealu Monastery. He was called "the Good" by historians because it had a peaceful reign, without killing any nobleman.
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Radu de la Afumaţi
Radu of Afumaţi, was the ruler of Wallachia between January 1521 and April 1529 (with intermittences in the first year, because he lost the throne between April–June and August–October 1521). He began his reign with a victory against Mehmed-bey, a pretender to Wallachia's throne. Between 1522 and 1525 he fought against the Turks, Vladislav al III-lea and Radu Bădica, both claimants of the throne. The inscription on his tombstone lists 20 battles. He was killed by decapitation on 2 January 1529 near Râmnicu Vâlcea, at Cetăţuia Church. He was later buried in the Curtea de Argeş Cathedral.
He received the nickname "of Afumaţi" because he had a property in Afumaţi (Ilfov County), inherited from his grandfather Vlad the Monk (1482–1495). To distinguish him from other Wallachian rulers named Radu (especially his father and brothers), the Prince has also received other nicknames. During his life he was referred to as Radu Voda the Younger, and after his death he was also called and Radu the Brave (in a document from 4 June 1588) as a recognition of his merits in stopping the Ottomans' advance and in preventing the transformation of Wallachia into Turkish pashaluk. After the place where he was killed, he was also remembered as Prince Radu of Ramnic
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Radu I of Wallachia
Radu I was a ruler of the principality of Wallachia, (c. 1377 – c. 1383). He was born in 1330 and was the son of Nicolae Alexandru
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Radu III the Fair
Radu III the Fair, Radu III the Handsome or Radu III the Beautiful (Romanian: Radu cel Frumos), also known by his Turkish name Radu Bey (1435–1475), was the younger brother of Vlad Ţepeş and voivode (prince) of the principality of Wallachia. They were both sons of Vlad II Dracul (Dracul : the dragon) and his wife, Princess Cneajna of Moldavia. In addition to Vlad Ţepeş, Radu also had two older half-brothers, Mircea II and Vlad Călugărul, both of whom would also briefly rule Wallachia. Of the four siblings, Radu converted to Islam and entered Ottoman service.
In 1436, Vlad II Dracul ascended the throne of Wallachia. He was ousted in 1442 by rival factions in league with Hungary, but secured Ottoman support for his return by agreeing to pay tribute to the Sultan and also send his two legitimate sons, Vlad III and Radu, to the Ottoman court, to serve as hostages of his loyalty.
The boys were taken to the various garrisons at Edirne. Vlad suffered much at the hands of the Ottomans and was locked up in an underground prison; however, Radu caught the eye of the sultan's son, Mehmet II. These years had a great influence on Vlad, as he was often whipped and beaten by the Turks for being stubborn and rude. He developed a well-known hatred for Radu and for Mehmet II, who would later become the sultan. Vlad was later released, corrected and taken to be educated in logic, the Quran and the Turkish and Persian language and literature. The boys' father, Vlad Dracul, with the support of the Ottomans, returned to Wallachia and took back his throne from Basarab II.
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Radu Mihnea
Radu Mihnea (1586–1626) was Voivode (Prince) of Wallachia between September 1601 and March 1602, and again between March and May 1611, September 1611 and August 1616, August 1620 and August 1623, and Voivode (Prince) of Moldavia in 1616-1619, 1623-1626. He was the illegitimate son of Mihnea Turcitul by Voica Bratcul.
Radu Mihnea spent part of his early years in Koper (Capodistria), on Mount Athos and in Greece. His stay in the Serenissima accounts for the pro-Venetian character of his rule, and his interest in reforming the institutions of Wallachia and Moldavia. After completing his studies in Istanbul, Radu became prince of Wallachia at a very important time in Romanian history: following the union of the three principalities of Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania under Michael the Brave. Radu would rule no less than four times in Wallachia and twice in Moldavia. He was loved due to his Renaissance-style and love of the arts. This was due to his upbringing by the monks of Iveron at Mount Athos, Greece. Radu Mihnea died in 1626 in Moldavia, and his body was carried to Bucharest and interred at the Church of Prince Radu. The monastery was protected by the monks of Mount Athos due to Radu's divine loyalty to his educators. Radu and his wife Arghira had five children, three boys and two girls. These five would be the last surviving direct descendants of Vlad III Dracula. The eldest was Alexandru Coconul.
wn.com/Radu_Mihnea -
Radu Paisie
Radu Paisie also known as Petru de la Argeş was a ruler of the principality of Wallachia in the 16th century. He reigned from September 1534 to November 1534, and again from June 1535 to March 1545.
wn.com/Radu_Paisie -
Roman Emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC). The Romans had no single term for the office although at any given time, a given title was associated with the emperor. If a man was "proclaimed emperor" this normally meant he was proclaimed augustus, or (for generals) imperator (from which English emperor ultimately derives). Several other titles and offices were regularly accumulated by emperors, such as caesar, princeps senatus, consul and Pontifex Maximus. The power of emperors was generally based on the accumulation of powers from republican offices and the support of the army.
Roman emperors refused to be considered "kings", instead claiming to be leaders of a republic, however nominal. The first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically Republican, his successor, Tiberius, could not convincingly make the same claim. Nonetheless, the Republican institutional framework (senate, consuls, magistracies etc.) was preserved until the very end of the Western Empire.
wn.com/Roman_Emperor -
Romanians
The Romanians (dated: Rumanians or Roumanians; in Romanian: români pronounced [roˈmɨnʲ] or — historically, but now a seldom-used regionalism — rumâni; dated exonym: Vlachs) are an ethnic group native to Romania, who speak Romanian; they are the majority inhabitants of Romania.
The Romanian people are a nation in the meaning of ethnos (Romanian: etnie), defined by the sense of sharing a common Romanian culture, descent, and having Romanian as mother tongue, as well as by citizenship or by being subjects to the same country. The Romanian citizenship law legislated in March 1991 establishes the rights of second and third generation descendants of Romanian citizens to obtain a Romanian citizenship, if they speak fluent Romanian and are able to demonstrate sufficient knowledge in Romanian history and culture. 89.4 percent of Romania's people declared themselves as Romanians at the 2002 Romanian Census.
In one interpretation of the census results in Moldova, Moldovans are counted as Romanians, which would mean that the latter form part of the majority in that country as well. Romanians are also an ethnic minority in several nearby countries.
wn.com/Romanians -
Sarmatian
The Iron Age Sarmatians (Latin Sarmatæ or Sauromatæ, Sanskrit Sakas Greek Σαρμάται, Σαυρομάται) were an Iranian people in Classical Antiquity, flourishing from about the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD.
Their territory was known as Sarmatia to Greco-Roman ethnographers, corresponding to the western part of greater Scythia (modern Southern Russia, Ukraine, and the eastern Balkans). At their greatest reported extent, around 100 BC, these tribes ranged from the Vistula River to the mouth of the Danube and eastward to the Volga, bordering the shores of the Black and Caspian seas as well as the Caucasus to the south.
The Sarmatians declined in the 4th century with the incursions connected to the Migration period (Huns, Goths). The descendants of the Sarmatians became known as the Alans during the Early Middle Ages, and ultimately gave rise to the modern Ossetic ethnic group.
Sarmatae is in origin probably just one of several tribal names of the Sarmatians which came to be applied to the entire group as an exonym in Greco-Roman ethnography. Strabo in the 1st century names as the main tribes of the Sarmatians the Iazyges, the Roxolani, the Aorsi and the Siraces.
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Seneslau
Seneslau, also Seneslav or Stănislau, was a Vlach voivode mentioned in a diploma issued by king Béla IV of Hungary (1235–1270) on 2 July 1247; the diploma granted territories to the Knights Hospitaller in the Banate of Severin and Cumania. According to the diploma, the king gave the territories east of the Olt River to the knights, with the exception of the territory of voivode Seneslau.
The name of Seneslav is of Slavic origin. Seneslau held central and southern Muntenia (i.e., the territories along the rivers Argeş and Dâmboviţa). The Romanian historian Ioan Aurel Pop suggests that Seneslau was quasi independent of the king of Hungary. According to the Hungarian historian István Vásáry, his title (voivode) suggests that he had a territorial unit under his jurisdiction.
The diploma of Béla IV also refers to the kenazates of John, Farcaş and voivode Litovoi. Although the names of Seneslau and Litovoi are of Slavic origin, they are expressly said to be Vlachs (Olati) in the king's diploma.
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Sigismund Báthory
Sigismund Báthory (Hungarian: Báthory Zsigmond, Romanian: Sigismund Bathory) (1572 – March 27, 1613) was Prince of Transylvania.
Hailing from the Báthory family's Somlyó branch, he was the son of Christopher Báthory, Voievod of Transylvania, and nephew of Stephen Báthory, King of Poland. He was elected prince in his father's lifetime, but being quite young at his fathers death, the government was entrusted to a regency.
In 1588 he attained his majority, and joined the league of Christian princes against the Turk. The obvious danger of such a course caused no small anxiety in the principality, and the diet of Torda (today Turda) even went so far as to demand a fresh coronation oath from Sigismund. Upon his refusal to render it, the members threatened him with deposition. Ultimately Bathory got the better of his opponents, and executed all whom he got into his hands (1595).
In 1595, at Gyulafehérvár (today Alba Iulia), Sigismund Bathory signed a treaty with Michael the Brave, the Voivod of Wallachia, in which Wallachia came under sovereignty of Transylvania, requiring to Sigismund to send aid to Michael the Brave for fighting the Ottomans.
wn.com/Sigismund_Báthory -
Sigismund III Vasa
Sigismund III Vasa (Polish: Zygmunt III Waza, Lithuanian: Zigmantas Vaza, English exonym: Sigmund; 20 June 1566 – 30 April 1632 N.S.) was King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, a monarch of the united Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1587 to 1632, and King of Sweden (where he is known simply as Sigismund) from 1592 until he was deposed in 1599. He was the son of King John III of Sweden and his first wife, Catherine Jagellonica of Poland.
Elected to the throne of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, Sigismund sought to create a personal union between the Commonwealth and Sweden (Polish–Swedish union), and succeeded for a time in 1592. After he had been deposed in 1599 from the Swedish throne by his uncle, Charles IX of Sweden, and a meeting of the Riksens ständer (Swedish Riksdag), he spent much of the rest of his life attempting to reclaim it.
Sigismund remains a highly controversial figure in Poland. His long reign coincided with the apex of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth's prestige, power and economic influence. On the other hand, it was during his reign that the symptoms of decline leading to the Commonwealth's eventual demise surfaced. Popular histories, such as the books of Paweł Jasienica, tend to present Sigismund as the principal source of these destructive processes; whereas academic histories are usually not damning of him. However, the question of whether the Commonwealth's decline was caused by Sigismund's decisions or had its roots in historical processes beyond his personal control, remains a highly debated topic.
wn.com/Sigismund_III_Vasa -
Süleyman I
Suleiman I ( /ˈsuːlimɑːn/; Ottoman Turkish: سلطان سليمان اول, Sultān Suleimān-i evvel or قانونى سلطان سليمان, Kānūnī Sultān Suleimān, Modern Turkish: I. Süleyman (Turkish pronunciation: [sylejˈmɑn]) or Kanuni Sultan Süleyman; 6 November 1494 – 5/6/7 September 1566) was the tenth and longest-reigning Emperor, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1520 to his death in 1566. He is known in the West as Suleiman the Magnificent and in the East, as "The Lawgiver" (Turkish: Kanuni; Arabic: القانونى, al‐Qānūnī), for his complete reconstruction of the Ottoman legal system. Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's military, political and economic power. Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies to conquer the Christian strongholds of Belgrade, Rhodes, and most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the Siege of Vienna in 1529. He annexed most of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large swathes of North Africa as far west as Algeria. Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet dominated the seas from the Mediterranean to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.
wn.com/Süleyman_I -
Thraco-Roman
The terms Thraco-Roman (or the more specific Daco-Roman) refer to the culture and language of the Thracian (including Dacian) peoples who were incorporated into the Roman Empire and ultimately fell under the Roman and Latin sphere of influence.
The term was coined in 1901 by Ovid Densusianu, who used it to describe the "oldest epoch of the creation of the Romanian language", when the Vulgar Latin spoken in the Balkans between the 4th and 6th centuries, having its own peculiarities, had evolved into what is known as Proto-Romanian. By extension, historians started to use the term to mean the time period of the history of the Romanian people until the 6th century, which witnessed the cultural and linguistic Romanisation of many Daco-Thracian tribes. The territory where this process took place, consensually agreed to be near the Jireček Line is characterized as having two main peculiarities:
wn.com/Thraco-Roman -
Tudor Vladimirescu
Tudor Vladimirescu (Romanian pronunciation: [ˈtudor vladimiˈresku]; c. 1780 – June 7 [O.S. May 27] 1821) was a Wallachian Romanian revolutionary hero, the leader of the Wallachian uprising of 1821 and of the Pandur militia. He is also known as Tudor din Vladimiri (Tudor of Vladimiri) or — occasionally — as Domnul Tudor (Voivode Tudor).
Tudor was born in Vladimiri, Gorj County (in the region of Oltenia) in a family of landed peasants (mazili); his birth year is usually given as 1780, but this is still debated. At the age of 12, he was sent to Craiova, in service to boyar Ioan Glogoveanu, where he would later learn rhetoric, grammar and the Greek language. He became administrator of the boyar's estate and, in 1806, was named vătaf (leader of the local militias) at Cloşani. Tudor's experience as a servant made him familiar with customs, habits and objectives of landowners; this insight helped him walk the fine line between conflicting interests of boyars and peasants in the first months of the uprising against the Phanariotes. It is argued that Vladimirescu's vitriolic outbursts against "Greeks" (foreign, newly arrived landowners) and "traitorous boyars" (the group who did not give him support) were also motivated by his ambition towards being included into the ranks of local estate-holders; while leader of a mainly peasant movement, Tudor did his best not to antagonize the elite, ruthlessly punishing any destruction of property.
wn.com/Tudor_Vladimirescu -
Turkic peoples
The Turkic peoples are a collection of ethnic groups that live in northern, central and western Asia, northwestern China and parts of eastern Europe. They speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family. They share, to varying degrees, certain cultural traits and historical backgrounds. The term Turkic represents a broad ethno-linguistic group of people including existing societies such as the Turkish, Azerbaijani, Chuvashes, Kazakhs, Tatars, Kyrgyzs, Turkmens, Uyghurs, Uzbeks, Bashkirs, Qashqai, Gagauzs, Yakuts, Crimean Karaites, Krymchaks, Karakalpaks, Karachays, Nogais and as well as past civilizations such as the Göktürks, Kumans, Kipchaks, Avars, Bulgars, Turgeshes, Khazars, Seljuk Turks, Ottoman Turks, Mamluks, Timurids and possibly Huns and the Xiongnu.
The distribution of people of Turkic cultural background ranges from Siberia, across Central Asia, to Eastern Europe. As of 2011[update] the largest groups of Turkic people live throughout Central Asia—Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Azerbaijan, in addition to Turkey and Iran. Additionally, Turkic people are found within Crimea, East Turkistan region of western China, northern Iraq, Pakistan, Israel, Russia, Afghanistan, and the Balkans: Moldova, Bulgaria, Romania, and former Yugoslavia. A small number of Turkic people also live in Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. Small numbers inhabit eastern Poland and the south-eastern part of Finland. There are also considerable populations of Turkic people (originating mostly from Turkey) in Germany, United States, and Australia, largely because of migrations during the 20th century.
wn.com/Turkic_peoples -
Vasile Lupu
Vasile Lupu (Vasile Coci) (Romanian pronunciation: [vaˈsile ˈlupu]; 1595–1661) was a Moldavian Voivode (Prince) between 1634 and 1653. Vasile Coci surnamed "the wolf" who ruled as Prince of Moldavia had secured the Moldavian throne in 1634 after a series of complicated intrigues and managed to hold it for twenty years. Vasile was of Albanian origin and Greek education. He was a capable administrator and a brilliant financer and soon was the richest man in the Christian East. Judiciously placed gifts kept him on good terms with the Ottoman authorities.
