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Aragon
Aragon (
/ˈærəɡɒn/ or /ˈærəɡən/), also known in Spanish and Aragonese as Aragón ([aɾaˈɣon]) and in Catalan as Aragó ([əɾəˈɣo] or [aɾaˈɣo]), is a modern autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. Located in northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces (from north to south): Huesca, Zaragoza, and Teruel. Its capital is Zaragoza (also called Saragossa in English). The current Statute of Autonomy declares Aragon a nationality of Spain.
Aragon's northern province of Huesca borders France and is positioned in the middle of the Pyrenees. Within Spain, the community is flanked by Catalonia on the east, Valencia and Castile–La Mancha to the south, and Castile and León, La Rioja, and Navarre to the west.
Covering an area of 47,719 km2 (18,424 sq mi), the region's terrain ranges diversely from permanent glaciers to verdant valleys, rich pasture lands and orchards, through to the arid steppe plains of the central lowlands. Aragon is home to many rivers—most notably, the river Ebro, Spain's largest river in volume, which runs west-east across the entire region through the province of Zaragoza. It is also home to the Aneto, the highest mountain in the Pyrenees.
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Calvary
Calvary or Golgotha /ˈɡɒlɡəθə/ was the site, outside of ancient Jerusalem’s early first century walls, at which the crucifixion of Jesus occurred. Calvary and Golgotha are the English names for the site used in Western Christianity.
Golgotha is the Greek transcription given by the New Testament, of an Aramaic title, which has traditionally been presumed to be Gûlgaltâ (but see below for an alternative); the Bible glosses it as place of [the] skull — Κρανίου Τόπος (Kraniou Topos) in Greek, and Calvariae Locus in Latin, from which we get Calvary.
Golgotha is referred to in early writings as being a hill looking like the skull-pan of a head very near a gate into the city of Jerusalem.
Since the 6th century it has been referred to as the location of a mountain, and as a small hill since 333. The Gospels describe it as a place near enough to the city that those coming in and out could read the inscription 'Jesus of Nazareth - King of the Jews' . When the King James Version was written, the translators used an anglicised version — Calvary — of the Latin gloss from the Vulgate (Calvariæ), to refer to Golgotha in the Gospel of Luke, rather than translate it; subsequent uses of Calvary stem from this single translation decision. The location itself is mentioned in all four canonical Gospels:
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Constantinople
Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις, Konstantinoúpolis; Latin: Constantinopolis; Ottoman Turkish: قسطنطینیه, Qostantiniyye; and modern Turkish: İstanbul) was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, the Latin and the Ottoman Empires. It was founded in AD 330, at ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Constantine I, after whom it was named. The city was the largest and wealthiest European city of the Middle Ages, and shared the glories of the Byzantine Empire, which was eventually reduced to the city and its environs.
Although besieged on numerous occasions by various peoples, it was taken only in 1204 by the army of the Fourth Crusade, in 1261 by Michael VIII, and in 1453 by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. An inner wall was erected by Constantine I, and the city was surrounded by a triple wall of fortifications, begun during the 5th century by Theodosius II. The city was built on seven hills as well as on the Bosporus, and thus presented an impregnable fortress enclosing magnificent palaces, domes and towers. The Church of Hagia Sophia, the sacred palace of the emperors, the hippodrome, and the Golden Gate were among the largest of the many churches, public edifices, and monuments lining the arcaded avenues and squares.
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Crown of Castile
The Crown of Castile was a medieval and modern state in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and parliaments of the kingdoms of Castile and León upon the accession of the then King Ferdinand III of Castile to the vacant Leonese throne. It continued to exist as a separate entity after the personal union of the crowns of Castile and Aragon with the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs in 1469 and wasn't formally abolished until the unification policies of Philip V of Spain in the early 18th century. During its existence, the Spanish colonies in the Americas and the Philippines were also considered part of the Crown of Castile.
The Kingdom of León arose out of the Kingdom of Asturias. The Kingdom of Castile appeared initially as a county of the Kingdom of León. From the second half of the 10th century to the first half of the 11th century it changed hands between León and the Kingdom of Navarre. In the 11th century it became a kingdom in its own right.
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Dome of the Rock
The Dome of the Rock (Arabic: مسجد قبة الصخرة, translit.: Masjid Qubbat As-Sakhrah, Hebrew: כיפת הסלע, translit.: Kipat Hasela) is a shrine located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem. The structure has been refurbished many times since its initial completion in 691 CE at the order of Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik. The site's significance stems from religious traditions regarding the rock, known as the Foundation Stone, at its heart.
The Dome of the Rock is located at the visual center of a platform known as the Temple Mount. It was constructed on the site of the Second Jewish Temple, which was destroyed during the Roman Siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. In 637 CE, Jerusalem surrendered to the Rashidun Caliphate army during the Muslim conquest of Syria.
The location of the Dome of the Rock was established as the site of the Islamic miracle of the Isra and Miraj by Caliph Omar ibn al Khattab, who was advised by his associate, Ka'ab al-Ahbar, a former Jewish rabbi who had converted to Islam, that Isra and Miraj took place at the site of the former Jewish Temples. The Dome of the Rock was erected between 689 and 691 CE. The names of the two engineers in charge of the project are given as Yazid Ibn Salam from Jerusalem and Raja Ibn Haywah from Baysan. Umayyad Caliph Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan who initiated construction of the Dome, hoped that it would “house the Muslims from cold and heat” and intended the building to serve as a shrine for pilgrims and not as a mosque for public worship.
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Foundation Stone
The Foundation Stone (Hebrew: אבן השתייה, translit. Even haShetiya) or Rock (Arabic: صخرة translit. Sakhrah, Hebrew: סלע translit.: Sela) is the name of the rock at the heart of the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. It is also known as the Pierced Stone because it has a small hole on the southeastern corner that enters a cavern beneath the rock, known as the Well of Souls. It is believed by some to have been the location of the Holy of Holies in the Temple, and is the holiest site in Judaism. (Midrash Tanhuma, chapter 10) Jewish tradition views it as the spiritual junction of heaven and Earth. Jews traditionally face it while praying.
The rock is located towards the centre of the Temple Mount, an artificial platform built and expanded over many centuries. The current shape is the result of an expansion by Herod the Great on top of vaults over a hill, generally believed to be Mount Moriah. The rock constitutes the peak of this now hidden hill, which is also the highest in early biblical Jerusalem, looming over the City of David.
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Gangra
Çankırı is capital city of Çankırı Province, in Turkey, about 140 km (87 mi) northeast of Ankara. It is situated in a rich well-watered valley, at about 800 m (2500 ft) in elevation.
It was known in antiquity as Gangra, then Germanicopolis (Greek: Γερμανικόπολις) for a period, although Ptolemy calls it Germanopolis (Greek: Γερμανόπολις), then Changra, Kandari, or Kanghari.
The settlement witnessed the hegemony of many cultures and races, such as Hittites, Persians, Greeks, Parthians, Pontus, Galatians, Romans and Byzantines, up to Seljuks and finally the Ottoman Turks, and the traces from its long past stand all over the area.
Gangra, the capital of the Paphlagonian kingdom of Deiotarus Philadelphus, son of Castor[disambiguation needed
], was absorbed into the Roman province of Galatia on his death in 65 BC. The earlier town, the name of which signified she-goat, was built on the hill behind the modern city, on which are the ruins of a late fortress; while the Roman city occupied the site of the modern. It was named Germanicopolis, after Germanicus or possibly the emperor Claudius, until the time of Caracalla.
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Gethsemane
Coordinates: 31°46′46″N 35°14′25″E / 31.779402°N 35.240197°E / 31.779402; 35.240197
Gethsemane (Greek: Γεθσημανἰ, Gethsēmani Hebrew: גת שמנים, Gat-Šmânim Aramaic: גת שמני, Gath-Šmânê, Classical Syriac: ܓܕܣܡܢ, Gat Šmānê, lit. "oil press") is a garden at the foot of the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem most famous as the place where, according to the gospels, Jesus and his disciples are said to have prayed the night before Jesus' crucifixion.
Gethsemane appears in the Greek of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Mark as Γεθσημανἱ (Gethsēmani). The name is derived from the Aramaic ܓܕܣܡܢ (Gaṯ-Šmānê), meaning "oil press". Matthew (26:36) and Mark (14:32) call it χωρἰον (18:1), a place or estate. The Gospel of John says Jesus entered a garden (κῆπος) with his disciples.
According to the New Testament it was a place that Jesus and his disciples customarily visited, which allowed Judas to find him on the night of his arrest.
There are four locations claimed to be the place where Jesus prayed on the night he was betrayed.
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Granada
Granada (Spanish pronunciation: [ɡɾaˈnaða]) is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous community of Andalucia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence of three rivers, the Beiro, the Darro and the Genil. It sits at an elevation of 738 metres above sea level, yet is only one hour from the Mediterranean coast, the Costa Tropical. Nearby is the Sierra Nevada Ski Station, where the FIS Alpine World Ski Championships 1996 were held.
In the 2005 national census, the population of the city of Granada proper was 236,982, and the population of the entire urban area was estimated to be 472,638, ranking as the 13th-largest urban area of Spain. About 3.3% of the population did not hold Spanish citizenship, the largest number of these people (31%) coming from South America. Its nearest airport is Federico García Lorca Airport Granada-Jaén Airport.
The Alhambra, a Moorish citadel and palace, is in Granada. It is the most renowned building of the Andalusian Islamic historical legacy with its many cultural attractions that make Granada a popular destination among the touristic cities of Spain. The Almohad influence on architecture is preserved in the area of the city called the Albaicín with its fine examples of Moorish and Morisco construction. Granada is also well-known within Spain for the prestigious University of Granada which has about 80,000 students spread over five different campuses in the city. The pomegranate (in Spanish, granada) is the heraldic device of Granada.
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Holy Temple
The Temple in Jerusalem or Holy Temple (Hebrew: Hebrew: בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ, Modern: Bet HaMikdash, Tiberian: Beṯ HamMiqdāš, Ashkenazi: Beis HaMikdosh) was one of a series of structures which were historically located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem, the current site of the Dome of the Rock. Historically, these successive temples stood at this location and functioned as the centre of ancient Israelite and later Jewish worship. According to classical Jewish belief, the Temple acted as the figurative "footstool" of God's presence and a Third Temple will be built there in the future.
The Bible reports that the First Temple was built in 957 BCE by King Solomon (reigned c.970-c.930 BCE). As the sole place of Jewish sacrifice, the Temple replaced the portable sanctuary constructed in the Sinai Desert under the auspices of Moses, as well as local sanctuaries, and altars in the hills. This temple was however sacked a few decades later by Sheshonk I, Pharaoh of Egypt. Although efforts were made at partial reconstruction, it was only in 835 BCE when Jehoash, King of Judah in the second year of his reign invested considerable sums in reconstruction, only to have it stripped again for Sennacherib, King of Assyria in c700 BCE. The First Temple was totally destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE when they sacked the city.
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Iberian peninsula
The Iberian Peninsula (Asturian, Galician, Leonese, Mirandese, Portuguese and Spanish: Península Ibérica, Catalan: Península Ibèrica, Aragonese and Occitan: Peninsula Iberica, French: Péninsule Ibérique, Basque: Iberiar Penintsula), sometimes called Iberia, is a peninsula located in the extreme southwest of Europe and includes the modern-day sovereign states of Spain, Portugal and Andorra, as well as the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar. It is the westernmost of the three major southern European peninsulas—the Iberian, Italian, and Balkan peninsulas. It is bordered on the southeast and east by the Mediterranean Sea, and on the north, west and southwest by the Atlantic Ocean. The Pyrenees form the northeast edge of the peninsula, separating it from the rest of Europe. In the south, it approaches the northern coast of Africa. It is the second-largest peninsula in Europe, with an area of approximately 582,000 km2 (225,000 sq mi).
The English word Iberia was adapted from the use of the Ancient Greek word Ιβηρία (Ibēría) by the Greek geographers under the Roman Empire to refer to what is known today in English as the Iberian Peninsula. At that time the name did not describe a single political entity or a distinct population of people. Strabo's Iberia was delineated from Keltikē by the Pyrenees and included the entire land mass south-west (he named it "west") of there.
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Israel
Coordinates: 31°N 35°E / 31°N 35°E / 31; 35
Israel, officially the State of Israel ( /ˈɪzriːəl/ or /ˈɪzreɪəl/; Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, Medīnat Yisrā'el, IPA: [me̞diˈnät jisʁäˈʔe̞l] (
listen); Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, Dawlat Isrāʼīl, IPA: [dawlat ʔisraːˈʔiːl]), is a parliamentary republic in the Middle East, along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Lebanon in the north, Syria in the northeast, Jordan and the West Bank in the east, Egypt and the Gaza Strip on the southwest, and the Gulf of Aqaba in the Red Sea to the south, and it contains geographically diverse features within its relatively small area. Israel is defined as a Jewish and Democratic State in its Basic Laws and is the world's only Jewish-majority state.
Following the adoption of a resolution by the General Assembly of the United Nations on 29 November 1947 recommending the adoption and implementation of the United Nations plan to partition Palestine, on 14 May 1948 David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization and president of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, a state independent from the British Mandate for Palestine. Neighboring Arab states invaded the next day in support of the Palestinian Arabs. Israel has since fought several wars with neighboring Arab states, in the course of which it has occupied the West Bank, Sinai Peninsula, Gaza Strip and the Golan Heights. Portions of these territories, including east Jerusalem, have been annexed by Israel, but the border with the neighboring West Bank has not yet been permanently defined.[neutrality is disputed] Israel has signed peace treaties with Egypt and Jordan, but efforts to resolve the Israeli–Palestinian conflict have so far not resulted in peace.
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Jerusalem
Jerusalem ( /dʒəˈruːsələm/; Hebrew: יְרוּשָׁלַיִם Yerushaláyim ; Arabic: القُدس al-Quds and/or أورشليم Ûrshalîm) is the capital of Israel, though not internationally recognized as such, and one of the oldest cities in the world. It is located in the Judean Mountains, between the Mediterranean Sea and the northern edge of the Dead Sea. If the area and population of East Jerusalem is included, it is Israel's largest city in both population and area, with a population of 801,000 residents over an area of 125.1 km2 (48.3 sq mi). Jerusalem is also a holy city to the three major Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
During its long history, Jerusalem has been destroyed twice, besieged 23 times, attacked 52 times, and captured and recaptured 44 times. The oldest part of the city was settled in the 4th millennium BCE. In 1538, walls were built around Jerusalem under Suleiman the Magnificent. Today those walls define the Old City, which has been traditionally divided into four quarters—known since the early 19th century as the Armenian, Christian, Jewish, and Muslim Quarters. The Old City became a World Heritage site in 1981, and is on the List of World Heritage in Danger. Modern Jerusalem has grown far beyond its boundaries.
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Malmesbury Abbey
Malmesbury Abbey, at Malmesbury in Wiltshire, England, is a religious house dedicated to Saint Peter and Saint Paul. It was one of the few English houses with a continual history from the 7th century through to the Dissolution of the Monasteries.
Malmesbury was founded as a Benedictine monastery around 676 by the scholar-poet Aldhelm, a nephew of King Ine of Wessex. In 941 AD, King Athelstan was buried in the Abbey. Æthelstan had died in Gloucester in October 939. The choice of Malmesbury over the New Minster in Winchester indicated that the king remained an outsider to the West Saxon court.
By the 11th century it contained the second largest library in Europe and was considered one of the leading European seats of learning. The Abbey was the site of an early attempt at human flight when, in 1010, the monk Eilmer of Malmesbury flew a primitive hang glider from a tower. Eilmer flew over 200 yards (200 m) before landing, breaking both legs. He later remarked that the only reason he did not fly further was the lack of a tail on his glider. The 12th-century historian William of Malmesbury was of the community.
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Mecca
Mecca ( /ˈmɛkə/; Arabic: مكة, Makkah, pronounced [ˈmækːɐ]) is a city in the Hejaz and the capital of Makkah province in Saudi Arabia. The city is located 70 km (43 mi) inland from Jeddah in a narrow valley at a height of 277 m (909 ft) above sea level. Its resident population in 2012 was 2 million, although visitors more than triple this number every year during Hajj period held in the twelfth Muslim lunar month of Dhu al-Hijjah.
As the birthplace of Muhammad and a site of the composition of the Quran, Mecca is regarded as the holiest city in the religion of Islam and a pilgrimage to it known as the Hajj is obligatory upon all able Muslims. The Hijaz was long ruled by Muhammad's descendants, the sharifs, either as independent rulers or as vassals to larger empires. It was absorbed into Saudi Arabia in 1925. In its modern period, Mecca has seen tremendous expansion in size and infrastructure. Because of this Mecca has lost many thousand years old buildings and archaeological sites. Today, more than 15 million Muslims visit Mecca annually, including several million during the few days of the Hajj. As a result, Mecca has become one of the most cosmopolitan and diverse cities in the Muslim world, although non-Muslims remain prohibited from entering the city.
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Medina
Medina (/mɛˈdiːnə/; Arabic: اَلْمَدِينَة اَلْمَنَوَّرَة, al-Madīnah al-Munawwarah, “the radiant city” (officially), or اَلْمَدِينَة al-Madīnah; also transliterated as Madinah, or madinat al-nabi "the city of the prophet") is a city in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia, and serves as the capital of the Al Madinah Province. It is the second holiest city in Islam, and the burial place of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. Medina is historically significant for being Muhammad's home after the Hijrah. Before the advent of Islam, the city was known as Yathrib, but was personally renamed by Muhammad.
Medina is home to the three oldest mosques in Islam, namely Al-Masjid an-Nabawi (The Prophet's Mosque), Quba Mosque (the first mosque in Islam's history), and Masjid al-Qiblatain (the mosque where the qibla was switched to Mecca).
Because of the Saudi government's religious policy and concern that historic sites could become the focus for idolatry, much of Medina's Islamic physical heritage has been destroyed since the beginning of Saudi rule.[citation needed]
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Mina, Saudi Arabia
Mina is a location situated some 5 kilometres to the east of the Islamic holy city of Mecca (Makkah) in Saudi Arabia. It stands on the road from Mecca's city centre to the Hill of Arafat.
Mina is best known for the role it plays during the annual Hajj pilgrimage, when its tent cities provide temporary accommodation to millions of visiting pilgrims. In the valley of Mina is the Jamarat Bridge, the location of the Stoning of the Devil ritual, performed between sunrise and sunset on the last day of the Hajj. Mina is where Pilgrims would go to stone where the devil was as this is where it is said that Ibrahim stoned the devil that came between him and the command that Allah set him. Most pilgrims at Hajj walk around the Ka'aba 7 times, then visit the Well of Zamzam. Usually they spend their first night in the Valley of Mina. This ritual occurs on the eighth to twelfth day of hajj. At mina men and women aren't allowed to sleep together.
Coordinates: 21°24′48″N 39°53′36″E / 21.41333°N 39.89333°E / 21.41333; 39.89333
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Morrano
Morrano is a village in the municipality of Bierge, in the northwest comarca of Somontano de Barbastro in province of Huesca, Aragon, Spain. According to the 2010 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 46 inhabitants.
It is situated at 640 meters altitude, in the pre-Pyrenees, near the village is the river Alcanadre and a pine forest.
The vegetation is the olive, the almond, the juniper and the holm oak.
In 1097 Peter, Bishop of Huesca, gave the monastery of S. Ponce de Turners Labatella churches, Morrano, Yaso and Panzano. In 1213 is villa.
Around the village can practice canyoning and hiking.
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Syria Palaestina
Syria Palæstina was a Roman province between 135 CE and about 390 CE. It was established by the merge of Roman Syria and Roman Judaea, following the defeat of the Bar Kokhba Revolt in 135 CE. In 193 CE, coastal Coele-Syria was split from Syria Palæstina, to form a separate Roman province. Syria Palaestina had become part of the splinter Palmyrene Empire for a brief period that lasted from 260 to 272 CE, when it was restored to Roman central authority. Eventually the province became reorganized under Byzantium as part of the Diocese of the East, which divided it into the provinces of Syria Prima, Phoenicia, Palaestina Prima and Palaestina Secunda.
The earliest numismatic evidence for the name Syria Palæstina comes from the period of emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.
Herodotus wrote in c.450 BCE in The Histories of a 'district of Syria, called Palaistinê" (whence Palaestina, from which Palestine is derived). And in c.40 CE, the Roman-Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria wrote of the Jews in Palestine: "Moreover Palestine and Syria too are not barren of exemplary wisdom and virtue, which countries no slight portion of that most populous nation of the Jews inhabits. There is a portion of those people called Essenes"
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Temple in Jerusalem
The Temple in Jerusalem or Holy Temple (Hebrew: Hebrew: בֵּית־הַמִּקְדָּשׁ, Modern: Bet HaMikdash, Tiberian: Beṯ HamMiqdāš, Ashkenazi: Beis HaMikdosh) was one of a series of structures which were historically located on the Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem, the current site of the Dome of the Rock. Historically, these successive temples stood at this location and functioned as the centre of ancient Israelite and later Jewish worship. According to classical Jewish belief, the Temple acted as the figurative "footstool" of God's presence and a Third Temple will be built there in the future.
The Bible reports that the First Temple was built in 957 BCE by King Solomon (reigned c.970-c.930 BCE). As the sole place of Jewish sacrifice, the Temple replaced the portable sanctuary constructed in the Sinai Desert under the auspices of Moses, as well as local sanctuaries, and altars in the hills. This temple was however sacked a few decades later by Sheshonk I, Pharaoh of Egypt. Although efforts were made at partial reconstruction, it was only in 835 BCE when Jehoash, King of Judah in the second year of his reign invested considerable sums in reconstruction, only to have it stripped again for Sennacherib, King of Assyria in c700 BCE. The First Temple was totally destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BCE when they sacked the city.
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Yehud Medinata
Yehud Medinata (Aramaic for "the province of Judah") or simply Yehud, was an autonomous province of the Achaemenid (ancient Persia) empire, roughly equivalent to the older kingdom of Judah but covering a smaller area, within the satrapy of Eber-Nari. The region corresponded to the Babylonian province with the same name, formed after the fall of the kingdom of Judah to the Neo-Babylonian Empire (c.597 after its conquest of the Mediterranean east coast, and again in 585/6 BCE after suppressing an unsuccessful Judean revolt).
The name Yehud is known from coins unearthed in the region. Archaeological evidence is quite limited, and a history of the period is dependent almost entirely on biblical sources of often uncertain reliability.
There is not complete agreement on the chronology of the Babylonian and Persian periods: the following table is used in this article, but alternative dates for many events are plausible - this is especially true of the chronological sequence of Ezra and Nehemiah, with Ezra 7:6-8 stating that Ezra came to Jerusalem "in the seventh year of Artaxerxes the King," without specifying whether this was Artaxerxes I (465-424 BCE) or Artaxerxes II (404-359 BCE); the probable date for his mission is 458 BCE, but it is possible that it took place in 397 BCE.
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Abraham
Abraham (Hebrew: אַבְרָהָם (help·info), Modern: Avraham, Tiberian: ʼAḇrāhām, Ashkenazi Avrohom or Avruhom, Arabic: إبراهيم Ibrāhīm, Ge'ez: አብርሃም ʼAbrəham, Greek: Aβραάμ, Russian: Авраам), whose birth name was Abram, is the eponym of the Abrahamic religions, among which are Judaism, Christianity and Islam. According to both the Hebrew Bible and the Qur'an, through his sons Ishmael and Isaac, Abraham is the forefather of many tribes, namely the Ishmaelites, Israelites, Midianites and Edomites. Abraham was a descendant of Noah's son, Shem. Christians believe that Jesus was a descendant of Abraham through Isaac, and Muslims believe that Muhammad was a descendant of Abraham through Ishmael. Abraham is notable for his advocation and promotion of monotheism.
The Book of Genesis narrative that records the life of Abraham presents his role as one that could only be fulfilled through a monotheistic covenant established between him and God. The Qur'an has stories about Abraham and his offspring that are similar to the Bible's. In Islam, Abraham is recognised as a prophet, patriarch and messenger, archetype of the perfect Muslim, and reformer of the Kaaba.
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Adam
Adam (Hebrew: אָדָם, Arabic: آدم, Syriac: ܐܵܕ݂ܵܡ) is a figure in the Book of Genesis, the Qur'an and the Kitáb-i-Íqán. According to the creation myth of Abrahamic religions, he is the first human. In the Genesis creation narratives, he was created by Yahweh-Elohim ("Yahweh-God", the god of Israel), though the term "adam" can refer to both the first individual person, as well as to the general creation of humankind. Christian churches differ on how they view Adam's subsequent behavior (often called the Fall of man), and to the consequences that those actions had on the rest of humanity. Christian and Jewish teachings sometimes hold Adam and Eve (the first woman) to a different level of responsibility for the Fall, though Islamic teaching holds both equally responsible. In addition, Islam holds that Adam was eventually forgiven, while Christianity holds that redemption occurred only later through the sacrifice of God's son, Jesus Christ. Bahá'í Faith, Islam and some Christian denominations consider Adam to be the first Prophet.
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Adib Taherzadeh
Adib Taherzadeh (1921 in Yazd, Iran – January 26, 2000) served as a member of the Universal House of Justice, the supreme governing body of the Bahá'í Faith, between 1988 and 2000.
Taherzadeh was born into an Iranian family who have had a strong association with the Bahá'í Faith since its inception, in Yazd, Iran. He studied electrical engineering at the University of Tehran, to Coventry, England in 1948 and pursued advanced studies, He moved to Ireland in 1950 working as the chief engineer of an industrial concern until 1988. He married twice, first to Zarin Moosezadeh Cohen with whom he had two children, a son Tahir Ronald and a daughter Bahiyyeh Vida. He married Belfast-born Lesley Gibson in the 1970s and they had two children, a daughter Maryam and a son Bahhaj. At the time of his death, he had several grandchildren.
Taherzadeh served on the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the British Isles from 1960 to 1971. He was elected to the National Spiritual Assembly of the Baha'is of the Republic of Ireland when it was formed in 1972 and was appointed in 1976 to the European Continental Board of Counsellors, a senior advisory body. He was elected to the Universal House of Justice in 1988.
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Adnan
Adnan (Arabic: عدنان) is the traditional ancestor of the Adnanite Arabs of northern, central and western Arabia, as opposed to the Qahtani of southern and south eastern Arabia who descend from Qahtan.
Adnan is the father of the Adnanite Arabs who are the northern Adahoe tribes that occupied Hijaz, Yamama regions as well as most parts of northern Arabia.
According to Islamic tradition, the Islamic prophet Muhammad was descended from Adnan. Tradition records the genealogy from Adnan to Muhammad comprises 21 generations. "The following is the list of chiefs who are said to have ruled the Hejaz and to have been the patrilineal ancestors of Muhammad."
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Ahl-e Haqq
The Ahl-e Haqq or Yârsân (Kurdish: یارسان Yâresân,Persian: اهل حق Ahl-e Haqq "People of Truth"), are members of a religion founded by Sultan Sahak in the late 14th century in western Iran. The total number of members is estimated at around 1,000,000, primarily found in western Iran and Iraq, mostly ethnic Kurds, though there are also smaller groups of Persian, Luri, Azeri and Arab adherents. Some Yârsânî in Iraq are called Kaka'i.
The Yârsân have a distinct religious literature primarily written in Gorani and partly in Persian, although few modern Yâresânî can speak or read Gorani, as their mother tongues are Gorani and Soranî. The Sarl living near Eski Kalak are adherents, as Edmonds (1957: 195) surmised and Moosa (1988: 168) observed. Their central religious book is called as Kalâm-e Saranjâm, written in the 15th century based on the teachings of Sultan Sahak.
Up to the 20th century, the Yârsânî faith was strictly for Kurds who were born into it, called checkedea ("a drop of"), as opposed to individuals who married into a Yârsânî family, called chasbedea ("attached"). Adherents today are mainly found among the Kurdish tribes of the Guran, Qalkhani, Bajalani and Sanjabi, located in western Iran, forming approximately a third of the population in the religiously diverse province of Kermanshah. There are some groups located around Kirkuk in Iraq. The Arabic-speaking adherents are based in the Iraqi cities of Mandali, Baquba, and Khanaqin. According to Encyclopædia Britannica, "The chief source of information about the Ahl-e Haqq is the Firqan al-Akhbar, written in... early 20th century by Hajj Nematollah"
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Al-Khidr
Khidr "the Green One", also transcribed as Khidar, Khizr, Khyzer, Khizar, Kezr) is a revered figure in Islam, whom the Qur'an describes as a righteous servant of God, who possessed great wisdom or mystic knowledge, represented iconically by a fish. He is most often said to be a contemporary of Moses, but in other variations of his story, he lived at the same time as Abraham, the mythical Persian king Afridun, Alexander the Great, and Nashiya bin Amus . The 18th sura ("The Cave") presents a narrative where Khidr accompanies Moses and tests him about his oath to not ask any questions.
In medieval Islamic tradition, Khidr is variously described as a messenger or a prophet.
In chapter 18, verses 65–82, Moses meets the Servant of God, referred in the Quran as "one from among Our friend whom We had granted mercy from Us and whom We had taught knowledge from Ourselves", at the junction of the two seas and asks for permission to accompany him so Moses can learn "right knowledge of what [he has] been taught". The Servant of God informs him in a stern manner that their knowledge is of different nature and that "Surely you [Moses] cannot have patience with me. And how canst thou have patience about things about which thy understanding is not complete?" Moses promises to be patient and obey him unquestioningly, and they set out together. After they board a ship, the Servant of God damages the vessel. Forgetting his oath, Moses says, "Have you made a hole in it to drown its inmates? Certainly you have done a grievous thing." The Servant of God reminds Moses of his warning, "Did I not say that you will not be able to have patience with me?" and Moses pleads not to be rebuked.
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Arab
Arab people, also known as Arabs (Arabic: عرب, ʿarab), are a panethnicity primarily living in the Arab world, which is located in Western Asia and North Africa. They are identified as such on one or more of genealogical, linguistic, or cultural grounds, with tribal affiliations, and intra-tribal relationships playing an important part of Arab identity.
The word "Arab" has had several different, but overlapping, meanings over the centuries (and sometimes even today). In addition to including all Arabized people of the world (with language tending to be the acid test), it has also at times been used exclusively for bedouin (Arab nomads [although a related word, "`a-RAB," with the Arabic letter "alif" in the second syllable, once was sometimes used when this specific meaning was intended] and their now almost entirely settled descendants). It is sometimes used that way colloquially even today in some places. Townspeople once were sometimes called "sons of the Arabs." As in the case of other ethnicities or nations, people identify themselves (or are identified by others) as "Arabs" to varying degrees. This may not be one's primary identity (it tends to compete with country, religion, sect, etc.), and whether it is emphasized may depend upon one's audience.
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Armenians
Armenian people or Armenians (Armenian: հայեր, Armenian pronunciation: [hɑˈjɛɾ]) are a nation and ethnic group native to the Armenian Highland.
The largest concentration is in Armenia, having a nearly homogeneous population with 97.9% or 3,145,354 being ethnic Armenian. Because of wide-ranging and long-lasting diaspora, an estimated total of 3 million people of full or partial Armenian ancestry live outside of Armenia. As a result of the Armenian Genocide, a large number of survivors fled to many countries throughout the world, most notably the Russian Empire, the Near East, the United States, France, Iran, Georgia and other parts of Europe (see Armenian diaspora).
Christianity began to spread in Armenia soon after Jesus's death, due to the efforts of two of his apostles, St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew In the early 4th century, the Kingdom of Armenia became the first nation to adopt Christianity as a state religion. Most Armenians adhere to the Armenian Apostolic Church, a non-Chalcedonian church, which is also the world's oldest national church.
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Bat Ye'or
Bat Ye'or (Hebrew: בת יאור, meaning "daughter of the Nile") is a pseudonym of Gisèle Littman, née Orebi, an Egyptian-born British writer and political commentator who writes about the history of non-Muslims in the Middle East, and in particular the history of Christian and Jewish dhimmis living under Islamic governments.
She is the author of eight books, including Eurabia: The Euro-Arab Axis (2005), Islam and Dhimmitude: Where Civilizations Collide (2001), The Decline of Eastern Christianity: From Jihad to Dhimmitude (1996), and The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam (1985).
Bat Ye'or was born into a Jewish family in Cairo, Egypt, but she and her parents were forced to leave Egypt in 1957 after the Israeli attack on Egypt during the Suez War of 1956, arriving in London as stateless refugees. Beginning in 1958 she attended the Institute of Archaeology at University College, London and in 1959 became a British citizen by marriage. She moved to Switzerland in 1960 to continue her studies at the University of Geneva.
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Buddhism
Buddhism is a religion and philosophy indigenous to the Indian subcontinent and encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs, and practices largely based on teachings attributed to Siddhartha Gautama, who is commonly known as the Buddha (meaning "the awakened one" in Sanskrit and Pāli). The Buddha lived and taught in the eastern part of Indian subcontinent some time between the 6th and 4th centuries BCE. He is recognized by Buddhists as an awakened or enlightened teacher who shared his insights to help sentient beings end ignorance (avidyā), craving (taṇhā), and suffering (dukkha), by recognizing dependent origination and sunyata, and attain Nirvana.
Two major branches of Buddhism are recognized: Theravada ("The School of the Elders") and Mahayana ("The Great Vehicle"). Theravada has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Mahayana is found throughout East Asia and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism, Shingon, Tiantai (Tendai) and Shinnyo-en. In some classifications, Vajrayana—practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacent parts of China and Russia—is recognized as a third branch, while others classify it as a part of Mahayana. There are other categorisations of these three Vehicles or Yanas.
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Carl Heinrich Bloch
Carl Heinrich Bloch (May 23, 1834 – February 22, 1890) was a Danish painter.
He was born in Copenhagen and studied with Wilhelm Marstrand at the Royal Danish Academy of Art (Det Kongelige Danske Kunstakademi) there. Bloch's parents wanted their son to enter a respectable profession - an officer in the Navy. This, however, was not what Carl wanted. His only interest was drawing and painting, and he was consumed by the idea of becoming an artist. He went to Italy to study art, passing through the Netherlands, where he became acquainted with the work of Rembrandt, which became a major influence on him. Carl Bloch met his wife, Alma Trepka, in Rome, where he married her on May 31, 1868. They were married until her early death in January 1886.
His early work featured rural scenes from everyday life. From 1859 to 1866, Bloch lived in Italy, and this period was important for the development of his historical style.
His first great success was the exhibition of his "Prometheus Unbound" in Copenhagen in 1865. After the death of Marstrand, he finished the decoration of the ceremonial hall at the University of Copenhagen. The sorrow over losing his wife weighed heavily on Bloch, and being left alone with their eight children after her death was very difficult for him.
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Conquistador
Conquistadors ( /kɒn.ˈkiːstədɔrz/; Spanish and Portuguese: Conquistadores, Spanish: [koŋkistaˈðoɾes], Portuguese: [kõkiʃtaˈðoɾɨʃ]; "Conquerors") were soldiers, explorers, and adventurers at the service of the Spanish or Portuguese Empires. They sailed beyond Europe, conquering territory and opening trade routes. They colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries.
The name derived from the Reconquista (711–1492), the reconquest of the territory of the Iberian Peninsula that was controlled by Muslims (the state called Al-Andalus). In 1492 Castile expanded its exploratory activities, using Portuguese navigators.[citation needed] Portugal had previously established a marine route to Japan via the southern coast of Africa, with numerous coastal enclaves along the route. Following the discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus in 1492, expeditions led by conquistadors brought much of the Americas under the control of Spain in the 16th century.
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David
David (Hebrew: דָּוִד, דָּוִיד, Modern David Tiberian Dāwîḏ; ISO 259-3 Dawid; Strong's Daveed; beloved; Arabic: داوود or داود Dāwūd) was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the second king of the United Kingdom of Israel and, according to the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke, an ancestor of Jesus. David is seen as a major Prophet in Islamic traditions. His life is conventionally dated to c. 1040–970 BC, his reign over Judah c. 1010–1003 BC,[citation needed] and his reign over the United Kingdom of Israel c. 1003–970 BC.[citation needed] The Books of Samuel, 1 Kings, and 1 Chronicles are the only sources of information on David, although the Tel Dan stele records "House of David", which some take as confirmation of the existence in the mid-9th century BC of a Judean royal dynasty called the "House of David".
David is very important to Jewish, Christian and Islamic doctrine and culture. In Judaism, David, or David HaMelekh, is the King of Israel, and the Jewish people. Jewish tradition maintains that a direct descendant of David will be the Messiah. In Islam, he is known as Dawud, considered to be a prophet and the king of a nation. He is depicted as a righteous king, though not without faults, as well as an acclaimed warrior, musician, and poet, traditionally credited for composing many of the psalms contained in the Book of Psalms.
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Eber
Eber (עֵבֶר, ISO 259-3 ʕebr, Standard Hebrew Éver, Tiberian Hebrew ʻĒḇer) is an ancestor of the Israelites, according to the "Table of Nations" in Genesis 10-11 and 1 Chronicles 1. He was a great-grandson of Noah's son Shem and the father of Peleg born when Eber was 34 years old, and of Joktan. He was the son of Shelah a distant ancestor of Abraham. According to the Hebrew Bible, Eber died at the age of 464 (Genesis 11:14-17) when Jacob was 20. The Hebrew Calendar synchronises this date with 1817 BCE.
In the Septuagint and other Christian Bibles derived from it, Eber is called Heber and his father is called Sala. His son is called Phaleg, born when Heber was 134 years old, and he had other sons and daughters. Heber lived to an age of 404 years. (Septuagint Genesis 11:14-17)
In Jewish tradition, Eber, the great-grandson of Shem, refused to help with the building of the Tower of Babel, so his language was not confused when it was abandoned. He and his family alone retained the original human language, Hebrew, a language named after Eber (Heber), also called lingua humana in Latin. (There are different religious positions on this issue; see also Adamic language.)
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Francis E. Peters
Francis Edward Peters (born June 23, 1927, New York City), who generally publishes as F.E. Peters, is Professor Emeritus of Middle Eastern and Islamic Studies and History at New York University.
Peters studied at St. Louis University (BA 1950, MA Latin & Greek 1952), Fordham University (Russian language, 1956), and Princeton University (PhD Islamic Studies 1961) and was a professor at New York University from 1961.
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Hadrian
Hadrian (Latin: Publius Aelius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus 24 January 76 – 10 July 138), was a Roman Emperor from 117 to 138. He is best known for building Hadrian's Wall, which marked the northern limit of Roman Britain. In Rome, he re-built the Pantheon and constructed the Temple of Venus and Roma. In addition to being emperor, Hadrian was a humanist and was philhellene in all his tastes. He was the third of the so-called Five Good Emperors.
Hadrian was born Publius Aelius Hadrianus to an ethnically Italian family in Italica near Seville. His predecessor Trajan was a maternal cousin of Hadrian's father. Trajan never officially designated an heir, but according to his wife Pompeia Plotina, Trajan named Hadrian emperor immediately before his death. Trajan's wife and his friend Licinius Sura were well-disposed towards Hadrian, and he may well have owed his succession to them.
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Hebrews
Hebrews (Hebrew: עברים or עבריים, Tiberian ʿIḇrîm, ʿIḇriyyîm; Modern Hebrew ʿIvrim, ʿIvriyyim; ISO 259-3 ʕibrim, ʕibriyim) is an ethnonym used in the Hebrew Bible. It is mostly taken as synonymous with the Semitic Israelites, especially in the pre-monarchic period when they were still nomadic, but in some instances it may also be used in a wider sense, referring to the groups known as Habiru or Shasu on the eve of the Bronze Age collapse.
By the Roman era, Greek Hebraios could refer to the Jews in general, but more specifically to the Jews living in Judea. In Early Christianity, the Greek term refers to Jewish Christians, as opposed to the gentile Christians (Acts 6:1).
The origin of the term remains uncertain. The biblical word Ivri (Hebrew: עברי), meaning to traverse or pass over, is usually rendered as Hebrew in English, from the ancient Greek Ἑβραῖος and Latin Hebraeus. In the plural it is Ivrim, or Ibrim.
In Genesis 10:21 Shem, the elder brother of Ham and Japheth, first born son of Noah, is referred to as the father of the sons of Eber (עבר), which may have a similar meaning.
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Hernan Cortes
Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro, 1st Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca (Spanish pronunciation: [erˈnaŋ korˈtes de monˈroj i piˈθaro]; 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish colonizers that began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
Born in Medellín, Spain, to a family of lesser nobility, Cortés chose to pursue a livelihood in the New World. He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba, where he received an encomienda and, for a short time, became alcalde (magistrate) of the second Spanish town founded on the island. In 1519, he was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, an expedition which he partly funded. His enmity with the Governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, resulted in the recall of the expedition at the last moment, an order which Cortés ignored. Arriving on the continent, Cortés executed a successful strategy of allying with some indigenous peoples against others. He also used a native woman, Doña Marina, as an interpreter; she would later bear Cortés a son. When the Governor of Cuba sent emissaries to arrest Cortés, he fought them and won, using the extra troops as reinforcements. Cortés wrote letters directly to the king asking to be acknowledged for his successes instead of punished for mutiny. After he overthrew the Aztec Empire, Cortés was awarded the title of Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, while the more prestigious title of Viceroy was given to a high-ranking nobleman, Antonio de Mendoza. In 1541 Cortés returned to Spain, where he died peacefully but embittered, six years later.
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Isaac
Isaac ( /ˈaɪzək/;Hebrew: יִצְחָק, Modern Yitsẖak Tiberian Yiṣḥāq, ISO 259-3 Yiçḥaq, "he will laugh"; Yiddish: יצחק, Yitskhok; Ancient Greek: Ἰσαάκ, Isaak; Latin: Isaac; Arabic: إسحاق or Arabic: إسحٰقʼIsḥāq) as described in the Hebrew Bible, was the only son Abraham had with his wife Sarah, and was the father of Jacob and Esau. Isaac was one of the three patriarchs of the Israelites. According to the Book of Genesis, Abraham was 100 years old when Isaac was born, and Sarah was beyond childbearing years.