Lupu was born in Arbanasi, an Albanian village in Bulgaria. The first time that the last name of the family is mentioned in Romanian sources is in 1597, when Nicholas Coci, an Albanian born in Epirus, takes refuge with other mercenaries in the Arbanasi village. After he had been involt in a revolt and he was defeated, Nicolai Coci was brought in Romanian Country by Radu Mihnea, who would occupy the throne of all Romanian Territories (Moldova, Transilvania, Muntenia) in 1601. Nicolai Coci had 8 children: Vasile Lupu, Gabriel Hatmanul, Ilinca, Marga, Anna, Catherine and George Costea. After father's death, the family moved to live in Moldavia. The most important aspect of Nicolai Coci (Nicholas Coci) ... he is the father of Prince Vasile Lupu / Wolf (Vasile Coci). The Coci last name was carried on by Stefan Coci (son of Vasile Lupu) who married the daughter of Petru Rareş, a voivode of Moldavia, but also by the descendants of Gabriel Coci named Hatmanul. The descending line of Coci intersects with aristocratics families from Moldavia, old families such as Bucioc, Boulesti, and the Abazesti.
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Vlachs
Vlach ( /ˈvlɑːk/ or /ˈvlæk/) is a blanket term covering several modern Latin peoples descending from the Latinised population in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe. English variations on the name include: Wallachians, Walla, Wlachs, Wallachs, Vlahs, Olahs or Ulahs. Groups that have historically been called Vlachs include: modern-day Romanians or Daco-Romanians, Aromanians or Macedo-Romanians, Morlachs, Megleno-Romanians and Istro-Romanians. Since the creation of the Romanian state, the term in English has mostly been used for those living outside Romania.
The Vlachs, which would develop into the modern Romanian ethnicity, do not become tangible before the High Middle Ages in Kedrenos (11th century), and their prehistory during the Migration period is a matter of scholarly speculation but according to the linguists and to many scholars, the existence of the present Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the low-Danube basin during the Migration period and the Vlachs are all being well considered descendants of Romanised peoples of the area (incl. Thracians, Dacians and Illyrians).
wn.com/Vlachs -
Vlad II Dracul
Vlad II (c. 1393 – December 1447), known as Vlad Dracul (English: Vlad the Dragon), was a voivode (English: duke) of Wallachia. He reigned from 1436 to 1442, and again from 1443 to 1447. He was the father of Mircea II, Vlad Călugărul, Vlad III Dracula, who became posthumously known by the epithet Ţepeş (English: the Impaler), and Radu III the Beautiful.
Vlad II received the surname Dracul (English: Dragon) in 1431, after being inducted into the Order of the Dragon, founded in 1408 by the King Sigismund of Hungary (the later Holy Roman Emperor), as part of a design to gain political favor for the Catholic Church and to aid in protecting Wallachia against the Ottoman Empire.
Vlad II Dracul was a member of the House of Drăculeşti lineage, and son of Mircea cel Bătrân. Although Vlad II was in favor of Catholicism, he is known to have murdered members of the rival princely House of Dăneşti, a not-so-distant relation to his own father's House of Basarab, and gained power in Wallachia, upon returning from exile in Transylvania in 1436.
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Vlad III Dracula
Vlad III, Prince of Wallachia (1431–1476), also known by his patronymic name Dracula (son of the Dragon, after his father Vlad II Dracul), and posthumously dubbed Vlad the Impaler (Romanian: Vlad Țepeș pronounced [ˈvlad ˈt͡sepeʃ]), was a three-time Voivode of Wallachia, ruling mainly from 1456 to 1462, the period of the incipient Ottoman conquest of the Balkans. His father was a member of the Order of the Dragon (Dracul) which was founded to protect Christianity in Europe.
Vlad III spent much of his rule campaigning against the Ottoman Empire and its expansion. As the cognomen 'The Impaler' suggests, his practice of impaling his enemies is central to his historical reputation. During his lifetime, his reputation for excessive cruelty spread abroad, to Germany and elsewhere in Europe. The total number of his victims is estimated in the tens of thousands. The name of the vampire Count Dracula in Bram Stoker's 1897 novel Dracula was inspired by Vlad's patronymic.
During his life Vlad wrote his name in Latin documents as Wladislaus Dragwlya, vaivoda partium Transalpinarum (1475).
wn.com/Vlad_III_Dracula -
Walha
Walhaz (ᚹᚨᛚᚺᚨᛉ) is a reconstructed Proto-Germanic word, meaning "foreigner", "stranger", "Roman", "Romance-speaker", or "Celtic-speaker". The term was used by the ancient Germanic peoples to describe inhabitants of the former Roman Empire, who were largely romanised and spoke Latin or Celtic languages. The adjectival form is attested in Old Norse valskr, meaning "French", Old High German walhisk, meaning "Romance", Modern German welsch, used in Switzerland for Romance-speakers, Old English welisċ, wælisċ, wilisċ, meaning "Romano-British", and Modern English Welsh. The form of these words imply that they are descended from a Proto-Germanic form *walhiska-.
It is attested in the Roman Iron Age Tjurkö Bracteate inscription as walhakurne "Roman/Gallic grain", apparently a kenning for "gold" (referring to the "bracteate" itself).
Walh is almost certainly derived from the name of the tribe which was known to the Romans as Volcae (in the writings of Julius Caesar) and to the Greeks as Ouólkai (Strabo and Ptolemy). This tribe occupied territory neighbouring that of the Germanic people and seem to have been referred to by the Old Germanic name *Walhaz (plural *Walhôz, adjectival form *walhiska-). It is assumed that this term specifically referred to the Celtic Volcae, because application of the first Germanic sound change to that word produces the form *Walh-. Subsequently, this term Walhôz was applied rather indiscriminately to the southern neighbours of the Germanic people, as evidenced in geographic names such as Walchgau and Walchensee in Bavaria. These southern neighbours, however, were then already completely romanised. Thus, Germanic speakers generalized this name first to all Celts, and later to all Romans. The Old High German Walh became Walch in Middle High German, and adjectival OHG walhisk became MHG welsch, e.g. in the Romance of Alexander by Rudolf von Ems-–resulting in Welsche in Early New High German and Modern German as the exonym for all Romanic speakers.
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Şerban Cantacuzino
Șerban Cantacuzino (1640–1688) was a Prince of Wallachia between 1678 and 1688.
He took part in the Ottoman campaign ending in their defeat at the Battle of Vienna. At the same time, it is alleged that he conceived a plan for a march on Constantinople, planning to drive the Ottomans out of Europe, counting on support from major European states.
Cantacuzino introduced maize to Wallachia and present-day Romania, in time the staple food - it was not yet extensively cultivated during his reign. He founded the first school of the principality, in Bucharest, agreed to the establishment of various printing presses, and ordered the famous Romanian edition of the Bible (the Cantacuzino Bible), first published in Bucharest (1688).
His son Gheorghe Cantacuzino later ruled as Ban of Oltenia.
He died suddenly, and there is further speculation that he was in fact poisoned by boyars who resented his vast, unrealistic and dangerous projects. His descendants include the late Romanian actor, Șerban Cantacuzino.
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Ştefan Cantacuzino
Ştefan Cantacuzino (Greek: Στέφανος Καντακουζινός, Stephanos Cantacuzinos), was a Prince of Wallachia between April 1714 and January 21, 1716, the son of stolnic Constantin Cantacuzino.
Ştefan was involved in his father's intrigue against Prince Constantin Brâncoveanu, denouncing him to the Ottoman Empire (Wallachia's overlord), and surrendering Brâncoveanu's secret correspondence with the Habsburg Monarchy, enemies of the Porte in the Great Turkish War. After obtaining the Prince's deposition, he took the throne in Bucharest as an Ottoman appointee.
His rule coincided with the Habsburg attack led by Prince Eugene of Savoy, during which the Cantacuzinos shook off Ottoman tutelage, informing Stephan, comte de Steinville on the Porte's war preparations. A kapucu was sent to depose Prince Ştefan in January 1716, and arrested him together with his father and uncle (the spătar Mihai Cantacuzino). The three of them were executed in Constantinople.
Following Ştefan Cantacuzino's death, the Phanariote rule in Wallachia was established as a way to ensure a tighter Ottoman control over Wallachia.
wn.com/Ştefan_Cantacuzino
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Wallachia 02 Europa Universalis 3 III Divine Wind Death and Taxes Let's Play
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 37:56
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
http://wn.com/Wallachia_02_Europa_Universalis_3_III_Divine_Wind_Death_and_Taxes_Let's_Play
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
WALLACHIA - Fullmane over Fagaras
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:38
- Updated: 07 Dec 2012
From the '96 self titled demo.
http://wn.com/WALLACHIA_Fullmane_over_Fagaras
Wallachian Prince Michael the Brave & his Victories over the Ottoman Turks 1/2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:02
- Updated: 18 Nov 2012
I got this film yesterday about 'Mihai Viteazul' aka Michael the Brave, Prince of Wallachia, Transylvania & Moldova, and i really liked it, especially the parts were he continuously defeats the Ottoman Turks vastly outnumbering him. The film is made in 1971, directed by Sergiu Nicolaescu & written by Titus Popovici and its packed with great battles, such as the Battle of Călugăreni 1595, the Battle of Şelimbăr 1599 & other great Victories of Michael the Brave. HAIL, and much Praise to such great men, Defenders of the true Faith, that with so few Christians overcame the so many Muslims, in the name of the Holy Cross. REMEMBER OUR BRAVE ANCESTORS WHO FOUGHT & DIED TO PASS ON TO US, AS WE MUST TO FUTURE GENERATIONS, THE TRUE FAITH, GREATNESS, HERITAGE, VIRTUES, LAWS & ORDER. † LONG LIVE CHRISTENDOM †
http://wn.com/Wallachian_Prince_Michael_the_Brave_his_Victories_over_the_Ottoman_Turks_1_2
I got this film yesterday about 'Mihai Viteazul' aka Michael the Brave, Prince of Wallachia, Transylvania & Moldova, and i really liked it, especially the parts were he continuously defeats the Ottoman Turks vastly outnumbering him. The film is made in 1971, directed by Sergiu Nicolaescu & written by Titus Popovici and its packed with great battles, such as the Battle of Călugăreni 1595, the Battle of Şelimbăr 1599 & other great Victories of Michael the Brave. HAIL, and much Praise to such great men, Defenders of the true Faith, that with so few Christians overcame the so many Muslims, in the name of the Holy Cross. REMEMBER OUR BRAVE ANCESTORS WHO FOUGHT & DIED TO PASS ON TO US, AS WE MUST TO FUTURE GENERATIONS, THE TRUE FAITH, GREATNESS, HERITAGE, VIRTUES, LAWS & ORDER. † LONG LIVE CHRISTENDOM †
- published: 06 Aug 2012
- views: 504
- author: Suppressingfire
Wallachia 01 Europa Universalis 3 III Divine Wind Death and Taxes Let's Play
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 33:52
- Updated: 07 Dec 2012
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.4 Fraps 3.4.6 VirtualDub 1.9.2
http://wn.com/Wallachia_01_Europa_Universalis_3_III_Divine_Wind_Death_and_Taxes_Let's_Play
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.4 Fraps 3.4.6 VirtualDub 1.9.2
- published: 01 Feb 2012
- views: 15899
- author: shenryyr2
Wallachia - The Curse Of Poenari
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:20
- Updated: 04 Dec 2012
ALbum: From Behind The Light Wallachia - The Curse Of Poenari
http://wn.com/Wallachia_The_Curse_Of_Poenari
ALbum: From Behind The Light Wallachia - The Curse Of Poenari
- published: 18 Jul 2008
- views: 14603
- author: nMAsee
Wallachia - Shunya
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:43
- Updated: 10 Dec 2012
The cult of WALLACHIA returns with stunning third full-length, "Shunya", comprising eight exhibits of melancholic Black Metal with a catchy, symphonic touch. "Shunya" is an introspective, instantly-accessible metal album that stays faithful to the epic-sounding natural rawness that has been WALLACHIA's trademark since the mid-90s. The rich harvest of one man's expansive vision, this inimitable album represents a personal, emotional voyage of discovery, based on experiences of loss and displacement, driven by the spirit to overcome all obstacles. A theme of emptiness permeates the music -- as it does the outside world. The term "Shunya" is borrowed from the Sanskrit language and means 'empty' or 'void', as well as resembling the number zero from Indian numerology. WALLACHIA's latest and most ambitious work identifies the nothingness that exists in everything when modern technology takes hold and the essential spiritual value of ancient art(s) is forever lost. Website : www.debemur-morti.com Facebook : www.facebook.com/debemurmorti Pre-orders soon available from www.eitrin.com
http://wn.com/Wallachia_Shunya
The cult of WALLACHIA returns with stunning third full-length, "Shunya", comprising eight exhibits of melancholic Black Metal with a catchy, symphonic touch. "Shunya" is an introspective, instantly-accessible metal album that stays faithful to the epic-sounding natural rawness that has been WALLACHIA's trademark since the mid-90s. The rich harvest of one man's expansive vision, this inimitable album represents a personal, emotional voyage of discovery, based on experiences of loss and displacement, driven by the spirit to overcome all obstacles. A theme of emptiness permeates the music -- as it does the outside world. The term "Shunya" is borrowed from the Sanskrit language and means 'empty' or 'void', as well as resembling the number zero from Indian numerology. WALLACHIA's latest and most ambitious work identifies the nothingness that exists in everything when modern technology takes hold and the essential spiritual value of ancient art(s) is forever lost. Website : www.debemur-morti.com Facebook : www.facebook.com/debemurmorti Pre-orders soon available from www.eitrin.com
- published: 05 Oct 2012
- views: 3785
- author: debemurmortiprod
Wallachia 64 - Enlightening Prussia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 19:24
- Updated: 18 Nov 2012
Spreading Orthodoxy never felt so good! Ideally we will do this to every catholic nation that opposes us. And.. a Basarab on the throne of France! Who would've thought!
http://wn.com/Wallachia_64_Enlightening_Prussia
Spreading Orthodoxy never felt so good! Ideally we will do this to every catholic nation that opposes us. And.. a Basarab on the throne of France! Who would've thought!
- published: 22 Mar 2012
- views: 1860
- author: shenryyr2
Wallachia - Knus Den Hellige Ånd
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:21
- Updated: 18 Nov 2012
Band: Wallachia Song: Knus Den Hellige And Album: Wallachia Demo Year: 1996 This is my sencond video here. It's about a "Symphonic Black Metal" band from Norway, called Wallachia. I hope you can enjoy it.
http://wn.com/Wallachia_Knus_Den_Hellige_Ånd
Band: Wallachia Song: Knus Den Hellige And Album: Wallachia Demo Year: 1996 This is my sencond video here. It's about a "Symphonic Black Metal" band from Norway, called Wallachia. I hope you can enjoy it.
- published: 17 Jan 2008
- views: 7058
- author: Revontulet2
Wallachia - Arges - riul doamnei
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:32
- Updated: 08 Oct 2012
http://wn.com/Wallachia_Arges_riul_doamnei
Wallachia - Fullmåne Over Fagaras
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:46
- Updated: 07 Dec 2012
Album: From Behind The Light Wallachia - Fullmåne Over Fagaras
http://wn.com/Wallachia_Fullmåne_Over_Fagaras
Album: From Behind The Light Wallachia - Fullmåne Over Fagaras
- published: 18 Jul 2008
- views: 4619
- author: nMAsee
Wallachia 05 Europa Universalis 3 III Divine Wind Death and Taxes Let's Play
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 35:31
- Updated: 04 Dec 2012
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
http://wn.com/Wallachia_05_Europa_Universalis_3_III_Divine_Wind_Death_and_Taxes_Let's_Play
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
- published: 09 Feb 2012
- views: 5216
- author: shenryyr2
Graveland - Impaler of Wallachia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:13
- Updated: 26 Nov 2012
1994 Album: Carpathian Wolves; Rob Darken - keyboards, guitars, vocals; Capricornus - drums Karcharoth - bass; Tape release by Oriana/Kolovrat.
http://wn.com/Graveland_Impaler_of_Wallachia
1994 Album: Carpathian Wolves; Rob Darken - keyboards, guitars, vocals; Capricornus - drums Karcharoth - bass; Tape release by Oriana/Kolovrat.