Isaac was the only biblical patriarch whose name was not changed, and the only one who did not leave Canaan. Compared to those of Abraham and Jacob, Isaac's story relates fewer incidents of his life. He died when he was 180 years old, making him the longest-lived patriarch.
The anglicized name Isaac is a transliteration of the Hebrew term Yiṣḥāq which literally means "He laughs/will laugh."Ugaritic texts dating from the 13th century BCE refer to the benevolent smile of the Canaanite deity El. Genesis, however, ascribes the laughter to Isaac's parents, Abraham and Sarah, rather than El. According to the biblical narrative, Abraham fell on his face and laughed when Elohim imparted the news of their son's eventual birth. He laughed because Sarah was past the age of childbearing; both she and Abraham were advanced in age. Later, when Sarah overheard three messengers of the Lord renew the promise, she laughed inwardly for the same reason. Sarah denied laughing when Elohim questioned Abraham about it.
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Ishmael
Ishmael (Hebrew: יִשְׁמָעֵאל, Modern Yishma'el Tiberian Yišmāʻēl ISO 259-3 Yišmaˁel; Greek: Ισμαήλ Ismaēl; Latin: Ismael; Arabic: إسماعيل ʾIsmāʿīl) is a figure in the Hebrew Bible and the Qur'an, and was Abraham's first son according to Jews, Christians and Muslims. Ishmael was born of Abraham's marriage to Sarah's handmaiden Hagar (Genesis 16:3). According to the Genesis account, he died at the age of 137 (Genesis 25:17).
Cognates of Hebrew Yishma'el existed in various ancient Semitic cultures, including early Babylonian and Minæan. It is translated literally as "God has hearkened", suggesting that "a child so named was regarded as the fulfillment of a divine promise".
This is the account of Ishmael from Genesis Chapters 16, 17, 21, 25
In Genesis 16, the birth of Ishmael was planned by the Patriarch Abraham’s first wife, who at that time was known as Sarai. She and her husband Abram (Abraham), sought a way to have children in order to fulfill the Abrahamic covenant that was established in Genesis 15. Since Sarai had yet to bear Abram a child, her idea was to offer her Egyptian handmaiden Hagar to Abram, so that they could have a child by her. Abram consented to a marital arrangement taking Hagar as his second wife when he was in his late 85th year of age. Customs of that time dictated that, although Hagar was the birth mother, any child conceived would belong to Sarai and Abram (Sarah and Abraham).
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Isma'il
Ishmael (Hebrew: יִשְׁמָעֵאל, Modern Yishma'el Tiberian Yišmāʻēl ISO 259-3 Yišmaˁel; Greek: Ισμαήλ Ismaēl; Latin: Ismael; Arabic: إسماعيل ʾIsmāʿīl) is a figure in the Hebrew Bible and the Qur'an, and was Abraham's first son according to Jews, Christians and Muslims. Ishmael was born of Abraham's marriage to Sarah's handmaiden Hagar (Genesis 16:3). According to the Genesis account, he died at the age of 137 (Genesis 25:17).
Cognates of Hebrew Yishma'el existed in various ancient Semitic cultures, including early Babylonian and Minæan. It is translated literally as "God has hearkened", suggesting that "a child so named was regarded as the fulfillment of a divine promise".
This is the account of Ishmael from Genesis Chapters 16, 17, 21, 25
In Genesis 16, the birth of Ishmael was planned by the Patriarch Abraham’s first wife, who at that time was known as Sarai. She and her husband Abram (Abraham), sought a way to have children in order to fulfill the Abrahamic covenant that was established in Genesis 15. Since Sarai had yet to bear Abram a child, her idea was to offer her Egyptian handmaiden Hagar to Abram, so that they could have a child by her. Abram consented to a marital arrangement taking Hagar as his second wife when he was in his late 85th year of age. Customs of that time dictated that, although Hagar was the birth mother, any child conceived would belong to Sarai and Abram (Sarah and Abraham).
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Israelite
The Israelites (בני ישראל, Standard: Bnai Yisraʾel; Tiberian: Bnai Yiśrāʾēl; ISO 259-3: Bnai Yiśraˀel) were a Hebrew-speaking people of the Ancient Near East, who inhabited the Land of Canaan during the tribal and monarchic periods (15th to 6th centuries BCE), later evolving into Jews and Samaritans of the classic period, inhabiting Judea and Samaria respectively. In Modern Hebrew usage, an Israelite is, broadly speaking, a lay member of the Jewish ethnoreligious community, as opposed to the priestly orders of Kohanim and Levites.
The word "Israelite" derives from the Biblical Hebrew word "Israel". Although most literary references to Israelites are located in the Hebrew Bible, there is also abundant non-biblical archaeological and historical evidence of ancient Israel and Judah. The ethnonym is attested as early as the 13th century BCE in an Egyptian inscription. The Hebrew Bible etymologizes the name as from yisra "to prevail over" or "to struggle/wrestle with", and el, "God, the divine". The eponymous biblical patriarch of the Israelites is Jacob, who wrestled with God who gave him a blessing and renamed him "Israel" because he had "striven with God and with men, and have prevailed." (Genesis 32:24-32) According to the Hebrew Bible, Israelites were the "chosen people" of God. The name Hebrews is sometimes used synonymously with "Israelites". The Qurʾānic term is for Israelites is Banī Israʾīl (children of Israel).
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Jacob
Jacob ( /ˈdʒeɪkəb/; Hebrew: יַעֲקֹב Standard Yaʿakov, Tiberian Yaʿăqōḇ (help·info); Septuagint Greek: Ἰακώβ Iakōb; Arabic: يَعْقُوب Yaʿqūb; "heel" or "leg-puller"), also later known as Israel (Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל, Standard Yisraʾel, Tiberian Yiśrāʾēl; Septuagint Greek: Ἰσραήλ Israēl; Arabic: إِسْرَائِيل Isrāʾīl; "persevere with God"), as described in the Hebrew Bible, the Talmud, the New Testament and the Qur'an was the third patriarch of the Hebrew people with whom God made a covenant, and ancestor of the tribes of Israel, which were named after his descendants.
In the Hebrew Bible, he is the son of Isaac and Rebekah, the grandson of Abraham and Sarah and of Bethuel, and the younger twin brother of Esau. Jacob had twelve sons and at least one daughter, by his two wives, Leah and Rachel, and by their female slaves Bilhah and Zilpah. The children named in Genesis were Reuben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Dan, Naphtali, Gad, Asher, Issachar, Zebulun, daughter Dinah, Joseph, and Benjamin.
Before the birth of Benjamin, Jacob is renamed "Israel" by an angel (Genesis 32:28-29 and 35:10). The name "Israel" can be translated as "God contended", but other meanings have also been suggested. Some commentators say the name comes from the verb śœarar ("to rule, be strong, have authority over"), thereby making the name mean "God rules" or "God judges". Other possible meanings include "the prince of God" (from the King James Version) or "El fights/struggles".
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Jacob Neusner
Jacob Neusner (born July 28, 1932) is an American academic scholar of Judaism who lives in Rhinebeck, New York.
Born in Hartford, Connecticut, Neusner was educated at Harvard University, the Jewish Theological Seminary of America (where he received rabbinic ordination), the University of Oxford, and Columbia University.
Neusner is often celebrated as one of the most published authors in history (he has written or edited more than 950 books.) Since 1994, he has taught at Bard College. He has also taught at Columbia University, University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee, Brandeis University, Dartmouth College, Brown University, and the University of South Florida.
Neusner is a member of the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, and a life member of Clare Hall, Cambridge University. He is the only scholar to have served on both the National Endowment for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Arts.[citation needed] He also has received scores of academic awards, honorific and otherwise.
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Jacques Derrida
Jacques Derrida ( /ʒɑːk ˈdɛrɨdə/; French pronunciation: [ʒak dɛʁida]; July 15, 1930 – October 9, 2004) was a French philosopher, born in French Algeria. He developed the critical theory known as deconstruction and his work has been labeled as post-structuralism and associated with postmodern philosophy.
His more than 40 published books, together with essays and public speaking, has had a significant impact upon the humanities, particularly on Anthropology, Sociology, Semiotics, Jurisprudence, Literary Theory and Cultural Studies in general. His influence in the academe in Continental Europe, South America and all countries where continental philosophy is predominant, is enormous; becoming crucial in debates around Ontology, Epistemology (especially concerning Social Sciences), Ethics, Esthetics, Hermeneutics and Philosophy of Language.
His work also influenced architecture (in the form of deconstructivism), music and plastic arts. and art critics. Particularly in his later writings, he frequently addressed ethical and political themes, and his work influenced various activist and other political movements.
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James Kritzeck
James Kritzeck (born July 6, 1930, St. Cloud, Minnesota) is a scholar of Islam who specialises in Islamic literature and its translation.
He was educated at Saint John's Abbey (1945-47), the University of Minnesota (BA, 1949), Princeton University (MA, 1952), and Harvard University (PhD, 1954); he was elected to the Society of Fellows at Harvard University in 1952. As well as travelling through much of the Islamic world in order to increase his knowledge of Islamic works, Kritzeck studied Islam through reading and teaching, with (among others) Henry Corbin, Louis Massignon and Herbert Mason. He edited Anthology of Islamic Literature, a collection of Islamic writings from the Qur'an up until the 18th century. Ironically a sceptic of translation, Kritzeck strove to include only the finest and most accurate interpretations of poetry and prose.
Kritzeck has been Professor of Oriental Studies at Princeton, and a member of the Center of Theological Inquiry at Princeton Theological Seminary. A special collection in his honor has been established at the Hill Museum & Manuscript Library at Saint John's University in Collegeville, Minnesota.
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Jesus
Jesus ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated. In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.
Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate. Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation. Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.
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Jesus Christ
Jesus ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated. In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.
Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate. Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation. Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.
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Jews
The Jews (Hebrew: יְהוּדִים ISO 259-3 Yhudim Israeli pronunciation [jehuˈdim]), also known as the Jewish people, are a nation and an ethnoreligious group, originating in the Israelites or Hebrews of the Ancient Near East. The Jewish ethnicity, nationality, and religion are strongly interrelated, as Judaism is the traditional faith of the Jewish nation.Converts to Judaism, whose status as Jews within the Jewish ethnos is equal to those born into it, have been absorbed into the Jewish people throughout the millennia.
In Jewish tradition, Jewish ancestry is traced to the Biblical patriarchs Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the second millennium BCE. The modern State of Israel defines itself as a Jewish state in its Basic Laws, and Israel's Law of Return states: "Every Jew has the right to come to this country as an oleh." Israel is the only country where Jews are a majority of the population. Jews achieved political autonomy twice before in ancient history. The first of these periods lasted from 1350 to 586 BCE, and encompassed the periods of the Judges, the United Monarchy, and the Divided Monarchy of the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah, ending with the destruction of the First Temple. The second was the period of the Hasmonean Kingdom spanning from 140 to 37 BCE. Since the destruction of the First Temple, most Jews have lived in diaspora. A minority in every country in which they live (except Israel), they have frequently experienced persecution throughout history, resulting in a population that has fluctuated both in numbers and distribution over the centuries.
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John F. MacArthur
John Fullerton MacArthur, Jr. (born June 19, 1939) is a United States evangelical Christian writer and minister noted for his internationally known and broadcast radio program titled Grace to You. MacArthur is a popular author and conference speaker and has served as the pastor-teacher of Grace Community Church in Sun Valley, California since February 9th, 1969, and as the president of The Master's College (and the related The Master's Seminary) in Santa Clarita, California.
Theologically, MacArthur is considered a Baptist and Calvinist, and a strong proponent of expository preaching. He has been acknowledged by Christianity Today as one of the most influential preachers of his time, and was a frequent guest on the Larry King Live TV talk show as a representative of an evangelical Christian perspective.
MacArthur has authored or edited more than 150 books, most notably the MacArthur Study Bible, which has sold more than 1 million copies and received a Gold Medallion Book Award. Other best-selling books include his MacArthur New Testament Commentary Series (more than 1 million copies), Twelve Ordinary Men, (more than 500,000 copies), and the children's book A Faith to Grow On, which garnered an ECPA Christian Book Award.
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John the Evangelist
John the Evangelist (יוחנן Standard Hebrew Yoḥanan, Tiberian Hebrew Yôḥānān meaning "Yahweh is gracious", Greek: Εὐαγγελιστής Ἰωάννης) (c. AD 1 - c. 100)[citation needed][dubious – discuss] is the conventional name for the author of the Gospel of John. Traditionally he has been identified with the author of the other Johannine works in the New Testament – the three Epistles of John and the Book of Revelation, written by a John of Patmos – as well as with John the Apostle and the Beloved Disciple mentioned in the Gospel of John. However, at least some of these connections have been debated since about 200.
The Gospel of John refers to an unnamed "Beloved Disciple" of Jesus who bore witness to the gospel's message. The composer of the Gospel of John seemed interested in maintaining the internal anonymity of the author's identity.
The apostle John was a historical figure, one of the "pillars" of the Jerusalem church after Jesus' death. Some scholars believe that John was martyred along with his brother (Acts 12:1-2), although many other scholars doubt this. Harris believes that the tradition that John lived to old age in Ephesus developed in the late 2nd century, although the tradition does appear in the last chapter of the gospel. By the late 2nd century, the tradition was held by most Christians.
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Jonathan Z. Smith
Jonathan Zittell Smith (J. Z. Smith) is a historian of religions. His research includes the theory of ritual, Hellenistic religions, Māori cults in the 19th century, and the mass suicide in Jonestown, Guyana. His works include Map is Not Territory, Imagining Religion: From Babylon to Jonestown, To Take Place: Toward Theory in Ritual, Drudgery Divine: On the Comparison of Early Christianities and the Religions of Late Antiquity, and Relating Religion: Essays in the Study of Religion.
Smith graduated from Haverford College in 1960 with a B.A. in philosophy, and took his Ph.D. in the history of religions from Yale University in 1969; with a thesis on anthropological thought, focused on Frazer, "The Glory, Jest and Riddle: James George Frazer and The Golden Bough." After holding positions at Dartmouth College and UC Santa Barbara, he began teaching at the University of Chicago, where he served as Dean of the College from 1977–1982 and was appointed Robert O. Anderson Distinguished Service Professor of the Humanities. He still holds this position as of 2008[update], and is still active in undergraduate teaching as of Autumn quarter 2011, teaching the course titled "Introduction to Religious Studies". He was elected Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2000, and served as president of the Society of Biblical Literature in 2008.
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Judaizer
Judaizers is predominantly a Christian term, derived from the Greek verb ioudaïzō (ἰουδαΐζω "live according to Jewish customs", see ioudaioi). This term is most widely known from the single use in the New Testament (Galatians 2:14) where Paul publicly challenges Peter for compelling Gentile believers to "judaize", also known as the Incident at Antioch.
According to the Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions (1977) this term includes groups such as Jewish Christians, Quartodecimans, Ethiopian Christians, descendants of English Puritanism such as the Seventh-day Adventist Church and others, who claim the necessity of obedience to the Mosaic Laws which are found in the first five books of the Christian Old Testament. Though this is something likely disputed by members belonging to these groups, notably the Seventh-day Adventist Church, as term Judaizers is typically used as a pejorative.
The issue of the Old Covenant in Christianity is complex and controversial, however, most traditional Christians believe much of it has been superseded while some modern Protestants believe it has been completely abrogated and replaced with the Law of Christ. Thus, "one who has Judaized", refers to a Christian who has accepted the necessity of adhering to the Mosaic Laws or to specific laws that are believed to be superseded, such as circumcision, Sabbath observance, or observation of the Passover. The ongoing Christian debate over "Judaizing in Christianity" began in the lifetime of the apostles, notably at the Council of Jerusalem and Incident at Antioch, and parallels the ongoing debate about Paul of Tarsus and Judaism, Protestant views of the Ten Commandments, and Christian ethics.
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Keturah
According to the Hebrew Bible, Keturah or Ketura (Hebrew: קְטוּרָה, Modern Ktura Tiberian Qəṭûrā ; "Incense") was the woman whom Abraham, the patriarch of the Israelites, married after the death of his wife, Sarah. Keturah bore Abraham six sons, Zimran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbak, and Shuah. The spelling of the sons' names vary as can be seen in 1st century CE Historian Flavius Josephus, who mentions Keturah and her sons in Antiquities of the Jews 1.238.
Keturah is referred to at different times as either Abraham's wife in Genesis 25:1 or Abraham's concubine in 1 Chronicles 1:32. While Abraham left everything to Isaac, he made grants to his sons by his concubine during his lifetime, and sent them east away from Isaac. He died at the age of 175. Keturah's six sons represent Arabian tribes south and east of Canaan.[citation needed]
Some, but not all, Jewish philosophers identify Keturah with Hagar, stating that Abraham sought her out after Sarah's death, and that Hagar's change of name to Keturah (a reference to incense used in worship) was symbolic of the pleasantness of her teshuvah (repentance) from her sinfulness during her exile. This interpretation is set forth in the Midrash and is supported by Rashi, Gur Aryeh, Keli Yakar, and Obadiah of Bertinoro. The contrary view (that Keturah was someone other than Hagar) is advocated by Rashbam, Abraham ibn Ezra, Radak, and Ramban.[citation needed] In the genealogy of 1 Chronicles, Keturah and Hagar are listed as two different people:
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Kohen
Kohen (or Kohain; Hebrew: כֹּהֵן, "priest", pl. כֹּהֲנִים Kohanim) is the Hebrew word for priest. Jewish Kohanim are traditionally believed and halachically required to be of direct patrilineal descent from the Biblical Aaron.
The noun kohen is used in the Torah to refer to priests, both Jewish and non-Jewish, such as the Jewish nation as a whole, as well as the priests (Hebrew kohanim) of Baal (2Kings 10:19). During the existence of the Temple in Jerusalem, Kohanim performed the daily and holiday (Yom Tov) duties of sacrificial offerings.
Today kohanim retain a lesser though somewhat distinct status within Judaism, and are bound by additional restrictions according to Orthodox Judaism.
The Hebrew noun kohen is most often translated as "priest", whether Jewish or pagan, such as the priests of Baal or Dagon, though Christian priests are referred to in Hebrew by the term komer (Hebrew כומר). The word derives from a Semitic root common, at minimum, to the Central Semitic languages; the cognate Arabic word كاهن kāhin means "soothsayer, augur, or priest".
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Luke the Evangelist
Luke the Evangelist (Ancient Greek: Λουκᾶς, Loukás) is a character in the New Testament. He is mentioned in three of the Pauline Epistles including Colossians where he is described by Paul as "Our dear friend Luke, the doctor" (NIV). Early Church Fathers such as Jerome and Eusebius claimed that he was the author of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles and this is the traditional Christian view today.
He is venerated as Saint Luke, patron saint of artists, physicians, surgeons, students, butchers; his feast day is 18 October.
Luke was a Greco-Syrian physician who lived in the Greek city of Antioch in Ancient Syria.
His earliest notice is in Paul's Epistle to Philemon, verse 24. He is also mentioned in Colossians 4:14 and 2 Timothy 4:11, two works commonly ascribed to Paul. The next earliest account of Luke is in the Anti-Marcionite Prologue to the Gospel of Luke, a document once thought to date to the 2nd century, but which has more recently been dated to the later 4th century. Helmut Koester, however, claims that the following part – the only part preserved in the original Greek – may have been composed in the late 2nd century:
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Mandaeism
Mandaeism or Mandaeanism (Modern Mandaic: Mandaʻiūtā (מנדעיותא); Arabic: مندائية Mandāʼīyah/Mandāʾiyyah; Persian: مندائیان Mandâ'iyân) is a gnostic religion[citation needed] (Aramaic manda means "knowledge", as does Greek gnosis) with a strongly dualistic worldview.
Its adherents, the Mandaeans, revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram and especially John the Baptist, but reject Jesus of Nazareth and are hostile to Christianity. They are sometimes identified with mentions in the Quran of the Sabian religion, particularly in an Arabian context, but the Sabian religious community is extinct today.
According to most scholars, Mandaeans migrated from the Southern Levant to Mesopotamia in the first centuries CE and are certainly of pre-Arab and pre-Islamic origin. They are Semites and speak a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic. They may well be related to the "Nabateans of Iraq" who were pagan, Aramaic speaking indigenous pre-Arab and pre-Islamic inhabitants of southern Iraq.
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Mandeans
Mandaeism or Mandaeanism (Modern Mandaic: Mandaʻiūtā (מנדעיותא); Arabic: مندائية Mandāʼīyah/Mandāʾiyyah; Persian: مندائیان Mandâ'iyân) is a gnostic religion[citation needed] (Aramaic manda means "knowledge", as does Greek gnosis) with a strongly dualistic worldview.
Its adherents, the Mandaeans, revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram and especially John the Baptist, but reject Jesus of Nazareth and are hostile to Christianity. They are sometimes identified with mentions in the Quran of the Sabian religion, particularly in an Arabian context, but the Sabian religious community is extinct today.
According to most scholars, Mandaeans migrated from the Southern Levant to Mesopotamia in the first centuries CE and are certainly of pre-Arab and pre-Islamic origin. They are Semites and speak a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic. They may well be related to the "Nabateans of Iraq" who were pagan, Aramaic speaking indigenous pre-Arab and pre-Islamic inhabitants of southern Iraq.
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Manichaeism
Manichaeism ( /ˈmænɨkiːɪzəm/; in Modern Persian آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese: 摩尼教; pinyin: Móní Jiào) was a major gnostic religion, originating in Sassanid era Babylonia. Although most of the original writings of the founding prophet Mani (in Persian: مانی, Syriac: ܡܐܢܝ, Latin: Manichaeus or Manes) (c. 216–276 CE) have been lost, numerous translations and fragmentary texts have survived.
Manichaeism taught an elaborate cosmology describing the struggle between a good, spiritual world of light, and an evil, material world of darkness. Through an ongoing process which takes place in human history, light is gradually removed from the world of matter and returned to the world of light from which it came. Its beliefs, based on local Mesopotamian gnostic and religious movements, contained elements of Christianity, Zoroastrianism and Buddhism.
Manichaeism thrived between the third and seventh centuries, and at its height was one of the most widespread religions in the world. Manichaean churches and scriptures existed as far east as China and as far west as the Roman Empire. It was widespread among the legions of the Roman Empire, who considered it a soldier's religion, and it was briefly the main rival to Christianity in the competition to replace classical paganism. Manichaeism survived longer in the East than in the West, and it appears to have finally faded away after the 14th century in southern China, contemporary to the decline in China of the Church of the East – see Ming Dynasty.
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Mark C. Taylor
Mark C. Taylor (born 13 December 1945) is a philosopher of religion and cultural critic who has published more than twenty books on theology, philosophy, art and architecture, media, technology, economics, and the natural sciences. After graduating from Wesleyan University in 1968, he received his doctorate in the study of religion from Harvard University and began teaching at Williams College in 1973. In 2007, Taylor moved from Williams College to Columbia University, where he chairs the Department of Religion.
Taylor's first book, Kierkegaard’s Pseudonymous Authorship: A Study of Time and the Self was published by Princeton University Press in 1975. This was followed in 1980 by the work for which Taylor received his Doctorgrad, Journeys to Selfhood: Hegel and Kierkegaard (University of California Press; reissued by Fordham University Press in 2000). Taylor's early study of Kierkegaard and Hegel forms the foundation for all his subsequent work.
In the early 1980s, Taylor began exploring the texts of Jacques Derrida and his most important followers. Erring: A Postmodern A/Theology (University of Chicago Press, 1984) was one of the earliest attempts to study religion from the standpoint of poststructuralist philosophy and was followed by two closely related works, the sourcebook Deconstruction in Context: Literature and Philosophy (Chicago,1986) and Altarity (Chicago, 1987). In 1989, Taylor founded the Religion and Postmodernism series at the University of Chicago Press as a forum for translations and new scholarship.
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Mark the Evangelist
Mark the Evangelist (Latin: Mārcus; Greek: Μᾶρκος; Coptic: Μαρκοϲ; Hebrew: מרקוס) is the traditional author of the Gospel of Mark. He is one of the Seventy Disciples, and the founder of the Church of Alexandria, one of the original four main episcopal sees of Christianity.
According to William Lane (1974), an "unbroken tradition" identifies Mark the Evangelist with John Mark, and John Mark as the cousin of Barnabas. An exception is found in Hippolytus of Rome, who in his work On the Seventy Apostles, distinguishes Mark the Evangelist (2 Tim 4:11), John Mark (Acts 12:12, 25; 13:5, 13; 15:37), and Mark the cousin of Barnabas (Col 4:10; Phlm 24). According to Hippolytus, they all belonged to the "Seventy Disciples" who were sent out by Jesus to saturate Judea with the gospel (Luke 10:1ff.). However, when Jesus explained that his flesh was "real food" and his blood was "real drink", many disciples left him (John 6:44-6:66), presumably including Mark. He was later restored to faith by the apostle Peter; he then became Peter’s interpreter, wrote the Gospel of Mark, founded the church of Africa, and became the bishop of Alexandria.
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Mazdak
Mazdak (in Persian مزدک) (died c. 524 or 528) was a proto-socialistPersian reformer and religious activist who gained influence under the reign of the Sassanian Shahanshah Kavadh I. He claimed to be a prophet of God, and instituted communal possessions and social welfare programs.
Mazdak was the chief representative of a religious and philosophical teaching called Mazdakism, which he viewed as a reformed and purified version of Zoroastrianism, although his teaching has been argued to display influences from Manichaeism as well. Zoroastrianism was the dominant religion of Sassanid Persia, and Mazdak himself was a Zoroastrian priest, or mobed, but most of the Zoroastrian clergy regarded his teaching as a heresy. Information about it is scarce and little is known beyond what is listed below; some further details may be inferred from the later doctrine of Khurramism, which has been seen as a continuation of Mazdakism.
Some sources claim that the original founders of this sect lived earlier than Mazdak. These were another mobed named Zardusht (of the same name, but not the same person as the founder of Zoroastrianism) and/or a Zoroastrian philosopher known as Mazdak the Elder, who taught a combination of altruism and hedonism: "he directed his followers to enjoy the pleasures of life and satisfy their appetite in the highest degree with regard to eating and drinking in the spirit of equality,to aim at good deeds; to abstain from shedding blood and inflicting harm on others; and to practice hospitality without reservation". This doctrine was further developed by the best known Mazdak, Mazdak the Younger, son of Bāmdād. At later stages the opposition to Mazdak blamed them for heresy and sharing women etc. which is not true. They are considered to be the first real socialists of human history who emphasized the community work and benefits for all.
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Mona Baker
Mona Baker is an Egyptian professor of translation studies and Director of the Centre for Translation and International Studies at the University of Manchester in England.
She studied at the American University in Cairo, where she got a BA in English and Comparative Literature. Afterwards she studied in applied linguistics at the University of Birmingham, obtaining an MA. In 1995 she moved to UMIST where she became a professor in 1997. Nowadays she holds the Chair in Translation Studies
She is the founder of St. Jerome Publishing where she is editorial director. She also founded the international magazine The Translator.
Since 2009 she has been an honorary member of IAPTI. In the framework of this association she delivered a speech on "Ethics in the Translation/Interpreting Curriculum" She is also co-Vice president of the International Association of Translation and Intercultural Studies.
As a researcher, she is mainly interested in translation and conflict, the role of ethics in research and training in Translation Studies, the application of narrative theory to translation and interpretation, activist communities in translation and corpus-based translation studies; she has published extensively in these areas. She has also been active as an editor of reference works.
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Moses
Moses (Hebrew: מֹשֶׁה, Modern Moshe Tiberian Mōšéh ISO 259-3 Moše; Greek: Mωϋσῆς Mōüsēs; Arabic: موسىٰ Mūsa) was, according to the Hebrew Bible and Qur'an, a religious leader, lawgiver and prophet, to whom the authorship of the Torah is traditionally attributed. Also called Moshe Rabbenu in Hebrew (מֹשֶׁה רַבֵּנוּ, Lit. "Moses our Teacher/Rabbi"), he is the most important prophet in Judaism, and is also considered an important prophet in Christianity and Islam, as well as a number of other faiths.
The existence of Moses as well as the veracity of the Exodus story is disputed amongst archaeologists and Egyptologists, with experts in the field of biblical criticism citing logical inconsistencies, new archaeological evidence, historical evidence, and related origin myths in Canaanite culture. Other historians maintain that the biographical details, and Egyptian background, attributed to Moses imply the existence of a historical political and religious leader who was involved in the consolidation of the Hebrew tribes in Canaan towards the end of the Bronze Age.
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Moses Maimonides
Mosheh ben Maimon משה בן מימון, called Moses Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn (Arabic: موسى بن ميمون), or RaMBaM (רמב"ם – Hebrew acronym for "Rabbi Mosheh Ben Maimon"), was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the most prolific and followed Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages. He was born in Córdoba, Almoravid Empire (present-day Spain) on Passover Eve, 1135, and died in Egypt (or Tiberias) on 20th Tevet, December 12, 1204. He was a rabbi, physician and philosopher in Morocco and Egypt.
Although his writings on Jewish law and ethics were met with acclaim and gratitude from most Jews even as far off as Spain, Iraq and Yemen, and he rose to be the revered head of the Jewish community in Egypt, there were also vociferous critics of some of his rulings and other writings particularly in Spain. Nevertheless, he was posthumously acknowledged to be one of the foremost rabbinical arbiters and philosophers in Jewish history, his copious work a cornerstone of Jewish scholarship. His fourteen-volume Mishneh Torah still carries canonical authority as a codification of Talmudic law. In the Yeshiva world he is known as "haNesher haGadol" (the great eagle) in recognition of his outstanding status as a bona fide exponent of the Oral Torah.
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Muhammad
Muhammad (c. 26 April 570 – 8 June 632; also transliterated as Mohammad, Mohammed, or Muhammed; Arabic: محمد), full name: Muhammad Ibn `Abd Allāh Ibn `Abd al-Muttalib (Arabic: محمد بن عبدالله بن عبد المطلب ) was a leader from Mecca who unified the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity under Islam. He is believed by Muslims and Bahá'ís to be a messenger and prophet of God. Muslims believe that Islam was not his own invention but was revealed by God, and most consider him to be the last prophet of God Muslims thus consider him the restorer of an uncorrupted original monotheistic faith (islām) of Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets.
Born in 570 CE in the Arabian city of Mecca, he was orphaned at an early age and brought up under the care of his uncle Abu Talib. He later worked mostly as a merchant, as well as a shepherd, and was first married by age 25. Being in the habit of periodically retreating to a cave in the surrounding mountains for several nights of meditation and prayer, he later reported that it was there, at age 40, that he received his first revelation from God. Three years after this event Muhammad started preaching these revelations publicly, proclaiming that "God is One", that complete "surrender" to Him (lit. islām) is the only way (dīn) acceptable to God, and that he himself was a prophet and messenger of God, in the same vein as other Islamic prophets.
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Muhammad al-Mahdi
Muḥammad ibn al-Ḥasan al-Mahdī (Arabic:محمد بن الحسن المهدي) (born c. July 29, 869 (15 Sha‘bān 255 AH), in Occultation since 941) is believed by Twelver Shī‘a Muslims to be the Mahdī, an ultimate savior of humankind and the final Imām of the Twelve Imams. Twelver Shī‘a believe that al-Mahdī was born in 869 and did not die but rather was hidden by God in 941 (this is referred to as the Occultation) and will later emerge with Isa (Jesus Christ) in order to fulfill their mission of bringing peace and justice to the world. He assumed the Imamate at 5 years of age. Some Shi‘īte schools do not consider ibn-al-Hasan to be the Mahdī, although the mainstream sect Twelvers do.
Sunnis believe that the Mahdi has not yet been born, and therefore his exact identity is only known to Allah. Aside from the Mahdi's precise, genealogy, Sunnis accept many of the same hadiths Shias accept about the predictions regarding the Mahdi's emergence, his acts, and his universal Khilafat. Sunnis also have a few more Mahdi hadiths which are not present in Shia collections.
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Mírzá Mihdí
Mírzá Mihdí (Persian: ميرزا مهدي) (1848 – June 23, 1870), given the title Ghusn-i-Athar (the Purest Branch). Mírzá Mihdí was born Mihdí Núrí in Tehran, and named after a deceased brother of his father.
He was the youngest child of Bahá’u’lláh and Navváb. He was the favourite child of his mother. Mihdí did not remember his once luxurious life as at the age of four his father was arrested and imprisoned on account of his faith. The family were left in penury and his sister later recollected how the siblings would hold each other and weep. When his family were exiled to Baghdad the family thought it necessary to leave Mírzá Mihdí in Persia as a result of his health. He was left to the care of his maternal great-grandmother and his paternal aunt. The separation was hard for his family, especially his mother.
At the age of twelve he rejoined his family in Baghdad. There he accompanied his father through all his exiles and grew very close to him. He later became the amanuenses of Bahá’u’lláh and a staunch companion. He was beloved by the Bahá’ís ; revered in a similar sense to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and was noted for his meekness, piety, purity and sincerity. Whilst rapped in prayer chanting the Ode of the Dove (a prayer revealed by his father during the period in Kurdistan) and pacing on the rooftop, Mírzá Mihdí fell through a sky-light which pierced his lungs. Bahá’u’lláh was horrified and asked for a physician to attend his son. However, by this time it was too late. His mother was especially hurt and poignantly caressed her blood soaked son shortly before his death. Bahá’u’lláh was heard lamenting “Mihdí! O Mihdí!” as his son was dying. His companions surrounding him on his death-bed remember his courtesy despite his pain, and even apologizing at the fact he was laying before their presence.
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Naboth
Naboth (Hebrew: נבות, "fruits") "the Jezreelite," is the central figure of a story from the Old Testament. According to the story, Naboth was the owner of a plot on the eastern slope of the hill of Jezreel. Described as a small "plat of ground", the vineyard seems to have been all he possessed and lay close to the palace of Ahab, who wished to acquire to "have it for a garden of herbs" (probably as a ceremonial garden for Baal worship). Naboth, however, had inherited his land from his father, and, according to Jewish law, could not alienate it. Accordingly, he refused to sell it to the king.
Ahab became deeply dejected, at not being able to procure the vineyard. Returning to his palace, he collapsed with depression, lying on his bed, his face to the wall, and refused to eat. His wife, Jezebel, after learning the reason for his depression, (in addition to being irritated at the king's emotional state urging him to return to his entertainment saying mockingly, "Are you the king or aren't you?") promised that she would obtain the vineyard for him. To do so, she plotted to kill Naboth by mock trial, and then told Ahab to take possession of the vineyard as the legal heir.
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Noah
Noah ( /ˈnoʊ.ə/; or Noé, Noach; Hebrew: נֹחַ, נוֹחַ, Modern Noaẖ Tiberian Nōăḥ; Arabic: نُوح Nūḥ; Ancient Greek: Νῶε) was the tenth and last of the antediluvian Patriarchs. The story of Noah and the ark is told in chapters 6–9 of the book of Genesis, which is followed by the story of the Curse of Ham. Outside Genesis his name is mentioned in Ezekiel, Isaiah and Chronicles. He was the subject of much elaboration in later Abrahamic traditions, including the Qur'an.
Noah was the tenth of the pre-Flood Patriarchs. His father Lamech named him nûaḥ (the final ḥ is a more gutteral sound than the English h), saying, "This same shall comfort us in our work and in the toil of our hands, which cometh from the ground which the LORD hath cursed." This connects the future patriarch's name with nāḥam, "comfort", but it seems better related to the word nûaḥ, meaning "rest", and is more a play on words than a true etymology.
In his five hundredth year Noah had three sons, Shem, Ham and Japheth. In his six hundredth year God, saddened at the wickedness of mankind, sent a great deluge to destroy all life, but because Noah was "righteous in his generation" God instructed him to build an ark and save a remnant of life. After the Flood Noah offered a sacrifice (the word nihoah, describing the "pleasant" odour of the sacrifice, is yet another pun on Noah's name) and entered into a covenant with God regulating the shedding of blood (i.e., mankind's permnission to kill under regulated circumstances). After this he became "the first tiller of the soil", planted a vineyard, and drank the wine, and fell asleep naked; Noah's son Ham saw his father naked and told his brothers, and Noah cursed Ham's son Canaan.
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Nuh Ha Mim Keller
Nuh Ha Mim Keller (born 1954) is an American Muslim translator of Islamic books and a specialist in Islamic law, as well as being authorised by Abd al-Rahman al-Shaghouri as a sheikh in sufism in the Shadhili Order. He is one of the foremost Muslim theologians and experts on Sufism in the West.
Keller was born in 1954 in the Northwestern United States.[citation needed]
He studied philosophy and Arabic at the University of Chicago, located in Chicago, Illinois, and the University of California, Los Angeles, located in Los Angeles, California. Keller converted to Islam from Christianity in 1977.
His English translation of Umdat al-Salik, Reliance of the Traveller, (Sunna Books, 1991) is a Shafi'i manual of Shariah. It is the first Islamic legal work in a European language to receive the certification of Al-Azhar University. This translation has led to this work becoming influential among Western Muslims.
Nuh Ha Mim Keller possesses ijazas, or "certificates of authorisation", in Islamic jurisprudence from sheikhs in Syria and Jordan.[citation needed]
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Ottoman Empire
The Ottoman Empire or Turkish Empire or Sublime Ottoman State or sometimes also referred to as Turkey (Ottoman Turkish: دَوْلَتِ عَلِيّهٔ عُثمَانِیّه Devlet-i ʿAliyye-yi ʿOsmâniyye (also عثمانلى دولتى Osmanlı Devleti),Modern Turkish: Osmanlı Devleti or Osmanlı İmparatorluğu) was a Turkish empire which lasted from 27 July 1299 to 1 November 1922, when the Sultanate was abolished.
The Ottoman Empire was one of the largest and longest lasting empires in history; such that the Ottoman State, its politics, conflicts, and cultural heritage in a vast geography provide one of the longest continuous narratives. During the 16th and 17th centuries, in particular at the height of its power under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the empire was one of the most powerful states in the world – a multinational, multilingual empire that stretched from the southern borders of the Holy Roman Empire to the outskirts of Vienna, Royal Hungary (modern Slovakia) and the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in the north to Yemen and Eritrea in the south; from Algeria in the west to Azerbaijan in the east; controlling much of southeast Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. At the beginning of the 17th century the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states, some of which were later absorbed into the empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy during the course of centuries.
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Paul of Tarsus
Paul the Apostle (c. AD 5 – c. AD 67; variously referred to as the "Apostle Paul" or "Saint Paul"), also known as Saul of Tarsus, is perhaps the most influential early Christian missionary. The writings ascribed to him by the church form a considerable portion of the New Testament. The influence on Christian thinking of the epistles ascribed to him has been significant, due in part to his association as a prominent apostle of Christianity during the spreading of the Gospel through early Christian communities across the Roman Empire.
According to the writings in the New Testament, Paul was known as Saul prior to his conversion, and was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem. While traveling from Jerusalem to Damascus on a mission to "bring them which were there bound unto Jerusalem", the resurrected Jesus appeared to him in a great light. Saul was struck blind, but after three days his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah and the Son of God.
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Paul the Apostle
Paul the Apostle (c. AD 5 – c. AD 67; variously referred to as the "Apostle Paul" or "Saint Paul"), also known as Saul of Tarsus, is perhaps the most influential early Christian missionary. The writings ascribed to him by the church form a considerable portion of the New Testament. The influence on Christian thinking of the epistles ascribed to him has been significant, due in part to his association as a prominent apostle of Christianity during the spreading of the Gospel through early Christian communities across the Roman Empire.
According to the writings in the New Testament, Paul was known as Saul prior to his conversion, and was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem. While traveling from Jerusalem to Damascus on a mission to "bring them which were there bound unto Jerusalem", the resurrected Jesus appeared to him in a great light. Saul was struck blind, but after three days his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah and the Son of God.
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Pope Gregory III
Pope Saint Gregory III (died 28 November 741) was pope from 11 February 731 to 28 November 741. His pontificate, like that of his predecessor, was disturbed by the iconoclastic controversy in the Byzantine Empire, and by the ongoing advance of the Lombards, in which he vainly invoked the intervention of Charles Martel.
Gregory, was the son of a Syrian named John. He was elected pope by popular acclamation on 11 February, 731, but was not formally consecrated as Bishop of Rome until 18 March after receiving the approval of the Byzantine exarch in Ravenna. He was the last pope to seek the exarch’s ratification of a papal election.
Upon his accession as pope, Gregory immediately appealed to the Byzantine Emperor Leo III to moderate his position on the iconoclastic controversy. When Gregory’s representative was arrested on the orders of the emperor, Gregory called a synod in November 731, which condemned iconoclasm outright. Leo responded by trying to bring the Pope under control, although the fleet he sent to enforce the imperial will was shipwrecked in the Adriatic Sea. He then proceeded to appropriate papal territories in Sicily and Calabria, and transferring ecclesiastical jurisdictions in the former Praetorian prefecture of Illyricum to the Patriarch of Constantinople. However, his attempt to force the Duke of Naples to enforce an imperial decree to confiscate papal territory in the duchy failed, as the duke was supportive of the pope’s stand.
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Rambam
Mosheh ben Maimon משה בן מימון, called Moses Maimonides and also known as Mūsā ibn Maymūn (Arabic: موسى بن ميمون), or RaMBaM (רמב"ם – Hebrew acronym for "Rabbi Mosheh Ben Maimon"), was a preeminent medieval Jewish philosopher and one of the most prolific and followed Torah scholars and physicians of the Middle Ages. He was born in Córdoba, Almoravid Empire (present-day Spain) on Passover Eve, 1135, and died in Egypt (or Tiberias) on 20th Tevet, December 12, 1204. He was a rabbi, physician and philosopher in Morocco and Egypt.