- published: 12 Aug 2009
- views: 9347
- author: 69NINNGHIZHIDDA69
Wallachia 157 - 1861 (END)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 27:55
- Updated: 10 Dec 2012
And it dies. Hope you had fun guys, see you next time
http://wn.com/Wallachia_157_1861_END
And it dies. Hope you had fun guys, see you next time
- published: 13 May 2012
- views: 5577
- author: shenryyr2
Wallachia 11 Europa Universalis 3 III Divine Wind Death and Taxes Let's Play
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 32:37
- Updated: 14 Nov 2012
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
http://wn.com/Wallachia_11_Europa_Universalis_3_III_Divine_Wind_Death_and_Taxes_Let's_Play
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
- published: 10 Feb 2012
- views: 4933
- author: shenryyr2
Wallachia 06 Europa Universalis 3 III Divine Wind Death and Taxes Let's Play
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 29:59
- Updated: 20 Nov 2012
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
http://wn.com/Wallachia_06_Europa_Universalis_3_III_Divine_Wind_Death_and_Taxes_Let's_Play
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
- published: 09 Feb 2012
- views: 4385
- author: shenryyr2
Carpathian forest - 04.The Woods Of Wallachia (demo)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:33
- Updated: 19 Sep 2012
Carpathian forest - The Woods Of Wallachia [demo 1992]
http://wn.com/Carpathian_forest_04The_Woods_Of_Wallachia_demo
Carpathian forest - The Woods Of Wallachia [demo 1992]
- published: 22 Nov 2010
- views: 3384
- author: Victor Oliveira de Souza
Wallachia 26 - The First Romanian Crusade (1/3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 33:21
- Updated: 15 Nov 2012
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.9 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
http://wn.com/Wallachia_26_The_First_Romanian_Crusade_1_3
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.9 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
- published: 26 Feb 2012
- views: 2743
- author: shenryyr2
Traditional folk song from Moravian Wallachia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:08
- Updated: 05 Nov 2012
Traditional folk song from Czech Republic, Moravian Wallachia (Valašsko) area. ****** Moravian Wallachia: en.wikipedia.org ***** © 2009 Internet Presentation FRB Consulting Inc.
http://wn.com/Traditional_folk_song_from_Moravian_Wallachia
Traditional folk song from Czech Republic, Moravian Wallachia (Valašsko) area. ****** Moravian Wallachia: en.wikipedia.org ***** © 2009 Internet Presentation FRB Consulting Inc.
- published: 28 Oct 2009
- views: 6982
- author: Fabr1s
Wallachia 54 - Introducing the Bromanian Inquisition
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 39:51
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
With an Inquisitor, we can begin spreading missionaries easily once more. And owning Jerusalem also gives us another 0.5 missionaries per year, so spitting out Georgia as a vassal shouldn't be too far in the future. Brohemia manages to go to war with half of Europe but doesn't call its allies Austria or even us to help them! So silly. Sale of Titles again gives us a huge lump sum, and we spend most of it on weapons manufacturing plants, and starting to construct the First Bromanian Fleet Forgive the stupid story.
http://wn.com/Wallachia_54_Introducing_the_Bromanian_Inquisition
With an Inquisitor, we can begin spreading missionaries easily once more. And owning Jerusalem also gives us another 0.5 missionaries per year, so spitting out Georgia as a vassal shouldn't be too far in the future. Brohemia manages to go to war with half of Europe but doesn't call its allies Austria or even us to help them! So silly. Sale of Titles again gives us a huge lump sum, and we spend most of it on weapons manufacturing plants, and starting to construct the First Bromanian Fleet Forgive the stupid story.
- published: 18 Mar 2012
- views: 2369
- author: shenryyr2
Wallachia 09 Europa Universalis 3 III Divine Wind Death and Taxes Let's Play
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 41:07
- Updated: 06 Dec 2012
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
http://wn.com/Wallachia_09_Europa_Universalis_3_III_Divine_Wind_Death_and_Taxes_Let's_Play
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
- published: 10 Feb 2012
- views: 3876
- author: shenryyr2
Mărioară de la munte (Wallachian popular music)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:09
- Updated: 24 Oct 2012
Enache, Arsene, Machedon - Marioara de la munte (1954), The song is called "Mărioară from the mountain". Mărioară is a female name derived from Maria, Mary. THE LYRYCS: "And i say little green flowers, x2 Mărioară from the mountain, x2 With the hair left on the forehead x2 Tell mom to get married x2 Because are many words about that x2 Words about that can be,i dont care My mother make me beautiful My mother dont let me even to bring water from fountain,or to go somewhere else.
http://wn.com/Mărioară_de_la_munte_Wallachian_popular_music
Enache, Arsene, Machedon - Marioara de la munte (1954), The song is called "Mărioară from the mountain". Mărioară is a female name derived from Maria, Mary. THE LYRYCS: "And i say little green flowers, x2 Mărioară from the mountain, x2 With the hair left on the forehead x2 Tell mom to get married x2 Because are many words about that x2 Words about that can be,i dont care My mother make me beautiful My mother dont let me even to bring water from fountain,or to go somewhere else.
- published: 16 Apr 2009
- views: 6460
- author: pelasgianwarrior
Wallachia 08 Europa Universalis 3 III Divine Wind Death and Taxes Let's Play
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 34:41
- Updated: 05 Dec 2012
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
http://wn.com/Wallachia_08_Europa_Universalis_3_III_Divine_Wind_Death_and_Taxes_Let's_Play
================================= programs used: Europa Universalis 3 Divine Wind 5.1 Death and Taxes mod 4.5 Bandicam 1.7.5 VirtualDub 1.9.2
- published: 10 Feb 2012
- views: 3811
- author: shenryyr2
Nedqlko Nedqlkov - Vlashko(Wallachian melody)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:24
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
Folklore from north Bulgaria
http://wn.com/Nedqlko_Nedqlkov_VlashkoWallachian_melody
photo: AP / Reed Saxon
10 Dec 2012
The wreckage of a small plane believed to be carrying Mexican-American singing superstar Jenni Rivera has been found in northern Mexico and there are no apparent survivors, authorities said. Transportation and Communications Minister Gerardo Ruiz Esparza said on Sunday that "everything points toward" it being the US-registered Learjet 25 carrying Rivera and six other people from Monterrey en route to Toluca, Mexico ... 192 Source. ... Share ... ....(size: 17.5Kb)
photo: USAF / Staff Sgt. Jonathan Lovelady
10 Dec 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. In the desert of central Australia still resides a primitive tribe known as the Arunta. This non-technological and stateless group, which mainly depends on hunting and gathering, had suffered several inexplicable deaths ... Therefore, they organized an atinga, or revenge group ... When the guiltless tribe learned of their approach, they sent out a delegation of young women as a token of peace....(size: 5.8Kb)
photo: AP / Todd Williamson
10 Dec 2012
MÉXICO, D.F., diciembre 9 (EL UNIVERSAL).- La Voz México, programa de talentos de Televisa, confirmó la muerte de la cantante Jenni Rivera, a través de su Twitter. "Que toquen fuerte las bandas, suelten por mí mariposas, apláudanme con sus palmas... http.//twitpic.com/bkmhl0 .Descanse en paz Jenni Rivera" ... Además, anunció un homenaje luctuoso dedicado a la cantante ... Descanse en Paz" ... ....(size: 2.1Kb)
photo: AP / Narciso Contreras
10 Dec 2012
December 10, 2012 -- Updated 1327 GMT (2127 HKT). (CNN) -- Syria is raising concern in two letters to the United Nations that the United States may be attempting to frame it for the use of chemical weapons, Syrian state-run media reported Monday. The letters, addressed to U.N ... The move by President Bashar al-Assad's government follows recent reports that Syrian forces appear to have begun preparing chemical weapons for use ... "The U.S ... 1. 2....(size: 11.5Kb)
photo: AP / A.M. Ahad
11 Dec 2012
Violence has flared in many parts of Bangladesh as schools and most businesses were shut after opposition groups enforced a dawn-to-dusk strike. They called the strike to protest against attacks on their supporters during a road blockade on Sunday. The Bangladesh Nationalist Party and its allies have been demanding a caretaker government be put in place to oversee the next parliamentary polls ... "The situation is under control now ... ....(size: 2.2Kb)
New Straits/Business Times
29 Nov 2012
For me, the most famous “monsters“ are the Headless Horseman and Count Dracula. Tales of the headless horseman have been around since the Middle Ages. There are two versions to the story. one is from Ireland, and the other is from Germany ... In 1436, Vlad II Dracul ascended the throne of Wallachia. “Dracul” is a Romanian word, which means devil or dragon ... ....(size: 1.7Kb)
Huffington Post
16 Nov 2012
For facial hair flaunting Chicagoans taking part in Movember, State Street Barbers have partnered with Gillette to offer free mustache trims until 4.30 p.m. Friday between Union Station and Water Tower Place ... The giveaway is part of the shaving company's eMO'gency Styler Tour, which is traveling to Chicago, New York and Houston in support of the annual men's health charity event ... Image ... Image ... Vlad the Impaler, Prince of Wallachia, c ... 15k....(size: 6.1Kb)
Huffington Post
16 Nov 2012
A 13-year-old student who wanted to grow a mustache for charity was told by his school to buzz his fuzz, the Mirror reported. Gus Hooker, a student at Priory Academy in Bedforshire, England, intended to honor his grandfather, who's recovering from cancer, as part of Movember, a month-long initiative to raise funds for men's cancers. As the official U.S. website for Movember states ... Image ... Image ... Vlad the Impaler, Prince of Wallachia, c ... ....(size: 8.3Kb)
Huffington Post
14 Nov 2012
In case you haven't noticed the abundance of upper-lip hair this month, we're here to tell you that we're in the thick of No Shave November, or Movember ... Movember originally came into being in 2003 when 30 "Mo Bros" in Melbourne decided to bring awareness to prostate and testicular cancer the best way they knew how -- by growing 'staches ... Are you pulling off an Edvard Munch or a Paul Gauguin? ... Vlad the Impaler, Prince of Wallachia, c ... ....(size: 6.2Kb)
The Examiner
14 Nov 2012
Related topics. Ottoman EmpireIslamHungaryPoland. Advertisement. In 1444, the Ottoman Empire continued its slow march to Constantinople. It began at Manzikert in 1071 and concluded in 1453 ... Hungary’s throne fell open in 1439 ... Dracula returns to Wallachia (1456-1462)Vlad the Impaler transforms into Count DraculaIslamic expansion and the Battle of Kosovo (1389)The Great Famine (1315-1317)The Second Roman-Jewish War (132-136 A.D.). Tweet ... Pics....(size: 8.0Kb)
The Examiner
08 Nov 2012
Related topics. This WeekVlad TepesvampiresBram Stokercelebritiesbirthdays. Advertisement. Many people are posting on Facebook that Bram Stoker, the author of "Dracula" and Vlad III, the Prince of Wallachia share today as the same birthday? Is this true? ... Vlad was the prince of the small area of Wallachia and was known as the Impaler because he would impale the invaders of his country ... Prince of Many Faces. His Life and Times." ... Tweet ... Pics....(size: 6.8Kb)
The Examiner
06 Nov 2012
Related topics. vampiresStrigoiVampireVampire Fictionmyths. Advertisement. Every culture seemed to have their own versions of what a vampire was and what name it had. So let me explore these different vampire species. These myths still to this day are interesting and may even help vampire fiction writers. Stregoni Benefici ... Strigoii ... What vampire species are you? ... A vampire species that is found in the southern Romanian region of Wallachia ... ....(size: 8.5Kb)
Romanian tourist board to use alleged links between British royalty and DRACULA to boost UK visitors
The Daily Mail05 Nov 2012
The Romanian National Tourist ......(size: 0.2Kb)
The Examiner
31 Oct 2012
Related topics. DraculaVlad the ImpalerRomaniaTransylvaniaBram Stokervampires ... Vlad Tepes Dracula, aka Vlad the Impaler, cruelly ruled, reformed, and defended Wallachia from 1456-1462 ... Wallachia’s ruler died in 1475 leaving a power vacuum ... Vlad Dracula ruled Wallachia three times and died two months into his final reign ... Dracula's first reign (1448)Dracula returns to Wallachia (1456-1462) ... Dracula returns to Wallachia (1456-1462) ... ....(size: 7.7Kb)
photo: Creative Commons / Eugen Simion 14
29 Oct 2012
Wallachia had fallen into disarray, the Ottomans threatened Eastern Europe, Hungary looked to dominate the kingdom, and crime and violence dominated the domestic scene. Vlad used force to bring stability to Wallachia and terror tactics to frighten his enemies at home and abroad. Dracula used the Hungarian-Ottoman conflict to lead a force into Wallachia to recapture his throne ... The once and future ruler found Wallachia in disarray....(size: 8.0Kb)
The Examiner
26 Oct 2012
The Ottoman Empire invaded Wallachia, Romania and installed Vlad III on the throne ... Vlad II Dracul ruled Wallachia in modern Romania in 1447. Hungary was Wallachia’s natural enemy and Dracul opposed their predations ... They marched into Wallachia and installed Vlad III on the throne ... Hungary and Wallachia both feared and loathed the Islamic Ottomans ... As Hungary regrouped and launched a counter offensive, Vlad III led an army into Wallachia....(size: 7.3Kb)
The Charlotte Observer
26 Oct 2012
It wasnt the occult that drew me to Transylvania. It was a cookbook ... A part of Hungary and the Austro-Hungarian empire for more than 1,000 years, Transylvania is a largely isolated portion of north-central Romania. The surrounding regions Moldavia, Maramures, Wallachia and the Banat were even more unknown and mystifying to me, but I planned to explore as much of this fabled land of mountains and castles as I could in my rental car....(size: 6.7Kb)
For other uses, see Wallachia (disambiguation).
| Principality of Wallachia Țara Românească Цѣра Рȣмѫнѣскъ Землѧ Ѹгровлахїиска |
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| Vassal of the Ottoman Empire (1415–1859) (under Russian protection 1774-1856) |
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.svg) |
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| Capital | Câmpulung, Curtea de Argeș (1317-1418) Târgoviște (1418-1659)[1] Bucharest (from 1659) |
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| Language(s) | Romanian (commonly used, later official), Church Slavonic (in early official use) | ||||
| Government | Absolute monarchy | ||||
| Prince | |||||
| - 1310–52 | Basarab I (first) | ||||
| - 1859–62 | Alexander John Cuza (last) | ||||
| History | |||||
| - Unification | 1330 | ||||
| - Ottoman suzerainty | 1415 | ||||
| - Long and Moldavian Magnate wars | 1593–1621 | ||||
| - Treaties: - Küçük Kaynarca - Erdine |
21 July [O.S. 10 July] 1774 14 September [O.S. 2 September] 1829 |
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| - Regulamentul Organic | 1834–1835 | ||||
| - Unification with Moldavia | 5 February [O.S. 24 January] 1859 1859 | ||||
Wallachia or Walachia (Romanian: Țara Românească pronounced [ˈt͡sara romɨˈne̯askə] or Valahia pronounced [vaˈlahi.a]; archaic: Țeara Rumânească, Cyrillic: Цѣра Румѫнѣскъ / Цѣра Рȣмѫнѣскъ) is a historical and geographical region of Romania. It is situated north of the Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia is sometimes referred to as Muntenia (Greater Wallachia), through identification with the larger of its two traditional sections; the smaller being Oltenia (Lesser Wallachia).
Wallachia was founded as a principality in the early 14th century by Basarab I, after a rebellion against Charles I of Hungary, although the first mention of the territory of Wallachia west of the river Olt dates to a charter given to the voievod Seneslau in 1246 by Béla IV of Hungary. In 1415, Wallachia accepted the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire; this lasted until the 19th century, albeit with brief periods of Russian occupation between 1768 and 1854. In 1859, Wallachia united with Moldavia (as United Principalities), to form the basis of the modern state of Romania, with Transylvania joining 59 years later (1918) to form the new Kingdom of Romania which was first established 1881.
Contents |
Etymology[link]
The name Wallachia, generally not used by Romanians themselves (but present in some contexts as Valahia or Vlahia), is derived from the word "walha" used by Germanic peoples to describe non-Germanic speaking "foreigners". In northwest Europe this gave rise to Wales, Cornwall, Wallonia, among others, while in Southeast Europe it evolved into the ethnonym Valach, used to designate Germanic speakers' Romance-speaking neighbours, and subsequently taken over by Slavic-speakers to refer to Romanians, with variants such as Vlach, Blach, Bloc, Bloh, Boloh etc.—see also: Vlachs.
In the early Middle Ages, in Slavonic texts, the name of Zemli Ungro-Vlahiskoi (Земли Унгро-Влахискои or "Hungaro-Wallachian Land") was also used. The term, translated in Romanian as "Ungrovalahia", remained in use up to the modern era in a religious context, referring to the Romanian Orthodox Metropolitan seat of Hungaro-Wallachia, in contrast to Thessalian Wallachia, or Great Wallachia in Macedonia, a medieval state, or Small Wallachia (Mala Vlaška) in Serbia.[2] Official designations of the state were Muntenia (The Land beyond the Mountains) and Țeara Rumânească (Terra Romana, or The Romanian Land).
For long periods after the 14th century, Wallachia was referred to as Vlaško (Влашко) by Bulgarian sources, Vlaška by Serbian sources and Walachei or Walachey by German-speaking (Transylvanian Saxon) sources. The traditional Hungarian name for Wallachia is "Havasalföld", or literally "Snowy Lowlands" (the older form is "Havaselve", which means "Land beyond the snowy mountains"). In Ottoman Turkish and Turkish, "Eflâk" (which also means "sky" or "skies"), افلاق, a word derived from "Vlach", is used.
History[link]
Ancient times[link]
In the Second Dacian War (105 AD) western Oltenia became part of the Roman province of Dacia, with parts of Wallachia included in the Moesia Inferior province. The Roman limes was initially built along the Olt River (119), before being moved slightly to the east in the 2nd century—during which time it stretched from the Danube up to Rucăr in the Carpathians. The Roman line fell back to the Olt in 245, and, in 271, the Romans pulled out of the region.
The area was subject to Romanization also during the Migration Period, when most of present-day Romania was also subject to the presence of Goths and Sarmatian peoples known as the Mureș-Cerneahov culture, followed by waves of other nomadic peoples. In 328, the Romans built a bridge between Sucidava and Oescus (near Gigen) which indicates that there was a significant trade with the peoples north of the Danube. A short period of Roman rule in the area is attested under Emperor Constantine I,[3] after he attacked the Goths (who had settled north of the Danube) in 332. The period of Goth rule ended when the Huns arrived in the Pannonian Plain, and, under Attila, attacked and destroyed some 170 settlements on both sides of the Danube.
Early Middle Ages[link]
Main articles: Origin of the Romanians and Romania in the Early Middle Ages
Byzantine influence is evident during the 5th to 6th century, such as the site at Ipoteşti-Cândeşti, but from the second half of the 6th century and in the 7th century Slavic peoples crossed the territory of Wallachia and settled in it, on their way to Byzantium, occupying the southern bank of the Danube.[4] In 593, the Byzantine commander-in-chief Priscus defeated Slavs, Avars and Gepids on future Wallachian territory, and, in 602, Slavs suffered a crucial defeat in the area; Flavius Mauricius Tiberius, who ordered his army to be deployed north of the Danube, encountered his troops' strong opposition.[5]
Wallachia was under the control of the First Bulgarian Empire from its establishment in 681, until approximately the Magyar conquest of Transylvania at the end of the 10th century. With the decline and subsequent fall of the Bulgarian state to Byzantium (in the second half of the 10th century up to 1018), Wallachia came under the control of the Pechenegs (a Turkic people) who extended their rule west through the 10th and 11th century, until defeated around 1091, when the Cumans of southern Russia took control of the lands of Moldavia and Wallachia.[6] Beginning with the 10th century, Byzantine, Bulgarian, Hungarian, and later Western sources mention the existence of small polities, possibly peopled by, among others, Vlachs/Romanians led by knyazes and voivodes.
In 1241, during the Mongol invasion of Europe, Cuman domination was ended—a direct Mongol rule over Wallachia was not attested, but it remains probable.[7] Part of Wallachia was probably briefly disputed by the Hungarian Kingdom and Bulgarians in the following period,[7] but it appears that the severe weakening of Hungarian authority during the Mongol attacks contributed to the establishment of the new and stronger polities attested in Wallachia for the following decades.[8]
Creation[link]
Main article: Foundation of Wallachia
One of the first written pieces of evidence of local voivodes is in connection with Litovoi (1272), who ruled over land each side of the Carpathians (including Hațeg Country in Transylvania), and refused to pay tribute to the Hungarian King Ladislaus IV. His successor was his brother Bărbat (1285–1288). The continuing weakening of the Hungarian state by further Mongol invasions (1285–1319) and the fall of the Árpád dynasty opened the way for the unification of Wallachian polities, and to independence from Hungarian rule.
Wallachia's creation, held by local traditions to have been the work of one Radu Negru, is historically connected with Basarab I (1310–1352), who rebelled against Charles I of Hungary and took up rule on either side of the Olt River, establishing his residence in Câmpulung as the first ruler in the House of Basarab. Basarab refused to grant Hungary the lands of Făgăraş, Amlaş and the Banat of Severin, defeated Charles in the Battle of Posada (1330), and extended his lands to the east, to comprise lands as far as Kilia (in the Bujak, as the origin of Bessarabia);[9] rule over the latter was not preserved by following princes, as Kilia fell to the Nogais ca.1334.[10]
Basarab was succeeded by Nicolae Alexandru, followed by Vladislav I. Vladislav attacked Transylvania after Louis I occupied lands south of the Danube, conceded to recognize him as overlord in 1368, but rebelled again in the same year; his rule also witnessed the first confrontation between Wallachia and the Ottoman Turks (a battle in which Vladislav was allied with Ivan Shishman of Bulgaria).[11] Under Radu I and his successor Dan I, the realms in Transylvania and Severin continued to be disputed with Hungary.[12]
1400–1600[link]
Main article: Romania in the Middle Ages
Mircea the Elder to Radu the Great[link]
As the entire Balkan Peninsula became an integral part of the emerging Ottoman Empire (a process which concluded with the fall of Constantinople to Sultan Mehmed II in 1453), Wallachia became engaged in frequent confrontations and, in the final years of Mircea the Elder's reign, became an Ottoman tributary state. Mircea (reigned 1386–1418), initially defeated the Ottomans in several battles (including that of Rovine in 1394), driving them away from Dobruja and briefly extending his rule to the Danube Delta, Dobruja and Silistra (ca.1400–1404).[14] He oscillated between alliances with Sigismund of Hungary and Jagiellon Poland (taking part in the Battle of Nicopolis),[15] and accepted a peace treaty with the Ottomans in 1415, after Mehmed I took control of Turnu and Giurgiu — the two ports remained part of the Ottoman state, with brief interruptions, until 1829. In 1418–1420, Mihail I defeated the Ottomans in Severin, only to be killed in battle by the counter-offensive; in 1422, the danger was averted for a short while when Dan II inflicted a defeat on Murad II with the help of Pippo Spano.[16]
The peace signed in 1428 inaugurated a period of internal crisis, as Dan had to defend himself against Radu Prasnaglava, who led the first in a series of boyar coalitions against established princes (in time, these became overtly pro-Ottoman in answer to repression).[17] Victorious in 1431 (the year when the boyar-backed Alexandru I Aldea took the throne), boyars were dealt successive blows by Vlad II Dracul (1436–1442; 1443–1447), who nevertheless attempted to compromise between the Porte and the Holy Roman Empire.[18]
The following decade was marked by the conflict between the rival houses of Dăneşti and Drăculeşti, the influence of John Hunyadi, Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary, and, after the neutral reign of Vladislav II,[19] by the rise of Vlad III Dracula. Vlad, during whose rule Bucharest was first mentioned as a princely residence, exercised terror on rebellious boyars, cut off all links with the Ottomans, and, in 1462, defeated Mehmed II's offensive during The Night Attack before being forced to retreat to Târgovişte and accepting to pay an increased tribute.[20] His parallel conflicts with his Muslim brother Radu III the Fair and Laiotă Basarab led to the conquest of Wallachia by Radu III who would rule it for 11 years until his death.[21] Radu the Great (1495–1508) reached several compromises with the boyars, ensuring a period of internal stability that contrasted his clash with Bogdan the Blind of Moldavia.[22]
Mihnea cel Rău to Petru Cercel[link]
The late 15th century saw the ascension of the powerful Craioveşti family, virtually independent rulers of the Oltenian banat, who sought Ottoman support in their rivalry with Mihnea cel Rău (1508–1510) and replaced him with Vlăduţ; after the latter proved to be hostile to the bans, the House of Basarab formally ended with the rise of Neagoe Basarab, a Craioveşti.[23] Neagoe's peaceful rule (1512–1521), noted for its cultural aspects (the building of the Curtea de Argeş Cathedral and Renaissance influences), also saw an increase in influence for the Saxon merchants in Braşov and Sibiu, and Wallachia's alliance with Louis II of Hungary.[24] Under Teodosie, the country was again under a four-month-long Ottoman occupation, a military administration which seemed to be an attempt to create a Wallachian Pashaluk.[25] This danger rallied all boyars in support of Radu de la Afumaţi (four rules between 1522 and 1529), who lost the battle after an agreement between the Craioveşti and Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent; Prince Radu eventually confirmed Süleyman's position as suzerain, and agreed to pay an even higher tribute.[25]
Ottoman suzerainty remained virtually unchallenged throughout the following 90 years. Radu Paisie, who was deposed by Süleyman in 1545, ceded the port of Brăila to Ottoman administration in the same year; his successor Mircea Ciobanul (1545–1554; 1558–1559), a prince without any claim to noble heritage, was imposed on the throne and consequently agreed to a decrease in autonomy (increasing taxes and carrying out an armed intervention in Transylvania—supporting the pro-Turkish John Zápolya).[26] Conflicts between boyar families became stringent after the rule of Pătraşcu cel Bun, and boyar ascendancy over rulers was obvious under Petru the Younger (1559–1568; a reign dominated by Doamna Chiajna and marked by huge increases in taxes), Mihnea Turcitul, and Petru Cercel.[27]
The Ottoman Empire increasingly relied on Wallachia and Moldavia for the supply and maintenance of its military forces; the local army, however, soon disappeared due to the increased costs and the much more obvious efficiency of mercenary troops.[28]
17th century[link]
Main article: Early Modern Romania
Initially profiting from Ottoman support, Michael the Brave ascended to the throne in 1593, and attacked the troops of Murad III north and south of the Danube in an alliance with Transylvania's Sigismund Báthory and Moldavia's Aron Vodă (see Battle of Călugăreni). He soon placed himself under the suzerainty of Rudolf II, the Holy Roman Emperor, and, in 1599–1600, intervened in Transylvania against Poland's king Sigismund III Vasa, placing the region under his authority; his brief rule also extended to Moldavia later in the following year.[29] For a brief period, Michael the Brave unified all the territories where Romanians lived, rebuilding the mainland of the ancient Kingdom of Dacia.[30] Following Michael's downfall, Wallachia was occupied by the Polish-Moldavian army of Simion Movilă (see Moldavian Magnate Wars), who held the region until 1602, and was subject to Nogai attacks in the same year.[31]
The last stage in the Growth of the Ottoman Empire brought increased pressures on Wallachia: political control was accompanied by Ottoman economical hegemony, the discarding of the capital in Târgovişte in favour of Bucharest (closer to the Ottoman border, and a rapidly-growing trade center), the establishment of serfdom under Michael the Brave as a measure to increase manorial revenues, and the decrease in importance of low-ranking boyars (threatened with extinction, they took part in the seimeni rebellion of 1655).[32] Furthermore, the growing importance of appointment to high office in front of land ownership brought about an influx of Greek and Levantine families, a process already resented by locals during the rules of Radu Mihnea in the early 17th century.[33] Matei Basarab, a boyar appointee, brought a long period of relative peace (1632–1654), with the noted exception of the 1653 Battle of Finta, fought between Wallachians and the troops of Moldavian prince Vasile Lupu—ending in disaster for the latter, who was replaced with Prince Matei's favourite, Gheorghe Ştefan, on the throne in Iaşi. A close alliance between Gheorghe Ştefan and Matei's successor Constantin Şerban was maintained by Transylvania's George II Rákóczi, but their designs for independence from Ottoman rule were crushed by the troops of Mehmed IV in 1658–1659.[34] The reigns of Gheorghe Ghica and Grigore I Ghica, the sultan's favourites, signified attempts to prevent such incidents; however, they were also the onset of a violent clash between the Băleanu and Cantacuzino boyar families, which was to mark Wallachia's history until the 1680s.[35] The Cantacuzinos, threatened by the alliance between the Băleanus and the Ghicas, backed their own choice of princes (Antonie Vodă din Popeşti and George Ducas)[36] before promoting themselves—with the ascension of Şerban Cantacuzino (1678–1688).
Russo-Turkish Wars and the Phanariotes[link]
Main articles: History of the Russo-Turkish Wars and Phanariotes
Wallachia became a target for Habsburg incursions during the last stages of the Great Turkish War ca.1690, when the ruler Constantin Brâncoveanu secretly and unsuccessfully negotatied an anti-Ottoman coalition. Brâncoveanu's reign (1688–1714), noted for its late Renaissance cultural achievements (see Brâncovenesc style), also coincided with the rise of Imperial Russia under Tsar Peter the Great—he was approached by the latter during the Russo-Turkish War of 1710–1711, and lost his throne and life sometime after sultan Ahmed III caught news of the negotiations.[37] Despite his denounciation of Brâncoveanu's policies, Ştefan Cantacuzino attached himself to Habsburg projects and opened the country to the armies of Prince Eugene of Savoy; he was himself deposed and executed in 1716.[38]
Immediately following the deposition of Prince Ştefan, the Ottomans renounced the purely nominal elective system (which had by then already witnessed the decrease in importance of the Boyar Divan over the sultan's decision), and princes of the two Danubian Principalities were appointed from the Phanariotes of Constantinople. Inaugurated by Nicholas Mavrocordatos in Moldavia after Dimitrie Cantemir, Phanariote rule was brought to Wallachia in 1715 by the very same ruler.[39] The tense relations between boyars and princes brought a decrease in the number of taxed people (as a privilege gained by the former), a subsequent increase in total taxes,[40] and the enlarged powers of a boyar circle in the Divan.[41]
In parallel, Wallachia became the battleground in a succession of wars between the Ottomans on one side and Russia or the Habsburg Monarchy on the other. Mavrocordatos himself was deposed by a boyar rebellion, and arrested by Habsburg troops during the Austro-Turkish War of 1716-18, as the Ottomans had to concede Oltenia to Charles VI of Austria (the Treaty of Passarowitz).[42] The region, subject to an enlightened absolutist rule that soon disenchanted local boyars, was returned to Wallachia in 1739 (the Treaty of Belgrade, upon the close of the Austro-Turkish War of 1737-39). Prince Constantine Mavrocordatos, who oversaw the new change in borders, was also responsible for the effective abolition of serfdom in 1746 (which put a stop to the exodus of peasants into Transylvania);[43] during this period, the ban of Oltenia moved his residence from Craiova to Bucharest, signalling, alongside Mavrocordatos' order to merge his personal treasury with that of the country, a move towards centralism.[44]
In 1768, during the Fifth Russo-Turkish War, Wallachia was placed under its first Russian occupation (helped along by the rebellion of Pârvu Cantacuzino).[45] The Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca (1774) allowed Russia to intervene in favour of Eastern Orthodox Ottoman subjects, curtailing Ottoman pressures—including the decrease in sums owed as tribute[46]—and, in time, relatively increasing internal stability while opening Wallachia to more Russian interventions.[47]
Habsburg troops, under Prince Josias of Coburg, again entered the country during the Russo-Turkish-Austrian War, deposing Nicholas Mavrogenis in 1789.[48] A period of crisis followed the Ottoman recovery: Oltenia was devastated by the expeditions of Osman Pazvantoğlu, a powerful rebellious pasha whose raids even caused prince Constantine Hangerli to lose his life on suspicion of treason (1799), and Alexander Mourousis to renounce his throne (1801).[49] In 1806, the Russo-Turkish War of 1806–1812 was partly instigated by the Porte's deposition of Constantine Ypsilantis in Bucharest—in tune with the Napoleonic Wars, it was instigated by the French Empire, and also showed the impact of the Treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca (with its permissive attitude towards Russian political influence in the Danubian Principalities); the war brought the invasion of Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich.[50]
After the Peace of Bucharest, the rule of Jean Georges Caradja, although remembered for a major plague epidemic, was notable for its cultural and industrial ventures.[51] During the period, Wallachia increased its strategic importance for most European states interested in supervising Russian expansion; consulates were opened in Bucharest, having an indirect but major impact on Wallachian economy through the protection they extended to sudiţi traders (who soon competed successfully against local guilds).[52]
From Wallachia to Romania[link]
Main article: National awakening of Romania
Early 19th century[link]
The death of prince Alexander Soutzos in 1821, coinciding with the outbreak of the Greek War of Independence, established a boyar regency which attempted to block the arrival of Scarlat Callimachi to his throne in Bucharest. The parallel uprising in Oltenia, carried out by the Pandur leader Tudor Vladimirescu, although aimed at overthrowing the ascendancy of Greeks,[53] compromised with the Greek revolutionaries in the Filiki Eteria and allied itself with the regents,[54] while seeking Russian support[55] (see also: Rise of nationalism under the Ottoman Empire).