Although his writings on Jewish law and ethics were met with acclaim and gratitude from most Jews even as far off as Spain, Iraq and Yemen, and he rose to be the revered head of the Jewish community in Egypt, there were also vociferous critics of some of his rulings and other writings particularly in Spain. Nevertheless, he was posthumously acknowledged to be one of the foremost rabbinical arbiters and philosophers in Jewish history, his copious work a cornerstone of Jewish scholarship. His fourteen-volume Mishneh Torah still carries canonical authority as a codification of Talmudic law. In the Yeshiva world he is known as "haNesher haGadol" (the great eagle) in recognition of his outstanding status as a bona fide exponent of the Oral Torah.
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Raymond E. Brown
The Reverend Raymond Edward Brown, S.S. (May 22, 1928 - August 8, 1998), was an American Roman Catholic priest, a member of the Sulpician Fathers and a major Biblical scholar of his era. He was regarded as a specialist concerning the hypothetical ‘Johannine community’, which he speculated contributed to the authorship of the Gospel of John, and he also wrote influential studies on the birth and death of Jesus. Brown was professor emeritus at the Protestant Union Theological Seminary (UTS) in New York, where he taught for 29 years. He was the first Roman Catholic professor to gain tenure there, where he earned a reputation as a superior lecturer.
Brown was one of the first Roman Catholic scholars to apply historical-critical analysis to the Bible. As Biblical criticism developed in the 19th century, the Roman Catholic Church opposed this scholarship and essentially forbade it in 1893. In 1943, however, the Church issued guidelines by which Catholic scholars could investigate the Bible historically. Brown called this encyclical the "Magna Carta of biblical progress." Vatican II further supported higher criticism, which, Brown felt, vindicated his approach.
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Roman Emperor
The Roman emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC). The Romans had no single term for the office although at any given time, a given title was associated with the emperor. If a man was "proclaimed emperor" this normally meant he was proclaimed augustus, or (for generals) imperator (from which English emperor ultimately derives). Several other titles and offices were regularly accumulated by emperors, such as caesar, princeps senatus, consul and Pontifex Maximus. The power of emperors was generally based on the accumulation of powers from republican offices and the support of the army.
Roman emperors refused to be considered "kings", instead claiming to be leaders of a republic, however nominal. The first emperor, Augustus, resolutely refused recognition as a monarch. Although Augustus could claim that his power was authentically Republican, his successor, Tiberius, could not convincingly make the same claim. Nonetheless, the Republican institutional framework (senate, consuls, magistracies etc.) was preserved until the very end of the Western Empire.
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Saint Peter
Saint Peter or Simon Peter was an early Christian leader and one of the twelve apostles of Jesus who is featured prominently in the New Testament Gospels and the Acts of the Apostles and who is venerated as a saint. The son of John or of Jonah, he was from the village of Bethsaida in the province of Galilee or Gaulanitis. His brother Andrew was also an apostle. Peter is venerated in multiple churches and is regarded as the first Pope by the Catholic Church. After working to establish the church of Antioch, presiding for seven years as the leader of the city's Christian community, he preached to scattered communities of believers, Jews, Hebrew Christians and the gentiles, in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia Minor and Bithynia.[citation needed] He then went to Rome, where in the second year of Claudius, it is claimed, he overthrew Simon Magus and held the Sacerdotal Chair for 25 years.[citation needed] He is said to have been put to death at the hand of Emperor Nero.
Peter wrote two General epistles. The Gospel of Mark is also ascribed to him (as Mark was his disciple and interpreter). On the other hand, several books bearing his name—the Acts of Peter, Gospel of Peter, Preaching of Peter, Revelation of Peter, and Judgement of Peter—are rejected by the Catholic Church as Apocryphal.
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Samaritan
The Samaritans (Hebrew: שומרונים Shomronim, Arabic: السامريون as-Sāmariyyūn) are an ethnoreligious group of the Levant. Religiously the Samaritans are adherents of Samaritanism, an Abrahamic religion closely related to Judaism. Based on the Samaritan Torah, Samaritans claim their worship is the true religion of the ancient Israelites prior to the Babylonian Exile, preserved by those who remained in the Land of Israel, as opposed to Judaism, which they assert is a related but altered and amended religion brought back by those returning from exile.
Ancestrally, Samaritans claim descent from a group of Israelite inhabitants from the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh (the two sons of Joseph) as well as some descendants from the priestly tribe of Levi, who have connections to ancient Samaria from the period of their entry into the land of Canaan, while some suggest that it was from the beginning of the Babylonian Exile up to the Samaritan Kingdom of Baba Rabba. The Samaritans, however, derive their name not from this geographical designation, but rather from the Hebrew term Shamerim שַמֶרִים, "Keepers [of the Law]".
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Sarah
Sarah or Sara ( /ˈsɛərə/;Hebrew: שָׂרָה, Modern Sara Tiberian Śārā ISO 259-3 Śarra; Latin: Sara; Arabic: سارة) was the wife of Abraham and the mother of Isaac as described in the Hebrew Bible and the Quran. Her name was originally Sarai. According to Genesis 17:15 God changed her name to Sarah as part of a covenant after Hagar bore Abraham his first son, Ishmael.
The Hebrew name Sarah indicates a woman of high rank and is translated as "princess".
Sarah was the wife of Abraham, as well as being his half-sister, the daughter of his father Terah (Genesis 20:12). The Talmud identifies Sarai with Iscah, daughter of Abraham's deceased brother Haran (Genesis 11:29), so that Sarah turns out to be the niece of Abraham and the sister of Lot and Milcah. She was also the mother-in-law of Rebecca, her successor. She was considered beautiful to the point that Abraham feared that when they were near more powerful rulers she would be taken away and given to another man. Twice he purposefully identified her as being only his sister so that he would be "treated well" for her sake. It is apparent that she remained attractive into her later years. Despite her great beauty, she was barren for an unknown reason. She was originally called "Sarai" which is translated "my princess." Later she was called "Sarah" i.e., princess." In Biblical times, the changing of one's name was significant and used to symbolize the binding of a covenant. In this case, God promised to put an end to her barrenness and give her a child (Isaac).
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Shem
Shem (Hebrew: שם, Modern Shem Tiberian Šēm ; Greek: Σημ Sēm; Arabic: سام Sām; Ge'ez: ሴም, Sēm; "renown; prosperity; name") was one of the sons of Noah in the Hebrew Bible as well as in Islamic literature. He is most popularly regarded as the eldest son, though some traditions regard him as the second son. Genesis 10:21 refers to relative ages of Shem and his brother Japheth, but with sufficient ambiguity to have yielded different translations. The verse is translated in the KJV as "Unto Shem also, the father of all the children of Eber, the brother of Japheth the elder, even to him were children born.". However, the New American Standard Bible gives, "Also to Shem, the father of all the children of Eber, and the older brother of Japheth, children were born."
Genesis 11:10 records that Shem was still 100 years old at the birth of Arpachshad, (but nearly 101 - see Chronology note,) two years after the flood, making him barely 99 at the time the flood began; and that he lived for another 500 years after this, making his age at death 600 years.
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Solomon
Solomon (Hebrew: שְׁלֹמֹה, Modern Shlomo Tiberian Šəlōmō ISO 259-3 Šlomo; Arabic: سليمان Sulaymān, also colloquially: Silimān; Greek: Σολομών Solomōn), according to the Book of Kings and the Book of Chronicles, a King of Israel and according to the Talmud one of the 48 prophets, is identified as the son of David, also called Jedidiah (Hebrew יְדִידְיָהּ) in 2 Samuel 12:25, and is described as the third king of the United Monarchy, and the final king before the northern Kingdom of Israel and the southern Kingdom of Judah split; following the split his patrilineal descendants ruled over Judah alone. In the Qur'an, he is considered as a major Prophet, known as Sulaiman, son of David.
The Hebrew Bible credits Solomon as the builder of the First Temple in Jerusalem, and portrays him as great in wisdom, wealth, and power, but ultimately as a king whose sin, including idolatry and turning away from Yahweh, leads to the kingdom being torn in two during the reign of his son Rehoboam. Solomon is the subject of many other later references and legends.
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Sons of God
Sons of God (B'nai HaElohim, בני האלהים) is a phrase used in Levantine Bronze and Iron Age texts to describe the "divine council" of the major gods.[citation needed]
In the pantheon of 2nd millennium Ugarit the El, the father-god and head of the pantheon, and the 70 "sons of El", make up a "Divine Council" which deliberates over major decisions. In the 1st millennium the El had been demoted and each of the "sons of El" was held to have been given a "nation" as his charge: Chemosh, for example, was the god of Moab. Yahweh, not originally included in the Ugaritic pantheon, was the God of Judah and of Israel. In the Book of Genesis, Yahweh is seen as the single deity, with "sons of elohim" as his assistants.
By the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC further hypotheses were developed to explain this passage in Genesis. One hypothesis was that the sons of God were the descendants of Seth, the pure line of Adam, and the "daughters of men" as the descendants of Cain.[citation needed]
In the Hebrew Bible the phrase "sons of God" occurs:
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Titus Vespasianus
Titus (Latin: Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus Augustus; 30 December 39 – 13 September 81), was Roman Emperor from 79 to 81. A member of the Flavian dynasty, Titus succeeded his father Vespasian upon his death, thus becoming the first Roman Emperor to come to the throne after his own father.
Prior to becoming Emperor, Titus gained renown as a military commander, serving under his father in Judaea during the First Jewish-Roman War. The campaign came to a brief halt with the death of emperor Nero in 68, launching Vespasian's bid for the imperial power during the Year of the Four Emperors. When Vespasian was declared Emperor on 1 July 69, Titus was left in charge of ending the Jewish rebellion. In 70, he successfully laid siege to and destroyed the city and Temple of Jerusalem. For this achievement Titus was awarded a triumph; the Arch of Titus commemorates his victory to this day.
Under the rule of his father, Titus gained notoriety in Rome serving as prefect of the Praetorian Guard, and for carrying on a controversial relationship with the Jewish queen Berenice. Despite concerns over his character, Titus ruled to great acclaim following the death of Vespasian in 79, and was considered a good emperor by Suetonius and other contemporary historians. As emperor, he is best known for completing the Colosseum and for his generosity in relieving the suffering caused by two disasters, the Mount Vesuvius eruption of 79 and a fire in Rome in 80. After barely two years in office, Titus died of a fever on 13 September 81. He was deified by the Roman Senate and succeeded by his younger brother Domitian.
wn.com/Titus_Vespasianus -
Uthman ibn Affan
Uthman ibn Affan (Arabic: عثمان بن عفان, strict transliteration: ʻUthmān ibn ʻAffān) (c. 579 – 17 July 656) was one of the companions of Islamic prophet, Muhammad. He played a major role in early Islamic history as the third of the Sunni Rashidun or Rightly Guided Caliphs.
Uthman was born into the Umayyad clan of Mecca, a powerful family of the Quraish tribe. He was a companion of Muhammad who assumed the role of leader (caliph) of the Muslim Empire at the age of 65 following Umar ibn al-Khattab. Under his leadership, the empire expanded into Fars in 650 (present-day Iran), some areas of Khorasan (present-day Afghanistan) in 651 and the conquest of Armenia was begun in the 640s. Some of Uthman's notable achievements were the economic reforms he introduced, and the compilation of the Qur'an into the unified, authoritative text that is known today.
Uthman was born in Ta’if, which is situated on a hill, and the presumption is that he was born during the summer months, since wealthy Meccans usually spent the hot summers in the cooler climate of Ta’if. He was born into the wealthy Umayyad (Banu Umayya) clan of the Quraysh tribe of Mecca, seven years after Muhammad. Uthman's father, Affan, died young while travelling abroad but left a large inheritance to Uthman. Uthman followed the same profession as his father, and his business flourished, making him one of the richest men among the Qurayshi tribe.
wn.com/Uthman_ibn_Affan -
Vespasian
Vespasian (Latin: Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus Augustus; 17 November 9 – 23 June 79) was Roman Emperor from AD 69 to AD 79. Vespasian was the founder of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Empire for a quarter century. Vespasian was descended from a family of equestrians, who rose into the senatorial rank under the Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Although he attained the standard succession of public offices, holding the consulship in AD 51, Vespasian became more reputed as a successful military commander, participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43, and subjugating Judaea during the Jewish rebellion of AD 66.
While Vespasian was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem during the latter campaign, emperor Nero committed suicide, plunging the empire into a year of civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors. After the emperors Galba and Otho perished in quick succession, Vitellius became Emperor in April AD 69. In response, the armies in Egypt and Judaea declared Vespasian emperor on 1 July. In his bid for imperial power, Vespasian joined forces with Mucianus, the governor of Syria, and Primus, a general in Pannonia. Primus and Mucianus led the Flavian forces against Vitellius, while Vespasian gained control of Egypt. On 20 December, Vitellius was defeated, and the following day Vespasian was declared Emperor by the Roman Senate.
wn.com/Vespasian -
Warren Johansson
Warren Johansson (February 21, 1934 – June 10, 1994) was a philologist, author and a leading American gay scholar during his lifetime. He was founding member of the Scholarship Committee of the Gay Academic Union.
Warren Johansson was born in 1934, in Philadelphia, with the name Philip Joseph Wallfield. His father was Jewish (and is said to have been killed with a shotgun by robbers in his pharmacy[citation needed]). At some point in his later career, Philip changed his name to the Nordic-sounding Warren Johansson, to express his disapproval of Jewish homophobia.[citation needed]
His first venture into gay scholarship was to virtually co-author Greek Love with the numismatist Walter Breen, who wrote under the name J. Z. Eglinton.
He abandoned formal academic studies (at Columbia University) but did not obtain a Ph.D. Johansson made himself a master of all the modern European languages (excepting only Basque, Hungarian, and Finnish) as well as of Greek, Latin, Hebrew and Aramaic.[citation needed] He used his linguistic abilities to read deeply and spent much of his life in research libraries, particularly at Columbia, where his extensive knowledge of obscure Slavonic dialects made him a valuable informal resource to scholars in the Russian department.[citation needed] William A. Percy cites just one example of Johansson's surprising discoveries: while the British Wolfenden Committee was sitting, Johannson unearthed the by-now-famous citation from Sigmund Freud, to the effect that homosexuals were not sick, and sent it off. Later, he provided expert testimony to legislative bodies in several countries including Luxembourg, Moldova and Argentina.
wn.com/Warren_Johansson -
Witch of Endor
The witch of Endor, sometimes called the medium of Endor, was a woman who apparently called up the ghost of the recently deceased prophet Samuel, at the demand of King Saul of the Kingdom of Israel in the First Book of Samuel, chapter 28:3–25. The witch is absent from the version of that event recounted in the deuterocanonical Book of Sirach (47:19–20).
After Samuel had died, he was buried in Ramah. After Samuel's death Saul received no answer from God from dreams, prophets, or the Urim and Thummim as to his best course of action against the assembled forces of the Philistines. Consequently Saul, who had earlier driven out all necromancers and magicians from Israel, sought out a medium, anonymously and in disguise. Following the instruction of her visitor, the woman claims that she sees the ghost of Samuel rising from the abode of the dead. The voice of the prophet's ghost, after complaining of being awakened from his long sleep, berates Saul for disobeying God, and predicts Saul's downfall, with his whole army, in battle the next day, then adds that Saul and his sons will join him, then, in the abode of the dead. Saul is shocked and afraid, and following the encounter his army is defeated and Saul commits suicide after being wounded.
wn.com/Witch_of_Endor
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Similarities between the three Abrahamic Religions.
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:50
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
So that others may know. Inshaallah!
http://wn.com/Similarities_between_the_three_Abrahamic_Religions
To the 3 abrahamic religions.......
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:21
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
Marcus brigstock's welcome recommendations for the bible and quran bashers
http://wn.com/To_the_3_abrahamic_religions
Marcus brigstock's welcome recommendations for the bible and quran bashers
- published: 16 Jul 2008
- views: 14755
- author: gymmybhoy
The Abrahamic Covenant
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:17
- Updated: 11 Dec 2012
One family shows love and service to another less fortunate family.
http://wn.com/The_Abrahamic_Covenant
One family shows love and service to another less fortunate family.
- published: 18 Jul 2012
- views: 6819
- author: Mormon Channel
Marcus Brigstocke's '3 Abrahamic Faiths' Rant
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:34
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
Absolutely wonderful speech delivered by Marcus Brigstocke on the 20th of July 2007's 'The Now Show' on BBC Radio 4.
http://wn.com/Marcus_Brigstocke's_'3_Abrahamic_Faiths'_Rant
Absolutely wonderful speech delivered by Marcus Brigstocke on the 20th of July 2007's 'The Now Show' on BBC Radio 4.
- published: 21 Jul 2007
- views: 66834
- author: ChizzD
Abrahamic believers worship the Canaanite God El
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:00
- Updated: 14 Sep 2012
www.afrostyly.com
http://wn.com/Abrahamic_believers_worship_the_Canaanite_God_El
Hijab in Abrahamic religions ( Do Jew, Christian and Muslim women have to cover their hair? )
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:05
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
Assalamu Alaikum! This is very much requested video of Why women in Islam wear hijabs. Also I will try to answer the question if Jew and Christian women, as well as Muslim ladies, do have to wear the head covering. Inshallah you will find it useful! PS.: If I made any mistakes during this video, it was not intentional. God is the most wise and merciful. Love, Skye XxXx
http://wn.com/Hijab_in_Abrahamic_religions_Do_Jew,_Christian_and_Muslim_women_have_to_cover_their_hair?_
Assalamu Alaikum! This is very much requested video of Why women in Islam wear hijabs. Also I will try to answer the question if Jew and Christian women, as well as Muslim ladies, do have to wear the head covering. Inshallah you will find it useful! PS.: If I made any mistakes during this video, it was not intentional. God is the most wise and merciful. Love, Skye XxXx
- published: 30 Dec 2011
- views: 17076
- author: ModernHijabLook
Witchcraft, Pagan & Wiccan: Abrahamic to Pagan - Crossing The Bridge
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 22:10
- Updated: 17 Nov 2012
Link to my facebook page: www.facebook.com Link to my twitter page: twitter.com
http://wn.com/Witchcraft,_Pagan_Wiccan_Abrahamic_to_Pagan_Crossing_The_Bridge
Link to my facebook page: www.facebook.com Link to my twitter page: twitter.com
- published: 23 Feb 2012
- views: 1830
- author: TheShoeWhisperer
Abrahamic Covenant Land Israel
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:18
- Updated: 24 Nov 2012
http://wn.com/Abrahamic_Covenant_Land_Israel
Creflo Dollar-The Abrahamic Covenant
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:01
- Updated: 04 May 2012
www.creflodollarministries.org message -Pastor Creflo Dollar explains The Abrahamic Covenant Creflo Dollar World Changers http Creflo Dollar 21 Day Change Experience www.mychangeexperience.com Creflo Dollar Events http Creflo Dollar church in New York www.worldchangerschurchnewyork.org
http://wn.com/Creflo_Dollar-The_Abrahamic_Covenant
www.creflodollarministries.org message -Pastor Creflo Dollar explains The Abrahamic Covenant Creflo Dollar World Changers http Creflo Dollar 21 Day Change Experience www.mychangeexperience.com Creflo Dollar Events http Creflo Dollar church in New York www.worldchangerschurchnewyork.org
- published: 04 Oct 2010
- views: 2044
- author: CrefloDollarMinistry
The Asian & Abrahamic Religions - A Divine Encounter in America
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:30
- Updated: 21 Aug 2012
Trailer for upcoming feature-length documentary. Produced by Auteur Productions, Ltd.
http://wn.com/The_Asian_Abrahamic_Religions_A_Divine_Encounter_in_America
Trailer for upcoming feature-length documentary. Produced by Auteur Productions, Ltd.
- published: 23 Jul 2010
- views: 4020
- author: AuteurProductions
The Abrahamic Covenant was CONDITIONAL
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:39
- Updated: 04 Jul 2012
The Abrahamic covenant was conditioned on Abraham's obedience. As a pattern for the new covenant, so is the covenant of faith in Jesus Christ.
http://wn.com/The_Abrahamic_Covenant_was_CONDITIONAL
The Abrahamic covenant was conditioned on Abraham's obedience. As a pattern for the new covenant, so is the covenant of faith in Jesus Christ.
- published: 14 Feb 2010
- views: 1566
- author: Ainesis3
Clip 1: Can the Abrahamic religions coexist? (Templeton Foundation)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:09
- Updated: 29 Oct 2012
A conversation between Robert Wright, author of "The Evolution of God," and Ross Douthat, New York Times. For more information about Templeton Book Forum events, please visit www.templeton.org For centuries, faithful followers of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism have looked to their holy texts for spiritual guidance, social and political mandates, and answers to humankind's burning questions about the workings of the universe. But what if these believers have been overlooking the most important message in their Scriptures? In The Evolution of God, Robert Wright argues that there is a hidden pattern that the great monotheistic faiths have followed as they have evolved. Drawing on recent scholarship in archaeology, theology, and evolutionary psychology, he challenges a range of basic assumptions about Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Evolution of God explains why spirituality has a role today; why science, contrary to conventional wisdom, affirms the validity of the religious quest; and why the prospects for religious harmony are brighter than they may seem. Robert Wright is the author of The Moral Animal: Why We Are the Way We Are (1994) and Nonzero: The Logic of Human Destiny (2000). A contributing editor at the New Republic, he has also written for TIME, Slate, the Atlantic, and the New Yorker. He is the editor-in-chief of Bloggingheads.tv and has taught philosophy at Princeton University and psychology at the University of Pennsylvania. Ross Douthat recently joined ...
http://wn.com/Clip_1_Can_the_Abrahamic_religions_coexist?_Templeton_Foundation
A conversation between Robert Wright, author of "The Evolution of God," and Ross Douthat, New York Times. For more information about Templeton Book Forum events, please visit www.templeton.org For centuries, faithful followers of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism have looked to their holy texts for spiritual guidance, social and political mandates, and answers to humankind's burning questions about the workings of the universe. But what if these believers have been overlooking the most important message in their Scriptures? In The Evolution of God, Robert Wright argues that there is a hidden pattern that the great monotheistic faiths have followed as they have evolved. Drawing on recent scholarship in archaeology, theology, and evolutionary psychology, he challenges a range of basic assumptions about Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. The Evolution of God explains why spirituality has a role today; why science, contrary to conventional wisdom, affirms the validity of the religious quest; and why the prospects for religious harmony are brighter than they may seem. Robert Wright is the author of The Moral Animal: Why We Are the Way We Are (1994) and Nonzero: The Logic of Human Destiny (2000). A contributing editor at the New Republic, he has also written for TIME, Slate, the Atlantic, and the New Yorker. He is the editor-in-chief of Bloggingheads.tv and has taught philosophy at Princeton University and psychology at the University of Pennsylvania. Ross Douthat recently joined ...
- published: 29 Jun 2009
- views: 5422
- author: TempletonFoundation
Eschatology of Abrahamic and Indian religions Pt. 1 of 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:59
- Updated: 04 Sep 2012
By Jodi Mogavero,thought professor Rev. Dr. James Kenneth Powell II, opensourcebuddhism.org. The end times are presented globally. Hindu, Buddhist, Jewish, Christian and Muslim end times are to be the subject. Second coming of Christ. The end of days is very similar. We hear of the Whole Earth to come in Judaism. The human leader like David for them, will come. The olam Havah the souls will take its share from this world to come and survive or be destroyed. Torah study is part of prep for the world to come. The judgment will come. Books of Daniel serve as the source for Jews. The ten kings are discussed. The Messianic king and one like a son of man will arise. The Christian eschatology of course involves the New Testament and Jesus. The Revelation of John plays the biggest role in this one and the four horsemen do their thing. The antichrist is then presented. The thousand year reign of Christ is discussed. The good will rule for that time, then Satan! The Book of Life and final judgement will result in the lake of fire death. Jesus returns. Islam is next. The Mahdi will conquer the anti-christ and Christ will return. The Sunnis think both Isa Jesus and the Mahdhi will defeat the anti-christ. The angel trumpets the day of resurrection before al-Lah. Then heaven or hell results. Men will look like women and vice versa. Destruction of tall buildings should've been the Twin Towers, no? Hindus are next, for reincarnation is important. Many millions of years are involved. The ...
http://wn.com/Eschatology_of_Abrahamic_and_Indian_religions_Pt_1_of_2
By Jodi Mogavero,thought professor Rev. Dr. James Kenneth Powell II, opensourcebuddhism.org. The end times are presented globally. Hindu, Buddhist, Jewish, Christian and Muslim end times are to be the subject. Second coming of Christ. The end of days is very similar. We hear of the Whole Earth to come in Judaism. The human leader like David for them, will come. The olam Havah the souls will take its share from this world to come and survive or be destroyed. Torah study is part of prep for the world to come. The judgment will come. Books of Daniel serve as the source for Jews. The ten kings are discussed. The Messianic king and one like a son of man will arise. The Christian eschatology of course involves the New Testament and Jesus. The Revelation of John plays the biggest role in this one and the four horsemen do their thing. The antichrist is then presented. The thousand year reign of Christ is discussed. The good will rule for that time, then Satan! The Book of Life and final judgement will result in the lake of fire death. Jesus returns. Islam is next. The Mahdi will conquer the anti-christ and Christ will return. The Sunnis think both Isa Jesus and the Mahdhi will defeat the anti-christ. The angel trumpets the day of resurrection before al-Lah. Then heaven or hell results. Men will look like women and vice versa. Destruction of tall buildings should've been the Twin Towers, no? Hindus are next, for reincarnation is important. Many millions of years are involved. The ...
- published: 26 Jun 2011
- views: 853
- author: JAMES K POWELL II
Creflo Dollar-The Abrahamic Covenant 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:03
- Updated: 01 Oct 2012
www.creflodollarministries.org message -Pastor Creflo Dollar explains The Abrahamic Covenant 2 Creflo Dollar World Changers http Creflo Dollar 21 Day Change Experience www.mychangeexperience.com Creflo Dollar Events http Creflo Dollar church in New York www.worldchangerschurchnewyork.org
http://wn.com/Creflo_Dollar-The_Abrahamic_Covenant_2
www.creflodollarministries.org message -Pastor Creflo Dollar explains The Abrahamic Covenant 2 Creflo Dollar World Changers http Creflo Dollar 21 Day Change Experience www.mychangeexperience.com Creflo Dollar Events http Creflo Dollar church in New York www.worldchangerschurchnewyork.org
- published: 04 Oct 2010
- views: 1226
- author: CrefloDollarMinistry
Akhenaten, Caesar Christ, Copper Scroll & Abrahamic Cults 7 28 09
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 28 Nov 2012
Presenting some Archaeological evidence of WHO created belief in One God and WHO the "god" of the so called Abrahamic religions was.
http://wn.com/Akhenaten,_Caesar_Christ,_Copper_Scroll_Abrahamic_Cults_7_28_09
Presenting some Archaeological evidence of WHO created belief in One God and WHO the "god" of the so called Abrahamic religions was.
- published: 29 Jul 2009
- views: 3402
- author: calpurnpiso
Animated Origin of Abrahamic Ideologies - feat. Christopher Hitchens
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:08
- Updated: 11 Dec 2012
See Also Rembrandt - feat. Isaac/Ishmael being killed. en.wikipedia.org vimeo.com See Consolation of Philosphy on why it is such good news there is absolutely no evidence for the Abrahamics. en.wikipedia.org Christopher Hitchens on Abraham & Abrahamic Religions feat. Animated Re-Enactment (for the feeble minded) in support of his conclusion that positive ethics and/or morals do not stem from the Abrahamic flavors.
http://wn.com/Animated_Origin_of_Abrahamic_Ideologies_feat_Christopher_Hitchens
See Also Rembrandt - feat. Isaac/Ishmael being killed. en.wikipedia.org vimeo.com See Consolation of Philosphy on why it is such good news there is absolutely no evidence for the Abrahamics. en.wikipedia.org Christopher Hitchens on Abraham & Abrahamic Religions feat. Animated Re-Enactment (for the feeble minded) in support of his conclusion that positive ethics and/or morals do not stem from the Abrahamic flavors.
- published: 21 Oct 2012
- views: 661
- author: tylerdurrdenn
Do Abrahamic Religions offer a Meaningless Life?
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:55
- Updated: 01 Sep 2012
As far as I can tell, Abrahamic religions do give you a system of Laws and Morality, duties and obligations. They tell how we should live. But I don't see anywhere in the Bible where it says that true religion gives your life MEANING. I'm less famiier with the Qu'ran, but I've not seen any place in the Qu'ran where it does either (perhaps some Islamic scholar can correct me here). As far as I can tell, the idea that life should have MEANING does not come from religion at all, but rather, it comes from philosophy. Specifically, the sort of philosophy advocated by the school of Socretes, Plato, etc. So it seems to me that any religion which offers meaning is not a Biblical or Bible-based religion at all, but rather some amalgamation of Hebraic thought with a (rather discredicted) school of Pagan thought. Anyrate, Veritas48, or any other believers out there, I would like to see a case made from the holy books themselves that human life has meaning. What is the meaning of your life? How do you know for sure that you your life has a meaning?
http://wn.com/Do_Abrahamic_Religions_offer_a_Meaningless_Life?
As far as I can tell, Abrahamic religions do give you a system of Laws and Morality, duties and obligations. They tell how we should live. But I don't see anywhere in the Bible where it says that true religion gives your life MEANING. I'm less famiier with the Qu'ran, but I've not seen any place in the Qu'ran where it does either (perhaps some Islamic scholar can correct me here). As far as I can tell, the idea that life should have MEANING does not come from religion at all, but rather, it comes from philosophy. Specifically, the sort of philosophy advocated by the school of Socretes, Plato, etc. So it seems to me that any religion which offers meaning is not a Biblical or Bible-based religion at all, but rather some amalgamation of Hebraic thought with a (rather discredicted) school of Pagan thought. Anyrate, Veritas48, or any other believers out there, I would like to see a case made from the holy books themselves that human life has meaning. What is the meaning of your life? How do you know for sure that you your life has a meaning?
- published: 09 Jan 2009
- views: 2102
- author: randyhelzerman
Proven Facts when Unraveling the Abrahamic Mythologies A 21st C Psychosis
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:59
- Updated: 01 Dec 2012
Continuing the Education of those folks, which not unlike schizophrenics, are infected with the deluded mythological beliefs of Christianity, Judaism & Islam accepting them as fact. Reading ancient books over & over accepting its fantasies as true is symptomatic of retardation. Belief in Gods is a neurological malfunction originating in the Brain.
http://wn.com/Proven_Facts_when_Unraveling_the_Abrahamic_Mythologies_A_21st_C_Psychosis
Continuing the Education of those folks, which not unlike schizophrenics, are infected with the deluded mythological beliefs of Christianity, Judaism & Islam accepting them as fact. Reading ancient books over & over accepting its fantasies as true is symptomatic of retardation. Belief in Gods is a neurological malfunction originating in the Brain.
- published: 30 Jan 2009
- views: 1454
- author: calpurnpiso
Molten-WoW / Abrahamic 2 Shaman PvP
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:07
- Updated: 29 Nov 2012
Abe's elemental shaman pvp on the private server Molten-WoW, Frostwolf 3x realm. Just having fun fellas, don't take this too seriously. :)
http://wn.com/Molten-WoW_Abrahamic_2_Shaman_PvP
Abe's elemental shaman pvp on the private server Molten-WoW, Frostwolf 3x realm. Just having fun fellas, don't take this too seriously. :)
- published: 26 Jan 2011
- views: 6313
- author: AbeFromFate
![[2.13] Abrahamic Religion](http://web.archive.org./web/20121219234442im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/Ls7X8smUkDE/default.jpg "[2.13] Abrahamic Religion")
[2.13] Abrahamic Religion
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:45
- Updated: 14 Dec 2012
A brief ramble about the Abrahamic Religions, how I feel about them, how I deal with followers of them...
http://wn.com/_213_Abrahamic_Religion
A brief ramble about the Abrahamic Religions, how I feel about them, how I deal with followers of them...
- published: 14 Feb 2010
- views: 456
- author: paganperspective
(De)Motivational posters - Science and Abrahamic religion
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:39
- Updated: 03 Nov 2012
Motivational and DeMotivational posters on science and Abrahamic religion Refs/sources Music: Mr President Coco Jambo Who has killed more, Satan or God? dwindlinginunbelief.blogspot.com www.christiancreationassociation.com chroniclesofafisherofmen.blogspot.com Download the posters ekendil.angelfire.com
http://wn.com/DeMotivational_posters_Science_and_Abrahamic_religion
Motivational and DeMotivational posters on science and Abrahamic religion Refs/sources Music: Mr President Coco Jambo Who has killed more, Satan or God? dwindlinginunbelief.blogspot.com www.christiancreationassociation.com chroniclesofafisherofmen.blogspot.com Download the posters ekendil.angelfire.com
- published: 26 Jan 2010
- views: 1090
- author: Ekendil
6. Abrahamic Faiths
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:44
- Updated: 15 Nov 2012
The Abrahamic religions are the world's three primary monotheistic faiths: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which share a common origin and values. They are faiths which recognize a spiritual tradition identified with the prophet Abraham. For some 1300 years, their history and thought have been intertwined. They are considered inextricably linked to one another because of a family likeness and a certain commonality in theology.
http://wn.com/6_Abrahamic_Faiths
The Abrahamic religions are the world's three primary monotheistic faiths: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, which share a common origin and values. They are faiths which recognize a spiritual tradition identified with the prophet Abraham. For some 1300 years, their history and thought have been intertwined. They are considered inextricably linked to one another because of a family likeness and a certain commonality in theology.
- published: 24 Feb 2011
- views: 1067
- author: DioceseOfRochester
Eschatology of Abrahamic and Indian religions Pt. 2 of 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:31
- Updated: 26 Apr 2012
By Jodi Mogavero,thought professor Rev. Dr. James Kenneth Powell II, opensourcebuddhism.org. The end times are presented globally. Hindu, Buddhist, Jewish, Christian and Muslim end times are to be the subject. Second coming of Christ. The end of days is very similar. We hear of the Whole Earth to come in Judaism. The human leader like David for them, will come. The olam Havah the souls will take its share from this world to come and survive or be destroyed. Torah study is part of prep for the world to come. The judgment will come. Books of Daniel serve as the source for Jews. The ten kings are discussed. The Messianic king and one like a son of man will arise. The Christian eschatology of course involves the New Testament and Jesus. The Revelation of John plays the biggest role in this one and the four horsemen do their thing. The antichrist is then presented. The thousand year reign of Christ is discussed. The good will rule for that time, then Satan! The Book of Life and final judgement will result in the lake of fire death. Jesus returns. Islam is next. The Mahdi will conquer the anti-christ and Christ will return. The Sunnis think both Isa Jesus and the Mahdhi will defeat the anti-christ. The angel trumpets the day of resurrection before al-Lah. Then heaven or hell results. Men will look like women and vice versa. Destruction of tall buildings should've been the Twin Towers, no? Hindus are next, for reincarnation is important. Many millions of years are involved. The ...
http://wn.com/Eschatology_of_Abrahamic_and_Indian_religions_Pt_2_of_2
By Jodi Mogavero,thought professor Rev. Dr. James Kenneth Powell II, opensourcebuddhism.org. The end times are presented globally. Hindu, Buddhist, Jewish, Christian and Muslim end times are to be the subject. Second coming of Christ. The end of days is very similar. We hear of the Whole Earth to come in Judaism. The human leader like David for them, will come. The olam Havah the souls will take its share from this world to come and survive or be destroyed. Torah study is part of prep for the world to come. The judgment will come. Books of Daniel serve as the source for Jews. The ten kings are discussed. The Messianic king and one like a son of man will arise. The Christian eschatology of course involves the New Testament and Jesus. The Revelation of John plays the biggest role in this one and the four horsemen do their thing. The antichrist is then presented. The thousand year reign of Christ is discussed. The good will rule for that time, then Satan! The Book of Life and final judgement will result in the lake of fire death. Jesus returns. Islam is next. The Mahdi will conquer the anti-christ and Christ will return. The Sunnis think both Isa Jesus and the Mahdhi will defeat the anti-christ. The angel trumpets the day of resurrection before al-Lah. Then heaven or hell results. Men will look like women and vice versa. Destruction of tall buildings should've been the Twin Towers, no? Hindus are next, for reincarnation is important. Many millions of years are involved. The ...
- published: 26 Jun 2011
- views: 388
- author: JAMES K POWELL II
photo: AP / Charles Krupa
18 Dec 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. "Most people reason dramatically, not quantitatively." -Oliver Wendell Holmes. On the same day that a 20-year-old, described as brilliant but remote, walked into an elementary school in Connecticut and massacred 26 children and adults, the school where I teach went on "lock-down." Four students with a handgun were arrested ... That morning before school, he had posted on Twitter and Facebook....(size: 14.0Kb)
photo: AP / Pablo Martinez Monsivais
19 Dec 2012
WASHINGTON. US President Barack Obama backs a new bill to revive an assault weapons ban and other new gun laws, the White House said Tuesday, fleshing out his nascent response to a shocking school massacre. Obama also called an ardently pro-gun senator who has shifted his position on firearms laws since Friday's carnage in Connecticut and has begun meeting top cabinet officials to consider his options, his spokesman Jay Carney said ... ....(size: 4.9Kb)
photo: Creative Commons / Joachim Huber
18 Dec 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. When a Stanford geneticist, Gerald Crabtree, published a provocative and controversial new view on evolutionary change, namely that humans are actually getting dumber, he should have also added that humans are still developing an extermination gene ... Paleontologist Tim Flannery would more than likely agree with Crabtree ... Strange strings of gravel also overlaid some bones ... (1) Kane, Alex ... 195....(size: 9.4Kb)
photo: AP / Narciso Contreras
19 Dec 2012
GENEVA (Reuters) - The United Nations appealed on Wednesday for $1.5 billion (920.1 million pounds) to provide life-saving aid to Syrians suffering from a "dramatically deteriorating" humanitarian situation ... "The magnitude of this humanitarian crisis is indisputable," said Radhouane Nouicer, U.N ... Inside Syria, U.N ... ....(size: 1.5Kb)
photo: AP / Manu Brabo
18 Dec 2012
The UN's humanitarian chief has called on Syria to urgently allow fuel imports for aid deliveries and give access to 10 more aid agencies. Valerie Amos met government officials in the capital, Damascus, to discuss the growing humanitarian crisis. UN workers also needed to freely move into opposition-controlled areas to step up their aid efforts, she said ... 'Greater rebel contact' ... The claim could not be independently verified ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)
Huffington Post
19 Dec 2012
1, 1863, President Abraham Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation ... Later that day, the Archives will host Harriet Tubman again, plus Abraham Lincoln and Rosa Parks reenactors ... Christopher Brady, dressed as Abraham Lincoln, arrived on a Segway at the launching ceremony of the Lincoln Movie Trail at the State Capitol in Richmond, Va ... Daniel Day Lewis Transforms Into Abraham Lincoln ... ABRAHAM LINCOLN....(size: 13.8Kb)
The Times of India
19 Dec 2012
Social activist TJ Abraham will be provided with security , police commissioner BG Jyothi Prakash Mirji told the special Lokayukta court on Tuesday. Abraham had submitted before the court that police are not providing him protection despite threats to his life....(size: 1.2Kb)
Independent online (SA)
19 Dec 2012
State prosecutor Shaun Abrahams gave a detailed account of the role each of the accused were supposed to play in their mission ... Abrahams told the court that the rightwingers held meetings in various parts of the country where overthrowing the ANC-run government was high on their agenda since January 1 ... commit acts of terrorism,” said Abrahams....(size: 4.6Kb)
Jamaica Observer
19 Dec 2012
Abraham tried to make a game of the contest with Oshane Hutchinson topscoring with 62 ... by Burnt Ground, as well as some poor batting, saw Abraham all out for 163....(size: 0.8Kb)
The Examiner
19 Dec 2012
In my recent "Illinois Heritage Tourism" website, I focused on the Abraham Lincoln National Heritage Area (NHA) because it has so many fine sites and locations to visit that cover the spectrum of historical, cultural and natural activities available in that area ... The Lincoln Home National Historic Site is at the heart of the NHA along with the Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum, of course ... S ... Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S ... S ... ....(size: 2.4Kb)
Sowetan Live
19 Dec 2012
They had photos of the conference facility. Prosecutor Advocate Shaun Abrahams yesterday gave this chilling account to a packed Bloemfontein Regional Court of how Martin Trollip, 48, John Martin Keevy, 47, Johan Hendrik Prinsloo, 49, and Hein Boonzaaier, 51, had planned the attack ... Abrahams said during this year the four accused and others held various meetings ... Abrahams said police had warrants of arrest for outstanding suspects ... ....(size: 2.6Kb)
The Examiner
19 Dec 2012
The Movie”, the highly-anticipated movie about Abraham Lincoln, the 16th President of the United States, continues to do very well at the nation’s box offices as it moved back up into the number 3 position on the nation’s box office list according to motion picture-related data released on Tuesday ... The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln” which covers the final four months of Lincoln’s life....(size: 2.5Kb)
IMDb
19 Dec 2012
Irish Times
19 Dec 2012
BILL CORCORAN in Cape Town ... The ANC has won every general election since 1994 ... State prosecutor Shaun Abrahams said they wanted to establish an independent Boer nation and carry out an assault against senior ANC officials at the summit. The plan included launching a mortar bomb attack on ANC marquees and an assault targeting Mr Zuma and cabinet ministers as they ate dinner, Mr Abrahams said ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
noodls
19 Dec 2012
The Evangelist Luke tells the story of Mary through a subtle parallel with the story of Abraham ... The journey of faith of Abraham includes the moment of joy for the gift of his son Isaac, but also a time of darkness, when he has to climb Mount Moriah to carry out a paradoxical gesture ... Mary's faith, like that of Abraham, combines complete trust in the Lord's promises with a certain "unknowing"....(size: 13.0Kb)
Independent online (SA)
19 Dec 2012
John Goliath. CAN Chippa United step up one last time in 2012? ... But, after a bad start in the league, there has been a willingness to fight, and they have shown great resilience under new coach Farouk Abrahams ... And one player who epitomises all that fighting spirit is central midfielder Larry Cohen, who’s entry into the team has coincided with a slight change of fortune under Abrahams’s tutelage ... WEEK’S PSL FIXTURES ... ....(size: 4.2Kb)
The Hindu
19 Dec 2012
Rakesh Thakore first visited Andhra Pradesh 25 years ago, as a student of National Institute of Design (NID), Ahmedabad ... Synergy of weaves ... That was the beginning of a learning process of Indian handlooms ... Rakesh grew up in Tanzania in a farmhouse spread across 4000 acres while David Abraham grew up in Singapore. They met at NID, became friends for life and later joined hands to form the Abraham and Thakore (A&T) label in New Delhi....(size: 4.3Kb)
Abrahamic religions (also Abrahamism) are the monotheistic faiths emphasizing and tracing their common origin to Abraham[1] or recognizing a spiritual tradition identified with him.[2][3][4] They are one of the three major divisions in comparative religion, along with Indian religions (Dharmic) and East Asian religions (Taoic). As of the early twenty-first century[update], it was estimated that 54% of the world's population (3.8 billion people) considered themselves adherents of the Abrahamic religions, about 30% of other religions, and 16% of no religion.[5][6]
The three major Abrahamic religions are, in chronological order of founding, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Judaism regards itself as the religion of the descendants of Jacob,[n 1] a grandson of Abraham. It has a strictly unitary view of God, and the central holy book for almost all branches is the Masoretic Text as elucidated in the oral Torah.