On March 21, 1821, Vladimirescu entered Bucharest. For the following weeks, relations between him and his allies worsened, especially after he sought an agreement with the Ottomans;[56] Eteria's leader Alexander Ypsilantis, who had established himself in Moldavia and, after May, in northern Wallachia, viewed the alliance as broken—he had Vladimirescu executed, and faced the Ottoman intervention without Pandur or Russian backing, suffering major defeats in Bucharest and Drăgăşani (before retreating to Austrian custody in Transylvania).[57] These violent events, which had seen the majority of Phanariotes siding with Ypsilantis, made Sultan Mahmud II place the Principalities under its occupation (evicted by a request of several European powers),[58] and sanction the end of Phanariote rules: in Wallachia, the first prince to be considered a local one after 1715 was Grigore IV Ghica. Although the new system was confirmed for the rest of Wallachia's existence as a state, Ghica's rule was abruptly ended by the devastating Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829.[59]
The 1829 Treaty of Adrianople, without overturning Ottoman suzerainty, placed Wallachia and Moldavia under Russian military rule, awarding them the first common institutions and the semblance of a constitution (see Regulamentul Organic). Wallachia was returned ownership of Brăila, Giurgiu (both of which soon developed into major trading cities on the Danube), and Turnu Măgurele.[60] The treaty also allowed Moldavia and Wallachia to freely trade with countries other than the Ottoman Empire, which signalled substantial economic and urban growth, as well as improving the peasant situation.[61] Many of the provisions had been specified by the 1826 Akkerman Convention between Russia and the Ottomans (it had never been fully implemented in the three-year interval).[62] The duty of overseeing of the Principalities was left to Russian general Pavel Kiselyov; this interval was marked by a series of major changes, including the reestablishment of a Wallachian Army (1831), a tax reform (which nonetheless confirmed tax exemptions for the privileged), as well as major urban works in Bucharest and other cities.[63] In 1834, Wallachia's throne was occupied by Alexandru II Ghica—a move in contradiction with the Adrianople treaty, as he had not been elected by the new Legislative Assembly; removed by the suzerains in 1842, he was replaced with an elected prince, Gheorghe Bibescu.[64]
1840s–1850s[link]
Main article: 1848 Wallachian revolution
Opposition to Ghica's arbitrary and highly conservative rule, together with the rise of liberal and radical currents, was first felt with the protests voiced by Ion Câmpineanu (quickly repressed);[65] subsequently, it became increasingly conspiratorial, and centered on those secret societies created by young officers such as Nicolae Bălcescu and Mitică Filipescu.[66]
Frăţia, a clandestine movement created in 1843, began planning a revolution to overthrow Bibescu and repeal Regulamentul Organic in 1848 (inspired by the European rebellions of the same year). Their pan-Wallachian coup d'état was initially successful only near Turnu Măgurele, where crowds cheered the Islaz Proclamation (June 21); among others, the document called for political freedoms, independence, land reform, and the creation of a national guard.[67] On June 11–12, the movement was successful in deposing Bibescu and establishing a Provisional Government. Although sympathetic to the anti-Russian goals of the revolution, the Ottomans were pressured by Russia into repressing it: Ottoman troops entered Bucharest on September 13.[68] Russian and Turkish troops, present until 1851, brought Barbu Dimitrie Ştirbei to the throne, during which interval most participants in the revolution were sent into exile.
Briefly under renewed Russian occupation during the Crimean War, Wallachia and Moldavia were given a new status with a neutral Austrian administration (1854–1856) and the Treaty of Paris: a tutelage shared by Ottomans and a Congress of Great Powers (the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Second French Empire, the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, the Austrian Empire, Prussia, and, albeit never again fully, Russia), with a kaymakam-led internal administration. The emerging movement for a union of the Danubian Principalities (a demand first voiced in 1848, and a cause cemented by the return of revolutionary exiles) was advocated by the French and their Sardinian allies, supported by Russia and Prussia, but was rejected or suspicioned by all other overseers.[69]
After an intense campaign, a formal union was ultimately granted: nevertheless, elections for the ad-hoc divans of 1859 profited from a legal ambiguity (the text of the final agreement specified two thrones, but did not prevent any single person from simultaneously taking part in and winning elections in both Bucharest and Iaşi). Alexander John Cuza, who ran for the unionist Partida Naţională, won the elections in Moldavia on January 5; Wallachia, which was expected by the unionists to carry the same vote, returned a majority of anti-unionists to its divan.[70]
Those elected changed their allegiance after a mass protest of Bucharest crowds,[70] and Cuza was voted prince of Wallachia on February 5 (January 24 Old Style), consequently confirmed as Domnitor of the United Principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia (of Romania from 1862). Internationally recognized only for the duration of his reign, the union was irreversible after the ascension of Carol I in 1866 (coinciding with the Austro-Prussian War, it came at a time when Austria, the main opponent of the decision, was not in a position to intervene).
Slavery[link]
Slavery (Romanian: robie) was part of the social order from before the founding of the Principality of Wallachia, until it was abolished in stages during the 1840s and 1850s. Most of the slaves were of Roma (Gypsy) ethnicity.[71] The very first document attesting the presence of Roma people in Wallachia dates back to 1385, and refers to the group as aţigani (from, athiganoi a Greek-language word for "heretics", and the origin of the Romanian term ţigani, which is synonymous with "Gypsy").[72]
The exact origins of slavery are not known. Slavery was a common practice in Europe at the time, and there is some debate over whether the Romani people came to Wallachia as free men or as slaves. In the Byzantine Empire, they were slaves of the state and it seems the situation was the same in Bulgaria and Serbia until their social organization was destroyed by the Ottoman conquest, which would suggest that they came as slaves who had a change of 'ownership'. Historian Nicolae Iorga associated the Roma people's arrival with the 1241 Mongol invasion of Europe and considered their slavery as a vestige of that era, the Romanians taking the Roma from the Mongols as slaves and preserving their status. Other historians consider that they were enslaved while captured during the battles with the Tatars. The practice of enslaving prisoners may also have been taken from the Mongols.[71] While it is possible that some Romani people were slaves or auxiliary troops of the Mongols or Tatars, the bulk of them came from south of the Danube at the end of the 14th century, some time after the foundation of Wallachia. The arrival of the Roma made slavery a widespread practice.[73]
Traditionally, Roma slaves were divided into three categories. The smallest was owned by the hospodars, and went by the Romanian-language name of ţigani domneşti ("Gypsies belonging to the lord"). The two other categories comprised ţigani mănăstireşti ("Gypsies belonging to the monasteries"), who were the property of Romanian Orthodox and Greek Orthodox monasteries, and ţigani boiereşti ("Gypsies belonging to the boyars"), who were enslaved by the category of landowners.[72][74]
The abolition of slavery was carried out following a campaign by young revolutionaries who embraced the liberal ideas of the Enlightenment. The earliest law which freed a category of slaves was in March 1843, which transferred the control of the state slaves owned by the prison authority to the local authorities, leading to their sedentarizing and becoming peasants. During the Wallachian Revolution of 1848, the agenda of the Provisional Government included the emancipation (dezrobire) of the Roma as one of the main social demands. By the 1850s the movement gained support from almost the whole of Romanian society, and the law from February 1856 emancipated all slaves to the status of taxpayers (citizens).[71][72]
Geography[link]
With an area of approximately 77,000 km2 (30,000 sq mi), Wallachia is situated north of the Danube (and of present-day Bulgaria), east of Serbia and south of the Southern Carpathians, and is traditionally divided between Muntenia in the east (as the political center, Muntenia is often understood as being synonymous with Wallachia), and Oltenia (a former banat) in the west. The division line between the two is the Olt River.
Wallachia's traditional border with Moldavia coincided with the Milcov River for most of its length. To the east, over the Danube north-south bend, Wallachia neighbours Dobruja (Northern Dobruja). Over the Carpathians, Wallachia shared a border with Transylvania; Wallachian princes have for long held possession of areas north of the line (Amlaş, Ciceu, Făgăraş, and Haţeg), which are generally not considered part of Wallachia-proper.
The capital city changed over time, from Câmpulung to Curtea de Argeş, then to Târgovişte and, after the late 17th century, to Bucharest.
Population[link]
Historical population[link]
See also: Demographic history of Romania
Contemporary historians estimate the populatian of Wallachia in the 15th century, at 500,000 people.[75] In 1859, the population of Wallachia was 2,400,921 (1,586,596 in Muntenia and 814,325 in Oltenia).[76]
Current population[link]
According to the latest 2002 census data, the region has a total population of approximately 8,750,000 inhabitants, distributed among the ethnic groups as follows: Romanians (97%), Roma (2.5%), others (0.5%).[77]
Cities[link]
The largest cities (as per last census) in the Wallachia region are:
- Bucharest (1,926,334)
- Craiova (302,601)
- Ploieşti (232,527)
- Brăila (216,292)
- Piteşti (168,458)
- Buzău (133,116)
- Râmnicu Vâlcea (107,656)
- Drobeta-Turnu Severin (104,035)
See also[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ Romania & Moldova
- ^ Dinu C. Giurescu, "Istoria ilustrată a românilor", Editura Sport-Turism, Bucharest, 1981, p.236
- ^ Giurescu, p.37; Ştefănescu, p.155
- ^ Giurescu, p.38
- ^ Warren Treadgold, A Concise History of Byzantium, New York, St Martin's Press, 2001
- ^ Giurescu, p.39–40
- ^ a b Giurescu, p.39
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.111
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.114
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.119
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.93–94
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.94
- ^ Petre Dan, Hotarele românismului în date, Editura, Litera International, Bucharest, 2005, p.32, 34. ISBN 973-675-278-X
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.139[unreliable source?]
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.97
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.105
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.105–106
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.106
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.110
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.115–118
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.117–118; 125
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.146
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.140–141
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.141–144
- ^ a b Ştefănescu, p.144–145
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.162
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.163–164
- ^ Berza; Djuvara, p.24–26
- ^ Ştefănescu, p.169–180
- ^ Rezachevici, Constantin, Mihai Viteazul et la "Dacie" de Sigismund Báthory en 1595, Ed. Argessis, 2003, 12, p.155-164
- ^ Giurescu, p.65, 68
- ^ Giurescu, p.68–69, 73–75
- ^ Giurescu, p.68–69, 78, 268
- ^ Giurescu, p.74
- ^ Giurescu, p.78
- ^ Giurescu, p.78–79
- ^ Djuvara, p.31, 157, 336
- ^ Djuvara, p.31, 336
- ^ Djuvara, p.31–32
- ^ Djuvara, p.67–70
- ^ Djuvara, p.124
- ^ Djuvara, p.48, 92; Giurescu, p.94–96
- ^ Djuvara, p.48, 68, 91–92, 227–228, 254–256; Giurescu, p.93
- ^ Djuvara, p.59, 71; Giurescu, p.93
- ^ Djuvara, p.285; Giurescu, p.98–99
- ^ Berza
- ^ Djuvara, p.76
- ^ Giurescu, p.105–106
- ^ Djuvara, p.17–19, 282; Giurescu, p.107
- ^ Djuvara, p.284–286; Giurescu, p.107–109
- ^ Djuvara, p.165, 168–169; Giurescu, p.252
- ^ Djuvara, p.184–187; Giurescu, p.114, 115, 288
- ^ Djuvara, p.89, 299
- ^ Djuvara, p.297
- ^ Giurescu, p.115
- ^ Djuvara, p.298
- ^ Djuvara, p.301; Giurescu, p.116–117
- ^ Djuvara, p.307
- ^ Djuvara, p.321
- ^ Giurescu, p.122, 127
- ^ Djuvara, p.262, 324; Giurescu, p.127, 266
- ^ Djuvara, p.323
- ^ Djuvara, p.323–324; Giurescu, p.122–127
- ^ Djuvara, p.325
- ^ Djuvara, p.329; Giurescu, p.134
- ^ Djuvara, p.330; Giurescu, p.132–133
- ^ Djuvara, p.331; Giurescu, p.133–134
- ^ Djuvara, p.331; Giurescu, p.136–137
- ^ Giurescu, p.139–141
- ^ a b Giurescu, p.142
- ^ a b c Viorel Achim, The Roma in Romanian History, Central European University Press, Budapest, 2004, ISBN 963-9241-84-9
- ^ a b c Neagu Djuvara, Între Orient şi Occident. Ţările române la începutul epocii moderne, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1995. ISBN 973-28-0523-4 (Romanian)
- ^ Ştefan Ştefănescu, Istoria medie a României, Vol. I, Editura Universităţii din Bucureşti, Bucharest, 1991 (Romanian)
- ^ Will Guy, Between Past and Future: The Roma of Central and Eastern Europe, University of Hertfordshire Press, Hatfield, 2001. ISBN 1-902806-07-7
- ^ East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000-1500, Jean W. Sedlar, page 255, 1994
- ^ Gypsies in Romanian Principalities (Romanian)
- ^ Institutul Naţional de Statistică
References[link]
- Berza, Mihai. "Haraciul Moldovei şi al Ţării Româneşti în sec. XV–XIX", in Studii şi Materiale de Istorie Medie, II, 1957, p. 7–47
- Djuvara, Neagu. Între Orient şi Occident. Ţările române la începutul epocii moderne, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1995
- Giurescu, Constantin. Istoria Bucureştilor. Din cele mai vechi timpuri pînă în zilele noastre, Ed. Pentru Literatură, Bucharest, 1966
- Ştefănescu, Ştefan. Istoria medie a României, Vol. I, Bucharest, 1991
External links[link]
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Coordinates: 44°25′N 26°06′E / 44.417°N 26.1°E / 44.417; 26.1
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
- "Prince Michael" redirects here. For other people named Prince Michael, see Prince Michael (disambiguation).
| Prince Michael | |
|---|---|
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| Prince Michael of Kent in 1990, by Allan Warren | |
| Spouse | Princess Michael of Kent |
| Issue | |
| Lord Frederick Windsor Lady Gabriella Windsor |
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| Full name | |
| Michael George Charles Franklin[1] | |
| House | House of Windsor |
| Father | Prince George, Duke of Kent |
| Mother | Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark |
| Born | (1942-07-04) 4 July 1942 (age 69) Coppins, Iver, Buckinghamshire |
| Religion | Church of England |
Prince Michael of Kent GCVO (Michael George Charles Franklin; born 4 July 1942) is a grandson of King George V and Queen Mary, making him a cousin of Queen Elizabeth II. He is also the first cousin once removed of Prince Phillip. Prince Michael occasionally carries out royal duties representing the Queen at some functions in Commonwealth realms outside of the United Kingdom. Otherwise, he manages his own consultancy business and undertakes various commercial work around the world. He has also presented some television documentaries on the royal families of Europe. He is named after Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia, the younger brother of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, and first cousin of three of his grandparents.