Christianity began as a sect of Judaism[n 2] in the Mediterranean Basin[n 3] of the 1st century CE and evolved into a separate religion—the Christian Church—with distinctive beliefs and practices. Jesus is the central figure of Christianity, considered by almost all denominations to be divine, typically as one person of a Triune God.[n 4] The Christian Bible is usually held to be the ultimate authority, alongside Sacred Tradition in some denominations (such as Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy).
Islam arose in Arabia[n 5] in the 7th century CE with a strictly unitary view of God.[n 6] Muslims (adherents of Islam) typically hold the Qur'an to be the ultimate authority, as revealed and elucidated through the teachings and practices[n 7] of a central, but not divine, prophet, Muhammad. Less well-known Abrahamic religions, originally offshoots of Shi'a Islam, include the Bahá'í Faith[n 8] and Druze.[7]
The three main Abrahamic religions have certain similarities. All are monotheistic, and conceive God to be a transcendent Creator-figure and the source of moral law,[8] and their sacred narratives feature many of the same figures, histories, and places in each, although they often present them with different roles, perspectives, and meanings. They also have many internal differences based on details of doctrine and practice. Christianity divided into three main branches (Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant), dozens of significant denominations, and even more smaller ones. Islam has two main branches (Sunni and Shi'a), each having a number of denominations. Judaism also has a small number of branches, of which the most significant are Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform. At times the different religions—and often branches within the same religions—have had bitter conflicts with each other.
Contents |
Etymology[link]
It has been suggested that the phrase, "Abrahamic religion", may simply mean that all these religions come from one spiritual source.[2] Christians refer to Abraham as a "father in faith".[Rom. 4] There is an Islamic religious term, Millat Ibrahim (The nation of Abraham),[3][4] indicating that Islam sees itself as having practices tied to the traditions of Abraham.[9] Jewish tradition claims descendance from Abraham, and adherents follow his practices and ideals as the first of the three spiritual "fathers", Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob.
All the major Abrahamic religions claim a direct lineage to Abraham.
- Abraham is recorded in the Torah as the ancestor of the Israelites through his son Isaac, born to Sarah through a promise made in Genesis.[Gen. 17:16][10] All variants of Judaism through the early 20th century (prophetic, rabbinic, reform, and conservative) were founded by Israelite descendants.
- The basic text of Christianity is the Bible, the first part of which, the Protestant Old Testament, is an exact duplicate of the Jewish Hebrew Bible, leading to the same ancestry claim as above. The Catholic Old Testament does include a few books that neither the Protestants or the Orthodox Jews felt were inspired and more historical in nature. Holy Scripture in Judaism and Protestant Christianity is so precious the bar was set very high for admittance of any writing.
- It is the Islamic tradition that Muhammad, as an Arab, is descended from Abraham's son Ishmael. Jewish tradition also equates the descendants of Ishmael, Ishmaelites, with Arabs, as the descendants of Isaac by Jacob, who was also later known as Israel, are the Israelites.[11]
Other terms sometimes used include Abrahamic faiths, Abrahamic traditions, religions of Abraham, Abrahamic monotheistic religions, semitic religions, Semitic monotheistic religions, and Semitic one god religions.[12]
However, the term "Abrahamic faiths", while helpful, is also misleading.[13] It conveys an unspecified historical and theological commonality that is problematic on closer examination. While there is commonality among the religions, in large measure their shared ancestry is peripheral to their respective foundational beliefs and thus conceals crucial differences. For example, the common Christian beliefs of Incarnation, Trinity, and Jesus' Resurrection are not accepted by Judaism or Islam (see for example Islamic view of Jesus' death). There are key beliefs in both Islam and Judaism that are not shared by most of Christianity (such as strict monotheism and adherence to the Law), and key beliefs of Islam and Christianity not shared by Judaism (such as the prophetic and Messianic position of Jesus, respectively), and so on.[14]
Common aspects[link]
The unifying characteristic of Judaism, Christianity and Islam is that all accept the tradition that God revealed himself to the patriarch Abraham.[15]
Monotheism[link]
Main article: Monotheism
All Abrahamic religions claim to be monotheistic, worshiping an exclusive God, though known by different names.[15] All of these religions believe that God creates, is one, rules, reveals, loves, judges, and forgives.[13][Need quotation to verify] However, Christianity's Trinitarian doctrine conflicts with Jewish and Muslim concepts of monotheism. They reject the incarnation of God in Christ; the defining feature of the Christian religion, in which salvation is based on a doctrine of atonement—most commonly substitutionary atonement (for Protestants) and ransom, victory of Christ or satisfaction (for Eastern Orthodox and Catholics)—through faith in Jesus Christ as Saviour. Although Christianity does not profess to believe in three gods, rather three persons, or hypostases, united in one essence, or ousia, in the Godhead, the one "Almighty God,"[16] the concept of the Trinity is categorically rejected by the other major Abrahamic religions (and by certain non-mainstream—generally defined by the similarity of beliefs to the Nicene Creed[17][18]—sects of Christianity, such as Oneness Pentecostals, Unitarians, Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, and Christian Scientists). Since the conception of divine Triunity is not amenable to tawhid, the Islamic doctrine of monotheism, Islam considers Christianity to be variously polytheistic or idolatrous. The worship of Jesus, or the ascribing of partners to God, is categorically denounced as the heresy of idolatry by Islam. The incarnation of God in to human form is denounced as a heresy by Judaism. Islam also believes that Judaism has compromised Monotheism by elevating the opinions and interpretations of rabbis to the level of God.[19][20]
The single largest religious sect of any religion—and the largest Christian sect, Roman Catholicism, with 1.1–1.3 billion adherents[6][21][22]—as many as all sects of Islam combined[23][24][25]—the second largest Christian sect, Eastern Orthodoxy, with 250–350 million adherents,[6][26] and the vast majority of Protestant denominations (total ~750 million adherents)[6][27] together making up more than 2 billion of the 2.1–2.2 billion Christians living as of 2010,[21] defend the doctrine of the Trinity—indeed, Trinitarianism is often used as one marker of orthodox Christian thought and doctrine. Jesus (Arabic: Isa or Yasu, among Muslims and Arab Christians respectively) is common between Christianity, Islam, and Baha'i Faith, but with vastly differing conceptions, viewed as God incarnate and the Saviour of mankind by Christians, and as a Prophet of Islam[28] by Muslims, and a Manifestation of God[29][30][31] by Baha'is.[32][33][34]
Theological continuity[link]
See also: Messianism
All the Abrahamic religions affirm one personal[citation needed] eternal God who created the universe, who rules history, who sends prophetic and angelic messengers and who reveals the divine will through inspired Scriptures. They also affirm that obedience to this creator God is to be lived out historically, and that one day God will unilaterally intervene in human history on the day of judgment and will determine for all humanity their eternal destinies of heaven or hell based upon a person's beliefs and actions.[citation needed]
This theological continuity among the Abrahamic religions is profound, especially given that the great religions of Eastern Asia, the dominant schools of Greek philosophy, and almost all other religious and philosophical systems of modernity and postmodernity cannot claim anything close to this level of doctrinal continuity. [13]:p.236
Scripture[link]
See also: Development of the Hebrew Bible canon, Development of the Christian biblical canon, and History of the Qur'an
All Abrahamic religions believe that God guides humanity through revelation to prophets, and each religion recognizes that God revealed teachings up to and including those in their own scripture.
Ethical orientation[link]
See also: Biblical law in Christianity and Judeo-Christian
An ethical orientation: all these religions speak of a choice between good and evil, which is associated with obedience or disobedience to a single God and to Divine Law.
Eschatological world view[link]
An eschatological world view of history and destiny, beginning with the Creation of the world and the concept that God works through history, and ending with a Resurrection of the dead and final judgment and World to Come.[35]
Importance of Jerusalem[link]
- Judaism: Jerusalem became Judaism's holiest city in 1005 BCE when David established it as the capital of Israel, and his son Solomon built the First Temple on Mount Moriah. Since the Hebrew Bible relates that Isaac's sacrifice took place there, Mount Moriah's importance for Jews pre-dates even these prominent events. Jews thrice daily pray in its direction, including in their prayers pleas for the restoration and the rebuilding of the Holy Temple (the Third Temple) on mount Moriah, close the Passover service with the wistful statement "Next year in built Jerusalem," and recall the city in the blessing at the end of each meal. Jerusalem has served as the only capital of all five Jewish states that have existed in Israel since 1400 BC (the United Kingdom of Israel, the Kingdom of Judah, Yehud Medinata, the Hasmonean Kingdom, and modern Israel). It has been majority Jewish since about 1852 and continues through today.[36][37]
- Christianity: Jerusalem was an early center of Christianity. The Pagan Romans under Emperor Vespasian, in order to end the First Jewish Revolt, used forces led by Vespasian's son and heir to the throne, Titus to lay siege to Jerusalem, sack the city, and destroy the Second Temple in 70 AD (eventually building a shrine to Jupiter Capitolinus in its place). In 135 AD, under Hadrian, as a response to another Jewish revolt against Roman rule (the Third Jewish Revolt of Simon Bar Kochba), the Romans further expelled all Jews from the area, after three revolts in 70 years, to ensure another revolt was not forthcoming. This is when the area surrounding Jerusalem, until then called Roman Judaea, first was given the name "Palestine", or "Syria Palaestina". There has been a continuous Christian presence there since.[38] William R. Kenan, Jr., professor of the history of Christianity at the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, writes that from the middle of the 4th century to the Islamic conquest in the middle of the 7th century, the Roman province of Palestine was a Christian nation with Jerusalem its principal city.[38] According to the New Testament, Jerusalem was the city Jesus was brought to as a child to be presented at the temple[Luke 2:22] and for the feast of the Passover.[Luke 2:41] He preached and healed in Jerusalem, unceremoniously drove the money changers in disarray from the temple there, held the Last Supper in an "upper room" (traditionally the Cenacle) there the night before he is said to have died on the cross, was arrested in Gethsemane. The six parts to Jesus' trial—three stages in a religious court and three stages before a Roman court—were all held in Jerusalem. His crucifixion at Golgotha, his burial nearby (traditionally the Church of the Holy Sepulchre), and his resurrection and ascension and prophecy to return all are said to have occurred or will occur there.
- Islam: Jerusalem, the city of David and Christ, became holy to Muslims, third after Mecca and Medina (even though not mentioned by name in the Qur'an). The Al-Aqsa mosque, which translates to "farthest mosque" in sura Al-Isra in the Qur'an, and its surroundings are addressed in the Qur'an as "the holy land". Later Muslim tradition as recorded in the ahadith identifies al-Aqsa with a mosque in Jerusalem; nothing in the Qur'an supplies this connection (nor a connection to the Dome of the Rock). The first Muslims did not pray toward Mecca, but toward Jerusalem: the qibla was switched to Mecca as part of a complete break with Judaism, when it became obvious that the Jews would not accept Muhammad as a prophet.[39] Another reason for its significance is its connection with the Miʿrāj,[40] where, according to traditional Muslim piety, Muhammad ascended through the Seven heavens on a winged mule named Buraq, guided by the Archangel Gabriel, beginning from the Foundation Stone on the Temple Mount, in modern times under the Dome of the Rock.[41][42]
The significance of Abraham[link]
Main article: Covenant of Abraham
Even though members of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not all claim Abraham as an ancestor, some members of these religions have tried to claim him as exclusively theirs.[43]
For Jews[link]
For Jews, Abraham is, through Isaac and Jacob, the founding patriarch of the children of Israel. God promised Abraham: "I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you."[Gen. 12:2] With Abraham, God entered into "an everlasting covenant throughout the ages to be God to you and to your offspring to come."[Gen. 17:7]
Abraham is primarily a revered ancestor or patriarch (referred to as Avraham Avinu (אברהם אבינו in hebrew) "Abraham our father") to whom God made several promises: chiefly, that he would have numberless descendants, who would receive the land of Canaan (the "Promised Land"). According to Jewish tradition,[citation needed] Abraham was the first post-Flood prophet to reject idolatry through rational analysis, although Shem and Eber carried on the tradition from Noah.[dubious – discuss]
For Christians[link]
Christians view Abraham as an important exemplar of faith, and a spiritual, as well as physical, ancestor of Jesus—a Jew considered the Son of God through whom God promised to bless all the families of the earth. For Christians, Abraham is a spiritual forebear as well as/rather than a direct ancestor depending on the individual's interpretation of Paul the Apostle,[Rom. 4:9–12] with the Abrahamic Covenant "reinterpreted so as to be defined by faith in Christ rather than biological descent" or both by faith as well as a direct ancestor; in any case, the emphasis is placed on faith being the only requirement for the Abrahamic Covenant to apply;[44] see also New Covenant and Supersessionism. In Christian belief, Abraham is a role model of faith,[Heb. 11:8–10] and his obedience to God by offering Isaac is seen as a foreshadowing of God's offering of his son Jesus.[Rom. 8:32][45]
The tendency of Christian commentators to interpret God's promises to Abraham as applying to Christianity rather than Judaism, whose adherents rejected Jesus, is derived from Paul's interpretation of all descendants who believe in God as being spiritual descendants of Abraham.[Rom. 4:20] [Gal. 4:9][46] However, in both cases he refers to these spiritual descendants as the "sons of God"[Gal. 4:26] rather than "children of Abraham".[47]
For Muslims[link]
Main article: Islamic view of Abraham
For Muslims, Abraham is a prophet, the "messenger of God" who stands in the line from Noah to Muhammad, to whom Allah gave revelations,[Quran 4:163], who "raised the foundations of the House" (i.e., the Kaaba)[Quran 2:127] with his first son, Isma'il, a symbol of which is every mosque.[48] Ibrahim (Abraham) is the first in a genealogy for Muhammad. Islam considers Abraham to be the "first Muslim" (Surah 3)—the first monotheist in a world where monotheism was lost, and the community of those faithful to God,[49] thus being referred to as ابونا ابرهيم or "Our Father Abraham", as well as Ibrahim al-Hanif or "Abraham the Monotheist". Islam holds that it was Ishmael, (Isma'il, Muhammad's ancestor) rather than Isaac, whom Ibrahim was instructed to sacrifice. In addition to this spiritual lineage, the northern Adnani Arab tribes trace their lineage to Isma'il, and thus to Abraham.[50] Abraham is also recalled in certain details of Muslim Hajj (pilgrimage).[51]
The religions[link]
-
- See also section Other Abrahamic religions
Judaism[link]
Judaism's oldest text is the Tanakh, an account of the Israelites' relationship with God from their earliest history until the building of the Second Temple (c. 535 BCE). Abraham is hailed as the first Hebrew and the father of the Jewish people. One of his great-grandsons was Judah, from whom the religion ultimately gets it name. The Israelites were initially a number of tribes who lived in the Kingdom of Israel and Kingdom of Judah. After being conquered and exiled, some members of the Kingdom of Judah eventually returned to Israel. They later formed an independent state under the Hasmonean dynasty in the 2nd and 1st centuries BCE, before becoming a client kingdom of the Roman Empire, which also conquered the state and dispersed its inhabitants. From the 2nd to the 6th centuries Jews wrote the Talmud, a lengthy work of legal rulings and Biblical exegesis which—along with the Tanakh—is a key text of Judaism.
Christianity[link]
Christianity began in the 1st century as a sect within Judaism initially led by Jesus. His followers viewed him as the Messiah; after his crucifixion and death they came to view him as God incarnate,[52] who was resurrected and will return at the end of time to judge the living and the dead and create an eternal Kingdom of God. Within a few decades the new movement split from Judaism. After several periods of alternating persecution and relative peace vis a vis the Roman authorities under different administrations, Christianity became the state church of the Roman Empire in 380, but has been split into various churches from its beginning. An attempt was made by the Byzantine Empire to unify Christendom, but this formally failed with the East–West Schism of 1054. In the 16th century the birth and growth of Protestantism further split Christianity into many denominations.
Islam[link]
Islam is based on the teachings of the Quran. Although it considers Muhammad to be the Seal of the prophets, Islam teaches that every prophet preached Islam, providing a historical back-story for the religion by co-opting Jewish and Christian prophets, and adding others, such as Cyrus the Great (Dhul-Qarnayn) and al-Khidr. The teachings of Quran are presented as the direct revelation and words of Allah, and earlier scriptures are considered to have been corrupted over time. Islam (meaning "submission", in the sense of submission to Allah) is universal (membership is open to anyone); like Judaism, it has a strictly unitary conception of Allah, called tawhid, or "strict" or "simple" monotheism.[50] Early disputes over who would lead Muslims following the death of Muhammad led to a split between Sunni and Shia, Islam's two main denominations.
God[link]
Main article: God in Abrahamic religions
All the Abrahamic religions are monotheistic. In both Judaism and Islam, God is viewed as a single divine being; this view is not shared by Christianity which views God as an indivisible Trinity. While the Christians hold that the Trinity is the same as the Judaic and Islamic singular divine being view of God, the distinction is sufficiently huge as to require an overt explanation on the part of the Christians and on the part of the Islamic faith which restates the issue with an admonition in chapter 112 of the Qur'an.
Judaism[link]
Main article: God in Judaism
Jewish theology is based on the Hebrew Bible, where the nature and commandments of God are revealed through the writings of Moses, the Torah, the writings of the prophets, psalmists and other ancient canonized scriptures, together with the Torah known as the Tanakh. Additionally, it usually has a basis in its Oral Law, as recorded in the Mishnah and Gemora that form the Talmud.
This Supreme Being is referred to in the Hebrew Bible in several ways, such as Elohim, Adonai or by the four Hebrew letters "Y-H-V (or W) -H" (the tetragrammaton), which observant Jews do not pronounce as a word. The Hebrew words Eloheynu (Our God) and HaShem (The Name), as well as the English names "Lord" and "God", are also used in modern-day Judaism. The latter is sometimes written "G-d" in reference to the taboo against pronouncing the tetragrammaton.[53]
The word "Elohim" has the Hebrew plural ending "-īm", which some Biblical scholars have taken as support for the general notion that the ancient Hebrews were polytheists in the time of the patriarchs; however, as the word itself is used with singular verbs, this hypothesis is not accepted in traditional Jewish thought. Jewish texts point out other words in Hebrew used in the same manner according to the rule of Hebrew Grammar, denoting respect, majesty and deliberation, similar to the royal plural in English and ancient Egyptian, and the use of the plural form "vous" for individuals of higher standing in modern French. Jewish Biblical scholars and historical commentary on the passage also suggest that Elohim in the plural form indicates God in conjunction with the heavenly court, i.e., the Angels. Some Kabbalistic texts explain the use of the Elohim as a pluralistic singularity, one essence sustaining all levels of creation from the mundane physical to the sublime and Holy spiritual.[54]
Christianity[link]
Main article: God in Christianity
Christians believe that the God worshiped by the faithful Hebrew people of the pre-Christian era has always revealed himself as he did through Jesus; but that this was never obvious until the Word of God (the divine Logos) became flesh and dwelt among us (see John 1). Also, despite the fact that the Angel of the Lord spoke to the Patriarchs, revealing God to them, it has always been only through the Spirit of God granting them understanding, that men have been able to later perceive that they had been visited by God himself. After Jesus was raised from the dead—according to Christian scriptures—this ancient Hebrew witness of how God reveals himself as Messiah came to be seen in a very different light. It was then that Jesus' followers began to speak widely of him as God himself,[John 20:28] although this had already been revealed to certain individuals during his ministry. Examples were the Samaritan woman in Shechem and Jesus' closest apostles.[55]
This belief gradually developed into the modern formulation of the Trinity, which is the doctrine that God is a single entity (singular God), but that there is a "triunity"[citation needed] in God, which has always been evident albeit not understood. This mysterious "triunity" is hypostatic; that is, there are three hypostases (personae in Latin) or "persons" of the Godhead (though this is a often misleading English rendering). In the traditional Christian concept, God the Father (the Source) has only revealed himself through his eternal Word (who was incarnated in human history as Jesus Christ). The three different hypostases are not "Gods" because they are one, and share the same Divine Nature; they are the one and the same God. The Father is the Begetter, the Son is the eternally Begotten, and the Spirit eternally proceeds from both (in Catholicism and Protestantism) or from just the Father (in Eastern Orthodoxy).
Non-trinitarian views have constructed various theological understandings, ranging from Binitarianism to Modalism. Some non-trinitarians would understand that the three are not three but one playing three different roles, in three different ages or dispensations. In the Age of the Father, as Jehovah. In the Age of the Son, as Jesus. And finally in the Age of the Holy Spirit, with a New Name, as the Second Coming of Christ. However, it should be noted that some Christian denominations reject the trinity and follow nontrinitarian beliefs, Jehovah Witnesses, Oneness Pentecostalism, Pentecostals, and Jesus-name Baptism churches being some of the nontrinitarianism.
Islam[link]
Main article: God in Islam
There is only one God in Islam. Allah is the Arabic name for God ("ʾilāh" is the Arabic term used for a deity or a god in general). Islamic tradition also describes the 99 names of God. These 99 names describe attributes of God, including Most Merciful, The Just, The Peace and Blessing, and the Guardian. Islamic belief in God is distinct from Christianity in that God has no progeny. This belief is summed up in chapter 112 of the Qur'an titled Al-Ikhlas, which states "Say, he is Allah (who is) one, Allah is the Eternal, the Absolute. He does not beget nor was he begotten. Nor is there to Him any equivalent.".[Quran 112:1]
Muslims believe that the Jewish God is the same as their God, and that Jesus was a divinely inspired prophet and was neither God nor His son. The Qur'an also draws a similitude between Jesus and Adam—the first human being created by God—saying they were both 'created without a father' by God who said the simple word "Be" (Arabic: kun).[Quran 3:59] Thus, both the Torah and the Gospels are believed to be based upon divine revelation, but most Muslims believe them to have been corrupted (both accidentally, through errors in transmission, and intentionally by certain Jews and Christians over the centuries). Muslims revere the Qur'an as the final uncorrupted word of God, or 'The Final Testament' as revealed through the last prophet, Prophet Muhammad. Muhammad is regarded as the "Seal of the Prophets" i.e. the last in a long chain, and Islam as the final monotheist faith, perfect in all respects as taught by the Qur'an.[Quran 5:3]
Religious scriptures[link]
All these religions rely on a body of scriptures, some of which are considered to be the word of God—hence sacred and unquestionable—and some the work of religious men, revered mainly by tradition and to the extent that they are considered to have been divinely inspired, if not dictated, by the divine being.
Jewish[link]
The sacred scriptures of Judaism are the Tanakh, a Hebrew acronym standing for Torah (Law or Teachings), Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). These are complemented by and supplemented with various (originally oral) traditions: Midrash, the Mishnah, the Talmud and collected rabbinical writings. The Tanakh (or Hebrew Bible) was composed between 1,400 BCE, and 400 BCE by Jewish prophets, kings, and priests. The Hebrew text of the Tanakh, and the Torah in particular, is considered holy, down to the last letter: transcribing is done with painstaking care. An error in a single letter, ornamentation or symbol of the 300,000+ stylized letters that make up the Hebrew Torah text renders a Torah scroll unfit for use; hence the skills of a Torah scribe are specialist skills, and a scroll takes considerable time to write and check.
Christian[link]
The sacred scriptures of most Christian groups are the Old Testament and The New Testament. The Old Testament in the Protestant King James is the same as the Hebrew Bible allowing for slight variations in grammer or slang. However, the Catholic Bible includes certain books that are considered historical in nature and not Inspired. The story of the Macabbees is where the the miracle of Hanaukkah is recorded, is not found in Jewish Scripture or in the Protestant King James, but is found in the Catholic Bible. Jesus quotes from the book of Enoch and neither Jewish or Protestant scripture includes Enoch. The New Testament comprises four accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus (the Four Gospels, traditionally attributed to the apostle Matthew; the apostle John; Mark, a student of the apostle Peter; and Luke, a student of the apostle Paul), as well as several other writings by the apostles (such as Paul). They are usually considered to be divinely inspired, and together comprise the Christian Bible. Thus, Christians consider the fundamental teachings of the Old Testament, in particular the Ten Commandments, as valid (see Biblical law in Christianity for details). However, they believe that non Jewish Christians only have to follow the Noahic laws (abstention from sexual immorality, odolatry, eating things strangled or drinking blood, theft)in that vein, Revelation shares a cautionary tale in which it is noted that Murder, Sexual immorality, Drugs, Theft, and Idolatry, caused people to not leave those practices but forsake God. The coming of Jesus as the Messiah and saviour of humankind as predicted in the Old Testament would shed light on the true relationship between God and mankind by restoring the emphasis of universal love and compassion, as mentioned in the Great Commandment, above the other commandments, also de-emphasising the more "legalistic" and material precepts of Mosaic Law (such as circumcision and the dietary constraints and temple rites) most of which would not apply to non jewish Gentile Chrsitain believers. Very few Christians believe that the link between Old and New Testaments in the Bible means that Judaism has been superseded by Christianity as the "new Israel",[56] and that Jesus' teachings described Israel not as a geographic place, but rather an association with God and promise of salvation in Heaven, a revisionist position rejected by Jews and others.
The vast majority of Christian faiths (generally including Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, Anglicanism and most forms of Protestantism) derive their beliefs from the conclusions reached by the First Council of Nicaea in 325 in a document known as the Nicene Creed. This describes the belief that God (as a Trinity of distinct persons with one substance) became human on earth, born as Jesus pursuant to the Old Testament scriptures, was crucified by humanity, died and was buried, then was resurrected by God on the third day to rise and enter the Kingdom of Heaven and "sit at the right hand of God" with a promise to return and establish a World to Come. Christians generally believe that faith in Jesus is the way to achieve salvation and to enter into Heaven and/or receive Eternal life, and that salvation is a gift given by the grace of God.
The vast majority of Christian faiths (including Catholicism, Orthodox Christianity, and most forms of Protestantism) recognize that the Gospels were passed on by oral tradition, and were not set to paper until decades after the death of Jesus, and that the extant versions are copies of those originals. The version of the Bible considered to be most valid (in the sense of best conveying the true meaning of the word of God) has varied considerably: the Greek Septuagint, the Syriac Peshitta, the Latin Vulgate, the English King James Version and the Russian Synodal Bible have been authoritative to different communities at different times. In particular, Christians usually consult the Tanakh when preparing new translations, although some believe that the Septuagint should be preferred, as it was the Bible of the Early Christian Greek Church, and because they believe its translators used a different Hebrew Bible to the ones that make up the current Masoretic Hebrew text, as there are some variant readings of the Dead Sea Scrolls confirmed by the Septuagint. In the same sense that the Jewish mystics viewed the Torah as something living and existing prior to any written text, so too do Christians view the Bible and Jesus himself as God's "Word" (or logos in Greek), transcending written documents.
The sacred scriptures of the Christian Bible are complemented by a large body of writings by individual Christians and councils of Christian leaders (see canon law). Some Christian churches and denominations consider certain additional writings to be binding; other Christian groups consider only the Bible to be binding (sola scriptura).
Islamic[link]
Islam's holiest book is the Qur'an, comprising 114 suras ("chapters of the Qur'an"). However, Muslims also believe in the religious texts of Judaism and Christianity in their original forms, albeit not the current versions (which they believe to be corrupted). According to the Qur'an (and mainstream Muslim belief), the verses of the Qur'an were revealed by Allah through the Archangel Jibrail to Muhammad on separate occasions. These revelations were written down and also memorized by hundreds of hafiz. These multiple sources were collected into one official copy and given its present order in 653 by the third Caliph.[dubious – discuss][citation needed]
The Qur'an mentions and reveres several of the Israelite prophets, including Moses and Jesus, among others (see also: Prophets of Islam). The stories of these prophets are very similar to those in the Bible. However, the detailed precepts of the Tanakh and the New Testament are not adopted outright; they are replaced by the new commandments accepted as revealed directly by Allah (through Gabriel) to Muhammad and codified in the Qur'an.
Like the Jews with the Torah, Muslims consider the original Arabic text of the Qur'an as uncorrupted and holy to the last letter, and any translations are considered to be interpretations of the meaning of the Qur'an, as only the original Arabic text is considered to be the divine scripture.[57]
Like the Rabbinic Oral Law to the Hebrew Bible, the Qur'an is complemented by the Hadith, a set of books by later authors recording the sayings of the prophet Muhammad. The Hadith interpret and elaborate Qur'anic precepts. Islamic scholars have categorized each Hadith at one of the following levels of authenticity or isnad: genuine (sahih), fair (hasan) or weak (da'if).[58]
By the 9th century, six major Hadith collections were accepted as reliable to Sunni Muslims.
Shia Muslims, however, refer to other authenticated hadiths instead.[59] They are known collectively as The Four Books.
The Hadith and the life story of Muhammad (sira) form the Sunnah, an authoritative supplement to the Qur'an. The legal opinions of Islamic jurists (Faqīh) provide another source for the daily practice and interpretation of Islamic tradition (see Fiqh.)
The Qur'an contains repeated references to the "religion of Abraham" (see Suras 2:130,135; 3:95; 6:123,161; 12:38; 16:123; 22:78). In the Qur'an, this expression refers specifically to Islam; sometimes in contrast to Christianity and Judaism, as in Sura 2:135, for example: 'They say: "Become Jews or Christians if ye would be guided (to salvation)." Say thou (O Muslims): "Nay! (I would rather) the Religion of Abraham the True, and he joined not gods with Allah." ' In the Qur'an, Abraham is declared to have been a Muslim (a hanif, more accurately a "primordial monotheist"), not a Jew nor a Christian (Sura 3:67).
End times and afterlife[link]
Main article: Eschatology
In the major Abrahamic religions, there exists the expectation of an individual who will herald the time of the end and/or bring about the Kingdom of God on Earth; in other words, the Messianic prophecy. Judaism awaits the coming of the Jewish Messiah; the Jewish concept of Messiah differs from the Christian concept in several significant ways, despite the same term being applied to both. The Jewish Messiah is not seen as a "god", but as a mortal man who by his holiness is worthy of that description. His appearance is not the end of history, rather it signals the coming of the world to come.
Christianity awaits the Second Coming of Christ, though Full Preterists believe this has already happened. Islam awaits both the second coming of Jesus (to complete his life and die) and the coming of Mahdi (Sunnis in his first incarnation, Shi'a as the return of Muhammad al-Mahdi).
Most Abrahamic religions agree that a human being comprises the body, which dies, and the soul, which is capable of remaining alive beyond human death and carries the person's essence, and that God will judge each person's life accordingly after death. The importance of this and the focus on it, as well as the precise criteria and end result, differs between religions.[citation needed]
Judaism[link]
Main article: Olam Haba
Judaism's views on the afterlife ("the Next World") are quite diverse. This can be attributed to the fact that although there clearly are traditions in the Hebrew Bible of an afterlife (see Naboth and the Witch of Endor), Judaism focuses on this life and how to lead a holy life to please God, rather than future reward, and its attitude can be mostly summed up by the rabbinical observation that at the start of Genesis, God clothed the naked (Adam and Eve); at the end of Deuteronomy, he buried the dead (Moses) and the Children of Israel mourned for 40 days before getting on with their lives.[citation needed]
Christianity[link]
Main articles: Christian eschatology and World to Come#Christianity
Christians have more diverse and definite teachings on the end times and what constitutes afterlife. Most Christian approaches either include different abodes for the dead (Heaven, Hell, Limbo, Purgatory) or universal reconciliation in which all souls are made in the image of God. A small minority teach annihilationism, the doctrine that those persons who are not reconciled to God simply cease to exist (though the Roman Catholic Church has no official teaching on what kind of place hell is, and indeed allows that it might be a locale of oblivion).[citation needed]
Islam[link]
Main article: Islamic eschatology
In Islam, God is said to be "Most Compassionate and Most Merciful" (Qur'an 1:1, as well as the start of all suras but one). However, God is also "Most Just"; Islam prescribes a literal Hell for those who disobey God and commit gross sin. Those who obey God and submit to God will be rewarded with their own place in Paradise. While sinners are punished with fire, there are also many other forms of punishment described, depending on the sin committed; Hell is divided into numerous levels.
Those who worship and remember God are promised eternal abode in a physical and spiritual Paradise. Heaven is divided into seven levels, with the highest level of Paradise being the reward of those who have been most virtuous, the prophets, and those killed while fighting for Allah (martyrs).
Upon repentance to God, many sins can be forgiven, on the condition they are not repeated, as God is supremely merciful. Additionally, those who believe in God, but have led sinful lives, may be punished for a time, and then eventually released into Paradise. If anyone dies in a state of Shirk (i.e., associating God in any way, such as claiming that He is equal with anything or denying Him), this is not pardonnable—he or she will stay forever in Hell.
Once a person is admitted to Paradise, this person will abide there for eternity.[60]
Worship and religious rites[link]
Worship, ceremonies and religion-related customs differ substantially among the Abrahamic religions. Among the few similarities are a seven-day cycle in which one day is nominally reserved for worship, prayer or other religious activities—Shabbat, Sabbath, or jumu'ah; this custom is related to the biblical story of Genesis, where God created the universe in six days, and rested in the seventh.
Judaism[link]
Orthodox Judaism practice is guided by the interpretation of the Torah and the Talmud. Before the destruction of the Temple in Jerusalem, Jewish priests offered sacrifices there two times daily; since then, the practice has been replaced, until the Temple is rebuilt, by Jewish men being required to pray three times daily, including the chanting of the Torah, and facing in the direction of Jerusalem's Temple Mount. Jewish women's prayer obligations vary by denomination; in contemporary orthodox practice, women do not read from the Torah and are only required to say certain parts of these daily services. Other practices include circumcision, dietary laws, Shabbat, Passover, Torah study, Tefillin, purity and others. Conservative Judaism, Reform Judaism and the Reconstructionist movement all move away, in different degrees, from the strict tradition of the law.
All versions of Judaism share a common, specialized calendar, containing many festivals. The calendar is lunisolar, with lunar months and a solar year (an extra month is added every second or third year to allow the shorter lunar year to "catch up" to the solar year). All streams observe the same festivals, but some emphasize them differently. As is usual with its extensive law system, the Orthodox have the most complex manner of observing the festivals, while the Reform pay more attention to the simple symbolism of each one.
Christianity[link]
Main article: Christian worship
Christian worship varies from denomination to denomination. Individual prayer is usually not ritualised, while group prayer may be ritual or non-ritual according to the occasion. During church services some form of liturgy is frequently followed. Rituals are performed during sacraments, which also vary from denomination to denomination and usually include baptism and communion, and may also include confirmation, confession, last rites and holy orders. Catholic worship practice is governed by the Roman Missal and other documents. Individuals, churches and denominations place different emphasis on ritual—some denominations consider most ritual activity optional, see Adiaphora, particularly since the Protestant Reformation.
Islam[link]
The followers of Islam (Muslims) are to observe the Five Pillars of Islam. The first pillar is the belief in the oneness of Allah, and in Muhammad as his final and most perfect prophet. The second is to pray five times daily (salat) towards the direction (qibla) of the Kaaba in Mecca. The third pillar is alms giving (Zakah), a portion of one's wealth given to the poor or to other specified causes, which means the giving of a specific share of one's wealth and savings to persons or causes, as is commanded in the Qur'an and elucidated as to specific percentages for different kinds of income and wealth in the hadith. The normal share to be paid is two and a half percent of one's earnings: this increases if labour was not required, and increases further if only capital or possessions alone were required (i.e. proceeds from renting space), and increases to 50% on "unearned wealth" such as treasure-finding, and to 100% on wealth that is considered haram, as part of attempting to make atonement for the sin, such as that gained through financial interest (riba). Fasting (sawm) during the ninth month of the Muslim lunar calendar, Ramadan, is the fourth pillar of Islam, to which all Muslims after the age of puberty in good health (as judged by a Muslim doctor to be able fast without incurring grave danger to health: even in seemingly-obvious situations, a "competent and upright Muslim physician" is required to agree), that are not menstruating are bound to observe—missed days of the fast for any reason must be made up, unless there be a permanent illness, such as diabetes, that prevents a person from ever fasting. In such a case, restitution must be made by feeding one poor person for each day missed. Finally, Muslims are also required, if physically able, to undertake a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in one's life: it is strongly recommended to do it as often as possible, preferably once a year. Only individuals whose financial position and health are severely insufficient are exempt from making Hajj (e.g. if making Hajj would put stress on one's financial situation, but would not end up in homelessness or starvation, it is still required). During this pilgrimage, the Muslims spend three to seven days in worship, performing several strictly-defined rituals, most notably circumambulating the Kaaba among millions of other Muslims and the "stoning of the devil" at Mina. At the end of the Hajj, the heads of men are shaved, sheep and other halal animals, notably camels, are slaughtered as a ritual sacrifice by bleeding out at the neck according to a strictly-prescribed ritual slaughter method similar to the Jewish kashrut, to commemorate the moment when, according to Islamic tradition, Allah replaced Abraham's son Ishmael (contrasted with the Judaeo-Christian tradition that Isaac was the intended sacrifice) with a sheep, thereby preventing human sacrifice. The meat from these animals is then distributed locally to needy Muslims, neighbours and relatives. Finally, the hajji puts of ihram and the hajj is complete.[citation needed]
Circumcision[link]
See also: Circumcision in the Bible, Brit Milah, Khitan (Circumcision), Circumcision controversy in early Christianity, and History of male circumcision
Judaism practices circumcision for males as a matter of religious obligation, as does Islam as part of Sunnah (the practice is not mandated by the Qur'an).
Western Christianity replaced that custom with a baptism[61] ceremony varying according to the denomination, but generally including immersion, aspersion, or anointment with water. The Early Church (Acts 15, the Council of Jerusalem) decided that circumcision is not required for Gentile Christians. The Council of Florence in the 15th century[62] prohibited it. Paragraph #2297 of the Catholic Catechism calls non-medical amputation or mutilation immoral.[63][64] Many countries with majorities of Christian adherents have low circumcision rates (with the notable exceptions of the United States[65] and the Philippines). Coptic Christianity and Ethiopian Orthodoxy still observe circumcision. See also Aposthia.
Male circumcision is among the rites of Islam and is part of the (in Arabic): fitrah, or the innate disposition and natural character and instinct of the human creation.
Food restrictions[link]
See also: Apostolic Decree
Judaism and Islam have strict dietary laws, with permitted food known as kosher in Judaism, and halal in Islam. These two religions prohibit the consumption of pork; Islam prohibits the consumption of alcoholic beverages of any kind. Halal restrictions can be seen as a modification of the kashrut dietary laws, so many kosher foods are considered halal; especially in the case of meat, which Islam prescribes must be slaughtered in the name of God. Hence in Morocco Muslims used to consume kosher food. Similarly, some foods not considered kosher are considered halal in Islam.[66]
With rare exceptions, Christians do not consider the Old Testament's strict food laws as relevant for today's church; see also Biblical law in Christianity. Most Protestants have no set food laws, but there are minority exceptions.[67]
The Roman Catholic Church believes in observing abstinence and penance. For example, all Fridays through the year and the time of Lent are penitential days.[68] The law of abstinence requires a Catholic from 14 years of age until death to abstain from eating meat on Fridays in honor of the Passion of Jesus on Good Friday. The United States Conference of Catholic Bishops obtained the permission of the Holy See for Catholics in the U.S. to substitute a penitential, or even a charitable, practice of their own choosing.[69] Eastern Rite Catholics have their own penitential practices as specified by the Code of Canons for the Eastern Churches.
The Seventh-day Adventist Church (SDA) embraces numerous Old Testament rules and regulations such as tithing, Sabbath observance, and Jewish Food laws. Therefore, they do not eat pork, shellfish, or other foods considered unclean under the Old Covenant. The "Fundamental Beliefs" of the SDA state that their members "are to adopt the most healthful diet possible and abstain from the unclean foods identified in the Scriptures."[Leviticus 11:1–47] among others[70]
In the Christian Bible, the consumption of strangled animals and of blood was forbidden by Apostolic Decree[Acts 15:19–21] and are still forbidden in the Greek Orthodox Church, according to German theologican Karl Josef von Hefele, who, in his Commentary on Canon II of the Second Ecumenical Council held in the 4th century at Gangra, notes: "We further see that, at the time of the Synod of Gangra, the rule of the Apostolic Synod [the Council of Jerusalem of Acts 15] with regard to blood and things strangled was still in force. With the Greeks, indeed, it continued always in force as their Euchologies still show." He also writes that "as late as the eighth century, Pope Gregory the Third, in 731, forbade the eating of blood or things strangled under threat of a penance of forty days."[71]
Jehovah's Witnesses abstain from eating blood and from blood transfusions based on Acts 15:19–21.