Contents |
Early life[link]
Prince Michael was born on 4 July 1942, at Coppins, Iver, Buckinghamshire. His father was the Duke of Kent, the fourth-eldest son of George V and Queen Mary. The Duke of Kent was killed in a plane crash near Caithness, Scotland on 25 August 1942, just six weeks after his third child was born. At the time of his birth Prince Michael was seventh in the line of succession to his uncle King George VI.
His mother was the Duchess of Kent (née Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark), a daughter of Prince Nicholas of Greece and Denmark and Grand Duchess Elena Vladimirovna of Russia. As a grandchild of a British sovereign in the male line, he is styled as a Prince of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland with the prefix His Royal Highness.
At his christening on 4 August 1942 at the Private Chapel of Windsor Castle, his godparents were: King George VI (his paternal uncle); the Queen of the Netherlands (for whom her son-in-law Prince Bernhard of the Netherlands stood proxy); the King of Norway (his granduncle); the President of the United States of America (for whom the Duke of Kent stood proxy) [2]; the Crown Princess of Greece (who was not present); the Duke of Gloucester (his paternal uncle, who was absent); the Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven (his cousin); and the Lady Patricia Ramsay (his cousin). Because of the war, newspapers did not identify the actual location of the christening, and said instead that it took place at "a private chapel in the country."[3][4]
At the age of 5, Prince Michael was a page boy at the wedding of his cousins, the Princess Elizabeth and the Duke of Edinburgh.[5]
Education and military service[link]
Educated at Sunningdale School and Eton College, Prince Michael entered the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst, in January 1961, where he was commissioned into the 11th Hussars (Prince Albert's Own), in 1963. He saw service in Germany, Hong Kong, and Cyprus, where his squadron formed part of the UN peacekeeping force of 1971. Subsequent tours of duty, during a military career that spanned twenty years, included a number of appointments on the Defence Intelligence Staff. He retired from the Army, with the rank of Major, in 1981.
In 1994, Prince Michael was made Honorary Commodore (now Honorary Rear Admiral) of the Royal Naval Reserve, and in 2002 he was made Honorary Air Commodore of RAF Benson. In 2009, he was appointed Honorary Regimental Colonel of the Honourable Artillery Company. He is also colonel-in-chief of the Essex and Kent Scottish Regiment in Canada.
Career[link]
Royal duties[link]
As the third child of George V's fourth son, it was not expected that Prince Michael, as the only second son in the Royal Family outside HM The Queen's direct line of descent, would undertake royal and official duties. He has performed official duties in the Commonwealth realms other than the United Kingdom and has represented the Queen abroad. He has, however, never received a parliamentary annuity or an allowance from the British Privy Purse, unlike both his elder brother, Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, and his sister, Princess Alexandra, who both carry out official royal duties in the United Kingdom and receive British parliamentary annuities. The Prince was given a grace and favour apartment at Kensington Palace upon his marriage in 1978.
Prince Michael has represented the Queen at state funerals in India, Cyprus and Swaziland and, with his wife, Princess Michael of Kent, represented the Queen at the independence celebrations in Belize, and at the Coronation of King Mswati III of Swaziland.
Prince Michael supports a large number of different charities and organisations.
His Patronages and Presidencies number over 100 and include:
- ATA Museum Maidenhead Heritage Centre
- Association of Dunkirk Little Ships, Honorary Admiral[6]
- Amberley Museum & Heritage Centre
- Anglo-Hellenic League
- Battersea Dogs and Cats Home
- British Business & General Aviation Association (BBGA)
- Brooklands Museum Trust
- Chartered Institute of Linguists (IoL)
- Children's Burns Trust
- Colfe's School London (Visitor)
- Commission for Global Road Safety[7]
- David Shepherd Wildlife Foundation
- FIA Foundation
- First Gear
- Genesis Initiative
- Institute of Certified Bookkeepers[8]
- The Kennel Club
- Light Aircraft Association
- London School of Business and Finance
- Maritime Volunteer Service
- National Eye Research Centre
- RoadSafe[9]
- Royal Automobile Club
- Royal Life Saving Society
- Russo-British Chamber of Commerce
- Society of Genealogists
- SSAFA Forces Help
- Thames Rowing Club
- The Transport Trust
- Veterans Car Club of Great Britain
- World Class Learning Schools Group
- World Monuments Fund (UK)
Commercial[link]
Given that the Prince does not receive any income from his royal duties, he has the Queen's permission to earn a living from commercial enterprise. As such Prince Michael manages his own consultancy business, and undertakes business throughout the world. He is also a qualified interpreter of Russian.
Masonic[link]
Prince Michael is also involved with various aspects of Freemasonry—mainly as both the Grand Master of the Grand Lodge of Mark Master Masons, and Provincial Grand Master of the Provincial Grand Lodge of Middlesex.[10]
Marriage[link]
On 30 June 1978, Prince Michael was married, at a civil ceremony, at the Rathaus, Vienna, Austria, to Baroness Marie-Christine von Reibnitz, the only child of the Silesian nobleman Baron Gunther Hubertus von Reibnitz, and his Hungarian-born wife, Maria Anna Carolina Franziska Walpurga Bernadette, Countess Szapáry de Muraszombath, Széchysziget et Szapár.
At the time of the marriage, the Baroness was not only a Roman Catholic, but also a divorcée. She was previously married to banker Thomas Troubridge; they separated in 1973, divorced in 1977, and had their marriage annulled by the Roman Catholic Church a year later, two months before her marriage to Prince Michael. Under the terms of the Act of Settlement 1701, which governs in each realm the laws of succession to their respective thrones, Prince Michael forfeited his place in the lines of succession through marriage to a Roman Catholic.[11]
However, his wife became, and remains, Her Royal Highness Princess Michael of Kent (not Princess Marie-Christine, since she is not a princess in her own right, but only by right of marriage). Prince and Princess Michael of Kent have two children, both of whom remain in line to the throne because they are not Roman Catholics, having been raised as members of the Church of England:
- Lord Frederick Windsor, born 6 April 1979; married, 12 September 2009, Sophie Winkleman and 38th in the Line of Succession to the British throne. Educated at Eton College and Magdalen College, Oxford. Now with JP Morgan in Los Angeles
- Lady Gabriella Windsor, born 23 April 1981; and 39th in the Line of Succession to the British throne. Educated at Downe House and Brown University, US. Now studying for an MPhil in Anthropology at Oxford University.
Controversy[link]
Both Prince and Princess Michael of Kent have been the focus of negative news stories in the media in the past. These have centred on accusations that the couple exploit their royal status for commercial gain. When it was claimed that the couple pay a rent of only £69 per week (although other sources state the figure as £76) for the use of their apartments at Kensington Palace, a committee of British MPs demanded they be evicted.[12] The British Monarchy Media Centre, however, denies these controversial reports and states that, "The Queen is paying the rent for Prince and Princess Michael of Kent's apartment at a commercial rate of £120,000 annually from her own private funds... This rent payment by The Queen is in recognition of the Royal engagements and work for various charities which Prince and Princess Michael of Kent have undertaken at their own expense, and without any public funding."[13] The Queen agreed to pay the market rent until 2009, after which Prince Michael must assume the payments. Anticipating the loss of the apartment in London, Michael sold his country house, Nether Lypiatt Manor for £5.75 million in 2006, to the businessman and Labour government minister Lord Drayson.[14]
Grace and favour apartments for minor royals have a long tradition in the past. Prince Michael's brother and cousin currently have apartments in Kensington Palace, while his sister has one in St. James's Palace. However, they are all considered working royals, performing official duties, whereas Prince and Princess Michael undertake similar duties at their own expense which are not categorised as official. Prince Michael moved to Kensington Palace when he was age 12 with his widowed mother (who died when he was age 26).
Prince Michael has been under close scrutiny by the media for financial assistance given to him by Russian oligarch Boris Berezovsky.[15] In May 2012, The Sunday Times reported how the Prince had received £320,000 ($514,000) during a six-year period from 2002 to 2008 into a family business owned by the prince's secretary, from a fund controlled by Berezovsky in which 56 payments of between £5,000 and £15,000 were sent through offshore companies. [16] In an interview with The Sunday Times Berezovsky stated, "There is nothing underhand or improper about the financial assistance I have given Prince Michael. It is a matter between friends."[17]
Sport[link]
Prince Michael competed for Great Britain in the 1971 FIBT World Bobsleigh Championships but crashed and failed to finish the event. He was official non-travelling reserve for the 1972 Winter Olympic Games.[18]
Russia[link]
Prince Michael has a strong interest in Russia, and is noted for his remarkable physical resemblance to Tsar Nicholas II, a first cousin of three of his grandparents. When the bodies of the Tsar and his family were discovered by amateurs in 1979, the bodies were later identified by DNA, using Prince Michael's blood sample as recognition.[19] He attended the 1998 burial of the Tsar and his family in St. Petersburg.[20] Prince Michael speaks fluent Russian, and travels there frequently. Prince Michael is an Honorary Member of the Romanov Family Association.[21]
Titles, styles, honours and arms[link]
Titles and styles[link]
| Royal styles of Prince Michael of Kent |
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|---|---|
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| Reference style | His Royal Highness |
| Spoken style | Your Royal Highness |
| Alternative style | Sir |
- 4 July 1942–present: His Royal Highness Prince Michael of Kent
- The prince's style and title in full: His Royal Highness Prince Michael George Charles Franklin of Kent, Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, Knight of Justice of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of Saint John of Jerusalem.
Honours[link]
See also List of honours of the British Royal Family by country
- KCVO: Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order, 4 July 1992
- GCVO: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 2 June 2003
- KStJ: Knight of Justice of the Venerable Order of Saint John
- Order of Friendship (Russian: Орден Дружбы) of the Russian Federation, 4 November 2009
Medals[link]
- UN Force in Cyprus(UNFICYP)Medal
- Queen Elizabeth II Coronation Medal 1953
- Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Medal 1977
- Queen Elizabeth II Golden Jubilee Medal 2002
- Queen Elizabeth II Diamond Jubilee Medal 2012
Honorary military appointments[link]
Canada
Colonel-in-Chief, The Essex and Kent Scottish (2002–present)
United Kingdom
Honorary Rear Admiral, Royal Naval Reserve- Commodore-in-Chief, Maritime Reserves
Regimental Colonel, Honourable Artillery Company (2009–2012)- Royal Honorary Colonel, Honourable Artillery Company (2012–present)
Honorary Air Commodore of RAF Benson
Fellowships[link]
- Chartered Institution of Highways and Transportation
- Chartered Institute of Linguists
- Royal Aeronautical Society
- Society of Genealogists
- Institute of Road Safety Officers
- Institute of the Motor Industry
Arms[link]
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Issue[link]
| Name | Birth | Marriage | Issue | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lord Frederick Windsor | 6 April 1979 | 12 September 2009 | Sophie Winkleman | |
| Lady Gabriella Windsor | 23 April 1981 | |||
Ancestry[link]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ As a titled royal, Michael holds no surname, but, when one is used, it is Windsor
- ^ – Invitation to FDR to become Godfather
- ^ The Times, 5 August 1942
- ^ Yvonne's Royalty Home Page – Royal Christenings
- ^ Royal.gov.uk – 60 Facts, Fact 9
- ^ http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/court_and_social/article7113143.ece
- ^ The Big Red L Company pioneer BTEC in Driving Science course in Kent
- ^ http://www.icbglobal.org
- ^ RoadSafe – A partnership in road safety
- ^ pgm
- ^ Picknett, Lynn, Prince, Clive, Prior, Stephen & Brydon, Robert (2002). War of the Windsors: A Century of Unconstitutional Monarchy, p. 271. Mainstream Publishing. ISBN 1-84018-631-3.
- ^ Picknett, Prince, Prior & Brydon, p. 311.
- ^ Corrections to inaccurate media stories about the Royal Family
- ^ How will Princess Pushy pay the £120,000-a-year rent on Kensington Palace apartment? | Mail Online
- ^ "Queen's cousin given financial assistance by exiled Russian tycoon". news website. yahoo.com. http://news.yahoo.com/queens-cousin-given-financial-assistance-exiled-russian-tycoon-153711225.html. Retrieved 13 May 2012.
- ^ "Prince Michael Gifted 320,000 pounds by Berezovsky – paper". News Website. rian.ru. http://en.rian.ru/world/20120513/173425576.html. Retrieved 13 May 2012.
- ^ "UK Queen’s cousin takes £320k from Berezovksy". News Website. presstv.com. http://www.presstv.com/detail/2012/05/13/241070/320k--prince/. Retrieved 13 May 2012.
- ^ The Times, 21 January 1972
- ^ Russia: A 1,000 Year Chronicle by Martin Sixsmith page 220 paragraph 3, line 9
- ^ http://www.romanovfamily.org/funeral.html
- ^ Romanov Family Association
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Prince Michael of Kent |
- Royal.gov.uk Prince and Princess Michael of Kent
- Prince Michael of Kent's homepage
- Provincial Grand Lodge of Middlesex
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Prince Michael of Kent
Cadet branch of the House of Wettin
Born: 4 July 1942 |
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| British royalty | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Leopold Windsor |
Line of succession to the Dukedom of Kent 6th position |
Succeeded by Lord Frederick Windsor |
| Orders of precedence in the United Kingdom | ||
| Preceded by The Duke of Kent |
Gentlemen HRH Prince Michael of Kent |
Succeeded by Rowan Williams as Archbishop of Canterbury |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Kent, Michael |
| Alternative names | Windsor, Michael George Charles Franklin |
| Short description | Grandson of George V |
| Date of birth | 4 July 1942 |
| Place of birth | Iver, Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Prince_Michael_of_Kent
Related pages:
http://ru.wn.com/Майкл Кентский
http://fr.wn.com/Michael de Kent
http://nl.wn.com/Michael van Kent
http://pt.wn.com/Miguel de Kent
http://de.wn.com/Michael Windsor
http://it.wn.com/Michael di Kent
http://pl.wn.com/Michael Windsor
http://es.wn.com/Miguel de Kent
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Michael_of_Kent
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
"Mihai Viteazu" redirects here. For other uses, see Mihai Viteazu (disambiguation).
| Michael the Brave (Mihai Viteazul) | |
|---|---|
 Portrait by Aegidus Sadeler (Prague, 1601) |
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| Reign | 1593–1601 |
| Coronation | September, 1593 |
| Full name | Mihai Pătraşcu |
| Titles |  Prince of Wallachia Prince of Transylvania Prince of Moldavia |
| Born | 1558 |
| Birthplace | Drăgoeşti, Vâlcea, Wallachia |
| Died | 9 August 1601 (aged 42 or 43) |
| Buried | near present-day Câmpia Turzii, Transylvania |
| Predecessor | Alexandru cel Rău (Alexander the Evil One) |
| Successor | Simion Movilă |
| Wife | Doamna Stanca |
| Father | Pătraşcu cel Bun, Prince of Wallachia |
| Mother | Teodora Cantacuzino |
| Religious beliefs | Orthodox Christian |
Michael the Brave (Romanian: Mihai Viteazu(l) pronounced [miˈhaj viˈte̯azu(l)] or Mihai Bravu pronounced [miˈhaj ˈbravu], Hungarian: Vitéz Mihály; 1558 – August 9, 1601) was the Prince of Wallachia (1593–1601), of Transylvania (1599–1600), and of Moldavia (1600). He ruled all three principalitiesnote 1 in a personal union for a short period of time.[1][2][3]
During his reign, which coincided with the Long War, these three principalities forming the territory of present-day Romania and the Republic of Moldova were ruled for the first time by a single Romanian leader, although the personal union lasted for less than six months. He is regarded as one of Romania's greatest national heroes.[4]
His rule over Wallachia began in the autumn of 1593. Two years a war with the Ottomans began, a conflict in which the Prince fought the Battle of Călugăreni, considered one of the most important battles of his reign. Although the Wallachians emerged victorious from the battle, Michael was forced to retreat with his troops and wait for aid from his allies, Prince Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania and Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II. The war continued until a peace finally emerged in January 1597, but this only lasted for a year and a half. Peace was again reached in late 1599, when Michael was unable to continue the war due to lack of support from his allies.