Sabbath observance[link]
Sabbath in the Bible is a weekly day of rest and time of worship. It is observed differently in Judaism and Christianity and informs a similar occasion in several other Abrahamic faiths. Though many viewpoints and definitions have arisen over the millennia, most originate in the same textual tradition. Though not a day of rest (creation does not make God tired and therefore He did not rest on the 7th day in Muslim belief), Islam holds Friday as a day of special prayer.[citation needed]
Proselytism[link]
Judaism[link]
Judaism accepts converts, but has no explicit missionaries as such since the end of the Second Temple era. Judaism states that non-Jews can achieve righteousness by following Noahide Laws, a set of seven universal commandments non-Jews are expected to follow. In this context, the Rambam (Rabbi Moses Maimonides, one of the major Jewish teachers) commented: "Quoting from our sages, the righteous people from other nations have a place in the world to come, if they have acquired what they should learn about the Creator". Because the commandments applicable to the Jews are much more detailed and onerous than Noahide laws, Jewish scholars have traditionally maintained that it is better to be a good non-Jew than a bad Jew, thus discouraging conversion. In the U.S., as of 2003 28% of married Jews were married to non-Jews.[72] See also Conversion to Judaism.
Christianity[link]
Christianity encourages evangelism. Many Christian organizations, especially Protestant churches, send missionaries to non-Christian communities throughout the world. See also Great Commission. Forced conversions to Catholicism have been documented at various points throughout history. The most prominently cited allegations are the conversions of the pagans after Constantine; of Muslims, Jews and Eastern Orthodox during the Crusades; of Jews and Muslims during the time of the Spanish Inquisition, where they were offered the choice of exile, conversion or death; and of the Aztecs by Hernan Cortes. Forced conversions to Protestantism have occurred as well, notably during the Reformation, especially in England and Ireland (see recusancy and Popish plot).
Forced conversions are condemned as sinful by major denominations such as the Roman Catholic Church, which officially states that forced conversions pollute the Christian religion and offend human dignity, so that past or present offenses are regarded as a scandal (a cause of unbelief). According to Pope Paul VI, "It is one of the major tenets of Catholic doctrine that man's response to God in faith must be free: no one therefore is to be forced to embrace the Christian faith against his own will."[73]
Islam[link]
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Muslims are encouraged to proselytize for their religion, which the devout believe is the only path to salvation from hellfire.[dubious – discuss][citation needed] Most mainstream Muslim groups reject using violence to spread the religion.[citation needed] However, this has been contested by critics such as Bat Ye'or and Robert Spencer[74] who believe that Muhammad, by his own example, sought forced universal conversion of non-Muslims.[75]
The Qu'ran says,
"If then, ye (the wrongdoers or mushrikun, commonly translated as "unbelievers") repent, it were best for you; but if ye turn away, know ye that ye cannot frustrate Allah. And proclaim a grievous penalty to those who reject Faith."[Quran 9:3]
"...fight and slay the unbelievers wherever ye find them, and seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war)..."[Quran 9:5]
"Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth."[Quran 9:29]
These verses, being in context of a particular historic war only,[dubious – discuss] do not necessarily indicate that Islam permits killing or forcing people in the name of religion.[citation needed] However, it is the ijma, or unanimous opinion of Islamic scholars from the 8th century until the present day, that these verses do indeed command the faithful to rule the world under the Shariah; they also are acknowledged as being the final and eternal word of Allah on matters of war and peace, abrogating earlier verses, and apply for all times, not just a specific war of the past.[76]
During the Ummayad dynasty Muslim rulers imposed a Jizya (poll tax) on dhimmis (non-Muslims living under Islamic rule), something that some argue encouraged conversion. The Jizya also afforded the dhimmis limited protection by the ruler from outside enemies, but not necessarily from the ruler and his subjects, as pogroms were not infreqeunt[74] and exemption form serving in the army at the cost of loss of freedom, franchise, and humiliation.[74]
Islam has missionaries. They are known as Dawah networks and encourage followers to learn about Islam. Dawah networks and schools have travelled to places such as India, present day Pakistan, Malaysia, Indonesia, Russia, Central Asia, parts of Africa, the Balkans and Eurasia, and have successfully garnered converts through these networks and schools. Presently, many Dawah schools aim to gain more followers.[77]
Islam distinguishes between "People of the Book"—followers of the Abrahamic religions, which include the group referred to as Sabians—and other religious beliefs. While members of all religions are encouraged to convert, penalties and compulsions on People of the Book are less.[citation needed]
Violent conflicts[link]
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Between Abrahamic religions[link]
- The wars between the emerging Islamic Caliphates and the Christian Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire between the 7th and the 11th centuries CE were a series of military, political and religious conflicts which led to the islamization of large territories in the Near East such as Egypt and Syria.
- The Crusades (end of 11th – end of 13th century CE) were a series of military expeditions from Western Europe to the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean: a rather unsuccessful attempt by Western (Catholic) Christians to conquer what was perceived by all Christians as the Holy Land from its Muslim inhabitants. In passing, Crusades were also marked with conflicts between Western and Eastern (Orthodox, Syro-Jacobite and Armenian) Christians and unilateral damage inflicted by Western Christians to Jews.
- The conquest and the following Reconquista of Spain (beginning of 8th – end of 15th century CE) were a series of wars between Muslims and Christians in the Iberian peninsula resulting in the founding of several Muslim and Christian Medieval states and the final victory of the Catholic Crown of Castile and Aragon against the Muslim Emirate of Granada.
- The Ottoman conquest of the Balkan peninsula (mid-14th – end of 15th century CE) followed by a series of wars between the Islamic Ottoman Empire and various Christian powers and alliances (end of 14th – beginning of 20th century CE) was an important political, military and cultural process for South-Eastern Europe resulting in the fall of the Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) Empire and its successor states and finally leading to the emerging of several modern nations in that region.
- The Spanish inquisition was an attempt by the Christian Catholic church in Spain to suppress or expel Jews and Muslims and to prosecute Christian heretics.
Openly Jewish and Muslim people were expelled rather than killed, but many submitted to forced conversion to Catholicism to avoid expulsion. The Inquisitors often did not trust the converts, and persecuted them cruelly for being secret adherents of their original religions, which was often true but sometimes fabricated. Jewish forced converts were known as "anusim," or sometimes by the pejorative "morrano (pig)."
- Pogroms against Jews were not uncommon in Western and Eastern Europe during Christendom's thousand year history, and were also common in many Islamic areas at various times. See blood libel.
- The Christian Reformation of the 16th century CE was an attempt towards a religious reform in the Western (Catholic) Christian Church which resulted in a series of Religious Wars between Catholic and emerging Reformist/Protestant Christian forces during the 16th and 17th centuries CE throughout Western Europe.
- Persecution of Bahá'ís and Political accusations against the Baha'i Faith review the substantive efforts in parts of the world against the Bahá'ís and their religion.
Between branches of the same Abrahamic religion[link]
- The Fourth Crusade and subsequent wars between Catholic Europeans and the Orthodox Byzantine Greeks following the Great Schism.
- The Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604) was due to religious conflict between Catholic and Protestant Christians, and economic causes.
- There have been many violent conflicts between the Sunni and Shi'a branches of Islam; see Shi'a–Sunni relations.
- After the 2003 invasion of Iraq by a western coalition there was armed conflict between branches of Islam, with fighting and bombings, even of mosques.
Between Abrahamic religions and non-adherents[link]
- The Catholic Inquisition, mentioned above, also targeted non-believers in the orthodox doctrines of Roman Catholicism and many accused of atheism (regardless of what they professed) lost their livelihoods or their lives.
- The colonization of North America by the Conquistadores was done in the name of Catholicism.
- Abrahamic religions have had large numbers of their adherents persecuted in the form of loss of life, seizure of property and other forms of persecution due to Communism, Fascism and Nazism.
Other Abrahamic religions[link]
Historically, the Abrahamic religions have been considered to be Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Some of this is due to the age and larger size of these three. The other, similar religions were seen as either too new to judge as being truly in the same class, or too small to be of significance to the category.
However, some of the restriction of Abrahamic to these three is due only to tradition in historical classification. Therefore, restricting the category to these three religions has come under criticism.[78] The religions listed below here claim Abrahamic classification, either by the religions themselves, or by scholars who study them.
Bahá'í Faith[link]
Main article: Bahá'í Faith
Recently the Bahá'í Faith, which dates only to the late 19th century, has sometimes been listed as Abrahamic by scholarly sources in various fields.[43][79]
Though smaller and younger than the well known Abrahamic religions, the Bahá'í Faith is significant because of its activities, distribution and numbers. The religion is almost entirely contained in a single, organized, hierarchical community, and is also recognized as the second-most geographically widespread religion after Christianity.[6][80] The Association of Religion Data Archives estimated some 7.6 million Bahá'ís in 2005.[81]
Bahá'u'lláh, the founder, affirms the highest religious station for Abraham and generally for prophets mentioned among the other Abrahamic religions,[82] and has claimed a lineage of descent from Abraham through Keturah and Sarah.[83][84][85] Additionally Bahá'u'lláh actually did lose a son, Mírzá Mihdí.[86] Bahá'u'lláh, then in prison, eulogized his son and connected the subsequent easing of restrictions to his son's dying prayer and compared it to the intended sacrifice of Abraham’s son.[87]
The religion also shares many of the same commonalities of Judaism, Christianity and Islam.[82][88][89] The religion emphasizes monotheism and believes in one eternal transcendent God.[29][90][91] (See God in the Bahá'í Faith.) The religion accepts the premise, and is a victim, of the theme of a prophetic tradition pattern in that it accepts the founders of the previous major Abrahamic religions as Manifestations of God come with revelation under one God[29][30][31] and has been persecuted and rejected as a religion. Bahá'ís believe that Bahá'u'lláh is the latest, though not last, of the series of messengers of God and that this series of interventions by God in human history has been progressive, each revelation from God more complete and based on the teachings of those that preceded it, and each preparing the way for the next.[92]
Ethnographic Abrahamic religions[link]
Sometimes small religions are mentioned as Abrahamic—Samaritanism,[93] Yazidi,[94] Druzes,[95] Mandeans,[96] and Rastafari movement.[84] These religions are regional: Samaritans largely in Israel and the West Bank,[97] Yazidi among the Kurds though there has been some emigration,[98] Druze among the Syrians and Lebanese,[99] Mandean largely in Iraq,[100] Rastafari mostly in Jamaica.[101]
See also[link]
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Book: Abrahamic religions |
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- Abrahamites
- Ancient Semitic religion
- Center for Muslim-Jewish Engagement
- Christian mythology
- Christian philosophy
- Christianity and Islam
- Christianity and Judaism
- Comparative religion
- Deconstruction and religion
- Islam and Judaism
- Islamic mythology
- Islamic philosophy
- Jewish mythology
- Jewish philosophy
- Judeo-Christian
- People of the Book
- Ten Commandments
Notes[link]
Footnotes[link]
- ^ Jacob is also called Israel, a name the Bible states he was given by God.
- ^ cf. Judaizer, Messianic Judaism
- ^ With several centers, such as Rome, Jerusalem, Alexandria, Thessaloniki and Corinth, Antioch, and later spread outwards, eventually having two main centers in the empire, one for the Western Church and one for the Eastern Church in Rome and Constantinople respectively by the 5th century AD
- ^ Triune God is also called the "Holy Trinity"
- ^ Islam arose specifically in Hejaz cities of Mecca and Medina of Arabia
- ^ The monotheistic view of God in Islam is called tawhid which is essentially the same as the conception of God in Judaism
- ^ Teachings and practices of Muhammad are collectively known as the sunnah, similar to the Judaic concepts of oral law and exegesis, or talmud and midrash
- ^ Historically, the Bahá'í Faith arose in 19th century Persia, in the context of Shi'a Islam, and thus may be classed on this basis as a divergent strand of Islam, placing it in the Abrahamic tradition. However, the Bahá'í Faith considers itself an independent religious tradition, which draws from Islam but also other traditions. The Bahá'í Faith may also be classed as a new religious movement, due to its comparatively recent origin, or may be considered sufficiently old and established for such classification to not be applicable.
Citations[link]
- ^ "Philosophy of Religion". Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Archived from the original on 21 July 2010. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/497132/philosophy-of-religion. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
- ^ a b Massignon 1949, pp. 20–23
- ^ a b Smith 1998, p. 276
- ^ a b Derrida 2002, p. 3
- ^ Hunter, Preston. "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html.
- ^ a b c d e Worldwide Adherents of All Religions by Six Continental Areas, Mid-2002. 2002. http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911. Retrieved 31 May 2006.
- ^
- Dolbee, Sandi (27 Mar 2003). "Faith, Hope and Understand: Teenagers Questions and learn about each other's Faiths". The San Diego Union – Tribune: p. E.1. http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/sandiego/access/319404861.html?dids=319404861:319404861&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Mar+27%2C+2003&author=Sandi+Dolbee&pub=The+San+Diego+Union+-+Tribune&edition=&startpage=E.1&desc=FAITH%2C+HOPE+AND+UNDERSTAND+%7C+TEENAGERS+QUESTIONS+AND+LEARN+ABOUT+EACH+OTHER%27S+FAITHS. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- "WORLD RELIGIONS RESOURCES". WPC library catalog. Warner Pacific College. 2012. http://www.warnerpacific.edu/current-students/library/resources/world-religions-resources. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- "The Journey of Abraham". Part of Library’s Stories of Faith Program; Discussion to Focus on Shared Beliefs of Semitic Religions. San Diego Public Library. http://www.sandiego.gov/public-library/pdf/prabram081004.pdf. Retrieved 3–3-2012.
- "Tagged: Abrahamic religions". Search Results. National Library of Australia. 2012. http://trove.nla.gov.au/book/result?l-publictag=Abrahamic+religions&q&s=0. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- "Why "Abrahamic"?". Lubar Institute for Religious Studies at U of Wisconsin. http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/abrahamic.html. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- Mayton, Daniel M. (2009). Nonviolent Perspectives Within the Abrahamic Religions. Peace Psychology Book Series. Springer US. pp. 167– 203. DOI:10.1007/978-0-387-89348-8_7. ISBN 978-0-387-89348-8.
- "Abrahamic religions". Library of Congress Authorities & Vocabularies. The Library of Congress. 16 October 2008. http://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2008008229. Retrieved 3 March 2012.
- Bacquet, Karen (May 2006). "When Principle and Authority Collide: Baha'i Responses to the Exclusion of Women from the Universal House of Justice". Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions (University of California Press) 9 (4): 34–52. DOI:10.1525/nr.2006.9.4.034. JSTOR 10.1525/nr.2006.9.4.034.
- ^ "Religion: Three Religions – One God". Global Connections of the Middle East. WGBH Educational Foundation. 2002. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html. Retrieved 20 September 2009.
- ^ The Quran, albaqarah; v. 135
- ^ Scherman, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Saheeh al-Bukharee, Book 55, hadith no. 584; Book 56, hadith no. 710
- ^ David Kay, The Semitic Religions—Hebrew, Jewish, Christian & Moslem, Reqd books, 2008
- ^ a b c Dodds, Adam (July 2009). "The Abrahamic Faiths? Continuity and Discontinuity in Christian and Islamic Doctrine". Evangelical Quarterly 81 (3): 230–253.
- ^ Greenstreet, p. 95.
- ^ a b Peters, Francis E.; Esposito, John L. (2006). The children of Abraham: Judaism, Christianity, Islam. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-12769-9. http://books.google.com/?id=Zu6EAAAACAAJ.
- ^ "Polytheism and Christian Belief". University of Notre Dame. http://www.nd.edu/~mrea/Online%20Papers/Polytheism%20and%20Christian%20Belief%20_revisedfinal_.pdf.
- ^ Noll, M., "Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity", Inter-Varsity Press, 1997, p52
- ^ cf. Philip Schaff's The Seven Ecumenical Councils —The Nicene Creed and Creeds of Christendom: § 8. The Nicene Creed
- ^ Islam, Muslims, and America: Understanding the Basis of Their Conflict, Arshad Khan, p.239 [1]
- ^ Quran 9:31
- ^ a b World Christian Database Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary Centre for the Study of Global Christianity
- ^ MacEoin, Denis (2000). "Roman Catholicism". In Hinnells, John R.. The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions: Second Edition. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-051480-5.
- ^ 2010 World Muslim Population pdf Dr. Houssain Kettani January 2010
- ^ "Mapping the Global Muslim Population". Archived from the original on 23 June 2011. http://pewforum.org/docs/?DocID=450. Retrieved 24 June 2011.
- ^ "World distribution of muslim population". Pew Centre. June 2011. Archived from the original on 9 May 2011. http://pewresearch.org/assets/pewforum-muslim-project/weighted-map.htm. Retrieved 24 June 2011.
- ^ MacEoin, Denis (2000). "Eastern Orthodoxy". In Hinnells, John R.. The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions: Second Edition. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-051480-5.
- ^ MacEoin, Denis (2000). "Protestantism". In Hinnells, John R.. The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions: Second Edition. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-051480-5.
- ^ Uri Rubin, Prophets and Prophethood, Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an
- ^ a b c Smith 2008, pp. 106–107
- ^ a b Cole, Juan (1982). "The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahá'í Writings". Bahá'í Studies monograph 9: 1–38. http://bahai-library.com/cole_concept_manifestation.
- ^ a b Smith 2008, pp. 111–112
- ^ "World Religions (2005)". QuickLists – The World – Religions. The Association of Religion Data Archives. 2005. http://www.thearda.com/QuickLists/QuickList_125.asp. Retrieved 4 July 2009.
- ^ "World: People: Religions". CIA World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 2007. ISSN 1553-8133. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html#people. Retrieved 24 June 2011.
- ^ Cohen, Mark R. (24 June 2011). "The New Muslim Anti-Semitism". The Jerusalem Post. http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1198517277167&pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FPrinter.
- ^ Wiener, Philip P. Dictionary of the History of Ideas. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1973–74. The Electronic Text Center at the University of Virginia Library. Retrieved 4 August 2009.
- ^ Morgenstern, Arie; Translated by Joel A. Linsider (2006). "Epilogue: Emergence of a Jewish Majority in Jerusalem". Hastening redemption: Messianism and the resettlement of the land of Israel. US: Oxford University Press. p. 201. ISBN 978-0-19-530578-4. http://books.google.com/books?id=N4q25b69yQ8C&lpg=PA201&pg=PA201#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ Lapidoth, Ruth; Moshe Hirsch (1994). The Jerusalem question and its resolution: selected documents. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 384. ISBN 978-0-7923-2893-3. http://books.google.com/?id=e93JIwTBjHgC&lpg=PA384&pg=PA384#v=onepage&q.
- ^ a b Wilken, Robert L. "From Time Immemorial? Dwellers in the Holy Land." Christian Century, 30 July – 6 August 1986, p.678.
- ^ Crone and Cook, Patricia and Michael (1980). Hagarism: the Making of the Islamic World. Cambridge, England, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-521-29754-7.
- ^ Miraj(Britannica)
- ^ "Jerusalem (Britannica)", Jerusalem(Britannica)
- ^ Dome of the Rock
- ^ a b "Why "Abrahamic"?". Welcome. Lubar Institute for Religious Studies at University of Wisconsin - Madison. 2007. http://lisar.lss.wisc.edu/welcome/abrahamic.html. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
- ^ Blasi, Turcotte, Duhaime, p. 592.
- ^ "The Hymn of Security MacArthur, John (1996). The MacArthur New Testament Commentary: Romans. Chicago: Moody Press. ISBN 0-8254-1522-5.
- ^ "So those who have faith are blessed along with Abraham, the man of faith."
- ^ Bickerman, p.188cf.
- ^ Leeming, David Adams (2005). The Oxford companion to world mythology. US: Oxford University Press. p. 209. ISBN 978-0-19-515669-0. http://books.google.com/?id=kQFtlva3HaYC&lpg=PA209&pg=PA209#v=onepage&q.
- ^ Fischer, Michael M. J.; Mehdi Abedi (1990). Debating Muslims: cultural dialogues in postmodernity and tradition. Univ of Wisconsin Press. pp. 163–166. ISBN 978-0-299-12434-2. http://books.google.com/?id=J5RGlpx0j8sC&lpg=PA163&pg=PA163#v=onepage&q.
- ^ a b Religions » Islam » Islam at a glance, BBC, 5 August 2009.
- ^ Hawting, Gerald R. (2006). The development of Islamic ritual; Volume 26 of The formation of the classical Islamic world. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. pp. xviii, xix, xx, xxiii. ISBN 978-0-86078-712-9. http://books.google.com/?id=oCvf76uT3wMC&lpg=PR18&pg=PR18#v=onepage&q.
- ^ Pavlac, Brian A (2010). A Concise Survey of Western Civilization: Supremacies and Diversities. Chapter 6.
- ^ "Otherness and nearness." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Web: 15 Jul 2010. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/307197/Judaism/35235/God
- ^ e.g. Likutei Moharan I 4:2.
- ^ See Raymond E. Brown's "Does the New Testament call Jesus God?" in Theological Studies No. 26, 1965, pp. 545–573 for the technical discussion.
- ^ Merkle, John C.; Harrelson, Walter J. Faith transformed: Christian encounters with Jews and Judaism. Liturgical Press, 2003. p.189.
- ^ Baker, Mona; Saldanha, Gabriela (2008). Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies. Routledge. p. 227. ISBN 978-0-415-36930-5. http://books.google.com/?id=eXsDckV5GuMC&lpg=PA227&pg=PA227#v=onepage&q.
- ^ ʻUthmān ibn ʻAbd al-Raḥmān Ibn al-Ṣalāḥ al-Shahrazūrī; Eerik Dickinson (2006). An Introduction to the Science of Hadith: Kitab Ma'rifat Anwa' 'ilm Al-hadith. Garnet & Ithaca Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-85964-158-3. http://books.google.com/?id=Yq-aprUAyuUC&lpg=PA15&pg=PA5#v=onepage&q.
- ^ Momen, Moojan (1985). An introduction to Shiʻi Islam: the history and doctrines of Twelver Shiʻism. Yale University Press. pp. 173–4. ISBN 978-0-300-03531-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=zot5IK1csp0C&dq.
- ^ al-Misri, Ahmad ibn Naqib (1994). Reliance of the Traveler (edited and translated by Nuh Ha Mim Keller). Amana Publications. pp. 995–1002. ISBN 0-915957-72-8.
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Baptism: "According to rabbinical teachings, which dominated even during the existence of the Temple (Pes. viii. 8), Baptism, next to circumcision and sacrifice, was an absolutely necessary condition to be fulfilled by a proselyte to Judaism (Yeb. 46b, 47b; Ker. 9a; 'Ab. Zarah 57a; Shab. 135a; Yer. Kid. iii. 14, 64d). Circumcision, however, was much more important, and, like baptism, was called a "seal" (Schlatter, "Die Kirche Jerusalems", 1898, p. 70). But as circumcision was discarded by Christianity, and the sacrifices had ceased, Baptism remained the sole condition for initiation into religious life. The next ceremony, adopted shortly after the others, was the imposition of hands, which, it is known, was the usage of the Jews at the ordination of a rabbi. Anointing with oil, which at first also accompanied the act of Baptism, and was analogous to the anointment of priests among the Jews, was not a necessary condition".
- ^ "Ecumenical Council of Florence (1438–1445)". The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
- ^ Catechism of the Catholic Church: Article 5—The Fifth commandment. Christus Rex et Redemptor Mundi. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
- ^ Dietzen, John. "The Morality of Circumcision", The Circumcision Reference Library. Retrieved 10 July 2007.
- ^ Ray, Mary G. "82% of the World's Men are Intact", Mothers Against Circumcision, 1997.
- ^ "Halal & Healthy: Is Kosher Halal", SoundVision.com—Islamic information & products. 5 August 2009.
- ^ Schuchmann, Jennifer. "Does God Care What We Eat?", Today's Christian, January/February 2006. Retrieved 6 August 2009.
- ^ Canon 1250, 1983. The 1983 Code of Canon Law specifies the obligations of Latin Rite Catholic.
- ^ "Fasting and Abstinence", Catholic Online. 6 August 2009.
- ^ "Fundamental Beliefs", #22. Christian Behavior. Seventh-Day Adventist Church website. 6 August 2009.
- ^ Schaff, Philip. "Canon II of The Council of Gangra." The Seven Ecumenical Councils. 6 August 2009. Commentary on Canon II of Gangra.
- ^ Kornbluth, Doron. Why marry Jewish?. Southfield, MI: Targum Press, 2003. ISBN 978-1-56871-250-5
- ^ Pope Paul VI. "Declaration on Religious Freedom", 7 December 1965.
- ^ a b c Spencer, Robert (2005). The Myth of Islamic Tolerance: How Islamic Law Treats Non-Muslims. Prometheus Books. p. 594. ISBN 978-1-59102-249-7.
- ^ http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/bukhari/002.sbt.html
- ^ Keller, Nuh (1997). Umdat al Salik: The Reliance of the Traveller and Tools of the Worshipper: the Classic Manual of Islamic Sacred Law. Amana. p. 1232. ISBN 978-0-915957-72-9.
- ^ "A Guide to Dawah". 7 August 2009.
- ^ *Micksch, Jürgen (2009). "Trialog International – Die jährliche Konferenz". Herbert Quandt Stiftung. http://www.herbert-quandt-stiftung.de/root/index.php?lang=de&page_id=885. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
- Collins, William P., reviewer (1 September 2004). "Review of: The Children of Abraham : Judaism, Christianity, Islam / F. E. Peters. New ed. Princeton, NJ : Princeton University Press, 2004". Library Journal (New York) 129 (14): 157, 160. ISBN 978-0-691-12769-9. http://books.google.com/?id=Zu6EAAAACAAJ. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
- ^ "Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and related forms of Intolerance, follow-up and implementation of the Durhan Declaration and Programme of Action". Human Rights Council; Ninth session; Agenda item 9. United Nations. 29 August 2008. http://www.ecoi.net/file_upload/1227_1225896113_egypt.pdf. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
- ^ MacEoin, Denis (2000). "Baha'i Faith". In Hinnells, John R.. The New Penguin Handbook of Living Religions: Second Edition. Penguin. ISBN 0-14-051480-5.
- ^ "World Religions (2005)". QuickLists – The World – Religions. The Association of Religion Data Archives. 2005. http://www.thearda.com/QuickLists/QuickList_125.asp. Retrieved 4 July 2009.
- ^ a b May, Dann J (December 1993). "Web Published". The Bahá'í Principle of Religious Unity and the Challenge of Radical Pluralism. University of North Texas, Denton, Texas. p. 102. http://bahai-library.com/may_principle_religious_unity. Retrieved 2 January 2010.
- ^ Hatcher, W.S.; Martin, J.D. (1998). The Bahá'í Faith: The Emerging Global Religion. Wilmette, IL: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. ISBN 0-87743-264-3.
- ^ a b "Abrahamic Religion". Christianity: Details about…. Christianity Guide. http://www.christianity-guide.com/christianity/abrahamic_religion.htm. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
- ^ Flow, Christian B.; Nolan, Rachel B. (16 November 2006). "Go Forth From Your Country". The Harvard Crimson. http://www.abrahampath.org/downloads/harvard_crimson.2006.11.16.pdf. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
- ^ Ma'ani, Baharieh Rouhani (2008). Leaves of the Twin Divine Trees. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. p. 150. ISBN 0-85398-533-2.
- ^ Taherzadeh, A. (1984). "The Death of The Purest Branch". The Revelation of Bahá'u'lláh, Volume 3: `Akka, The Early Years 1868–77. Oxford, UK: George Ronald. pp. 204–220. ISBN 0-85398-144-2. http://www.peyman.info/cl/Baha'i/Others/ROB/V3/p204-220Ch10.html.
- ^ Stockman, Robert H. (2006). Gallagher, Eugene V.; Ashcraft, W. Michael. eds. Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America. Greenwood Publishing. pp. 185–218. ISBN 0-275-98712-4. http://books.google.com/?id=ClaySHbUEogC&lpg=PP1&pg=RA3-PA185#v=onepage&q=.
- ^ Buck, Christopher (1999). Paradise and paradigm: key symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baháí̕ Faith, Volume 10 of Studies in the Bábí and Bahá'í religions. SUNY Press. p. 326. ISBN 978-0-7914-4061-2. http://books.google.com/?id=whfW9rEG2h4C&pg=PA326#v=onepage&q=.
- ^ Britannica 1992
- ^ Effendi 1944, p. 139
- ^ http://www.probe.org/site/c.fdKEIMNsEoG/b.4217653/k.58F8/The_Religion_of_Bahai.htm
- ^ "Introduction to Judaism Classroom Materials". Jewish Museum of Maryland. 2007. http://www.jhsm.org/sites/default/files/IntroductiontoJudaismcurriculum2007_000.pdf. Retrieved 19 September 2009.
- ^ Yazidis borrow elements from the Abrahamic religions and consider Abraham among their greatest prophets (see The Kurdish national movement: its origins and development, Wadie Jwaideh, pp. 20–21), though these are highly mixed with Indo-European elements (see Global Encyclopaedia of Education (4 Vols. Set), Rama Sankar Yadav and B.N. Mandal, p. 513), and sometimes they are even described as Zoroastrians (see Debating Muslims: cultural dialogues in postmodernity and tradition, Michael M. J. Fischer and Mehdi Abedi, p. 487)
- ^ "Synopsis of book, "The Druze and Their Faith in Tawhid"". http://www.eurospanbookstore.com/display.asp?K=9780815630975&ds=Islam&sf1=bic2_subj_code&st1=HRH*&sort=sort_date/d&m=79&dc=232.
- ^ Mandeans claim Abraham was of their people (see The Mandeans of Iraq and Iran, pp. 265–269). On the other hand, though they have many affinities, they consider that «the Jewish God was an evil spirit, the law was given by the evil ruha and the seven planets, and the Hebrew Bible was read with a particularly critical eye» (see Neusner on Judaism: History, Jacob Neusner, pp. 536–537)
- ^ "Joshua, The Samaritan Book Of:". JewishEncyclopedia.com. http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=546&letter=J&search=samaritan. Retrieved 25 February 2010.
- ^ Allison, Christine (20 February 2004). "Yazidis". Encyclopædia Iranica. http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/yazidis-i-general-1. Retrieved 31 March 2008.
- ^ Danna, Nissim (December 2003). The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status. Brighton: Sussex Academic Press. p. 99. ISBN 978-1-903900-36-9. http://books.google.com/?id=2nCWIsyZJxUC&lpg=PA99&pg=PA99#v=onepage&q.
- ^ "Save the Gnostics" by Nathaniel Deutsch, 6 October 2007, New York Times.
- ^ Hubbard, Benjamin Jerome; Hatfield, John T; Santucci, James A (2007-04). Chanting down Babylon: the Rastafari reader. p. 69. ISBN 978-1-59158-409-4. http://books.google.com/?id=iesWzLHb_GUC&lpg=PA1&pg=PA69#v=onepage&q. Retrieved 1 February 2010.
Further reading[link]
- Derrida, Jacques (2002). Anidjar, Gil. ed. Acts of Religion. New York & London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92401-6. http://books.google.com/?id=c_kgAmFbvP0C.
- Assmann, Jan (1998). Moses the Egyptian: the memory of Egypt in western monotheism. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-58739-7. http://books.google.com/?id=nJv0oyQ-9_AC.
- Barnett, Paul (2002). Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times. InterVarsity Press. ISBN 978-0-8308-2699-5. http://books.google.com/?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC.
- Blasi, Anthony J.; Turcotte, Paul-André; Duhaime, Jean (2002). Handbook of early Christianity: social science approaches. Rowman Altamira. ISBN 978-0-7591-0015-2. http://books.google.com/?id=vgG8TVZVpYAC.
- de Perceval, Armand-Pierre Caussin (1847) (in French). Calcutta review – Essai sur l'histoire des Arabes avant l'islamisme, pendant l'époque de Mahomet, et jusqu'à la réduction de toutes les tribus sous la loi musulmane. Paris: Didot. OCLC 431247004. http://books.google.com/?id=bQg2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1#v=onepage&q=.
- Dodds, Adam (July 2009). "The Abrahamic Faiths? Continuity and Discontinuity in Christian and Islamic Doctrine". Evangelical Quarterly 81 (3): 230–253.
- Firestone, Reuven; American Jewish Committee, Harriet and Robert Heilbrunn Institute For International Interreligious Understanding (2001). Children of Abraham: an introduction to Judaism for Muslims. Hoboken, NJ: KTAV. ISBN 978-0-88125-720-5. http://books.google.com/?id=IuKNIR5qlS0C.
- Freedman H. (trans.), and Simon, Maurice (ed.), Genesis Rabbah, Land of Israel, 5th century. Reprinted in, e.g., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis, Volume II, London: The Soncino Press, 1983. ISBN 0-900689-38-2.
- Guggenheimer, Heinrich W., Seder Olam: The rabbinic view of Biblical chronology, (trans., & ed.), Jason Aronson, Northvale NJ, 1998
- Kritzeck, James (1965). Sons of Abraham: Jews, Christians, and Moslems. Helicon. http://books.google.com/?id=h7MOAAAAIAAJ.
- Greenstreet, Wendy (2006). Integrating spirituality in health and social care. Oxford; Seattle, WA: Radcliffe. ISBN 978-1-85775-646-3. http://books.google.com/?id=TTdcT9-fqLQC&pg=PA95#v=onepage&q=.
- Johansson, Warren (1990). "Abrahamic Religions". In Dynes, Wayne R.. Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. New York: Garland. ISBN 978-0-8240-6544-7. http://www.williamapercy.com/wiki/images/Abrahamic.pdf.
- Longton, Joseph (1987–2009). "Fils d'Abraham". In Longton, Jospeh. Fils d'Abraham. S.A. Brepols I. G. P. and CIB Maredsous. ISBN 2-503-82344-0. http://www.cibmaredsous.be/cibf4.htm.
- Massignon, Louis, "Les trois prières d'Abraham, père di tuos les croyants", Dieu Vivant, 13, (1949) 20–23.
- Masumian, Farnaz (1995). Life After Death: A study of the afterlife in world religions. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1-85168-074-8.
- Reid, Barbara E. (1996). Choosing the Better Part?: Women in the Gospel of Luke. Liturgical Press.
- Scherman, Nosson, (ed.), Tanakh, Vol.I, The Torah, (Stone edition), Mesorah Publications, Ltd., New York, 2001
- Smith, Jonathan Z. (1998). "Religion, Religions, Religious". In Taylor, Mark C.. Critical Terms for Religious Studies. University of Chicago Press. pp. 269–284. ISBN 978-0-226-79156-2.
- Smith, Peter (2008). An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86251-6.
External links[link]
- Religious Organizations of Abrahamic Faiths[unreliable source?]
- Abrahamic Faiths: A Comparison. How do Judaism, Christianity, and Islam differ?[unreliable source?]
- Why Don’t Jews Believe In Jesus?[unreliable source?]
- Reconciling the Abrahamic Faiths
- What's Next? Heaven, hell, and salvation in major world religions A side-by-side comparison.
http://wn.com/Abrahamic_religions
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Religioni abramitiche
http://cs.wn.com/Abrahámovská náboženství
http://id.wn.com/Agama Abrahamik
http://es.wn.com/Religión abrahámica
http://ru.wn.com/Авраамические религии
http://nl.wn.com/Abrahamitische religies
http://pl.wn.com/Religie abrahamowe
http://fr.wn.com/Religion abrahamique
http://de.wn.com/Abrahamitische Religionen
http://hi.wn.com/इब्राहीमी धर्म
http://pt.wn.com/Religiões abraâmicas
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
Not to be confused with The Stooges.
For the 2012 Farrelly brothers film, see The Three Stooges (film).
| The Three Stooges | |
|---|---|
 The Three Stooges in 1938's Healthy, Wealthy and Dumb. L to R: Moe Howard, Curly Howard, Larry Fine |
|
| Also known as | "Ted Healy and His Southern Gentlemen" "Ted Healy and His Stooges" "Ted Healy and His Three Lost Souls" |
| Genre | Slapstick comedy |
| Format | Short subject Feature film |
| Created by | Ted Healy |
| Starring | Moe Howard Curly Howard Larry Fine Shemp Howard Joe Besser Joe DeRita |
| Country of origin | United States |
| Language(s) | English |
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The Three Stooges were an American vaudeville and comedy act of the early to mid–20th century best known for their numerous short subject films. Their hallmark was physical farce and extreme slapstick. In films, the Stooges were commonly known by their first names: "Moe, Larry, and Curly" or "Moe, Larry, and Shemp," among other lineups. They started as "Ted Healy and his Southern Gentlemen" which comprised Moe Howard, Larry Fine and Shemp Howard. This original trio did one feature film entitled Soup to Nuts after which Shemp left the group to pursue a solo career, and was replaced by his brother Curly Howard. This incarnation of the team was the first to be known on film as The Three Stooges.
Shemp rejoined the group after Curly suffered a debilitating stroke in May 1946, reinstating the original line-up until November 1955, when Shemp died of a heart attack. In order to complete four Shemp-era shorts, film actor Joe Palma was used as a temporary body double to Shemp, before Joe Besser became the long-term replacement as the third Stooge. Ultimately, Joe DeRita (nicknamed "Curly Joe") replaced Joe Besser by 1958. The act regained momentum throughout the 1960s as popular kiddie fare until Larry Fine's paralyzing stroke in January 1970 effectively marked the end of the act proper. Moe tried, unsuccessfully, one final time to revive the Stooges with longtime supporting actor Emil Sitka filling in for Larry. Larry ultimately succumbed to a series of additional strokes in January 1975, followed by Moe, who died of lung cancer in May 1975.
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History[link]
Ted Healy and his stooges[link]
The Three Stooges started in 1925 as part of a raucous vaudeville act called 'Ted Healy and His Stooges' (a.k.a. 'Ted Healy and His Southern Gentlemen', 'Ted Healy and His Three Lost Souls' and 'Ted Healy and His Racketeers'—the moniker 'Three Stooges' was never used during their tenure with Healy). In the act, lead comedian Healy would attempt to sing or tell jokes while his noisy assistants would keep "interrupting" him. Healy would respond by verbally and physically abusing his stooges. Brothers Moe and Shemp were joined later that year by violinist-comedian Larry Fine, and Fred Sanborn joined the group as well.[1]
File:Souptonuts.jpg
The original Three Stooges in their film debut, Soup to Nuts. Shemp Howard (far left) was the original third Stooge before his youngest brother Curly Howard assumed the role.
In 1930, Ted Healy and His Stooges (including Sanborn) appeared in their first Hollywood feature film, Soup to Nuts, released by Fox Film Corporation. The film was not a critical success, but the Stooges' performances were singled out as memorable, leading Fox to offer the trio a contract minus Healy. This enraged the prickly Healy, who told studio executives that the Stooges were his employees. The offer was withdrawn, and after Howard, Fine and Howard learned of the reason, they left Healy to form their own act, which quickly took off with a tour of the theatre circuit. Healy attempted to stop the new act with legal action, claiming they were using his copyrighted material. There are accounts of Healy threatening to bomb theaters if Howard, Fine and Howard ever performed there, which worried Shemp so much that he almost left the act; reportedly, only a pay raise kept him on board.[2] Healy tried to save his act by hiring replacement stooges, but they were inexperienced and not as well-received as their predecessors.[2] In 1932, with Moe now acting as business manager, Healy reached a new agreement with his former Stooges, and they were booked in a production of Jacob J. Shubert's The Passing Show of 1932. During rehearsals, Healy received a more lucrative offer and found a loophole in his contract allowing him to leave the production.[2] Shemp, fed up with Healy's abrasiveness,[2] decided to quit the act and found work almost immediately, in Vitaphone movie comedies produced in Brooklyn, New York.[1]
With Shemp gone, Healy and the two remaining stooges (Moe and Larry) needed a replacement, so Moe suggested his younger brother Jerry Howard. Healy reportedly took one look at Jerry, who had long chestnut red locks and a handlebar mustache, and remarked that he did not look like he was funny.[2] Jerry left the room and returned a few moments later with his head shaved (though his mustache remained for a time), and then quipped "Boy, do I look girly." Healy heard "Curly," and the name stuck.[1] (There are varying accounts as to how the Curly character actually came about.)
In 1933, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) signed Healy and his Stooges to a movie contract. They appeared in feature films and short subjects, either together, individually, or with various combinations of actors. The trio was featured in a series of musical comedy shorts, beginning with Nertsery Rhymes. The short was one of a few shorts to be made with an early two-strip Technicolor process, including one featuring Curly without Healy or the other Stooges, Roast Beef and Movies (1934). The shorts themselves were built around recycled film footage of production numbers cut from MGM musicals, such as Children of Pleasure, Lord Byron of Broadway, and the unfinished March of Time (all 1930), which had been filmed in early Technicolor. Soon, additional shorts followed (sans the experimental Technicolor), including Beer and Pretzels (1933), Plane Nuts (1933), and The Big Idea (1934).[1]
Healy and company also appeared in several MGM feature films as comic relief, such as Turn Back the Clock (1933), Meet the Baron (1933), Dancing Lady (1933), Fugitive Lovers (1934), and Hollywood Party (1934). Healy and the Stooges also appeared together in Myrt and Marge for Universal Pictures.[1]
In 1934, the team's contract with MGM expired, and the Stooges parted professional company with Healy. According to Moe Howard's autobiography,[3] the Stooges split with Ted Healy in 1934 once and for all because of Healy's alcoholism and abrasiveness. Their final film with Healy was MGM's 1934 film, Hollywood Party. Both Healy and the Stooges went on to separate successes, with Healy dying under mysterious circumstances in 1937.[1]
The Columbia years[link]
Moe, Larry and Curly[link]
In 1934, the trio – now officially christened "The Three Stooges" – signed on to appear in two-reel comedy short subjects for Columbia Pictures. In Moe's autobiography, he said they each got $600 per week on a one-year contract with a renewable option;[3] in the Ted Okuda–Edward Watz book The Columbia Comedy Shorts, the Stooges are said to have received $1,000 among them for their first Columbia effort, Woman Haters, and then signed a term contract for $7,500 per film (equal to $130,299 today), to be divided among the trio.[4]
Within their first year at Columbia, the Stooges became wildly popular. Realizing this, Columbia Pictures president Harry Cohn used the Stooges as leverage, as the demand for their films was so great that Columbia eventually refused to supply exhibitors with the trio's shorts unless they also agreed to book some of the studio's mediocre B movies. Cohn also saw to it that the Stooges remained ignorant of their popularity. During their 23 years spent at Columbia, the Stooges were never completely aware of their amazing drawing power at the box office. As their contracts with the studio included an open option that had to be renewed every year, Cohn would tell the boys that the short subjects were in decline, which was not a complete fabrication (Cohn's yearly mantra was "the market for comedy shorts is dying out, fellas.") Thinking their days were numbered, the Stooges would sweat it out each and every year, with Cohn renewing their contract for another year at the eleventh hour. This cruel deception kept the insecure Stooges unaware of their true value, resulting in them having second thoughts about asking for a better contract without a yearly option. Cohn's scare tactics worked for all 23 years the Stooges were at Columbia; the team never once asked for — nor were they ever given — a salary increase. It was not until after they stopped making the shorts in December 1957 did Moe learn of Cohn's underhanded tactics, what a valuable commodity the Stooges had been for the ailing studio, and how many millions more the act could have earned.[4]
The Stooges were required to churn out up to eight short films per year within a 40-week period; for the remaining 12 or so weeks, they were free to pursue other employment. Usually, the Stooges would either spend this time with their families or tour the country promoting their live act.[5] The Stooges appeared in 190 film shorts and five features while at Columbia. Del Lord directed more than three dozen Stooge films; Jules White directed dozens more, and his brother Jack White directed several under the pseudonym "Preston Black". Silent film star Charley Chase also shared directorial responsibilities with Lord and White, with more than pleasing results.[4]
The Stooge films made between 1935–1941 captured the team at the peak, according to film historians Ted Okuda and Edward Watz, authors of The Columbia Comedy Shorts. Nearly every film produced became a classic in its own right. 1935's Hoi Polloi utilized the classic premise of a stuffy professor waging a bet that he can transform the uncultured trio into refined gentlemen; the plotline worked so well that it was reused twice, as Half-Wits Holiday and Pies and Guys. Three Little Beers featured the team employed at a brewery who then run amuck on a local golf course to win prize money. 1936's Disorder in the Court is considered a quintessential entry in the series, featuring the team as star witnesses to a murder trial. 1938's Violent is the Word for Curly was a quality Chase-directed short that featured the musical interlude, "Swingin' the Alphabet". In the 1940 film A Plumbing We Will Go, the trio were cast as inadvertent plumbers who nearly destroy a socialite's mansion, causing water to exit every appliance in the home.[4] Other entries of the era, like Uncivil Warriors, A Pain in the Pullman, False Alarms, Grips, Grunts and Groans, The Sitter Downers, Dizzy Doctors, Tassels in the Air, We Want Our Mummy, Nutty but Nice, An Ache in Every Stake and In the Sweet Pie and Pie are considered among the team's finest work.[4]
File:Stooge-curly.jpeg
The Stooges during their prime years with Curly Howard on board, as seen in this promotional photo from Wee Wee Monsieur
With the onset of World War II, the Stooges released several entries that poked fun at the rising Axis powers. You Nazty Spy! and its sequel I'll Never Heil Again burlesqued Hitler and the Nazis at a time when America was still neutral and resolutely isolationist. Moe is cast as "Moe Hailstone", an Adolf Hitler-like character, with Curly playing a Hermann Göring character (replete with medals), and Larry a Ribbentrop-type ambassador. Though revered by Stooge fans, as well as the Stooges themselves (Moe, Larry and director Jules White considered You Nazty Spy! their best film),[6] the efforts indulged in a deliberately formless, non-sequitur style of verbal humor that was not the Stooges' forte, according to Okuda and Watz. Other wartime entries, like They Stooge to Conga, Higher Than a Kite, Back From the Front, Gents Without Cents and the controversial The Yoke's on Me have their moments, but taken in bulk, the wartime films are decidedly substandard.[4] No Dough Boys ranks as the best of these farces. The team, made up as Japanese soldiers for a photo shoot, is mistaken for genuine saboteurs by a Nazi ringleader (Vernon Dent). The highlight of the film features the Stooges engaging in nonsensical gymnastics (the real spies are renowned acrobats) for a skeptical group of enemy agents.[4]
The Stooges made occasional guest appearances in feature films, though generally they stuck to short subjects. Columbia offered theater owners an entire program of two-reel comedies (15 to 25 titles annually) featuring such stars as Buster Keaton, Andy Clyde, Charley Chase, and Hugh Herbert, but the Three Stooges shorts were the most popular of all.[2]
The World War II era also brought on rising production costs that resulted in a reduced number of elaborate gags and outdoor sequences, Del Lord's stock and trade; as such, the quality of the teams' films (particularly those directed by Lord) began to slip after 1942. According to Okuda and Watz, entries like Loco Boy Makes Good, What's the Matador?, Sock-A-Bye Baby, I Can Hardly Wait and A Gem of a Jam are considered to be less quality work than previous efforts, and in a different class than their earlier films.[4] The 1943 film Spook Louder, a remake of Mack Sennett's The Great Pie Mystery, is often cited as their worst film. The story of a phantom pie-thrower (later revealed to be the detective on the case) is repetitious and relying on the same jokes, which many Stooge fans consider to be far less humorous than their past work.[4] Three Smart Saps, a film considered to be an improvement, features a reworking of a routine from Harold Lloyd's The Freshman, in which Curly's loosely basted suit begins to come apart at the seams while he is on the dance floor.[4]
Film critics and stooge fans alike have cited Curly as the most popular member of the team.[2] His childlike mannerisms and natural comedic charm (he had no previous acting experience) made him a hit with audiences, particularly children and women (the latter usually finding the trio's humor juvenile and uncouth). The fact that Curly had to shave his head for the act led him to feel unappealing to women. To mask his insecurities, Curly ate and drank excessively and caroused whenever the Stooges made personal appearances, which was approximately seven months out of the year. His weight ballooned in the 1940s, and his blood pressure was dangerously high.[1] His wild lifestyle and constant drinking eventually caught up with him in 1945, and his performances suffered. In his last dozen shorts (ranging from 1945's If a Body Meets a Body through 1947's Half-Wits Holiday), he was seriously ill, struggling to get through even the most basic scenes.[2]
It was during the final day of filming Half-Wits Holiday on May 6, 1946, that Curly suffered a debilitating stroke on the set, ending his 14-year career. Curly's health necessitated a temporary retirement from the act, and while the Stooges hoped for a full recovery, Curly never starred in a film again, except for one brief cameo appearance in the third film after Shemp returned to the trio, Hold That Lion! It was the only film that contained all four of the original Stooges (the three Howard brothers and Larry) on screen simultaneously; Jules White recalled Curly visiting the set one day, and White had him do this bit for fun. (Curly's cameo appearance was recycled in the 1953 remake Booty and the Beast.)[3] In 1949, Curly was supposed to play a cameo role in the Stooge comedy Malice in the Palace, but he was physically unable to perform. His chef role was played by Larry.[1]
Shemp returns[link]
Moe Howard turned to his older brother Shemp Howard to take Curly's place. Shemp, however, was hesitant to rejoin the Stooges, as he had a successful solo career at the time of Curly's untimely illness. However, he realized that Moe and Larry's careers would be finished without the Stooge act. Shemp wanted some kind of assurance that his rejoining was indeed temporary, and that he could leave the Stooges once Curly recovered. Curly remained gravely ill after 1950, dying of a cerebral hemorrhage caused by additional strokes on January 18, 1952.[1]
Shemp appeared with the Stooges in 76 more shorts and a quickie Western comedy feature titled Gold Raiders.
During this period, Moe, Larry, and Shemp made a pilot for a Three Stooges television show called Jerks of All Trades in 1949. The series was never picked up, although the pilot is currently in the public domain and is available on home video, as is an early television appearance from around the same time on a vaudeville-style comedy series, Camel Comedy Caravan, originally broadcast live on CBS-TV on March 11, 1950, and starring Ed Wynn. Also available commercially is a kinescope of Moe, Larry, and Shemp's appearance on The Frank Sinatra Show, broadcast live over CBS-TV on January 1, 1952. Frank Sinatra was reportedly a big fan of the Stooges and slapstick comedy in general. On this broadcast, the Stooges are joined by one of their longtime stock-company members, Vernon Dent, who plays "Mr. Mortimer", a party-goer who requests a drink. The Stooges oblige with disastrous results.[1]
Columbia's short-subject division downsized in 1952. Producer Hugh McCollum was discharged and director Edward Bernds resigned out of loyalty to McCollum, leaving only Jules White to both produce and direct the Stooges' remaining Columbia comedies. Almost overnight, the quality of the Stooge shorts declined. Production was significantly faster, with the former four-day filming schedules now tightened to two or three days. In another cost-cutting measure, White would create a "new" Stooge short by borrowing footage from old ones, setting it in a slightly different storyline, and filming a few new scenes often with the same actors in the same costumes. White was initially very subtle when recycling older footage: he would reuse only a single sequence of old film, re-edited so cleverly that it was not easy to detect. The later shorts were cheaper and the recycling more obvious, with as much as 75% of the running time consisting of old footage. White came to rely so much on older material that he could film the "new" shorts in a single day. Plus, any new footage filmed in order to link older material suffered from White's wooden directing and his penchant for telling his actors how to act. Shemp in particular disliked working with White.[4]
Three years after Curly's death, Shemp died of a sudden heart attack at age 60 on November 22, 1955. Recycled footage of Shemp, combined with new footage utilizing Columbia supporting player Joe Palma as Shemp's double (only filmed from the back), were used to complete the last four films originally planned with Shemp: Rumpus in the Harem, Hot Stuff, Scheming Schemers, and Commotion on the Ocean.[1]
Main article: Fake Shemp
Joe Besser replaces Shemp[link]
Joe Besser replaced Shemp in 1956, appearing in 16 shorts. Besser, noting how one side of Larry Fine's face seemed "calloused",[7] had a clause in his contract specifically prohibiting him from being hit too hard (though this restriction was later lifted). Besser was the only "third" Stooge that dared to hit Moe back in retaliation and get away with it; Larry Fine was also known to hit Moe on occasion, but always with serious repercussions. "I usually played the kind of character who would hit others back," Besser recalled.[8]
File:Stooges-joe.jpeg
Larry and Joe Besser, as "The Original Two-Man Quartet," serenade Moe in the 1957 short Guns a Poppin!.
At that time, the Stooge films began to resemble sitcoms. Sitcoms, though, were now available for free. Television was the new popular medium, and by the time Besser joined the act, the Stooges were generally considered throwbacks to an obsolete era. The Besser films have long been considered the worst of the Stooge films. Though Besser was a very funny comedian (he was very popular on The Abbott and Costello Show), his whining mannerisms ("Not so harrrrd!") did not quite jell with the roughneck Stooge humor. However, Besser was not solely to blame for the lackluster quality of these final entries: the scripts were tired rehashes of earlier efforts (7 of the 16 films were remakes) and Moe and Larry's performances lacked energy. Both comedians were growing older, and could no longer perform pratfalls and physical comedy as they once had.[4]
The final Stooge films had few bright moments, according to Okuda and Watz: Hoofs and Goofs, A Merry Mix Up, Rusty Romeos and Oil's Well That Ends Well are amusing, while the musical Sweet and Hot (long detested by fans) deserves some credit for straying from the norm. Muscle Up a Little Closer most resembled the sitcoms of the era, while Pies and Guys was a scene-for-scene remake of both Hoi Polloi and Half-Wits Holiday. The space craze also took hold of the American public at the time, resulting in three entries focusing on space travel: Space Ship Sappy, Outer Space Jitters and Flying Saucer Daffy.[4]
The inevitable occurred soon enough. Columbia was the last studio still producing shorts, and the market for such films had all but dried up. As a result, the studio opted not to renew the Stooges' contract when it expired in late December 1957. The final comedy produced was Flying Saucer Daffy, filmed on December 19–20, 1957.[5] Several days later, the Stooges were unceremoniously fired from Columbia Pictures after 24 years of making low-budget shorts. Joan Howard Maurer, daughter of Moe, wrote the following in 1982:
The boys' careers had suddenly come to an end. They were at Columbia one day and gone the next—no 'Thank yous,' no farewell party for their 24 years of dedication and service and the dollars their comedies had reaped for the studio. Moe Howard recalled that a few weeks after their exit from Columbia, he drove to the studio to say goodbye to several studio executives when he was stopped by a guard at the gate (obviously, not a Stooges fan) and, since he did not have the current year's studio pass, was refused entry. For the moment, it was a crushing blow.[1]
Although the Stooges were no longer working for Columbia, the studio had enough completed films on the shelf to keep releasing new comedies for another 18 months, and not in the order they were produced. The final Stooge release, Sappy Bull Fighters, did not reach theaters until June 4, 1959. With no active contract in place, Moe and Larry discussed plans for a personal appearance tour; meanwhile, Besser's wife had a minor heart attack, and he preferred to stay local, leading him to withdraw from the act. For the first time in nearly 30 years, the Stooges hit a dead end.[1]
The comeback: Larry, Moe and Curly Joe[link]
Seeing the success of how television, in its early years, allowed movie studios to unload a backlog of short films thought unmarketable, the Stooge films seemed perfect for the burgeoning genre. ABC television had even expressed interest as far back as 1949, purchasing exclusive rights to 30 of the trio's shorts.[9] However, the success of television revivals for such names as Laurel and Hardy, Woody Woodpecker, Tom and Jerry and the Our Gang series in the late 1950s led Columbia to cash in again on the Stooges. In January 1958, Columbia's television subsidiary Screen Gems offered a package consisting of 78 Stooge shorts (mainly from the Curly era), which were well received.[10] Almost immediately, an additional 40 shorts hit the market, and by 1959, all 190 Stooge shorts were airing regularly. Due to the massive quantity of Stooge product available for broadcast, the films were broadcast Monday through Friday, leading to heavy exposure aimed squarely at children. This led parents to watch alongside of their offspring, and before long, Howard and Fine found themselves in high demand.[4] Moe quickly signed movie and burlesque comic Joe DeRita for the "third Stooge" role; DeRita adopted first a crew cut and then a completely shaven hairstyle and became "Curly Joe" because of his resemblance to the original Curly Howard (also to make it easier to distinguish him from Joe Besser, the earlier Stooge called Joe).
File:Stooges-cj.jpeg
The Three Stooges with Curly Joe DeRita filling the role of the third stooge. From the 1961 feature film Snow White and the Three Stooges.
This Three Stooges lineup went on to make a series of popular full-length films from 1959 to 1965, most notably Have Rocket, Will Travel, The Three Stooges Meet Hercules and The Three Stooges Go Around the World in a Daze. The films were aimed at the kiddie-matinee market, and most were farce outings in the Stooge tradition, with the exception of Snow White and the Three Stooges, a children's fantasy in Technicolor. They also appeared as firemen (the role that helped make them famous in Soup to Nuts) in the film It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World. Throughout the 1960s, The Three Stooges were one of the most popular and highest-paid live acts in America.[8]
The Stooges also tried their hand at another weekly television series in 1960 titled The Three Stooges Scrapbook. Filmed in color and with a laugh track, the first episode, "Home Cooking," featured the boys rehearsing for a new television show. Like Jerks of All Trades, the pilot did not sell. However, Norman Maurer was able to reuse the footage (reprocessed in black and white) for the first 20 minutes of the feature film The Three Stooges in Orbit.[1]
The trio also filmed 41 short comedy skits for The New Three Stooges, which features a series of 156 animated cartoons produced for television. The Stooges appeared in live-action color footage, which preceded and followed each animated adventure in which they voiced their respective characters.[1]
Final years[link]
In 1969, the Three Stooges filmed a pilot episode for a new TV series entitled Kook's Tour, a combination travelogue-sitcom that had the "retired" Stooges traveling around the world, with the episodes filmed on location.[1]
On January 9, 1970, during production of the pilot, Larry suffered a paralyzing stroke, ending his acting career, as well as plans for the television series.[1]
File:Emilstooge.jpg
A proposed incarnation of the Three Stooges. A promotional picture taken after Larry Fine's death in 1975 features a very ill Moe Howard (who died shortly thereafter) flanked by Curly Joe DeRita to the left and Emil Sitka to the right.
Plans were in the works for longtime foil Emil Sitka to replace Larry as the "Middle Stooge" in 1971, but nothing ever came of that idea other than the proposed publicity still reproduced here.[1] Three years later, just before Christmas of 1974, Larry Fine suffered yet another stroke at the age of 72 and four weeks later, suffered a more massive one. Slipping into a coma, he died a week later of a stroke-induced cerebral hemorrhage on January 24, 1975.[1]
Devastated by his friend's death, Moe nevertheless decided that the Three Stooges should continue. Several movie ideas were considered, one of which according to critic and movie historian Leonard Maltin, (who also uncovered a pre-production photo) was entitled Blazing Stewardesses. Before pre-production could begin, Moe fell ill from lung cancer, and died three months later on May 4, 1975.[3]
However, Blazing Stewardesses, the last film idea that the Three Stooges had ever seriously considered, was eventually made, starring the last of the surviving Ritz Brothers comedy troupe and released to moderate acclaim later that year.[1]
Joe DeRita continued to perform live into the mid-1970s with Mousie Garner and Frank Mitchell as "The New Three Stooges" enjoying recognition well into old age, before retiring by 1979.
Of the remaining "original-replacement" Stooges, Joe Besser died of heart failure on March 1, 1988, followed by Joe DeRita of pneumonia on July 3, 1993.
Legacy and perspective[link]
Over half a century since their last short film was released, the Three Stooges remain wildly popular with audiences. Their films have never left the television airwaves since first appearing in 1958, and they continue to delight old fans while attracting a new legion of fervent admirers. A hard-working group of working-class comedians who were never the critic's darlings, the durable act endured several personnel changes in their careers that would have permanently sidelined a less persistent act.[4] The Stooges would not have lasted as long as they did as a unit without Moe Howard's guiding hand.[1]
The Ted Okuda/Edward Watz-penned book The Columbia Comedy Shorts puts the Stooges legacy in critical perspective:
Many scholarly studies of motion picture comedy have overlooked the Three Stooges entirely—and not without valid reasoning. Aesthetically, the Stooges violated every rule that constitutes "good" comedic style. Their characters lacked the emotional depth of Charlie Chaplin and Harry Langdon; they were never as witty or subtle as Buster Keaton. They were not disciplined enough to sustain lengthy comic sequences; far too often, they were willing to suspend what little narrative structure their pictures possessed in order to insert a number of gratuitous jokes. Nearly every premise they have employed (spoofs of westerns, horror films, costume melodramas) has been done to better effect by other comedians. And yet, in spite of the overwhelming artistic odds against them, they were responsible for some of the finest comedies ever made. Their humor was the most undistilled form of low comedy; they were not great innovators, but as quick laugh practitioners, they place second to none. If public taste is any criterion, the Stooges have been the reigning kings of comedy for over fifty years.[4]
Beginning in the 1980s, the Stooges finally began to receive long-overdue critical recognition. The release of nearly all their films on DVD by 2010 has allowed critics of Joe Besser and Joe DeRita—often the recipients of significant fan backlash—to appreciate the unique style of comedy both comedians brought to the Stooges. In addition, the DVD market in particular has allowed fans to view the entire Stooge film corpus as distinct periods in their long, distinguished career instead of comparing one Stooge to the other (the Curly vs. Shemp debate continues to this day[11][12][13]).
The team appeared in 220 films. In the end, it is the durability of the 190 timeless short films the Stooges made at Columbia Pictures that acts as an enduring tribute to the comedy team. Their continued popularity worldwide has proven to even the most skeptical critics that their films—quite simply—are funny.[4] American television personality Steve Allen went on record in the mid-1980s saying "though they never achieved widespread critical acclaim, they achieved exactly what they had always intended to do: they made people laugh."[14]
Line-ups[link]
| Years | Moe | Shemp | Larry | Curly | Joe | Curly Joe |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1925–1932 (7) |  Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| 1932–1946 (14) | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| 1946–1955 (9) | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| 1956–1958 (2) | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| 1958–1971 (13) | Y |
Y |
Y |
Moe Howard
Real Name: Moses Harry Horwitz
Born: (1897-06-19)June 19, 1897
Died: May 4, 1975(1975-05-04) (aged 77)
Stooge years: 1922–1975
Larry Fine
Real Name: Louis Feinberg
Born: (1902-10-05)October 5, 1902
Died: January 24, 1975(1975-01-24) (aged 72)
Stooge years: 1925–1971
Curly Howard
Real Name: Jerome Lester Horwitz
Born: (1903-10-22)October 22, 1903
Died: January 18, 1952(1952-01-18) (aged 48)
Stooge years: 1932–1946
Shemp Howard
Real Name: Samuel Horwitz
Born: (1895-03-11)March 11, 1895
Died: November 22, 1955(1955-11-22) (aged 60)
Stooge years: 1922–1932, 1946–1955
Joe Besser
Born: (1907-08-12)August 12, 1907
Died: March 1, 1988(1988-03-01) (aged 80)
Stooge years: 1956–1958
Joe DeRita ("Curly Joe")
Real Name: Joseph Wardell
Born: (1909-07-12)July 12, 1909
Died: July 3, 1993(1993-07-03) (aged 83)
Stooge years: 1958–1975
Shorts[link]
Main article: The Three Stooges filmography
The Three Stooges appeared in 220 films throughout their career. Of those 220, 190 short films were made for Columbia Pictures between 1934 and 1959, for which the trio are best known. Their contract was extended each year from 1934 until the final one expired on December 31, 1957. The last 8 of the 16 shorts with Joe Besser were released soon afterward.
C3 Entertainment, Inc.[link]
Throughout their career, Moe acted as both their main creative force and business manager. Comedy III (C3) was formed by Moe, Larry and Joe DeRita in 1959 to manage all business and merchandise transactions for the team. C3 was basically in the background, with Moe's son-in-law Norman Maurer managing the comedy teams' film interests under Normandy Productions, and merchandising affairs under Norman Maurer Productions (NMP). Norman Maurer died of cancer in 1986.
In 1994, the heirs of Larry Fine and Joe DeRita filed a breach-of-contract lawsuit against Moe's family, particularly Joan Howard Maurer and her son Jeffrey, who had inherited the NMP/Normandy business. The lawsuit alleged that the Howards had cheated the DeRita and Fine families out of their share of royalties. Howard was ordered to pay $2.6 million in damages; $1.6 million was for compensatory damages to Jean DeRita, while the remaining $1 million was divided between four of Fine's grandchildren. The Fine and DeRita families were represented by California attorney Bela G. Lugosi. Jr.[15]
The resulting 1994 lawsuit led to the reestablishment of C3 as a three-way interest of Fine/[Moe]Howard/DeRita. The DeRita heirs received the proxy to the Howard share, giving them majority control on the company's management. Joe DeRita's stepsons, Robert and Earl Benjamin, became the senior management of C3, with Lugosi, Jr. serving as an executive board member for several years. The Benjamins later incorporated the company, and C3 is currently the owner of all Three Stooges trademarks and merchandising. Larry's grandson Eric Lamond is the representative of the Fines' one-third interest in the company.[16]
Since 1995, C3 has authorized and provided the services of veteran actors Jim Skousen, Alan Semok, and Dave Knight (as Moe, Larry, and Curly respectively) for numerous "personal appearances" by the Stooge characters for a variety of merchandising and promotional events. This latter day trio has also provided voices for the characters in a variety of radio spots, merchandising tie-ins, and most recently for the first new Three Stooges short in fifty years. A CGI animation by Famous Frames Mobile Interactive, a first-wave "new media" company, entitled The Grate Debate, has Moe, Larry and Curly running for President.
Television broadcasts and rights issues[link]
A handful of Three Stooges shorts first aired on television in 1949, on the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) network. It was not until 1958 that Screen Gems packaged 78 shorts for national syndication; the package was gradually enlarged to encompass the entire library of 190 shorts. In 1959, KTTV in Los Angeles purchased the Three Stooges films for air, but by the early 1970s, rival station KTLA began airing the Stooges films, keeping them in the schedule until early 1994. The Family Channel (now ABC Family) ran the shorts as part of their Stooge TV block from February 19, 1996, to January 2, 1998. In the late 1990s, AMC had held the rights to the Three Stooges shorts, originally airing them under the Stooges Playhouse block, but replacing it in 1999 with N.Y.U.K. (New Yuk University of Knuckleheads). Featuring host Leslie Nielsen in the form of a college instructor, the block aired several shorts often grouped by a theme, such as similar schtick used in different films. Although the block was discontinued after AMC revamped their format in 2002, the network still ran Stooges shorts occasionally. The AMC run ended when Spike TV picked them up in 2004, airing them in their Stooges Slap-Happy Hour. By 2007, the network had discontinued the block. Although Spike did air Stooges shorts for a brief period of time after the block was canceled, as of late April 2008, Three Stooges has disappeared from the network's schedule entirely. The Three Stooges returned on December 31, 2009, on AMC, starting with the "Countdown with the Stooges" New Year's Eve marathon. AMC planned to put several episodes on their website in 2010.
Since the 1990s Columbia and its television division's successor, Sony Pictures Television, has preferred to license the Stooges shorts to cable networks, precluding the films from being shown on local broadcast TV. Two stations in Chicago and Boston, however, signed long-term syndication contracts with Columbia years ago and have declined to terminate them. Thus, WMEU-CA in Chicago currently airs all 190 Three Stooges shorts on Stooge-a-Palooza, hosted by Rich Koz, and WSBK-TV in Boston airs Stooge shorts and feature films. KTLA in Los Angeles dropped the shorts in 1994, but brought them back in 2007 as part of a special retro-marathon commemorating the station's 60th anniversary. Since that time, the station's original 16mm Stooges film prints have aired occasionally as part of mini-marathons on holidays. Antenna TV, a network broadcasting on the digital subchannels of local broadcast stations (owned by Tribune Broadcasting, who also owns KTLA), began airing the Stooges shorts upon the network's January 1, 2011 launch, which run in multi-hour blocks on weekends; most of the Three Stooges feature films are also broadcast on the network, through Antenna TV's distribution agreement with Sony Pictures Entertainment (whose Columbia Pictures subsidiary released most of the films).
Some of the Stooge films have been colorized by two separate companies. The first colorized DVD releases, distributed by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment, were prepared by West Wing Studios in 2004. The following year, Legend Films colorized the public domain shorts Malice in the Palace, Sing a Song of Six Pants, Disorder in the Court and Brideless Groom. Disorder in the Court and Brideless Groom also appears on two of West Wing's colorized releases. In any event, the Columbia-produced shorts (aside from the public domain films) are handled by Sony Pictures Entertainment, while the MGM Stooges shorts are owned by Warner Bros. via their Turner Entertainment division. Sony offers 21 of the shorts on their web platform Crackle, along with eleven Minisodes. Meanwhile, the rights to the Stooges' feature films rests with the studios that originally produced them (Columbia/Sony for the Columbia films, and 20th Century Fox for the Fox films).
International airings[link]
Home video release and public reception[link]
Between 1984 and 1985, RCA Columbia Pictures Home Video released a total of thirteen Three Stooges volumes on VHS, Beta and Laserdisc, each containing three shorts. These titles were later reissued on VHS by its successor, Sony Pictures Entertainment, between 1995 and 1997, with a DVD reissue between 2000 and 2004.
[edit] The Three Stooges Collection
On October 30, 2007, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released a two-disc DVD set entitled The Three Stooges Collection, Volume One: 1934–1936. The set contains shorts from the first three years the Stooges worked at Columbia Pictures, marking the first time ever that all 19 shorts were released in their original theatrical order to DVD. Additionally, every short was remastered in high definition, a first for the Stooge films. Previous DVD releases were based on themes (wartime, history, work, etc.), and sold poorly. Fans and critics alike praised Sony for finally giving the Stooges the proper DVD treatment. One critic states "the Three Stooges on DVD has been a real mix'n match hodgepodge of un-restored titles and illogical entries. This new...boxset...seems to be the first concerted effort to categorize their huge body of work chronologically with many shorts seeing the digital light for the first time."[17] Videolibrarian.com critic added "finally, the studio knuckleheads got it right! The way that the Three Stooges have been presented on home video has been a real slap in the face and poke in the eye to fans. They've been anthologized, colorized, and public domain-ed, as their shorts have been released and re-released in varying degrees of quality. Highly recommended."[18] Critic James Plath of DVDtown.com added, "Thank you, Sony, for finally giving these Columbia Pictures icons the kind of DVD retrospective that they deserve. Remastered in High Definition and presented in chronological order, these short films now give fans the chance to appreciate the development of one of the most successful comedy teams in history."[19]
The chronological series proved very successful and wildly popular, and Sony wasted little time preparing the next set for release. Volume Two: 1937–1939 was released on May 27, 2008, followed by Volume Three: 1940–1942' three months later on August 26, 2008. Demand exceeded supply, proving to Sony that they had a hit on their hands. In response, Volume Four: 1943–1945 was released on October 7, 2008, a mere two months after its predecessor.[20] The global economic crisis slowed down the release schedule after Volume Four, and Volume Five: 1946–1948 was belatedly released on March 17, 2009. Volume Five is the first in the series to feature Shemp Howard with the Stooges.[21] Volume Six: 1949–1951 was released June 16, 2009,[22] and Volume Seven: 1952–1954 was released on November 10, 2009.[23] The eighth and final volume was released on June 1, 2010, bringing the series to a close. For the first time in history, all 190 Three Stooges short subjects became available to the public, uncut and unedited.
A new 20-disc DVD boxed set entitled The Three Stooges: The Ultimate Collection, reported to include all 190 shorts from volumes 1-8 and additional bonus material, is scheduled to be released in June 2012.
Music[link]
- Several instrumental tunes were played over the opening credits at different times in the production of the short features. The most commonly used themes were:
- The verse portion of the Civil War era song "Listen to the Mockingbird", played in a comical way, complete with sounds of birds and such. This was first used in Pardon My Scotch, their ninth short film, in 1935. (Prior to that comedic short, the opening theme varied and was typically connected to the storyline in some fashion.)
- "Three Blind Mice", beginning in 1939 as a slow but straightforward presentation (dubbed the "sliding strings" version), often breaking into a "jazzy" style before ending. In mid-1942, another more driving version, complete with accordion was played fast all the way through.
- The Columbia short subject Woman Haters was done completely in rhyme, mostly recited (not sung), in rhythm with a Jazz-Age underscore running throughout the film, but with some key lines sung. It was sixth in a Musical Novelties short subject series, and appropriated its musical score from the first five films. The memorable "My Life, My Love, My All," was originally "At Last!" from the film Um-Pa.
- "Swinging the Alphabet" (a.k.a. B-A-bay, B-E-be, B-I-bicky-bi…) from Violent Is the Word for Curly is perhaps the best-known song performed by the Stooges on film.
- The Stooges broke into a three-part harmonized version of "Tears" ("You'll Never Know Just What Tears Are") in Horses' Collars, A Ducking They Did Go (in which the melody was sung by Bud Jamison) and Half Shot Shooters. The song, which was written by Moe, Larry, Shemp, and one-time Ted Healy Stooge Fred Sanborn, first appeared in the 1930 feature film Soup to Nuts.
- The "Lucia Sextet" (Chi mi frena in tal memento?), from the opera Lucia di Lammermoor by Gaetano Donizetti (announced by Larry as "the Sextet from Lucy"), is played on a record player and lip-synched by the Stooges in Micro-Phonies. The same melody re-appears in Squareheads of the Round Table as the tune of "Oh, Elaine, can you come out tonight?". Micro-Phonies also includes the Johann Strauss II waltz "Voices of Spring" ("Frühlingsstimmen") Op. 410. Another Strauss waltz, "The Blue Danube", is featured in Ants in the Pantry and Punch Drunks.
- The song "Fredric March" (named after the actor) was a favorite of director Jules White; it appeared in at least seven different Columbia shorts:
- Termites of 1938 – The Stooges "play" this song on a violin, flute, and string bass at a dinner party in an attempt to attract mice.
- Dutiful But Dumb – Curly is hidden inside a floor-standing radio, and plays the song on a modified harmonica.
- Three Little Twirps – Heard as background music at the circus while Moe and Curly sell tickets.
- Idle Roomers – Curly plays the song on a trombone to calm a wolf man.
- Gents Without Cents – Three girls perform acrobatics on stage while this song is playing.
- Gents in a Jam – Shemp and Moe have a problem with a radio that will not stop playing this song.
- Pardon My Backfire – The song plays on a car radio.
- The Moe–Larry–Curly Joe lineup of the Stooges recorded several musical record albums in the early 1960s. Most of their songs were adaptations of nursery rhymes. Among their more popular recordings were "Making a Record" (a surreal trip to a recording studio built around the song "Go Tell Aunt Mary"), "Three Little Fishes", "All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth", "Wreck the Halls with Boughs of Holly", "Mairzy Doats" and "I Want a Hippopotamus for Christmas".
- In 1983, a group called the Jump 'N the Saddle Band recorded a track called "The Curly Shuffle", which featured the narrator singing about his love of the Stooges mixed with a chorus of many of Curly's catchphrases and sound effects. In the mid-1980s, the song became a popular mid-game hit for New York Mets fans in the Shea Stadium bleachers, who would dance in small groups to the tune whenever the song was played between innings. The music video, which featured clips of the classic Stooges shorts, was also included as a bonus feature on one of the 1984 VHS releases.
Feature motion pictures[link]
For a list of their 190 short films, see The Three Stooges filmography.
The Three Stooges also made appearances in many feature length movies in the course of their careers:
| Film | Year | Moe | Larry | Curly | Shemp | Joe | Curly Joe |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Soup to Nuts | 1930 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Turn Back the Clock | 1933 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Meet the Baron | 1933 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Dancing Lady | 1933 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Broadway to Hollywood | 1933 | Y |
Y |
||||
| Myrt and Marge | 1933 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Fugitive Lovers | 1934 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Hollywood Party (cameos) | 1934 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| The Captain Hates the Sea (cameos) | 1934 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Start Cheering | 1938 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Time Out for Rhythm | 1941 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| My Sister Eileen (cameos) | 1942 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Rockin' in the Rockies | 1945 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Swing Parade of 1946 | 1946 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Gold Raiders | 1951 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Have Rocket, Will Travel | 1959 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Stop! Look! and Laugh! (compilation) | 1960 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Snow White and the Three Stooges | 1961 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| The Three Stooges Meet Hercules | 1962 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| The Three Stooges in Orbit | 1962 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| The Three Stooges Go Around the World in a Daze | 1963 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World (cameos) | 1963 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| 4 for Texas (cameo) | 1963 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| The Outlaws Is Coming | 1965 | Y |
Y |
Y |
|||
| Kook's Tour (TV pilot) | 1970 | Y |
Y |
Y |
Joe Besser never appeared with the Stooges in a feature film.
Three feature-length Columbia releases were actually packages of older Columbia shorts. Columbia Laff Hour (introduced in 1956) was a random assortment that included the Stooges among other Columbia comedians like Andy Clyde, Hugh Herbert, and Vera Vague; the content and length varied from one theater to the next. Three Stooges Fun-o-Rama (introduced in 1959) was an all-Stooges show capitalizing on their TV fame, again with shorts chosen at random for individual theaters. The Three Stooges Follies (1974) was similar to Laff Hour, with a trio of Stooge comedies augmented by Buster Keaton and Vera Vague shorts, a Batman serial chapter, and a Kate Smith musical.
Museum[link]
Gary Lassin, grandson-in-law of Larry Fine, opened the Stoogeum in 2004, in a renovated architect's office in Spring House, Pennsylvania, 25 miles (40 km) north of Philadelphia. The museum-quality exhibits fill three stories 10,000 square feet (930 m2), including an 85-seat theater.[24] Peter Seely, editor of the book Stoogeology: Essays on the Three Stooges said that the Stoogeum has "more stuff than I even imagined existed." 2,500 people visit it yearly, many during the annual Three Stooges Fan Club gathering in April.[25]
In other media[link]
Comic books[link]
Over the years, several Three Stooges comics were produced.
- St. John Publications published the first Three Stooges comics in 1949 with 2 issues, then again in 1953–54 with 7 issues.
- Dell Comics published a Three Stooges series first as one-shots in their Four Color Comics line for five issues, then gave them a numbered series for four more issues (#6–9). With #10, the title would be published by Gold Key Comics. Under Gold Key, the series lasted through issue #55 in 1972.
- Gold Key Comics then published the Little Stooges series (7 issues, 1972–74) with story and art by Norman Maurer, Moe's son-in-law. This series featured the adventures of three fictional sons of the Three Stooges, as sort of modern-day teen-age versions of the characters.
- Eclipse Comics published the Three-D Three Stooges series (3 issues, 1986–1987) which reprinted stories from the St. John Publications series.[26]
- Malibu Comics did a couple of one-shot comics, reprinting stories from the Gold Key Comics in 1989 and 1991.
- Bluewater Comics issued a biographical comic in 2011 which followed the lives and careers of the group.
Music[link]
Beginning in 1959, the Three Stooges began to appear in a series of novelty records. Their first recording was a 45 rpm single of the title song from Have Rocket, Will Travel. The trio released additional singles and LPs on the Golden and Coral labels, mixing comedy adventure albums and off-beat renditions of children's songs. Their final recording was the 1966 Yogi Bear and the Three Stooges Meet the Mad, Mad, Mad Dr. No-No, which incorporated the Three Stooges into the cast of the Yogi Bear cartoons.[1]
The Stooges are referenced in the video for Weird Al Yankovic's "Like a Surgeon" with a hospital PA system asked for "Dr. Howard, Dr. Fine, Dr. Howard."
Radio[link]
Sirius XM Radio aired a special about the Stooges hosted by Tom Bergeron on Friday, July 31, 2009, at 2:00PM on the Sirius Howard 101 channel. Bergeron had conducted the interviews at the age of 17 back when he was still in high school in 1971. The television host had the tapes in storage for many years and was convinced on-air during an interview with Howard Stern to bring them in and turn it into a special.
After finding "the lost tapes," Bergeron brought them into Stern's production studio. He stated that the tapes were so old that the tapes with the Larry Fine interviews began to shred as Stern's radio engineers ran them through their cart players. They only really had the one shot, and fortunately for Three Stooges fans, the tapes were saved.
"The Lost Stooges Tapes" was hosted by Tom Bergeron, with modern commentary on the almost 40-year-old interviews that he had conducted with Larry Fine and Moe Howard. At the times of these interviews, Moe was still living at home and Larry had suffered a stroke and was living in a Senior Citizen's home.
Television[link]
In addition to the unsuccessful television series pilots Jerks of All Trades, The Three Stooges Scrapbook, and the incomplete Kook's Tour, the Stooges appeared in a show called The New Three Stooges which ran from 1965 to 1966. This series featured a mix of thirty-nine live-action segments which were used as wraparounds to 156 animated Stooges shorts. The New Three Stooges became the only regularly scheduled television show in history for the Stooges.[1] Unlike other films shorts that aired on television, like the Looney Tunes, Tom and Jerry, and Popeye, the film shorts of the Stooges never had a regularly scheduled national television program to air in, neither on network nor syndicated. When Columbia/Screen Gems licensed the film library to television, the shorts aired in any fashion the local stations chose (examples: late-night "filler" material between the end of the late movie and the channel's sign-off time; in "marathon" sessions running shorts back-to-back for one, one-and-a-half, or two hours; etc.)
In the October 13, 1967 "Who's Afraid of Mother Goose?" episode of ABC's "World-of-Disney"-like anthology series Off to See the Wizard, the Three Stooges made a short appearance as "the three men in a tub".
Two episodes of Hanna-Barbera's The New Scooby-Doo Movies aired on CBS featuring animated Stooges as guest stars: the premiere, "Ghastly Ghost Town" (September 9, 1972) and "The Ghost of the Red Baron" (November 18, 1972). There also was a short-lived animated series, also produced by Hanna-Barbera, titled The Robonic Stooges, originally seen as a featured segment on The Skatebirds (CBS, 1977–1978), featuring Moe, Larry, and Curly (voiced by Paul Winchell, Joe Baker and Frank Welker, respectively) as bionic cartoon superheroes with extendable limbs, similar to the later Inspector Gadget. The Robonic Stooges later aired as a separate half-hour series, retitled The Three Robonic Stooges (each half-hour featured two segments of The Three Robonic Stooges and one segment of Woofer And Whimper, Dog Detectives, the latter re-edited from episodes of Clue Club, an earlier Hanna-Barbera cartoon series). There are also many Stooges references in the sitcom ALF.
In the episode "Beware The Creeper" of The New Batman Adventures. the Joker retreats to his hide-out after a quick fight with Batman. He yells out for his three henchmen "Moe? Larr? Cur?" only to find that they are not there. Shortly after that, Batman comes across these three goons in a pool hall; they have distinctive accents and hair styles similar to those of Moe, Larry, and Curly. These henchmen are briefly seen throughout the rest of the season.
2000 television film[link]
In spring of 2000, longtime Stooge fan Mel Gibson executive-produced a TV film (The Three Stooges[27]) about the lives and careers of the comedians. Playing Moe was Paul Ben-Victor, Evan Handler was Larry, John Kassir was Shemp and Michael Chiklis was Curly. It was filmed in Australia and was produced for and broadcast on ABC. It was based on Michael Fleming's authorized biography of the Stooges, "The Three Stooges: From Amalgamated Morons to American Icons". Its unflattering portrayal of Ted Healy led Healy's son to give media interviews calling the film inaccurate. Additional error of fact included the hint that Moe Howard was down on his luck later in life and worked as a gofer (go fer...); someone who goes and gets stuff, at the studio, where he, his brothers and Larry had formerly worked as actors. Moe was the most careful with his money, which he invested well. He and his wife Helen owned a comfortable house in Toluca Lake in which they raised their children.
The film regularly runs on the American Movie Classics (AMC) channel.