In 1599 Michael won the Battle of Şelimbăr and soon entered Alba Iulia, becoming the Prince of Transylvania. A few months later, Michael's troops invaded Moldavia and reached its capital, Suceava. The Moldavian leader Ieremia Movilă fled to Poland and Michael was declared Prince of Moldavia. Michael kept the control of all three provinces for less than a year before the nobles of Transylvania and certain boyars in Moldavia and Wallachia rose against him in a series of revolts. Thereafter, Michael allied with the Imperial General Giorgio Basta and defeated an uprising of the Hungarian nobility at Gurăslău in Transylvania. Immediately after this victory, Basta ordered the assassination of Michael, which took place on 9 August 1601.
Contents |
Early life[link]
He was born under the family name of Pătraşcu. In 1601, during a stay in Prague, he was portrayed by the painter Aegidius Sadeler, who mentioned on the portrait the words aetatis XLIII ("in the 43rd year of life"), which indicates 1558 as the year of Michael's birth. Very little is known about his childhood and early years as an adult. He is argued by most historians to have been the illegitimate son of Wallachian Prince Pătraşcu cel Bun,[5] while others believe he merely invented his descent in order to justify his rule.[6] His mother was Teodora Cantacuzino, a member of the Cantacuzino family, an old boyar family of Wallachia and Moldavia, allegedly descended from the Byzantine Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus.
Michael's political rise was quite spectacular, as he became the Ban of Mehedinţi in 1588, stolnic at the court of Mihnea Turcitul by the end of 1588, and Ban of Craiova in 1593 - during the rule of Alexandru cel Rău. The latter had him swear before 12 boyars that he was not of princely descent.[7] Still, in May 1593 conflict did break out between Alexandru and Michael, who was forced to flee to Transylvania. He was accompanied by his half-brother Radu Florescu, Radu Buzescu and several other supporters. After spending two weeks at the court of Sigismund Báthory he left for Constantinople, where with help from his cousin Andronic Cantacuzino and Patriarch Jeremiah II he negotiated Ottoman support for his accession to the Wallachian throne. He was supported by the English ambassador in the Ottoman capital, Edward Barton, and aided by a loan of 200,000 florins.[8] Michael was invested Prince by Sultan Murad III in September 1593 and started his effective rule on October 11.[9]
Wallachia[link]
See also: Wallachia in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Wallachia
Not long after he became Prince of Wallachia, Michael turned against the Ottoman Empire. The next year he joined the Christian alliance of European powers formed by Pope Clement VIII against the Turks, and signed treaties with his neighbours: Sigismund Báthory of Transylvania, Aron Tiranul of Moldavia and the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II. He started a campaign against the Turks in the autumn of 1594, conquering several citadels near the Danube, including Giurgiu, Brăila, Hârşova, and Silistra, while his Moldavian allies defeated the Turks in Iaşi and other parts of Moldavia.[10] Mihai continued his attacks deep within the Ottoman Empire, taking the forts of Nicopolis, Ribnic, and Chilia[11] and even reaching as far as Adrianople.[12] At one point his forces were only 24 kilometers from Constantinople.
In 1595 Sigismund Báthory staged an elaborate plot and had Aron of Moldavia removed from power.[13] Ştefan Josica (Báthory's chancellor and an ethnic Romanian) masterminded the operation. Ştefan Răzvan arrested Aron on charges of treason on the night of April 24 (May 5) and sent him to the Transylvanian capital at Alba Iulia (Gyulafehérvár) with his family and treasure. Aron would die poisoned by the end of May in the castle of Vint. Sigismund was forced to justify his actions before the European powers, since Aron had played an active role in the anti-Ottoman coalition. Later on, in the same city of Alba Iulia, Wallachian boyars signed a treaty with Sigismund on Michael's behalf. From the point of view of Wallachian internal politics, the Treaty of Alba Iulia officialized what could be called a boyar regime, reinforcing the already important political power of the noble elite. According to the treaty, a council of 12 great boyars was to take part alongside the voivode in the executive rule of the country.
Boyars could no longer be executed without the knowledge and approval of the Transylvanian Prince and, if convicted for treason, their fortunes could no longer be confiscated. Apparently Michael was displeased with the final form of the treaty negotiated by his envoys but was forced to comply. Prince Michael said in a conversation with the Polish envoy Lubieniecki: ... they did not proceed as stated in their instructions but as their own good required and obtained privileges for themselves. He would try to avoid the obligations imposed on him for the rest of his reign.[14]
During his reign, Michael relied heavily on the loyalty and support of a group of Oltenian lords, the most important were Buzescu Brothers (Fraţii Buzeşti) and on his own relatives on his mother's side, the Cantacuzinos.[15] He consequently protected their interests throughout his reign; for example, he passed a law binding serfs to lands owned by aristocrats.[16] From the standpoint of religious jurisdiction, the Treaty of Alba Iulia had another important consequence, as it placed all the Eastern Orthodox bishops in Transylvania under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Seat of Târgovişte.[14]
During this period the Ottoman army, based in Ruse, was preparing to cross the Danube and undertake a major attack. Michael was quickly forced to retreat and the Ottoman forces started to cross the Danube on August 4, 1595. As his army was outnumbered, Michael avoided to carry the battle in open field, and he decided to give battle on a marshy field, located near the village of Călugăreni, on the Neajlov river. The Battle of Călugăreni started on August 13, and Michael defeated the Ottoman army led by Sinan Pasha.[14] Despite the victory, he retreated to his winter camp in Stoeneşti[disambiguation needed ] because he had too few troops to mount a full scale war against the remaining Ottoman forces. He subsequently joined forces with Sigismund Báthory's 40,000-man army (led by István Bocskay) and counterattacked the Ottomans, freeing the towns of Târgovişte (October 8), Bucharest (October 12) and Brăila, temporarily removing Wallachia from Ottoman suzerainty.
The fight against the Ottomans continued in 1596, when Michael made several incursions south of the Danube at Vidin, Pleven, Nicopolis, and Babadag, where he was assisted by the local Bulgarians during the First Tarnovo Uprising.[17]
During late 1596, Michael was faced with an unexpected attack from the Tatars, who had destroyed the towns of Bucharest and Buzău. By the time Michael gathered his army to counterattack, the Tatars had speedily retreated and so no battle was fought. Michael was determined to continue the war against the Ottomans, but he was prevented because he lacked support from Sigismund Báthory and Rudolf II. On January 7, 1597, Hasan Pasha declared the independence of Wallachia under Michael's rule,[18] but Michael knew that this was only an attempt to divert him from preparing for another future attack. Michael again requested Rudolf II's support and Rudolf finally agreed to send financial assistance to the Wallachian ruler. On June 9, 1598, a formal treaty was reached between Michael and Rudolf II. According to the treaty, the Austrian ruler would give Wallachia sufficient money to maintain a 5,000-man army, as well as armaments and supplies.[19] Shortly after the treaty was signed, the war with the Ottomans resumed and Michael besieged Nicopolis on September 10, 1598 and took control of Vidin. The war with the Ottomans continued until June 26, 1599, when Michael, lacking the resources and support to continue prosecuting the war, signed a peace treaty.[20]
Transylvania[link]
See also: Transylvania in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Transylvania
In April 1598 Sigismund resigned as Prince of Transylvania in favor of the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolf II (who was also the King of Hungary), reversed his decision in October 1598, and then resigned again in favor of Cardinal Andrew Báthory, his cousin.[21] Báthory had strong ties to the Polish chancellor and hetman Jan Zamoyski and placed Transylvania under the influence of the King of Poland, Sigismund III Vasa. He was also a trusted ally of the new Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă, one of Michael's greatest enemies.[20] Movilă had deposed Ştefan Rǎzvan with the help of Polish hetman Jan Zamoyski in August 1595.[20]
Having to face this new threat, Michael asked Emperor Rudolf to become the sovereign of Wallachia. On September 25 (October 5) Báthory issued an ultimatum demanding that Michael abandon his throne.[22] Michael decided to attack Andrew Cardinal Báthory immediately to prevent invasion. He would later describe the events:
I rose with my country, my children, taking my wife and everything I had and with my army [marched into Transylvania] so that the foe should not crush me here.
He left Târgovişte on October 2 and by October 9 he reached Prejmer in southern Transylvania, where he met envoys from the city of Braşov. Sparing the city, he moved on to Cârţa[disambiguation needed ] where he joined forces with the Székelys.[22]
On October 18, Michael won a decisive victory[23] against the army of prince-cardinal Andrew Báthory at the Battle of Şelimbăr, giving him control of Transylvania. As he retreated from the battle, Andrew Báthory was killed by anti-Báthory Székely on 3 November near Sândominic, dying at the age of 38, and Michael gave him a princely burial in the Roman Catholic Cathedral of Alba Iulia.[24] With his enemy dead, Michael entered the Transylvanian capital at Alba Iulia, and received the keys to the fortress from Bishop Demeter Napragy, later depicted as a seminal event in Romanian historiography. Historian Stephen Szamosközy, keeper of the Archives at the time, recorded the event in great detail. He also wrote that two days before the Diet met on October 10, Transylvanian nobles elected Michael the voivode as Prince of Transylvania. As the Diet was assembled, Michael demanded that the estates swear loyalty to Emperor Rudolf, then to himself and thirdly to his son.[25]
Even if he was recognized by the Transylvanian parliament (diet) only as imperial governor[26] subject to the Holy Roman Emperor, he was nonetheless de facto ruler of Transylvania.
Michael used in Transylvania the following signature on official documents: Michael Valachiae Transalpinae Woivoda, Sacrae Caesareae Regiae Majestatis Consiliarius per Transylvaniam Locumtenens, cis transylvaniam partium eius super exercitu Generalis Capitaneus". ("Michael, voivode of Wallachia, the councillor of His Majesty the Emperor and the King, his deputy in Transylvania and General Captain of his troops from Transylvania.")
When Michael entered Transylvania, he did not free or grant rights to the Romanian inhabitants, who were primarily peasants but, nevertheless, constituted more than 60% of the population. Instead he sought to support the Hungarian nobles, the Székelys, and the Saxons by reaffirming their rights and privileges.[27]
There is no evidence that Michael wanted Transylvania's Romanians to play a political role. Indeed, while he brought some of his Wallachian aides to Transylvania, he also invited some Székelys and other Transylvanian Hungarians to assist in the administration of Wallachia, where he wished to transplant Transylvania's far more advanced feudal system.
Michael began negotiating with the Emperor over his official position in Transylvania. The latter wanted the principality under direct Imperial rule with Michael acting as governor. The Wallachian voivode, on the other hand, wanted the title of Prince of Transylvania for himself and equally claimed the Partium region. Michael was, nevertheless, willing to acknowledge Habsburg overlordship.[28]
Moldavia[link]
See also: Moldavian Magnate Wars
The Moldavian Prince Ieremia Movilă had been an old enemy of Michael, having incited Andrew Báthory to send Michael the ultimatum demanding his abdication.[29] His brother, Simion Movilă, claimed the Wallachian throne for himself and had used the title of Voivode since 1595. Aware of the threat the Movilăs represented, Michael had created the Banat of Buzău and Brăila in July 1598 and the new ban was charged of keeping an alert eye on Moldavian, Tatar and Cossack moves, although Michael had been planning a Moldavian campaign for several years.[29]
On February 28, Michael met with Polish envoys in Braşov. He was willing to recognise the Polish King as his sovereign in exchange for the crown of Moldavia and the recognition of his male heirs' hereditary right over the three principalities, Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia. This did not significantly delay his attack however, on April 14, 1600 Michael's troops entered Moldavia on multiple routes, the Prince himself leading the main thrust to Trotuş and Roman.[30] He reached the capital of Suceava on May 6. The garrison surrendered the citadel the next day and Michael's forces caught up with the fleeing Ieremia Movilă, who was only saved from being captured by the sacrifice of his rear-guard. Movilă took refuge in the castle of Khotyn together with his family, a handful of faithful boyars and the former Transylvanian Prince, Sigismund Báthory.[29] The Moldavian soldiers in the castle deserted, leaving a small Polish contingent as sole defenders. Under the cover of dark, sometime before June 11, Movilă managed to sneak out of the walls and across the Dniester to hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski's camp.[30]
Neighboring states were alarmed by this upsetting of the balance of power, especially the Hungarian nobility in Transylvania, who rose against Michael in rebellion. With the help of Basta, they defeated Michael at the Battle of Mirăslău, forcing the prince to leave Transylvania together with his remaining loyal troops.[31] A Polish army led by Jan Zamoyski drove the Wallachians from Moldavia and defeated Michael at Năieni, Ceptura, and Bucov (Battle of the Teleajăn River). The Polish army also entered eastern Wallachia and established Simion Movilă as ruler. Forces loyal to Michael remained only in Oltenia.[32]
Last victory and the assassination[link]
Michael asked again for assistance from Emperor Rudolf during a visit in Prague between February 23 and March 5, 1601, which was granted when the emperor heard that General Giorgio Basta had lost control of Transylvania to the Hungarian nobility led by Sigismund Báthory, who accepted Ottoman protection. Meanwhile, forces loyal to Michael in Wallachia led by his son, Nicolae Pătraşcu, drove Simion Movilă out of Moldavia and prepared to reenter Transylvania. Michael, allied with Basta, defeated the Hungarian army in Battle of Guruslău. A few days later Basta, who sought to control Transylvania himself, ordered the assassination of Michael, which took place near Câmpia Turzii on 9 August 1601.[33] According to Romanian historian Constantin C. Giurescu:[32]
| “ | Never in Romanian history was a moment of such highness glory so closely followed by bitter failure. | ” |
Seal of Michael the Brave[link]
The seal comprises the coats of arms of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania: in the middle, on a shield the Moldavian urus, above Wallachian eagle between sun and moon holding cross in beak, below Transylvanian coat of arms: two meeting, standing lions supporting a sword, treading on seven mountains. The Moldavian shield is held by two crowned figures.
There are two inscriptions on the seal. First, circular, in Slavonic using Romanian Cyrillic alphabet "IO MIHAILI UGROVLAHISCOI VOEVOD ARDEALSCOI MOLD ZEMLI", meaning "Io Michael Wallachian Voivode of Transylvanian and Moldavian Lands". Second, placed along a circular arc separating the Wallachian coat from the rest of the heraldic composition, "I ML BJE MLRDIE", could be translated "Through The Very Grace of God".[34]
Legacy[link]
Michael the Brave's rule, with its break with Ottoman rule, tense relations with other European powers and the leadership of the three states, was considered in later periods as the precursor of a modern Romania, a thesis which was argued with noted intensity by Nicolae Bălcescu. This theory became a point of reference for nationalists, as well as a catalyst for various Romanian forces to achieve a single Romanian state.[35] To Romanian Romantic nationalists,[36] he was regarded as one of Romania's greatest national heroes.
The prince, who managed for a short time in 1600 to rule the three territories that were to be united some three centuries later in modern Romania, begins to be perceived as a unifier only towards the middle of the 19th century. Such an interpretation is completely lacking in the historiography of the 17th century chroniclers, and even in that of the Transylvanian School around 1800. What they emphasized, apart from the exceptional personality of Michael himself, were the idea of Christendom and his close relations with Emperor Rudolf. The conqueror's ambition is likewise frequently cited as a motivation for his action, occupying in the interpretative schema the place which was later to be occupied by the Romanian idea.