Feature film revival[link]
Main article: The Three Stooges (film)
A film about the Three Stooges, simply titled The Three Stooges, started production on March 14, 2011 with 20th Century Fox[28] and will be directed by the Farrelly brothers. The film had been in what one critic has dubbed "development hell".[29] The Farrellys, who have wanted to make this film since 1996, said that they were not going to do a biopic or remake, but instead new Three Stooges episodes set in the present day. The plot of the episodes is an adventure that revolves around the Stooges characters.[30]
Casting players for the title characters proved difficult for the studio. Originally slated were Sean Penn to play Larry, Benicio del Toro to play Moe and Jim Carrey to play Curly. Both Sean Penn and Benicio del Toro left the project but returned while no official confirmation had been made about Jim Carrey. When del Toro was interviewed on MTV News for The Wolfman, he spoke about playing Moe. He was later asked who was going to play Larry and Curly in the film and commented that he still thought that Sean Penn and Jim Carrey were going to play them, though he added "Nothing is for sure yet."[31][32] A story in The Hollywood Reporter stated that Will Sasso would play Curly in the upcoming comedy and that Hank Azaria was the front runner to play Moe.[33] Sasso was ultimately cast as Curly; Sean Hayes of Will & Grace was cast as Larry Fine,[34] while Chris Diamantopoulos was cast as Moe.[35] Jane Lynch later joined the cast, playing a nun.[36] The film was released on April 13, 2012.
Video games[link]
Main articles: The Three Stooges (arcade game) and The Three Stooges (video game)
In 1984 Gottlieb released an arcade game featuring the Stooges trying to find three kidnapped brides. Later in 1987, game developers Cinemaware released a successful Three Stooges computer game, available for Apple IIGS, Amiga, Commodore 64, MS-DOS, and Nintendo Entertainment System (NES). Based on the Stooges earning money by doing odd jobs to prevent the foreclosure of an orphanage, it incorporated audio from the original films and was popular enough to be reissued for the Game Boy Advance in 2002, as well as for PlayStation in 2004.[37]
In foreign languages[link]
In most other languages, the Three Stooges are known by their English name. However, in Chinese, the trio is known as Sānge Chòu Píjiàng (三個臭皮匠)[38] or Huóbǎo Sānrénzǔ (活寶三人組). Sānge Chòu Píjiàng, literally "Three Smelly Shoemakers", derives from a saying in the Romance of the Three Kingdoms: Sāngè chòu píjiàng shèngguò yīgè Zhūgě Liàng (三個臭皮匠，勝過一個諸葛亮) or "Three smelly shoemakers (are enough to) overcome one Zhuge Liang [a hero of the story]", i.e. three inferior people can overpower a superior person when they combine their strength. Huóbǎo Sānrénzǔ translates as "Trio of Buffoons".[39]
In Japanese they are known as San Baka Taishō (三ばか大将)[40] meaning "Three Idiot Generals" or "Three Baka Generals". The Japanese term baka (馬鹿, "fool" or "idiot", lit. "horse deer") is associated with the Chinese idiom zhǐlù wéimǎ (指鹿為馬; lit. "point at a deer and call it a horse", in Japanese shika o sashite uma to nasu [鹿を指して馬と為す]) meaning "deliberate misrepresentation for ulterior purposes". In Spanish they are known as Los tres chiflados[41] or, roughly, "The Three Crackpots". In French and German usage, the name of the trio is partially translated as Les Trois Stooges and Die drei Stooges respectively. In Thai, the trio is known as 3 สมุนจอมป่วน (3 Samunčhǭmpūan; IPA: [sà mun tɕɔːm pùːan]) or 3 พี่น้องจอมยุ่ง (Phīnǭngčhǭmyung; IPA: [pʰîː nɔ́ːŋ tɕɔːm jûŋ]). In Portuguese, they are known as Os Três Patetas in Brazil, and Os Três Estarolas in Portugal, being "estarola" a direct translation to "stooge", while "pateta" being more related to "goofy".
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Maurer, Joan Howard; Jeff Lenburg, Greg Lenburg (1982). The Three Stooges Scrapbook. Citadel Press. pp. 73, 87, 179–193. ISBN 0-8065-0946-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=iTQXz-zQK5MC&printsec=frontcover.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Fleming, Michael (1999). The Three Stooges: An Illustrated History, From Amalgamated Morons to American Icons. Broadway Publishing. pp. 22, 21, 23, 25, 33, 49, 50. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/0-7679-0556-7|0-7679-0556-7]].
- ^ a b c d Howard, Moe (1977, rev. 1979). Moe Howard and the Three Stooges. Broadway Publishing. pp. 54, 73, 101. ISBN 978-0-8065-0723-1.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Okuda, Ted; Watz, Edward (1986). The Columbia Comedy Shorts. McFarland & Company, Inc., Publishers. pp. 60–102, 237–239. ISBN 0-89950-181-8.
- ^ a b Solomon, Jon. (2002) The Complete Three Stooges: The Official Filmography and Three Stooges Companion, pp. 318, 510; Comedy III Productions, Inc., ISBN 0-9711868-0-4
- ^ "Newspaper article about the anti-fascist short You Nazty Spy". http://www.metroactive.com/papers/metro/01.16.97/cover/stooges3-9703.html.
- ^ archival audio – "E Entertainment", May 2002
- ^ a b Forrester, Jeff (2004). The Three Stooges: The Triumphs and Tragedies of the Most Popular Comedy Team of All Time. Donaldson Books. pp. 121, 135. ISBN 0-9715801-0-3.
- ^ Grossman, Gary H. Saturday Morning TV, Dell Publishing, 1981
- ^ Liberty - Google Books. Books.google.com. 1976. http://books.google.com/?id=xQYAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA41&dq=%22three+stooges%22+%2B+%22screen+gems%22+%2B+1958#v=onepage&q=%22three%20stooges%22%20%2B%20%22screen%20gems%22%20%2B%201958&f=false. Retrieved 2010-08-02.
- ^ "Curly vs Shemp". Democratic Underground. http://www.democraticunderground.com/discuss/duboard.php?az=view_all&address=105x1756874. Retrieved 2011-02-20.
- ^ "The Canteen". The Canteen. 1955-11-23. http://www.thecanteen.com/shemp.html. Retrieved 2011-02-20.
- ^ "Pop Culture Addict". Pop Culture Addict. http://popcultureaddict.com/movies/shemp-htm/. Retrieved 2011-02-20.
- ^ The Making of the Stooges VHS Documentary, narrated by Steve Allen (1984)
- ^ "A Stooge's Heirs Ordered to Pay Heirs of Others". The New York Times. December 8, 1994. http://www.nytimes.com/1994/12/08/arts/a-stooge-s-heirs-ordered-to-pay-heirs-of-others.html. Retrieved December 28, 2011.
- ^ "C3 website". http://www.c3entertainment.com/.
- ^ "dvdbeaver.com review". http://www.dvdbeaver.com/film2/dvdreviews33/3_stooges_collection_vol._1.htm.
- ^ "review". Videolibrarian.com. http://www.videolibrarian.com/dvd.html/. Retrieved 2011-02-20.
- ^ "DVDtown.com review". http://www.dvdtown.com/reviews/three-stooges-collection-the-volume-one-1934-1936/5300/.
- ^ The Three Stooges Collection, Vol. 4 Press Release
- ^ "classicflix.com". classicflix.com. 2008-12-30. http://www.classicflix.com/three-stooges-march-special-price-a-396.html?osCsid=959e70f0e1b974f6a67513a67b1498e9. Retrieved 2011-02-20.
- ^ "The Three Stooges Collection, Vol. 6 (1949 - 1951)". Classicflix.com. 2009-06-16. http://www.classicflix.com/three-stooges-collection-1949-1951-p-8311.html. Retrieved 2010-07-10.
- ^ "Classicflix.com Blog: The Three Stooges, Vol. 7 in November". Classicflix.blogspot.com. 2009-08-25. http://classicflix.blogspot.com/2009/08/three-stooges-vol-7-in-november.html. Retrieved 2010-07-10.
- ^ "Get your nyuks, nyuks at the Stoogeum". http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/travel/features/nationworld/4868286.html.
- ^ "Yahoo.com, Three Stooges Museum in Pa.". http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap_travel/20070907/ap_tr_ge/travel_brief_three_stooges_museum;_ylt=Ar.kdy3uCdTqwQffAbzPnzas0NUE.
- ^ Three-D Three Stooges at the Grand Comics Database
- ^ The Three Stooges (2000) at the Internet Movie Database
- ^ Fleming, Mike. "Fox Sets March 14 Start For 'The Three Stooges'". Deadline.com. http://www.deadline.com/2010/12/fox-sets-march-14-start-date-for-the-three-stooges/. Retrieved March 26, 2011.
- ^ Eric Ditzian. "Farrelly Brothers' Three Stooges Saga: The 13-Year Backstory". Mtv.com. http://www.mtv.com/movies/news/articles/1607951/story.jhtml. Retrieved January 26, 2010.
- ^ Arya Ponto. "Three Stooges Movie Not a Biopic, But New Episodes". JustPressPlay.net. http://www.justpressplay.net/articles/39/2061.html. Retrieved October 1, 2007.
- ^ Mark Shanahan; Meredith Goldstein (January 25, 2010). "In search of the proper Curly". The Boston Globe. http://www.boston.com/ae/celebrity/articles/2010/01/25/rocking_this_town_for_charities. Retrieved January 26, 2010.
- ^ Krystal Clark. "Sean Penn Returns to The Three Stooges". screencrave.com. http://screencrave.com/2010-01-05/sean-penn-returns-to-the-three-stooges/. Retrieved January 26, 2010.
- ^ Brendan Bettinger. "Will Sasso Is Curly in THE THREE STOOGES; Hank Azaria and James Marsden the Frontrunners to Play Moe, and Larry will be played by Sean Hayes". collider.com. http://collider.com/will-sasso-hank-azaria-james-marsden-the-three-stooges/82652/. Retrieved March 26, 2011.
- ^ Hitfix Staff. "Former 'Will and Grace' star Sean Hayes will play Larry in 'The Three Stooges'". http://www.hitfix.com/articles/former-will-and-grace-star-sean-hayes-will-play-larry-in-the-three-stooges.
- ^ http://www.onlocationvacations.com/2011/05/24/first-look-at-sean-hayes-chris-diamantopoulos-and-will-sasso-as-the-three-stooges/
- ^ Jane Lynch Joins The Three Stooges
- ^ Craig Harris (2002-04-10). "IGN: The Three Stooges Review". Gameboy.ign.com. http://gameboy.ign.com/articles/357/357085p1.html. Retrieved 2011-02-20.
- ^ 約翰尼•德普西恩•潘擬出演《三個臭皮匠》. (Chinese)
- ^ 活宝 entry at the Hanyu Pinyin Dictionary; 三人 entry at the Hanyu Pinyin Dictionary; 组 entry at the Hanyu Pinyin Dictionary
- ^ 「三ばか大将」にポール・ジアマッティ決定、ジム・キャリーは降板. (Japanese)
- ^ Los Tres Chiflados: unos golpes más allá (Spanish)
Further reading[link]
- Besser, Joe (with Lenburg, Jeff, and Lenburg, Greg), Not Just a Stooge (1984) Excelsior Books, Inc. (reissued 1987 as Once a Stooge, Always a Stooge) Roundtable Publications (Autobiography of Joe Besser, including anecdotes about Abbott and Costello and Olsen and Johnson)
- Bruskin, David N., Behind the Three Stooges: The White Brothers: Conversations with David N. Bruskin (1993) Directors Guild of America (In-depth interviews with producer-directors Jules White, Jack White, and Sam White)
- Comedy III Productions, Inc., Pop, You're "Poifect!": A Three Stooges Salute to Dad (2002) Andrews McMeel
- Cox, Steve and Terry, Jim, One Fine Stooge: Larry Fine's Frizzy Life in Pictures (2005) Cumberland House Publishing
- Davis, Lon and Davis, Debra (eds.), Stooges Among Us (2008) BearManor Media ISBN 1-59393-300-2
- Feinberg, Morris, Larry: The Stooge in the Middle (1984) Last Gasp of San Francisco (Biography of Larry Fine, attributed to his brother but actually ghostwritten by Bob Davis)
- Fericano, Paul, Stoogism Anthology (1977) Poor Souls Printing
- Fine, Larry (with Carone, James), Stroke of Luck (1973) Siena Publishing Co. (Larry Fine's autobiography, transcribed from interviews toward the end of his life)
- Flanagan, Bill, Last of the Moe Haircuts (1986) McGraw-Hill/Contemporary Books, Inc.
- Fleming, Michael, The Three Stooges: An Illustrated History, from Amalgamated Morons to American Icons (2002) Broadway Publishing
- Forrester, Jeffrey, The Stoogephile Trivia Book (1982) Contemporary Books, Inc.
- Forrester, Jeffrey, The Stooge Chronicles (1981) Contemporary Books, Inc. (Comprehensive overview of the team's career; also discusses the various Ted Healy stooges)
- Forrester, Tom, with Forrester, Jeff, The Stooges' Lost Episodes (1988) Contemporary Books, Inc. (Discussion of obscure Stooges appearances, including solo films by individual Stooges)
- Forrester, Jeff, with Forrester, Tom, and Wallison, Joe, The Three Stooges: The Triumphs and Tragedies of the Most Popular Comedy Team of All Time (2001) Donaldson Books
- Garner, Paul, Mousie Garner: Autobiography of a Vaudeville Stooge (1999) McFarland & Co.
- Hansen, Tom and Forrester, Jeffrey, Stoogemania: An Extravaganza of Stooge Photos, Puzzles, Trivia, Collectibles and More (1984) Contemporary Books, Inc. (Overview of Three Stooges memorabilia)
- Howard, Moe, Moe Howard and the Three Stooges (1977) Citadel Press (Moe Howard's autobiography, completed and released posthumously by his daughter)
- Koceimba, Bill, with Kaufman, Eric A., and Sack, Steve, The Three Stooges Golf Spoof and Trivia Book (1999) Gazelle, Inc.
- Kurson, Robert, The Official Three Stooges Encyclopedia: The Ultimate Knucklehead's Guide to Stoogedom, from Amalgamated Association of Morons to Ziller, Zeller, and Zoller (1999) McGraw-Hill
- Kurson, Robert, The Official Three Stooges Cookbook (1998) Contemporary Books, Inc.
- Lenburg, Jeff, with Maurer, Joan Howard, and Lenburg, Greg, The Three Stooges Scrapbook (1982, revised 1994, 2000) Citadel Press
- Longley, Maximillian, The Conservative In Spite of Himself: A Reluctant Right-Winger's Thoughts on Life, Law and the Three Stooges (2007) Monograph Publishers
- Maltin, Leonard, The Great Movie Comedians (1978) Crown Books
- Maltin, Leonard, Movie Comedy Teams (1970, revised 1985) New American Library
- Maltin, Leonard, Selected Short Subjects (first published as The Great Movie Shorts, 1972) Crown Books, (revised 1983) Da Capo Press
- McGarry, Annie, The Wacky World of the Three Stooges (1992) Crescent Books
- Maurer, Joan Howard, Curly: An Illustrated Biography of the Superstooge (1985, revised 1988) Citadel Press
- Maurer, Joan Howard (ed.), The Three Stooges Book of Scripts (1984) Citadel Press
- Maurer, Joan Howard and Maurer, Norman (eds.), The Three Stooges Book of Scripts, Volume II (1987) Citadel Press
- Okuda, Ted and Watz, Edward, The Columbia Comedy Shorts (1998) McFarland & Co. (Comprehensive history of the Columbia short subject department; Stooge colleagues Edward Bernds and Emil Sitka are quoted extensively)
- Seely, Peter and Pieper, Gail W., Stoogeology: Essays on the Three Stooges (2007) McFarland & Co.
- Smith, Ronald L., The Stooge Fans' I.Q. Test (1988) Contemporary Books, Inc.
- Solomon, Jon, The Complete Three Stooges: The Official Filmography and Three Stooges Companion (2000) Comedy III Productions
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: The Three Stooges |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: The Three Stooges |
- Three Stooges Online Filmography at threestooges.net
- The Three Stooges Official Website (sanctioned by C3 Entertainment, Inc. - threestooges.com)
- The Stoogeum (Three Stooges Museum) – stoogeum.com
- A Three Stooges compilation is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
- Portrait (2009) of The Three Stooges (with Shemp) by noted illustrator Drew Friedman
- Interview with Moe Howard on new success with the younger generation from the Ocala Star-Banner – February 22, 1959 accessed via Google News
- The Three Stooges (2012) at the Internet Movie Database
- Dan Barry (April 13, 2012). "Even the Three Stooges Needed Second Fiddles". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/14/movies/the-three-stooges-used-a-lot-of-second-fiddles.html.
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Three_Stooges
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Marcus Brigstocke | |
|---|---|
 Marcus Brigstocke during The Early Edition |
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| Born | (1973-05-08) 8 May 1973 (age 39) Guildford, Surrey, England[1] |
| Medium | Television, Radio, Stand up |
| Nationality | British |
| Genres | Satire |
| Subject(s) | Politics |
| Spouse | Sophie Prideaux (2001-Present) |
| Notable works and roles | Argumental Love Actually |
Marcus Alexander Brigstocke (born 8 May 1973) is an English comedian, actor and satirist who has worked extensively in stand-up comedy, television, radio and in 2010-2011 musical theatre. He is particularly associated with the 6.30pm comedy slot on BBC Radio 4, having frequently appeared on several of its shows. Brigstocke also played a cameo role in Richard Curtis's romantic comedy Love Actually as Mike, a radio DJ who interviews Billy Mack (played by Bill Nighy).
Contents |
Early life[link]
In childhood, Brigstocke attended St. Edmunds School in Hindhead, Surrey.[2] In Chichester he went to Westbourne House School[citation needed] before going onto King's Bruton School in Somerset. He also attended Netherton Hall School,[citation needed] a boarding school for children, situated in Farway, Devon. He studied Drama at the University of Bristol,[2] however he did not complete his degree.
Comedy career[link]
Many of the central themes of Brigstocke's work were first addressed during his time as a student at the University of Bristol. While at Bristol he often performed in the comedy trio Club Seals, which later made the transition to TV in the series of short programmes We Are History.
With a successful radio career including The Now Show with Steve Punt and Hugh Dennis The Now Show also provided an outlet for his fierce dislike of David Blaine, referring to Blaine himself as a "Git Wizard", and his "Above The Below" stunt as Freakdangle. Brigstocke hailed the failure of Blaine's "Drowned Alive" as proof that Blaine is "not special; not magic; just a moistened git". He is increasingly enjoying mainstream success, recently having appeared on such broadly popular TV shows such as Have I Got News for You and Jack Dee's Live at the Apollo series.
Brigstocke plays an arts journalist named Marcus in the Neil Gaiman film A Short Film About John Bolton, and a radio DJ in the Richard Curtis film Love Actually. On 9 April 2006, Brigstocke appeared in BBC Radio 4's Classic Serial adaptation of The Code of the Woosters as Bertie Wooster with Andrew Sachs as Jeeves.
He hosts his satirical programme on BBC4, The Late Edition, which has been described as "Newsnight with jokes".[3] It is loosely based on the format made popular by the American programme The Daily Show with Jon Stewart. This commitment led to his absence from the final two Now Show series of 2006, his place filled by other comedians referred to by the rest of the cast as "our replacement Marcus Brigstocke". He did however return to series in 2007.
Brigstocke's first stand up comedy DVD Planet Corduroy, produced by Phoenix Film & Television Productions, was released in November 2007.
In April 2008 he and fellow comedian and snowboarder, Andrew Maxwell founded the Altitude Festival - a comedy and music festival in the ski resort of Meribel, in the French Alps.
In September 2008, Brigstocke was team captain for the recording of the first series of a new TV comedy panel debating show, Argumental for UK TV channel Dave, He is the Captain of the Red Team. In this, he competes against Rufus Hound with a variety of guest participants, under the chairmanship of John Sergeant.[4]
In 2009, Brigstocke starred in the UK tour of the hit American live improv show, Totally Looped.[5]
His second stand-up show God Collar toured in 2009. In June 2010, Brigstocke announced that he had signed a publishing deal with Transworld to turn the God Collar Tour into a book.[6]
He has also worked for television shows aimed at children for CBBC: Stupid! and Sorry I've Got No Head.
[edit] Pac-Man joke
One of the best-known jokes Brigstocke uses is an ironic commentary on the controversy regarding the influence of video games on children:
| “ | If Pac-Man had affected us as kids, we'd all be running around in dark rooms, munching pills and listening to repetitive electronic music. | ” |
This joke is frequently quoted on the internet and often attributed to famous figures in electronics (such as an apocryphal CEO of Nintendo, "Kristian Wilson," although Hiroshi Yamauchi held that position from 1949 to 2002), but Brigstocke vehemently claims authorship of the joke:
| “ | Ah! Bloody Pacman....It is my joke. I wrote it, then I took the rest of the day off as I was so chuffed with it. I am gutted that it has been claimed and passed around by so many people. Intellectual property law will not save me, the false claims will continue until I am man enough to give it all up. All I can say is -- it seems that it is very unlikely that it was written by a Nintendo employee in 1989, being as Pac Man was still around and not much of a childhood memory, there were very few claims that gaming influenced children's behaviour, and that the wording of it is identical to how it has been delivered in my stand up routine for 6 years! For those that are interested it has also been attributed to Bill Gates, but then so has Windows! Bitter? Well perhaps just a little. It was sent to me by someone at Channel 4 a few years back after I did it on Channel 4 in a late night stand up show! Hope that clears everything up. | ” |
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— Marcus Brigstocke, [7]
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[edit] Excuse My French (BBC2)
Main article: Excuse My French (2006 TV series)
Brigstocke took part in the BBC programme Excuse My French, which was broadcast on BBC2. On the programme he, Ron Atkinson and Esther Rantzen were immersed in the French language by staying in a classic French town in the Provence region, being compelled to adapt to the French lifestyle and speak the language. His ultimate assignment was to perform a live stand-up comedy act in French to a French audience, a task at which he excelled. According to the programme, he continues to learn French, and has since performed more stand up in France (predominantly in English, but with sections in French).
Selected radio credits[link]
- Just A Minute
- The Now Show
- Giles Wemmbley Hogg Goes Off
- Think the Unthinkable
- The Museum of Everything
- 2000 Years of Radio
- As Safe As Houses
- 99p Challenge
- I've Never Seen Star Wars
Selected television credits[link]
- The Savages
- We Are History
- The Late Edition
- My Hero
- Stupid!
- Have I Got News for You
- Excuse My French
- What's The Problem? With Anne Robinson
- Marcus Brigstocke's Trophy People
- News Knight with Sir Trevor McDonald
- Thank God You're Here
- Sorry, I've Got No Head
- Argumental
- QI
- Hole in the Wall
- I've Never Seen Star Wars
- Would I Lie to You?
- The Bubble
- Who Set Fire To My Mud?
- The Graham Norton Show - January 2011
DVD[link]
- Marcus Brigstocke – Planet Corduroy (DVD Region 2). The Shaw Theatre, London, England: Sony/BMG. November 26, 2007. ASIN B000X21NIS.
Theatre[link]
Brigstocke made his musical theatre debut as King Arthur in the UK tour of Spamalot for a limited engagement. He is currently starring in 'The Railway Children' as Albert Perks at the Waterloo Station Theatre.[8]
[edit] I Don't Smoke
In 2000, a sample of a comedy sketch performed by Brigstocke, Dan Tetsell and Danny Robins as part of a Bristol University revue in which an individual assuredly proclaims that he is a non-smoker was featured in DJ Dee Kline's I Don't Smoke, alongside another line from Jim Davidson.
The sample was used without the knowledge of the comedians until the voice of Brigstocke was recognised by Tetsell, who heard the track whilst shopping, resulting in the trio successfully claiming publishing rights for the track, which entered the UK charts at number 11.[9]
Personal life[link]
Brigstocke is dyslexic. During an appearance on the BBC TV show Room 101, first broadcast in January 2007, he admitted to having had weight problems as a younger man, and was once in rehab for food addiction. He still battles with his excessive appetite. He was expelled from King's School, Bruton for "beastie-ing" a car (that turned out to belong to one of the groundsmen) and shoplifting from the local shops to feed both his alcohol needs and "excessive appetite". In his book God Collar he reveals "I started sniffing solvents when I was thirteen and progressed to a limited range of other recreational drugs, with a preference for downers or opiate-style highs."[citation needed] During his early adulthood, he was a goth.
During the early nineties he worked, part time, as a podium dancer at London nightclub the Ministry of Sound. He was also working on an oil rig at this time.[10][11][2]
Brigstocke lives with his wife and university sweetheart, Sophie Prideaux,[2][12] whom he married in 2001 in West Somerset. The couple have two children.
Brigstocke likes snowboarding – he had set up a stand up tour in the Alps and a comedy festival called The Altitude Festival.[13] He's performed in beatboxing battles on stage with Shlomo and Bellatrix.[14]
During an episode of The Late Edition filmed in October 2007, Brigstocke 'admitted' being an atheist, and was presented with an Out Campaign T-shirt by his guest and atheist Richard Dawkins to which Brigstocke replied:
- Look at that. Outed, outed as an atheist and proud to be so"[15]
Brigstocke endorsed Caroline Lucas and the Green Party in their successful bid for the seat of Brighton Pavilion (UK Parliament constituency) in the 2010 General Election.[16]
References[link]
- ^ Nevin, Charles (19 November 2005). "When you're smiling". The Guardian. http://arts.guardian.co.uk/features/story/0,11710,1644941,00.html. Retrieved 2007-08-12.
- ^ a b c d Oglethorpe, Tim (21 April 2001). "Interview: Marcus Brigstocke - Savage past of Marcus; Marcus Brigstocke of The Savages on his misspent youth and how he got back on the straight and narrow". The Mirror (London, England). MGN Ltd. (archive)
- ^ "Four - The Late Edition". BBC. 23 January 2008. http://www.bbc.co.uk/bbcfour/features/late-edition.shtml. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
- ^ "UKTV autumn '08: Dave". Broadcastnow.co.uk. 2008-09-17. http://www.broadcastnow.co.uk/news/2008/09/uktv_autumn_08_dave.html. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
- ^ "Totally Looped". Totally Looped. http://www.totallylooped.co.uk. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
- ^ "Marcus Brigstocke Official Twitter Page". Twitter. http://twitter.com/marcusbrig/status/17324729460. Retrieved 2010-07-23.
- ^ "Official Site for the stand-up comic, writer, presenter & actor". Marcus Brigstocke. http://www.marcusbrigstocke.com/pacman.php. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
- ^ Paddock, Terri (29 March 2010). "Spamalot Crowns Brigstocke, Nicholas’ Pirate King". What's On Stage.com. http://www.whatsonstage.com/news/theatre/london/E8831269862115/Spamalot+Crowns+Brigstocke%2C+Nicholas%92+Pirate+King.html. Retrieved 30 March 2010.
- ^ Topham, Gwyn (2 June 2000). "Comic trio enjoy financial rewards of a sample life". The Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2000/jun/02/gwyntopham. Retrieved 25 June 2010.
- ^ Brew, Simon (23 March 2009). "Marcus Brigstocke interview". DenOfGeek.com.
- ^ "Would I Lie to You?". BBC TV. 24 August 2009.
- ^ "Making an exhibition of themselves ...in The Museum Of Everything". Chortle. February 29, 2004. Archived from the original on 2006-06-14. http://web.archive.org/web/20060614193520/http://chortle.co.uk/radio/radiofeatures/museum.html.
- ^ "Official Site for the stand-up comic, writer, presenter & actor". Marcus Brigstocke. http://www.marcusbrigstocke.com/biog.php. Retrieved 2009-03-13.
- ^ "Shlomo’s Glasto diary 09 – Part 4 – Marcus Brigstocke vs Bellatrix beatbox battle". Shlomo Beatboxing Adventures blog. 21 September 2009.
- ^ "excerpt on youtube". YouTube.com. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FBSrO6EV9x8. Retrieved 2010-06-08. [dead link]
- ^ "Marcus Brigstocke supports the Greens and Caroline Lucas". Yorkshire and Humber Green Party. 2010-03-31. http://yorkshireandhumber.greenparty.org.uk/region/yorkshireandhumber/news/marcus-brigstocke-supports-the-greens-and-caroline-lucas.html. Retrieved 2010-06-08.
External links[link]
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Marcus Brigstocke |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Brigstocke, Marcus |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Comedian |
| Date of birth | 1973-05-08 |
| Place of birth | Guildford, Surrey |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Marcus_Brigstocke
Related pages:
http://es.wn.com/Marcus Brigstocke
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Brigstocke
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
| Christopher Hitchens | |
|---|---|
 Hitchens speaking in 2007 |
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| Born | Christopher Eric Hitchens (1949-04-13)13 April 1949 Portsmouth, England |
| Died | 15 December 2011(2011-12-15) (aged 62) Houston, Texas |
| Occupation | Writer, journalist, public speaker |
| Nationality | English American |
| Citizenship | British and American |
| Alma mater | Balliol College, Oxford |
| Subjects | Politics, religion, history, biography, literature |
| Spouse(s) | Eleni Meleagrou (m. 1981-1989; divorced) Carol Blue (m. 1989-2011; his death) |
| Relative(s) | Peter Hitchens (brother) |
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Influences
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Influenced
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| Signature |  |
Christopher Eric Hitchens (13 April 1949 – 15 December 2011) was an English American[6][7] author and journalist whose career spanned more than four decades.[8] Hitchens, often referred to colloquially as "Hitch",[9] was a columnist and literary critic for New Statesman, The Atlantic, The Nation, The Daily Mirror, The Times Literary Supplement and Vanity Fair. He was an author of twelve books and five collections of essays. As a staple of talk shows and lecture circuits, he was a prominent public intellectual, and his confrontational style of debate made him both a lauded and controversial figure.
Hitchens was known for his admiration of George Orwell, Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson, as well as for his excoriating critiques of various public figures including Mother Teresa, Bill Clinton, Henry Kissinger and Diana, Princess of Wales. Although he supported the Falklands War, his key split from the established political left began in 1989 after what he called the "tepid reaction" of the Western left to the Rushdie Affair. The September 11 attacks strengthened his internationalist embrace of an interventionist foreign policy, and his vociferous criticism of what he called "fascism with an Islamic face." His numerous editorials in support of the Iraq War caused some to label him a neoconservative, although Hitchens insisted he was not "a conservative of any kind", and his friend Ian McEwan describes him as representing the anti-totalitarian left.[10][11]
A noted critic of religion and a self described "antitheist", he said that a person "could be an atheist and wish that belief in god were correct", but that "an antitheist, a term I'm trying to get into circulation, is someone who is relieved that there's no evidence for such an assertion."[12] According to Hitchens, the concept of a god or a supreme being is a totalitarian belief that destroys individual freedom, and that free expression and scientific discovery should replace religion as a means of teaching ethics and defining human civilization. His 2007 book, God Is Not Great, sold over 500,000 copies.
On 15 December 2011, Hitchens died from pneumonia, a complication of his cancer, in the MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston, Texas. A popular figure, his death prompted tributes and eulogies from a range of public figures, including Tony Blair, Richard Dawkins, Martin Amis, James Fenton, Nick Clegg, Stephen Fry and Bill Maher.
Contents |
Life and career[link]
Early life and education[link]
His mother, Yvonne Jean (née Hickman), and father, Eric Ernest Hitchens (1909–1987), met in Scotland while both were serving in the Royal Navy during World War II.[13] Yvonne was at the time a "Wren" (a member of the Women's Royal Naval Service),[14] and Eric a "purse-lipped and silent" commander, whose ship HMS Jamaica helped sink Nazi Germany's battleship Scharnhorst in the Battle of the North Cape.[3] His father's naval career required the family to move a number of times from base to base throughout Britain and its dependencies, including in Malta, where Christopher's brother Peter was born in Sliema in 1951.
Hitchens's mother having argued that "if there is going to be an upper class in this country, then Christopher is going to be in it,"[15] he was sent off to Mount House School in Tavistock in Devon at the age of eight, followed by the independent Leys School in Cambridge, and then at Balliol College in Oxford, where he was tutored by Steven Lukes and read philosophy, politics, and economics. Hitchens was "bowled over" in his adolescence by Richard Llewellyn's How Green Was My Valley, Arthur Koestler's Darkness at Noon, Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment, R. H. Tawney's critique on Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, and the works of George Orwell.[14] In 1968, he took part in the TV quiz show University Challenge.[16]
Hitchens has written of his homosexual experiences when in boarding school in his memoir, Hitch-22.[17] These experiences continued in his college years, when he allegedly had relationships with two men who eventually became a part of the Thatcher government.[18]
In the 1960s Hitchens joined the political left, drawn by his anger over the Vietnam War, nuclear weapons, racism, and "oligarchy", including that of "the unaccountable corporation". He would express affinity with the politically charged countercultural and protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s. However, he deplored the rife recreational drug use of the time, which he describes as hedonistic.[19]
He joined the Labour Party in 1965, but along with the majority of the Labour students' organization was expelled in 1967, because of what Hitchens called "Prime Minister Harold Wilson's contemptible support for the war in Vietnam".[20][clarification needed] Under the influence of Peter Sedgwick, who translated the writings of Russian revolutionary and Soviet dissident Victor Serge, Hitchens forged an ideological interest in Trotskyist and anti-Stalinist socialism.[14] Shortly after he joined "a small but growing post-Trotskyist Luxemburgist sect".[21]
Journalistic career (1970–1981)[link]
Hitchens began working as a correspondent for the magazine International Socialism,[22] published by the International Socialists, the forerunners of today's British Socialist Workers Party. This group was broadly Trotskyist, but differed from more orthodox Trotskyist groups in its refusal to defend communist states as "workers' states". Their slogan was "Neither Washington nor Moscow but International Socialism".
Hitchens left Oxford with a third class degree.[23] In 1971 he went to work at the Times Higher Education Supplement where he served as a social science correspondent.[24] Hitchens admitted that he hated the position, and was later fired; he recalled, "I sometimes think if I'd been any good at that job, I might still be doing it."[25] He then went on to become a researcher for ITV's Weekend World.[26] In 1973 he went on to work for the New Statesman, where he became friends with the authors Martin Amis and Ian McEwan, among others.[26] At the New Statesman he acquired a reputation as a fierce left-winger, aggressively attacking targets such as Henry Kissinger, the Vietnam War, and the Roman Catholic Church.
In November 1973, Hitchens' mother committed suicide in Athens in a suicide pact with her lover, a former clergyman named Timothy Bryan.[14] They overdosed on sleeping pills in adjoining hotel rooms, and Bryan slashed his wrists in the bathtub. Hitchens flew alone to Athens to recover his mother's body. Hitchens said he thought his mother was pressured into suicide by fear that her husband would learn of her infidelity, as their marriage had been strained and unhappy. Both her children were then independent adults. While in Greece, Hitchens reported on the constitutional crisis of the military junta. It became his first leading article for the New Statesman.[27]
In 1977, unhappy at the New Statesman, Hitchens defected to the Daily Express where he became a foreign correspondent.[26] He returned to the New Statesman in 1979 where he became foreign editor.[26]
American career (1981–2011)[link]
After moving to the United States in 1981, Hitchens wrote for The Nation, where he penned vociferous critiques of Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush and American foreign policy in South and Central America.[28][29][30][31][32][33][34] He became a contributing editor of Vanity Fair in 1992,[35] writing ten columns a year. In 2002 Asteroid 57901 Hitchens was named after him.[36] He left The Nation in 2002 after profoundly disagreeing with other contributors over the Iraq War. There is speculation that Hitchens was the inspiration for Tom Wolfe's character Peter Fallow in the 1987 novel The Bonfire of the Vanities,[30] but others — including Hitchens (or he indicated as such while alive) — believe it to be Spy Magazine's "Ironman Nightlife Decathlete" Anthony Haden-Guest.[37][38] In 1987, his father died from cancer of the esophagus.[39] He became a media fellow at the Hoover Institution in September 2008.[40]
Hitchens spent part of his early career in journalism as a foreign correspondent in Cyprus.[41] Through his work there he met his first wife Eleni Meleagrou, a Greek Cypriot, with whom he had two children, Alexander and Sophia. His son, Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens, born in 1984, has worked as a researcher for London think tanks the Policy Exchange and the Centre for Social Cohesion. Hitchens continued writing essay-style correspondence pieces from a variety of locales, including Chad, Uganda[42] and the Darfur region of Sudan.[43] His work took him to over 60 countries.[44] In 1991 he received a Lannan Literary Award for Nonfiction.[45]
Before Hitchens' political shift, the American author and polemicist Gore Vidal was apt to speak of Hitchens as his "Dauphin" or "heir".[46][47][48] In 2010, Hitchens attacked Vidal in a Vanity Fair piece headlined "Vidal Loco," calling him a "crackpot" for his adoption of 9/11 conspiracy theories.[49][50] Also, on the back of his book Hitch-22, among the praise from notable writers and figures, a Vidal quote endorsing Hitchens as his successor is crossed out with a red 'X' and a message saying "NO C.H." His strong advocacy of the war in Iraq had gained Hitchens a wider readership, and in September 2005 he was named one of the "Top 100 Public Intellectuals" by Foreign Policy and Prospect magazines.[51] An online poll ranked the 100 intellectuals, but the magazines noted that the rankings of Hitchens (5), Noam Chomsky (1), and Abdolkarim Soroush (15) were partly due to supporters publicising the vote.[52]
In 2007 Hitchens' work for Vanity Fair won him the National Magazine Award in the category "Columns and Commentary".[53] He was a finalist once more in the same category in 2008 for some of his columns in Slate but lost out to Matt Taibbi of Rolling Stone.[54] He won the National Magazine Award for Columns about Cancer in 2011.[55][56] Hitchens also served on the Advisory Board of Secular Coalition for America and offered advice to Coalition on the acceptance and inclusion of nontheism in American life.[57]
Literature reviews[link]
Hitchens wrote a monthly essay on books in The Atlantic[58] and contributed occasionally to other literary journals. One of his books, Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere, is a collection of such works, and Love, Poverty and War contains a section devoted to literary essays. In Why Orwell Matters, he defends Orwell's writings against modern critics as relevant today and progressive for his time. In the 2008 book Christopher Hitchens and His Critics: Terror, Iraq, and the Left, many literary critiques are included of essays and other books of writers, such as David Horowitz and Edward Said.
During a three-hour interview by Book TV,[3] he named authors who have had influence on his views, including Aldous Huxley, George Orwell, Evelyn Waugh, P. G. Wodehouse and Conor Cruise O'Brien.
Political views[link]
Main article: Christopher Hitchens's political views
| My own opinion is enough for me, and I claim the right to have it defended against any consensus, any majority, anywhere, anyplace, anytime. And anyone who disagrees with this can pick a number, get in line and kiss my ass. |
| – Christopher Hitchens[59] |
The San Francisco Chronicle referred to Hitchens as a "gadfly with gusto".[60] In 2009, Hitchens was listed by Forbes magazine as one of the "25 most influential liberals in the U.S. media".[61] However, the same article noted that he would "likely be aghast to find himself on this list", since it reduces his self-styled radicalism to mere liberalism. Hitchens' political perspective can be found in his wide ranging writings which include many of the political dialogues he published.
Socialism[link]
Hitchens became a socialist "largely [as] the outcome of a study of history, taking sides ... in the battles over industrialism and war and empire." In 2001, he told Rhys Southan of Reason magazine that he could no longer say "I am a socialist." Socialists, he claimed, had ceased to offer a positive alternative to the capitalist system. Capitalism had become the more revolutionary economic system, and he welcomed globalisation as "innovative and internationalist", but added, "I don't think that the contradictions, as we used to say, of the system, are by any means all resolved." He stated that he had a renewed interest in the freedom of the individual from the state, but that he still considered libertarianism "ahistorical" both on the world stage and in the work of creating a stable and functional society, adding that libertarians are "more worried about the over-mighty state than the unaccountable corporation" whereas "the present state of affairs ... combines the worst of bureaucracy with the worst of the insurance companies."[62]
In 2006, in a town hall meeting in Pennsylvania debating the Jewish Tradition with Martin Amis, Hitchens commented on his political philosophy by stating, "I am no longer a socialist, but I still am a Marxist".[63] In a June 2010 interview with The New York Times, he stated that "I still think like a Marxist in many ways. I think the materialist conception of history is valid. I consider myself a very conservative Marxist".[64] In 2009, in an article for The Atlantic entitled "The Revenge of Karl Marx", Hitchens frames the late-2000s recession in terms of Marx's economic analysis and notes how much Marx admired the capitalist system he was calling for the end of, but says that Marx ultimately failed to grasp how revolutionary capitalist innovation was.[65] Hitchens was an admirer of Che Guevara, commenting that "[Che's] death meant a lot to me and countless like me at the time, he was a role model, albeit an impossible one for us bourgeois romantics insofar as he went and did what revolutionaries were meant to do — fought and died for his beliefs."[66] However, in an essay written in 1997, he distanced himself from Che, and referred to the mythos surrounding him as a "cult".[67]
He continued to regard both Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky as great men,[68][69] and the October Revolution as a necessary event in the modernization of Russia.[21][30] In 2005, Hitchens praised Lenin's creation of "secular Russia" and his discrediting of the Russian Orthodox Church, describing it as "an absolute warren of backwardness and evil and superstition".[21]
Iraq War and the war on terror[link]
In the years after the fatwa issued against Salman Rushdie, Hitchens became increasingly critical of what he called "excuse making" on the left. At the same time, he was attracted to the foreign policy ideas of some on the Republican-right that promoted pro-liberalism intervention, especially the neoconservative group that included Paul Wolfowitz.[70] Around this time, he befriended the Iraqi dissident and businessman Ahmed Chalabi.[71] In 2004, Hitchens stated that neoconservative support for US intervention in Iraq convinced him that he was "on the same side as the neo-conservatives" when it came to contemporary foreign policy issues.[72] Hitchens had also been known to refer to his association with "temporary neocon allies".[73]
Following the September 11 attacks, Hitchens and Noam Chomsky debated the nature of radical Islam and the proper response to it. In October 2001, Hitchens wrote criticisms of Chomsky in The Nation.[74][75] Chomsky responded[76] and Hitchens issued a rebuttal to Chomsky[77] to which Chomsky again responded.[78] Approximately a year after the September 11 attacks and his exchanges with Chomsky, Hitchens left The Nation, claiming that its editors, readers and contributors considered John Ashcroft a bigger threat than Osama bin Laden,[79] and that they were making excuses on behalf of Islamist terrorism; in the following months he wrote articles increasingly at odds with his colleagues.