In the writings of the Moldavian chronicler Miron Costin, Michael the Brave appears in the role of conqueror of Transylvania and Moldavia, "the cause of much spilling of blood among Christians", and not even highly appreciated by his own Wallachians: "The Wallachians became tired of the warful rule of Voivode Mihai".[37]
The perspective of the Wallachians themselves is to be found in The History of the Princes of Wallachia, attributed to the chronicler Radu Popescu (1655–1729), which bundles together all Michael's adversaries without distinction. Romanians and foreigners alike: "He subjected the Turks, the Moldavians, and the Hungarians to his rule, as if they were his asses.". The picturesque flavor of the expression only serves to confirm the absence of any Romanian idea.
Samuil Micu, a member of the Transylvanian School said in his work Short Explanation of the History of the Romanians (written in the 1790s): "In the year 1593, Michael, who is called the Brave, succeeded to the lordship of Wallachia. He was a great warrior, who fought the Turks and defeated the Transylvanians. And he took Transylvania and gave it to Emperor Rudolf".[38]
Panaitescu states that in Mihai's time, the concept of the Romanian nation and the desire for unification did not yet exist.[39] A. D. Xenopol firmly states the absence of any national element in Michael's politics, holding that Michael's lack of desire to join the principalities' administrations proved his actions were not motivated by any such concept.[40]
Mihai Viteazul, a commune in Cluj County, was named after Michael the Brave. Michael is also commemorated by the monks of the Athonite Simonopetra Monastery for his great contributions in the form of land and money to rebuilding the monastery which had been destroyed by a fire.
Mihai Viteazul, a film by Sergiu Nicolaescu, a famous Romanian film director, is a representation of the life of the Wallachian ruler, and his will to unite the three Romanian principalities (Wallachia, Moldavia, and Transylvania) in one country.
The Order of Michael the Brave, Romania's highest military decoration, was named after Michael.[41]
Notes[link]
^ These areas cover most of today's Romania. Wallachia and Moldavia had unambiguous Romanian majorities, while Transylvania had a mixed population with Romanians being the majority.
- ^ http://www.romaniaunog.org/about/history_2.htm
- ^ http://romaniancoins.org/5000lei2000mihai.html
- ^ http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/379802/Michael
- ^ [1]
- ^ Giurescu, p. 180.; Iorga.
- ^ Panaitescu.
- ^ According to the XVIIIth century chronicle of Radu Popescu.
- ^ http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Rumania
- ^ Giurescu, p. 182.
- ^ Giurescu, p. 183.
- ^ Coln, Emporungen so sich in Konigereich Ungarn, auch in Siebenburgen Moldau, in der der bergischen Walachay und anderen Oerten zugetragen haben, 1596
- ^ Marco Venier, correspondance with the Doge of Venice, 16 July 1595
- ^ C. Rezachevici - "Legenda şi substratul ei istoric"
- ^ a b c Giurescu, p. 186.
- ^ Manea.
- ^ Panaitescu; Bolovan.
- ^ Giurescu, p. 189.
- ^ Giurescu, p. 190.
- ^ Giurescu, p. 191.
- ^ a b c Giurescu, p. 193.
- ^ Giurescu, p. 192.
- ^ a b Giurescu, p. 194.
- ^ Helen Matau Powell. Matau Family History & Related Lineages: With a Brief History of Romania. University of Wisconsin - Madison, Gateway Press, 2002.
- ^ Giurescu, p. 195.
- ^ Giurescu, p. 196.
- ^ History of Transylvania by Akadémiai Kiadó
- ^ George W. White, Nationalism and territory, 2000, p.132
- ^ Giurescu, p. 196–97.
- ^ a b c Giurescu, p. 198.
- ^ a b Giurescu, p. 199.
- ^ Giurescu, p. 201.
- ^ a b Giurescu, p. 200.
- ^ Giurescu, p. 201–05.
- ^ Homutescu.
- ^ Giurescu, p. 211–13.
- ^ George W. White, Nationalism and territory: constructing group identity in Southeastern Europe, Rowman & Littlefield, 2000, p. 132
- ^ Original text: "Sa urise muntenilor cu domniia lui Mihai-voda,totii cu osti si razboaie." (Romanian) http://www.scribd.com/doc/43781/Miron-Costin-Letopiseul-rii-Moldovei
- ^ History and myth in Romanian consciousness , byLucian Boia http://books.google.ro/books?id=RM6MRPWXxQYC&pg=PP1&dq=History+and+myth+in+Romanian+consciousness++De+Lucian+Boia&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false
- ^ Petre Panaitescu - Mihai Viteazul, Bucureşti, 1936
- ^ Boia 1997, p. 150
- ^ Ordinul Mihai Viteazul, ww2awards.com, Retrieved 10 April 2008
References[link]
- Bolovan, Ioan; Kurt W. Treptow (1997). A History of Romania (3rd ed.). Iași: Center for Romanian Studies. ISBN 978-973-98091-0-8. OCLC 39225262.
- Giurescu, Constantin C. (2007) [1935]. Istoria Românilor. Bucharest: Editura All. (Romanian)
- Homutescu, Adrian. "Elements of Romanian Heraldry". Archived from the original on 2008-03-23. http://web.archive.org/web/20080323024419/http://www.geocities.com/romaniancoins/coatromania.html. Retrieved 2008-03-03.
- Ionaşcu, Ion (1962). "Mihai Viteazul şi autorii tratatului de la Alba Iulia (1595)". Anuarul Institutului de istorie şi arheologie, Cluj-Napoca (Cluj-Napoca: Editura Academiei R.S.R.) 5: 111–44. ISSN 0253-1550. OCLC 20377434. (Romanian)
- Iorga, Nicolae (1904) (pdf). Ștefan-cel-mare și Mihai-Viteazul: ca întemeietorii bisericii Românilor din Ardeal. Bucharest: Minerva. OCLC 18153903. http://www.unibuc.ro/CLASSICA/Stefan_Mihai_Mitropolia/Stefan_Mihai_Mitropolia.pdf. Retrieved 2008-03-03. (Romanian)
- Iorga, Nicolae (1968). Istoria lui Mihai Viteazul. Bucharest: Editura Militară. OCLC 1243864. (Romanian)
- Manea, Cristina Anton (2003) (PhD. Thesis). Structura şi restructurarea marii boierimi din Ţara Românească de la începutul secolului al XVI-LEA până la mijlocul secolului al XVII-LEA. Archived from the original on February 8, 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080208210059/http://www.mnir.ro/ro/publicatii/teze-doctorat/cristina-anton-manea.html. Retrieved 2008-03-03. (Romanian)
- Panaitescu, Petre P. (1936). Mihai Viteazul. Bucharest: Fundaţia Regală. OCLC 29925825. (Romanian)
- Rezachevici, Constantin (November 1999). "Mihail Viteazul: Cele patru itinerarii transilvane". Magazin istoric. ISSN 0541-881X. OCLC 2263749. Archived from the original on October 10, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071010050401/http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi1999/mi11/mi5.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-03. (Romanian)
- Rezachevici, Constantin (May 2000). "Mihail Viteazul: Itinerariul moldovean". Magazin istoric. ISSN 0541-881X. OCLC 2263749. Archived from the original on September 26, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070926231040/http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2000/current5/mi5.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-03. (Romanian)
- Rezachevici, Constantin (October 2000). "Legenda şi substratul ei istoric. Mihail Viteazul Restituror Daciae?". Magazin istoric. ISSN 0541-881X. OCLC 2263749. Archived from the original on December 22, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071222124750/http://www.itcnet.ro/history/archive/mi2000/current10/mi8.htm. Retrieved 2008-03-03. (Romanian)
External links[link]
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: |
|
Mihai I of Wallachia
Died: 1601 9 August |
||
| Regnal titles | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Alexandru cel Rău |
Prince of Wallachia 1593–1600 |
Succeeded by Simion Movilă |
| Preceded by Andrew |
Prince of Transylvania 1599–1600 |
Succeeded by Rudolf II |
| Preceded by Ieremia Movilă |
Prince of Moldavia 1600 |
Succeeded by Ieremia Movilă |
| Notes and references | ||
| 1. Regnal Chronologies | ||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Brave, Michael The |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 1558 |
| Place of birth | Drăgoeşti, Vâlcea, Wallachia |
| Date of death | August 9, 1601 |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Michael_the_Brave
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Michele il Coraggioso
http://cs.wn.com/Michal Chrabrý
http://id.wn.com/Mihai Viteazul
http://es.wn.com/Miguel el Valiente
http://ru.wn.com/Михай Храбрый
http://nl.wn.com/Michaël de Dappere
http://pt.wn.com/Miguel, o Valente
http://pl.wn.com/Michał Waleczny
http://fr.wn.com/Michel Ier le Brave
http://de.wn.com/Mihai Viteazul
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_the_Brave
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| Riul Doamnei | |
|---|---|
| Origin | Montorio (Verona), Veneto, Italy |
| Genres | Symphonic Black Metal |
| Years active | 1999–present |
| Labels | AXIIS music |
| Associated acts | Rotting Christ, Cradle of Filth |
| Website | http://www.riuldoamnei.it |
| Members | |
| Federico D. B. Luca L. Maurizio S. Fabrizio T. Giorgio M. |
|
Riul Doamnei is a symphonic black metal band from Italy founded in 1999. They currently have three releases. They play a very melodic/symphonic style and commonly combine keyboards with melodic guitar riffs.
In May 2011 After more than 11 years of great experiences together, Riul Doamnei and Enrico P. has decided in clear, peacefully and common decision to take different roads. The new drummer is Luca L. (Bleeding Hate, ex Metalheadz and Hamless).
Riul Doamnei means ‘the lady’s river’ in Romanian.
Contents |
Band members[link]
Current[link]
- Federico D. B. - vocals and guitar
- Luca L. - drums
- Maurizio S. - lead guitar
- Fabrizio T. - bass guitar
- Giorgio M. - synthesizer
Former[link]
- Franz - synthesizer
- Maria - synthesizer
- Marcella - vocals
- Willy - guitar
- Enrico - drums
Discography[link]
- Le Serpent Rouge(EP, 2006)
- Apocryphal
- Apocryphal Extended X-Version
- Fatima
http://wn.com/Riul_Doamnei
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riul_Doamnei
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
 |
This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2008) |
| Carpathian Forest | |
|---|---|
| Origin | Jæren, Rogaland, Norway |
| Genres | Black metal |
| Years active | 1990–present |
| Labels | Avantgarde Music Season of Mist |
| Associated acts | Nattefrost, Blood Red Throne, Vrangsinn, Green Carnation, Emperor, Solefald, Neetzach, Taake, Aura Noir, A Waste of Talent, In the Woods..., Kvelertak, Gorgoroth |
| Website | tnbm.no |
| Members | |
| Nattefrost Vrangsinn Anders Kobro Blood Perverter |
|
| Past members | |
| John Nordavind Lazare Tchort Mothörsen Kulde |
|
Carpathian Forest is a Norwegian black metal band formed by Nattefrost and Nordavind in 1990.
Contents |
Biography[link]
Carpathian Forest (previously known as "The Childmolesters", then "Enthrone") emerged with the demo tape "Bloodlust and Perversion" in 1992. In 1993 the band released a second demo: Journey Through the Cold Moors of Svarttjern. The following year, Forest signed to Avantgarde Music and recorded their first EP, Through Chasm, Caves and Titan Woods in 1995, followed by the debut album Black Shining Leather in 1998.
Carpathian Forest played their first concert in 1998 at the Quart Festival, Kristiansand Norway supporting Immortal and Satyricon. This saw the introduction of Vrangsinn. A short studio session followed, with Tchort and Kobro being made permanent members. The following EP was called He's Turning Blue, followed by the albums Strange Old Brew and Morbid Fascination of Death - these were both recorded at the same time and were produced by Terje Refsnes at Sound Suite studio in Sandnes. Nordavind left the band after this studio session due to personal issues with Tchort being promoted to guitarist. Vrangsinn was promoted to bass, and Blood Pervertor to keyboard duties for following sessions and tours.[1]
With this lineup, the band recorded their fourth album, Defending the Throne of Evil, released by Season of Mist. This album was the first to feature symphonic sounds, as witnessed with "It's Darker than You Think". The album was generally well-received.
The following year, Carpathian Forest made two releases - We're Going to Hollywood for This, a live DVD, the title of which was a play on their compilation album We're Going to Hell for This, and another compilation entitled Skjend Hans Lik, which featured many new tracks, as well as some remastered ones from Bloodlust and Perversion.
The band's most recent release was in 2006, with Fuck You All!!!!, an album which has similar structures to Black Shining Leather.
The band last played live at the Inferno Festival in 2009, and confirmed rumors that a new album was in the works.[2]
Discography[link]
Studio Albums & E.P's[link]
- Through Chasm, Caves and Titan Woods (1995)
- Black Shining Leather (1998)
- Strange Old Brew (2000)
- He's Turning Blue EP (2000)
- Morbid Fascination of Death (2001)
- Defending the Throne of Evil (2003)
- Fuck You All!!!! Caput tuum in ano est (2006)
- Universal Evil (2012)
Compilation albums[link]
- Bloodlust and Perversion (1997)
- We're Going to Hell for This (2002)
- We're Going to Hollywood for This - Live Perversions (2004, video release)
- Skjend Hans Lik (2004)
Demos[link]
- Bloodlust & Perversion (1992)
- Journey through the Cold Moors of Svarttjern (1993)
- In These Trees Are My Gallows (1993)
- Rehearsal Tape (1993)
Bootlegs[link]
Band members[link]
Timeline[link]
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id:vocals value:red legend:Vocals/Guitar id:bass value:purple legend:Bass id:drums value:brightblue legend:Drums id:guitarvocals value:green legend:Guitar/Vocals id:guitar value:yellow legend:Guitar
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bar:Nattefrost text:"Nattefrost" bar:Nordavind text:"Nordavind" bar:Vrangsinn text:"Vrangsinn" bar:Pervertor text:"Blood Pervertor" bar:Kobro text:"A. Kobro" bar:Lazare text:"Lazare" bar:Kleppe text:"Svein H. Kleppe" bar:Grimm text:"Grimm" bar:Blackmangler text:"Lord Blackmangler" bar:Damnatus text:"Damnatus"
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</timeline>
Current members[link]
- "Hellcommander" Nattefrost (Roger Rasmussen) - vocals, guitar, arrangements, production, bass guitar (1990–Present)
- Vrangsinn - Backing vocals, bass guitar, guitar, keyboards, arrangements, production and engineering (1999–Present)
- Anders Kobro - drums (1999–Present)
- Blood Pervertor (Goran Boman) - guitar (2003–Present)
Former members[link]
- Tchort (Terje Vik Schei) - guitar, bass guitar (1999–2009)
- John Nordavind - vocals, guitar, bass, keyboard, arrangements (1990–2000)
- Lazare (Lars Nedland) - session drums (1997)
- Mothörsen (Arvid Thorsen) - Session saxophone (2000–2004)
- Kulde (Eivind Kulde) - live session on keyboards (2002)
- Nina Hex - Backing vocals (2000–2001)
- I.K. Hellslut - Backing vocals (2004)
- Lord Blackmangler - Drums (1992)
- Damnatus - Bass (1992-1993)
- Grimm (Erik_Brødreskift) - Drums (1993)
- John M.Haar - Bass (1995)
- Svein H. Kleppe - Drums (1995)
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ "Carpathian Forest". Encyclopaedia Metallum. http://www.metal-archives.com/bands/Carpathian_Forest/147#band_tab_members. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
- ^ "CARPATHIAN FOREST Working On New Album, DVD - Jan. 2, 2009". Blabbermouth.net. http://www.roadrunnerrecords.com/blabbermouth.net/news.aspx?mode=Article&newsitemID=111746. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
External links[link]
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Related pages:
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http://fr.wn.com/Carpathian Forest
http://pt.wn.com/Carpathian Forest
http://de.wn.com/Carpathian Forest
http://it.wn.com/Carpathian Forest
http://pl.wn.com/Carpathian Forest
http://es.wn.com/Carpathian Forest
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpathian_Forest
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