Christopher Hitchens argued the case for the Iraq War in a 2003 collection of essays entitled A Long Short War: The Postponed Liberation of Iraq, and he held numerous public debates on the topic with George Galloway[80] and Scott Ritter.[81]
Criticism of George W. Bush[link]
Prior to September 11, 2001, and the invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan, Hitchens was highly critical of Bush's "non-interventionist" foreign policy. He also criticized Bush's support of intelligent design[82] and capital punishment.[83][83]
Although Hitchens defended Bush's post-September 11 foreign policy, he criticized the actions of U.S. troops in Abu Ghraib and Haditha, and the U.S. government's use of waterboarding, which he unhesitatingly deemed as torture after being invited by Vanity Fair to voluntarily undergo it.[84][85] In January 2006, Hitchens joined with four other individuals and four organizations, including the American Civil Liberties Union and Greenpeace, as plaintiffs in a lawsuit, ACLU v. NSA, challenging Bush's warrantless domestic spying program; the lawsuit was filed by the ACLU.[86][87][88]
Presidential endorsements[link]
Hitchens would elaborate on his political views and ideological shift in a discussion with Eric Alterman on Bloggingheads.tv. In this discussion Hitchens revealed himself to be a supporter of Ralph Nader in the 2000 U.S. presidential election, who was disenchanted with the candidacy of both George W. Bush and Al Gore.[89]
Hitchens made a brief return to The Nation just before the 2004 U.S. presidential election and wrote that he was "slightly" for Bush; shortly afterwards, Slate polled its staff on their positions on the candidates and mistakenly printed Hitchens' vote as pro-John Kerry. Hitchens shifted his opinion to "neutral", saying: "It's absurd for liberals to talk as if Kristallnacht is impending with Bush, and it's unwise and indecent for Republicans to equate Kerry with capitulation. There's no one to whom he can surrender, is there? I think that the nature of the jihadist enemy will decide things in the end".[90]
In the 2008 presidential election, Hitchens in an article for Slate stated, "I used to call myself a single-issue voter on the essential question of defending civilization against its terrorist enemies and their totalitarian protectors, and on that 'issue' I hope I can continue to expose and oppose any ambiguity." He was critical of both main party candidates, Barack Obama and John McCain. Hitchens went on to support Obama, calling McCain "senile", and his choice of running mate Sarah Palin "absurd", calling Palin a "pathological liar" and a "national disgrace".[91]
Blumenthal–Hitchens feud[link]
Hitchens and Carol Blue chose to submit an affidavit to the trial managers of the Republican Party in the trial of impeachment of Bill Clinton. In the affidavit, Blue and Hitchens swore that their then-friend, Sidney Blumenthal, had described Monica Lewinsky as a stalker. This allegation contradicted Blumenthal's own sworn deposition in the trial,[92] and it resulted in a hostile exchange of opinion in the public sphere between Hitchens and Blumenthal. Following the publication of Blumenthal's The Clinton Wars, Hitchens wrote several pieces in which he accused Blumenthal of manipulating the facts.[92][93]
Israel–Palestine[link]
Hitchens had said of himself, "I am an Anti-Zionist. I'm one of those people of Jewish descent who believes that Zionism would be a mistake even if there were no Palestinians."[94]
A review of his autobiography Hitch-22 in the Jewish Daily Forward refers to Hitchens as "a prominent anti-Zionist" and says that he views Zionism "as an injustice against the Palestinians".[95] Others have commented on his anti-Zionism as well[96] suggesting that his memoir was "marred by the occasional eruption of [his] anti-Zionism".[97] The Jewish Daily Forward quoted him saying of Israel's prospects for the future, "I have never been able to banish the queasy inner suspicion that Israel just did not look, or feel, either permanent or sustainable."[95]
In Slate, Hitchens pondered the notion that, instead of curing antisemitism through the creation of a Jewish state, "Zionism has only replaced and repositioned"[98] it, saying: "there are three groups of 6 million Jews. The first 6 million live in what the Zionist movement used to call Palestine. The second 6 million live in the United States. The third 6 million are distributed mainly among Russia, France, Britain, and Argentina. Only the first group lives daily in range of missiles that can be (and are) launched by people who hate Jews." Hitchens argued that instead of supporting Zionism, Jews should help "secularize and reform their own societies", believing that unless one is religious, "what the hell are you doing in the greater Jerusalem area in the first place?" Indeed, Hitchens goes so far as to claim that the only justification for Zionism given by Jews is a religious one.[99]
During a town hall function in Pennsylvania with Martin Amis, Hitchens stated that "one must not insult or degrade or humiliate people"[100] and that he "would be opposed to this maltreatment of the Palestinians if it took place on a remote island with no geopolitical implications". Hitchens described Zionism as "an ethno-nationalist quasi-religious ideology" and stated his desire that if possible, he would "re-wind the tape [to] stop Hertzl from telling the initial demagogic lie (actually two lies) that a land without a people needs a people without a land".
He continued to say that Zionism "nonetheless has founded a sort of democratic state which isn't any worse in its practice than many others with equally dubious origins." He stated that settlement in order to achieve security for Israel is "doomed to fail in the worst possible way", and the cessation of this "appallingly racist and messianic delusion" would "confront the internal clerical and chauvinist forces which want to instate a theocracy for Jews". However, Hitchens contended that the "solution of withdrawal would not satisfy the jihadists" and wondered "What did they imagine would be the response of the followers of the Prophet [Muhammad]?" Hitchens bemoaned the transference into religious terrorism of Arab secularism as a means of democratization: "the most depressing and wretched spectacle of the past decade, for all those who care about democracy and secularism, has been the degeneration of Palestinian Arab nationalism into the theocratic and thanatocratic hell of Hamas and Islamic Jihad".[98] He maintained that the Israel-Palestine conflict is a "trivial squabble" that has become "so dangerous to all of us" because of "the faith-based element."[100]
Hitchens collaborated on this issue with prominent Palestinian advocate Edward Said, in 1988 publishing Blaming the Victims: Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question.
Domestic policy[link]
Hitchens actively supported drug policy reform and called for the abolition of the "War on Drugs" which he described as an "authoritarian war" during a debate with William F. Buckley.[19] He supported the legalization of cannabis for both medical and recreational purposes, citing it as a cure for glaucoma and as treatment for numerous side-effects induced by chemotherapy, including severe nausea, describing the prohibition of the drug as "sadistic".[101] On the issue of abortion, Hitchens prioritized in affirming that he believed a fetus should be regarded as an "unborn child", but opposed the overturning of Roe v. Wade and supported the development of medical abortion techniques, and fundamentally believed in access to contraceptives and reproductive rights as "the only thing that is known to cure poverty", and in order to prevent surgical abortion altogether.[102][103]
Other[link]
Other issues Hitchens wrote on the subjects of included his support for the reunification of Ireland,[104][105] abolition of the British monarchy,[106] and his condemnation of the war crimes of Slobodan Milošević[107] and Franjo Tuđman[108] in Yugoslavia, and the Bosnian War.[109]
Critiques of specific individuals[link]
Hitchens was known for his scathing critiques of public figures. Three figures — Bill Clinton, Henry Kissinger, and Mother Teresa — were the targets of three separate full length texts, No One Left to Lie To: The Triangulations of William Jefferson Clinton, The Trial of Henry Kissinger, and The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice. Hitchens also wrote book-length biographical essays about Thomas Jefferson (Thomas Jefferson: Author of America), George Orwell (Why Orwell Matters), and Thomas Paine (Thomas Paine's "Rights of Man": A Biography).
However, the majority of Hitchens's critiques took the form of short opinion pieces, some of the more notable being his critiques of: Jerry Falwell,[110][111] George Galloway,[112] Mel Gibson,[113] Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama,[114] Michael Moore,[115] Daniel Pipes,[116] Ronald Reagan,[117] Jesse Helms,[118] and Cindy Sheehan.[21][119]When comedian Bob Hope died in 2003, Hitchens wrote an attack piece on him, calling Hope "a fool and nearly a clown, but he was never even remotely a comedian" and "Quick, then—what is your favorite Bob Hope gag? It wouldn't take you long if I challenged you on Milton Berle, or Woody Allen, or John Cleese, or even Lenny Bruce or Mort Sahl. By this time tomorrow, I bet you haven't come up with a real joke for which Hope could take credit." Critics however argued that Hitchens focused solely on Hope's declining years and ignored his heyday in the 1940s.[120]
Views on religion[link]
See also: God Is Not Great
Hitchens often spoke out against the Abrahamic religions, or what he called "the three great monotheisms" (Judaism, Christianity and Islam). He said: "The real axis of evil is Christianity, Judaism, and Islam".[cite this quote] In his book, God Is Not Great, Hitchens expanded his criticism to include all religions, including those rarely criticized by Western secularists such as Hinduism and neo-paganism. His book had mixed reactions, from praise in The New York Times for his "logical flourishes and conundrums"[121] to accusations of "intellectual and moral shabbiness" in the Financial Times.[122] God Is Not Great was nominated for a National Book Award on 10 October 2007.[123][124]
Hitchens contended that organized religion is "the main source of hatred in the world",[125] "[v]iolent, irrational, intolerant, allied to racism, tribalism, and bigotry, invested in ignorance and hostile to free inquiry, contemptuous of women and coercive toward children", and that accordingly it "ought to have a great deal on its conscience". In God Is Not Great, Hitchens contends that:
[A]bove all, we are in need of a renewed Enlightenment, which will base itself on the proposition that the proper study of mankind is man and woman [referencing Alexander Pope]. This Enlightenment will not need to depend, like its predecessors, on the heroic breakthroughs of a few gifted and exceptionally courageous people. It is within the compass of the average person. The study of literature and poetry, both for its own sake and for the eternal ethical questions with which it deals, can now easily depose the scrutiny of sacred texts that have been found to be corrupt and confected. The pursuit of unfettered scientific inquiry, and the availability of new findings to masses of people by electronic means, will revolutionize our concepts of research and development. Very importantly, the divorce between the sexual life and fear, and the sexual life and disease, and the sexual life and tyranny, can now at last be attempted, on the sole condition that we banish all religions from the discourse. And all this and more is, for the first time in our history, within the reach if not the grasp of everyone.[126]
His book rendered him one of the major advocates of the "New Atheism" movement, and he also was made an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society.[127] Hitchens said he would accept an invitation from any religious leader who wished to debate with him. He also served on the advisory board of the Secular Coalition for America,[128] a lobbying group for atheists and humanists in Washington, DC. In 2007, Hitchens began a series of written debates on the question "Is Christianity Good for the World?" with Christian theologian and pastor, Douglas Wilson, published in Christianity Today magazine.[129] This exchange eventually became a book by the same title in 2008. During their book tour to promote the book, film producer Darren Doane sent a film crew to accompany them. Doane produced the film Collision: "Is Christianity GOOD for the World?" which was released on 27 October 2009.
On 26 November 2010 Hitchens appeared in Toronto, Canada at the Munk Debates, where he debated religion with former British Prime Minister Tony Blair, a convert to Roman Catholicism. Blair argued religion is a force for good, while Hitchens was against it. Preliminary results on the Munk website said 56 per cent of the votes backed the proposition (Hitchens' position) before hearing the debate, with 22 per cent against (Blair's position), and 21 per cent undecided, with the undecided voters leaning toward Hitchens, giving him a 68 per cent to 32 per cent victory over Blair, after the debate.[130][131]
In February 2006, Hitchens helped organize a pro-Denmark rally outside the Danish Embassy in Washington, DC in response to the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy.[132]
Hitchens was accused by William A. Donohue of the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Liberties of being particularly anti-Catholic. Hitchens responded "when religion is attacked in this country [...] the Catholic Church comes in for a little more than its fair share".[133] Hitchens had also been accused of anti-Catholic bigotry by others, including Brent Bozell, Tom Piatak in The American Conservative, and UCLA Law Professor Stephen Bainbridge.[134][135] In an interview with Radar in 2007, Hitchens said that if the Christian right's agenda were implemented in the United States "It wouldn't last very long and would, I hope, lead to civil war, which they will lose, but for which it would be a great pleasure to take part."[136] When Joe Scarborough on 12 March 2004 asked Hitchens whether he was "consumed with hatred for conservative Catholics", Hitchens responded that he was not and that he just thinks that "all religious belief is sinister and infantile".[137] Piatak claimed that "A straightforward description of all Hitchens's anti-Catholic outbursts would fill every page in this magazine", noting particularly Hitchens' assertion that U.S. Supreme Court Justice John Roberts should not be confirmed because of his faith.[135]
Hitchens was raised nominally Christian, and went to Christian boarding schools but from an early age declined to participate in communal prayers. Later in life, Hitchens discovered that he was of partially Jewish ancestry. According to Hitchens, when his brother Peter took his fiancée to meet their maternal grandmother, who was then in her 90s, she said of his fiancée, "She's Jewish, isn't she?" and then announced: "Well, I've got something to tell you. So are you." Hitchens found out that his maternal grandmother, Dorothy Levin, was raised Jewish (Dorothy's father and maternal grandfather had both been born Jewish, and Dorothy's maternal grandmother – Hitchens' matrilineal great-great-grandmother – was a convert to Judaism). Hitchens' maternal grandfather converted to Judaism before marrying Dorothy Levin.[138] Hitchens' Jewish-born ancestors were immigrants from Eastern Europe (including Poland).[139][140] In an article in the The Guardian on 14 April 2002, Hitchens stated that he could be considered Jewish because Jewish descent is matrilineal.[139] In a 2010 interview at New York Public Library, Hitchens stated that he was against circumcision, a Jewish tradition, and that he believed "if anyone wants to saw off bits of their genitalia they should do when they're grown up and have made the decision for themselves".[141]
In February 2010, he was named to the Freedom From Religion Foundation's Honorary Board of distinguished achievers.[142]
Personal life[link]
Marriages and children[link]
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Hitchens married Eleni Meleagrou, a Greek Cypriot, in a Greek Orthodox church[18] in 1981; the couple had a son, Alexander and a daughter, Sophia. In 1989 Hitchens left Meleagrou for Carol Blue, an American writer.[29] The couple married in New York, at the apartment of Victor Navasky, editor of The Nation. They have a daughter, Antonia.[29]
Parents[link]
Hitchens' father, Eric Hitchens, was a Commander in the British Royal Navy. Hitchens often referred to his father as simply the 'Commander'. On 26th December, 1943, Hitchens's father was deployed onboard HMS Jamaica when it sank the German warship, the Scharnhorst. Christopher Hitchens would refer to his father's contribution to the war: 'Sending a Nazi convoy raider to the bottom is a better day's work than any I have ever done.' He also stated that 'the remark that most summed him [his father] up was the flat statement that the war of 1939 to 1945 had been "the only time when I really felt I knew what I was doing."' [143]
Hitchens's mother, Yvonne, died in Athens 1973 when, despite first reports in The Times that she had been murdered, it was later concluded that her death had been the result of an apparent suicide pact with her boyfriend, Reverend Timothy Bryan. Hitchens travelled to Athens to identify his mother's body. On the subject Hitchens later said: 'She probably thought things were getting sordid - he [Bryan] wasn't able to hold a job down, she couldn't go back, she was probably about the age I am now and perhaps there was that - she'd been very pretty - and things were never going to get any better, so why go through with it? She might not have been that hard to persuade, but I know that she did try to save herself because I have the photographs still. So that was sort of the end of family life really.' [144]
In reference to writing about his mother in his memoir, Hitch-22, he said, 'It was painful to write about my mother, but not very because long ago I internally managed all that. 'I even went back to Greece and I went to the graveyard while I was writing the book and decided not to write about it. I thought that would be sentimental.' [145]
Relationship with his younger brother[link]
Hitchens' younger brother by two-and-a-half years, Peter Hitchens, is a Christian and socially conservative journalist in London, although, like his brother, he had been a Trotskyist in the 1970s. The brothers had a protracted falling-out after Peter wrote that Christopher had once joked that he "didn't care if the Red Army watered its horses at Hendon" (a suburb of London).[146] Christopher denied having said this and broke off contact with his brother. He then referred to his brother as "an idiot" in a letter to Commentary, and the dispute spilled into other publications as well. Christopher eventually expressed a willingness to reconcile and to meet his new nephew (born in 1999); shortly thereafter the brothers gave several interviews together in which they said that their personal disagreements had been resolved. They appeared together on 21 June 2007 edition of the BBC current affairs discussion show Question Time. The pair engaged in a formal televised debate for the first time on 3 April 2008, at Grand Valley State University,[147] and at the Pew Forum on 12 October 2010.[148]
Smoking and drinking[link]
The Sunday Times described Hitchens as "Usually armed with a glass of Scotch and an untipped Rothmans cigarette."[149] In late 2007 he briefly gave up smoking, although resumed during the writing of his memoir and continued until his cancer diagnosis.[150] Hitchens admitted to drinking heavily; in 2003 he wrote that his daily intake of alcohol was enough "to kill or stun the average mule", arguing that many great writers "did some of their finest work when blotto, smashed, polluted, shitfaced, squiffy, whiffled, and three sheets to the wind."[151] He argued, "The plain fact is that [drinking] makes other people, and indeed life itself, a good deal less boring."[152]
George Galloway notably accused Hitchens of being a "drink-sodden ex-Trotskyist popinjay",[153] to which Hitchens replied, "only some of which is true".[154] Hitchens later elaborated: "He says that I am an ex-Trotskyist (true), a 'popinjay' (true enough, since the word's original Webster's definition is a target for arrows and shots), and that I cannot hold a drink (here I must protest)."[155] Hitchens' wife Carol Blue described him as "obviously an alcoholic, he functions at a really high level and he doesn’t act like a drunk, so the only reason it’s a bad thing is it’s taking out his liver, presumably. It would be a drag for Henry Kissinger to live to a hundred and Christopher to keel over next year.” [156] His New Yorker profile described him as drinking "like a Hemingway character: continually and to no apparent effect."[156]
Oliver Burkeman writes, "Since the parting of ways on Iraq [...] Hitchens claims to have detected a new, personalised nastiness in the attacks on him, especially over his fabled consumption of alcohol. He welcomes being attacked as a drinker 'because I always think it's a sign of victory when they move on to the ad hominem.' He drinks, he says, 'because it makes other people less boring. I have a great terror of being bored. But I can work with or without it. It takes quite a lot to get me to slur.'"[157]
In his 2010 memoir Hitch-22, Hitchens wrote: "There was a time when I could reckon to outperform all but the most hardened imbibers, but I now drink relatively carefully." He described his current drinking routine on working-days as follows: "At about half past midday, a decent slug of Mr. Walker's amber restorative, cut with Perrier water (an ideal delivery system) and no ice. At luncheon, perhaps half a bottle of red wine: not always more but never less. Then back to the desk, and ready to repeat the treatment at the evening meal. No 'after dinner drinks' — most especially nothing sweet and never, ever any brandy. 'Nightcaps' depend on how well the day went, but always the mixture as before. No mixing: no messing around with a gin here and a vodka there."[158]
Reflecting on the lifestyle that supported his career as a writer he said:
I always knew there was a risk in the bohemian lifestyle ... I decided to take it because it helped my concentration, it stopped me being bored — it stopped other people being boring. It would make me want to prolong the conversation and enhance the moment. If you ask: would I do it again? I would probably say yes. But I would have quit earlier hoping to get away with the whole thing. I decided all of life is a wager and I'm going to wager on this bit ... In a strange way I don't regret it. It's just impossible for me to picture life without wine, and other things, fueling the company, keeping me reading, energising me. It worked for me. It really did.[159]
Esophageal cancer and death[link]
In June 2010, Hitchens postponed his book tour for Hitch-22 to undergo treatment for esophageal cancer.[160] He announced that he was undergoing treatment in a Vanity Fair piece entitled "Topic of Cancer".[39] Hitchens said that he recognised the long-term prognosis was far from positive, and that he would be a "very lucky person to live another five years".[161] In November 2010, Hitchens canceled[162] a scheduled appearance in New York, where he was to debate religion writers David Hazony and Stephen Prothero on the subject of the Ten Commandments. Earlier that year, he published a piece in Vanity Fair on the subject,[163] and was working on a book about the Ten Commandments as well.[164]
During his illness, Hitchens was under the care of Francis Collins and was the subject of Collins' new cancer treatment which maps out the human genome and selectively targets damaged DNA.[165][166]
In April 2011, Hitchens was forced to cancel an appearance at the American Atheist Convention, and instead sent a letter that stated, "Nothing would have kept me from joining you except the loss of my voice (at least my speaking voice) which in turn is due to a long argument I am currently having with the specter of death." He closed with "And don't keep the faith."[167] The letter also dismissed the notion of a possible deathbed conversion, in which he claimed that "redemption and supernatural deliverance appears even more hollow and artificial to me than it did before."[167] In June 2011, he spoke to a University of Waterloo audience via a home video link.[168]
In October 2011, Hitchens made a public appearance at the Texas Freethought Convention in Houston, TX. Atheist Alliance of America was also a participant in the joint convention.[169]
In November 2011, George Eaton wrote in the New Statesman:
The tragedy of Hitchens' illness is that it came at a time when he enjoyed a larger audience than ever. Of his tight circle of friends – Amis, Fenton, McEwan, Rushdie – Hitchens was the last to gain international renown, yet he is now read more widely than any of them." Eaton revealed that Hitchens would like to be remembered as a man who fought totalitarianism in all its forms although many remember him as a "lefty who turned right", and his support of the Iraq War and not his support of the War in Bosnia on the side of the Moslems. Eaton concluded, "The great polemicist is certain to be remembered, but, as he is increasingly aware, perhaps not as he would like."[170]
Hitchens died on 15 December 2011 at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston.[171]
In accordance with his wishes, his body was donated to medical research.[172]
Reactions to death[link]
Former British Prime Minister Tony Blair said, "Christopher Hitchens was a complete one-off, an amazing mixture of writer, journalist, polemicist, and unique character. He was fearless in the pursuit of truth and any cause in which he believed. And there was no belief he held that he did not advocate with passion, commitment, and brilliance. He was an extraordinary, compelling and colourful human being whom it was a privilege to know."[173]
Richard Dawkins, British evolutionary biologist at the University of Oxford and a friend of Hitchens, said, "I think he was one of the greatest orators of all time. He was a polymath, a wit, immensely knowledgeable, and a valiant fighter against all tyrants including imaginary supernatural ones."[173]
Sam Harris, American writer and neuroscientist, wrote, "I have been privileged to witness the gratitude that so many people feel for Hitch’s life and work — for, wherever I speak, I meet his fans. On my last book tour, those who attended my lectures could not contain their delight at the mere mention of his name — and many of them came up to get their books signed primarily to request that I pass along their best wishes to him. It was wonderful to see how much Hitch was loved and admired — and to be able to share this with him before the end. I will miss you, brother."[174]
Francis Collins, director of the National Institutes of Health and former head of the Human Genome Project who helped treat Hitchens' illness, wrote, "I will miss Christopher. I will miss the brilliant turn of phrase, the good-natured banter, the wry sideways smile when he was about to make a remark that would make me laugh out loud. No doubt he now knows the answer to the question of whether there is more to the spirit than just atoms and molecules. I hope he was surprised by the answer. I hope to hear him tell about it someday. He will tell it really well."[175]
British columnist and author Peter Hitchens, who had a tumultuous relationship with his older brother Christopher, wrote that he and Christopher "got on surprisingly well in the past few months, better than for about 50 years as it happens," and praised his brother as "courageous."[176]
Irish-American political journalist Alexander Cockburn, founder of the left-wing[177][178][179] political magazine CounterPunch wrote an obituary critical of Hitchens, criticizing his support for the Iraq War, criticisms of Mother Teresa, and criticisms of their mutual friend Edward Said and concluded, "I found the Hitchens cult of recent years entirely mystifying. He endured his final ordeal with pluck, sustained indomitably by his wife Carol."[180]
Tributes followed from the philosopher Daniel Dennett,[181] the physicist Lawrence Krauss,[182] the actor Stephen Fry,[183] the writer Ian McEwan,[184] the philosopher A.C. Grayling;[185] and Vanity Fair, in which he was remembered as an "incomparable critic and masterful rhetorician".[186]
Assessment[link]
Anthony Gottlieb argued in The New Yorker that Hitchens "thrives at the lectern, where his powers of rhetoric and recall enable him to entertain an audience, go too far, and almost get away with it."[187]
Jason Cowley argued in the Financial Times:
- He is not a philosopher and has made no original contribution to intellectual thought. As an atheist, his anti-religious tract, God Is Not Great, is elegant but derivative. His polemical denunciations and pamphlets on powerful individuals, such as Mother Teresa, Bill Clinton, Ronald Reagan and Henry Kissinger, feel already dated, stranded in place and time, good journalism but not literature. Ultimately, I suspect, he will be remembered more for his prodigious output and for his swaggering, rhetorical style – as well as for his lifestyle: the louche cosmopolitan and gadfly, the itinerant man of letters and indefatigable raconteur.[188]
Film and television appearances[link]
As referenced from the Internet Movie Database, Hitchens Web or Charlie Rose.[189][190][191]
| Year | Film and/or Television |
|---|---|
| 1984 | Opinions: "Greece to their Rome" |
| 1988 | Frontiers (TV series) |
| 1993 | Everything You Need to Know |
| 1994 | Tracking Down Maggie: The Unofficial Biography of Margaret Thatcher |
| 1994 | Hell's Angel |
| 1996 | Where's Elvis This Week? |
| 1996–2010 | Charlie Rose (talk show) (13 episodes) |
| 1998 | Princess Diana: The Mourning After |
| 1999–2002 | Dennis Miller Live (TV show) (4 episodes) |
| 2002 | The Trials of Henry Kissinger |
| 2003 | Hidden in Plain Sight |
| 2003–2009 | Real Time with Bill Maher (TV show) (6 episodes) |
| 2004 | Mel Gibson: God's Lethal Weapon |
| 2004–2006 | Newsnight (TV show) (3 episodes) |
| 2004–2010 | The Daily Show (TV show) (4 episodes) |
| 2005 | Penn & Teller: Bullshit! (TV show)(1 episode, s03e05) |
| 2005 | The Al Franken Show (TV show)(1 episode) |
| 2005 | Confronting Iraq: Conflict and Hope |
| 2005 | Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism |
| 2005–2008 | Hardball with Chris Matthews (TV show)(3 episodes) |
| 2006 | American Zeitgeist |
| 2006 | Blog Wars |
| 2007 | Manufacturing Dissent |
| 2007 | Question Time (TV series) (1 episode) |
| 2007 | Your Mommy Kills Animals |
| 2007 | Personal Che |
| 2007 | Heckler |
| 2007 | In Pot We Trust |
| 2008 | Discussions with Richard Dawkins: Episode 1: "The Four Horsemen" |
| 2008 | Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed |
| 2009 | Holy Hell |
| 2009 | Presidency |
| 2009 | Collision: "Is Christianity GOOD for the World?" |
| 2010 | Phil Ochs: There But For Fortune |
Selected publications[link]
Main article: Christopher Hitchens bibliography
- 1984 Cyprus. Quartet. Revised editions as Hostage to History: Cyprus from the Ottomans to Kissinger, 1989 (Farrar, Straus & Giroux) and 1997 (Verso)
- 1988 Blaming the Victims: Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question (contributor; co-editor with Edward Said) Verso, ISBN 0-86091-887-4 Reissued, 2001
- 1990 The Monarchy, Chatto & Windus Ltd
- 1990 Blood, Class and Nostalgia: Anglo-American Ironies, Farrar Straus & Giroux (T)(June 1990)
- 1995 The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice, Verso
- 1997 The Parthenon Marbles: The Case for Reunification, Verso
- 1999 No One Left to Lie To: The Values of the Worst Family, Verso
- 2000 Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere, Verso
- 2001 The Trial of Henry Kissinger. Verso.
- 2001 Letters to a Young Contrarian, Basic Books
- 2002 Why Orwell Matters also Orwell's Victory, Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-03050-5
- 2004 Love, Poverty, and War: Journeys and Essays, Thunder's Mouth, Nation Books, ISBN 1-56025-580-3
- 2005 Thomas Jefferson: Author of America, Eminent Lives/Atlas Books/HarperCollins Publishers, ISBN 0-06-059896-4
- 2007 "Thomas Paine's Rights of Man: A Biography ", Atlantic Monthly Press, ISBN 0-87113-955-3
- 2007 The Portable Atheist: Essential Readings for the Non-Believer, [Editor] Perseus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-306-81608-6
- 2007 God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything, Twelve/Hachette Book Group USA/Warner Books, ISBN 0-446-57980-7 / Published in the UK as God Is Not Great: The Case Against Religion, Atlantic Books, ISBN 978-1-84354-586-6
- 2008 Christopher Hitchens and His Critics: Terror, Iraq and the Left (with Simon Cottee and Thomas Cushman), New York University Press
- 2008 Is Christianity Good for the World? — A Debate (co-author, with Douglas Wilson), Canon Press, ISBN 1-59128-053-2
- 2010 Hitch-22: A Memoir, Twelve, ISBN 978-0-446-54033-9 OCLC 464590644
- 2011 Arguably: Essays by Christopher Hitchens, Twelve. UK edition as Arguably: Selected Prose, Atlantic, ISBN 1-4555-0277-4 / ISBN 978-1-4555-0277-6
References[link]
- ^ "Christopher Hitchens on George Orwell". NetCharles.com. 24 June 2002. http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/articles/col-hitchens.htm. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens and his Critics, p. 264.
- ^ a b c "Christopher Hitchens In Depth". 2 September 2007. Book TV. http://www.booktv.org/program.aspx?ID=8532&SN=In%20Depth. — List of writers can be seen @ 1:13:10
- ^ Kennard, Matt (17 April 2011). "Johann Hari on Chomsky, Hitchens, Iraq, and anarchism". Thecommentfactory.com. http://www.thecommentfactory.com/johann-hari-on-chomsky-hitchens-iraq-and-anarchism-3160/. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Alexandra Alter (11 May 2010). "A Friendship for the Pages". The Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704250104575238560552578150.html.
- ^ Hitchens, C (2011). Hitch-22: A Memoir. Random House Digital. p. 228. ISBN 0-7710-4115-2.
- ^ Hitchens, C (2011). Hitch-22: A Memoir. Random House Digital. p. 204. ISBN 0-7710-4115-2.
- ^ ‘HITCHENS, Christopher Eric’, Who's Who 2012, A & C Black, 2012; online edn, Oxford University Press, Dec 2012 ; online edn, Jan 2012 accessed 5 May 2012
- ^ Wintour, Anna (16 December 2011). "The Ruined Table". Slate. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/fighting_words/2011/12/christopher_hitchens_death_anna_wintour_on_what_her_old_friend_hitchens_loved_most_.html. "Christopher Hitchens — or Hitch, as he was known to me and just about everyone else"
- ^ Eaton, George. The New Statesman Interview: Christopher Hitchens www.newstatesman.com, 12 July 2010. Retrieved 7 November 2010. Hitchens recalls in his memoir having been "invited by Bernard-Henri Levy to write an essay on political reconsiderations for his magazine La Regle du Jeu. I gave it the partly ironic title: 'Can One Be a Neoconservative?' Impatient with this, some copy editor put it on the cover as 'How I Became a Neoconservative.' Perhaps this was an instance of the Cartesian principle as opposed to the English empiricist one: it was decided that I evidently was what I apparently only thought."
- ^ 14:45
- ^ Andre Mayer (14 May 2007). "Nothing sacred — Journalist and provocateur Christopher Hitchens picks a fight with God". CBC. http://www.cbc.ca/arts/books/nothing_sacred.html. Retrieved 29 June 2008.
- ^ Yglesias, Matthew (20 October 2003). "The Commander: My Father, Eric Hitchens". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/2255781/entry/2255782. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ a b c d Walsh, John. The Independent. "Hitch-22: A memoir by Christopher Hitchens" Retrieved 28 May 2010
- ^ Lynn Barber "Look who's talking", The Observer, 14 April 2002
- ^ Blake Morrison I contain multitudes, The Guardian, 29 May 2010
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher, Hitch-22 (Allen & Unwin, 2010) p. 76 ff.
- ^ a b Levy, Geoffery, "So Who Were the Two Tory Ministers Who Had Gay Flings with Christopher Hitchens at Oxford?", Daily Mail, 6 March 2010, accessed 30 May 2010
- ^ a b Hoover Institution. Web.archive.org (15 September 2007). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ Long Live Labor — Why I'm for Tony Blair Slate, 25 April 2005
- ^ a b c d Heaven on Earth — Interview with Christopher Hitchens PBS, 2005
- ^ International Socialism: Christopher Hitchens "Workers' Self Management in Algeria" (1st series), No.51, April–June 1972, p.33, Encyclopedia of Trotskyism, 25 October 2005
- ^ Alexander Linklater (May 2008). "Christopher Hitchins". Prospect. http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=10157. Retrieved 17 February 2009. [dead link]
- ^ ‘HITCHENS, Christopher Eric’, Who's Who 2012, A & C Black, 2012; online edn, Oxford University Press, Dec 2012 ; online edn, Jan 2012 accessed 5 May 2012
- ^ "Christopher Hitchens Explains Why You Should Quit Your Job". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NegtQIkhz6g. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ a b c d New Statesman - Christopher Hitchens: the New Statesman years
- ^ Barber, Lynn (13 April 2002). "Look who's talking". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2002/apr/14/politics. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
- ^ For the Sake of Argument by Christopher Hitchens Interview with Brian Lamb for the show Booknotes, an author interview series on C-SPAN (some biographical information) 17 October 1993
- ^ a b c The Boy Can't Help It In-depth interview and profile] in New York, 19 April 1999
- ^ a b c "Free Radical", interview in Reason by Rhys Southan, November 2001
- ^ Christopher Hitchens The Atlantic, 2003
- ^ Guy Raz, Christopher Hitchens, Literary Agent Provocateur, National Public Radio, 21 June 2006
- ^ He Knew He Was Right The New Yorker, Profiles, 16 October 2006
- ^ Christopher Hitchens Notable Interviews — video interview 2007
- ^ Christopher Hitchens – Contributing Editor. Web.archive.org (28 February 2010). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ Alan Chamberlin. "JPL Small-Body Database Browser". Ssd.jpl.nasa.gov. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=hitchens. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Timothy Noah, Meritocracy's lab rat Slate, 9 January 2002
- ^ Annabel's — the magazine Vogue UK, 15 July 2004
- ^ a b Hitchens, Christopher. "Topic of Cancer | Culture". Vanity Fair. http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2010/09/hitchens-201009. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ "Christopher Hitchens on Sarah Palin: 'A Disgraceful Opportunist and Moral Coward'". PoliticalArticles.NET. 18 December 2009. http://www.politicalarticles.net/blog/2009/12/18/christopher-hitchens-on-sarah-palin-a-disgraceful-opportunist-and-moral-coward/. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ At the Rom: Three New Commandments She Does The City, 30 April 2009
- ^ "Childhood's End", Vanity Fair, September 2006
- ^ "Realism in Sudan", Slate, 7 November 2005
- ^ Christopher Hitchens Twelve Publishers
- ^ Detailed Biographical Information — Christopher Hitchens, Lannan Foundation. Retrieved 27 April 2010.
- ^ Andrew Werth (January/February 2004). "Hitchens on Books". The Atlantic. http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2004/01/letters.htm. Retrieved 17 February 2009.
- ^ John Banville (3 March 2001). "Gore should be so lucky". The Irish Times. http://osdir.com/ml/politics.leftists.monkeyfist/2001-04/msg00016.html. Retrieved 17 February 2009.
- ^ Gore Vidal on Christopher Hitchens YouTube
- ^ Christopher Hitchens (February 2010). "Vidal Loco". Vanity Fair. http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2010/02/hitchens-201002. Retrieved 24 June 2010.
- ^ Youde, Kate (7 February 2010). "Hitchens attacks Gore Vidal for being a 'crackpot'". The Independent (London). http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/news/hitchens-attacks-gore-vidal-for-being-a-crackpot-1891753.html. Retrieved 17 February 2009.
- ^ Prospect/FP Top 100 Public Intellectuals Results Foreign Policy
- ^ The Prospect/FP Top 100 Public Intellectuals Foreign Policy
- ^ 2007 National Magazine Award Winners Announced Press release, Magazine Publishers of America, 1 May 2007
- ^ National Magazine Awards Winners and Finalists Magazine Publishers of America
- ^ "Christopher Hitchens Wins National Magazine Award for Columns About Cancer". Vanity Fair. http://www.vanityfair.com/online/daily/2011/05/christopher-hitchens-wins-national-magazine-award-for-columns-about-cancer.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ "2011 National Magazine Awards Winners and Finalists". Magazine Publishers of America. 9 May 2011. http://www.magazine.org/asme/magazine_awards/nma_winners/index.aspx.
- ^ "Secular Coalition for America Advisory Board Biography". Secular.org. http://www.secular.org/bios/Christopher_Hitchens.html. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
- ^ Authors — Christopher Hitchens The Atlantic
- ^ The Immortal Rejoinders of Christopher Hitchens (videotape). Vanity Fair. 16 December 2011. 2:40 minutes in. http://www.vanityfair.com/video/2011/12/1329955421001. Retrieved 25 February 2012.
- ^ FIVE QUESTIONS FOR: Christopher Hitchens SF Gate
- ^ "The 25 Most Influential Liberals In The US Media". Forbes. 22 January 2009. http://www.forbes.com/2009/01/22/influential-media-obama-oped-cx_tv_ee_hra_0122liberal_slide_13.html?thisSpeed=30000. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
- ^ Rhys Southan from the November 2001 issue. "Free Radical — Reason Magazine". Reason.com. http://reason.com/archives/2001/11/01/free-radical. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Martin Amis Christopher Hitchens a conversation about Antisemitism and Saul bellow Part 3 YouTube
- ^ Solomon, Deborah (2 June 2010). "The Contrarian". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/06/magazine/06fob-q4-t.html. Retrieved 19 February 2011.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens. "The Revenge of Karl Marx" The Atlantic, April 2009
- ^ Just a Pretty Face? The Guardian, 11 July 2004
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (1997), "Goodbye to All That", The New York Review of Books, 17 July 1997
- ^ Amis, Martin (2002). Koba the Dread. Miramax. p. 25. ISBN 0-7868-6876-7.
- ^ "Great Lives — Leon Trotsky", BBC Radio 4, 8 August 2006
- ^ "That Bleeding Heart Wolfowitz", Slate, 22 March 2005
- ^ "Ahmad and Me", Slate, 27 May 2004
- ^ Johann Hari, "In Enemy Territory: An Interview with Christopher Hitchens", The Independent, 23 September 2004.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens, "The End of Fukuyama", Slate, 1 March 2006
- ^ Of Sin, the Left & Islamic Fascism The Nation, 8 October 2001
- ^ Blaming bin Laden First The Nation, 22 October 2001
- ^ Chomsky Replies to Hitchens The Nation, 15 October 2001
- ^ A Rejoinder to Noam Chomsky The Nation, 15 October 2001
- ^ Reply to Hitchens's Rejoinder The Nation, 15 October 2001
- ^ Taking Sides The Nation, 26 September 2002
- ^ "George Galloway vs Christopher Hitchens (1 of 12)". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KZnUIeKOIgc. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ "Christopher Hitchens versus Ritter — Iraq War debate part 1". YouTube. 30 April 2009. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HU45ioYvx4k. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Belz, Mindy. "According to Hitch", World Magazine, 3 April 2006
- ^ a b "A War To Be Proud Of" Weekly Standard, 5 September 2005
- ^ "Believe Me, It's Torture", Vanity Fair, August 2008
- ^ On the Waterboard[dead link] Vanity Fair, 2 July 2008
- ^ Lichtblau, Eric. "Two Groups Planning to Sue Over Federal Eavesdropping" The New York Times, 17 January 2006; Retrieved 5 November 2009
- ^ "Statement — Christopher Hitchens, NSA Lawsuit Client". Aclu.org. 16 January 2006. http://www.aclu.org/safefree/nsaspying/23485res20060116.html. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (7 August 1999). "Gov. Death". Salon.com. http://www.truthinjustice.org/govdeath.htm. Retrieved 10 May 2009.
- ^ On Whether Christopher Hitchens Was Wrong Bloggingheads.tv, 14 October 2008
- ^ My Endorsement and Osama's Video: The news in Bin Laden's comments had nothing to do with our election Slate, 1 November 2004]
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher "Vote for Obama" Slate, 13 October 2008; Retrieved 5 November 2009
- ^ a b "Salon Newsreal | Stalking Sidney Blumenthal". Salon.com. http://www.salon.com/news/1999/02/09newsa.html. Retrieved 26 April 2011. [dead link]
- ^ Christopher Hitchens (July/August 2003). "Thinking Like an Apparatchik". The Atlantic Monthly 292 (1): 129–42. http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/2003/07/hitchens.htm. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Hölbling, Walter; Rieser-Wohlfarter, Klaus (2004). What is American?: new identities in U.S. culture. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 351–. ISBN 978-3-8258-7734-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=_Tn7LqhWI7IC&pg=PA351. Retrieved 6 April 2011.
- ^ a b Goldstein, Evan R. (June 2010). "Born Grumpy, with a Talent for It: Christopher Hitchens's Memoir is Too Happy by Far". Jewish Daily Forward. http://www.forward.com/articles/128323/.
- ^ Rodden, John (2006). Every intellectual's big brother: George Orwell's literary siblings. University of Texas Press. pp. 95–. ISBN 978-0-292-71308-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=UlnwITCGcw8C&pg=PA95. Retrieved 6 April 2011.
- ^ Richman, Rick (11 2010). "Bellow, Hitchens, and COMMENTARY". Commentary Magazine. http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2010/11/08/bellow-hitchens-and-commentary/.
- ^ a b "Slate: Can Israel Survive for Another 60 Years?". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/2191193/. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
- ^ Kerstein, Benjamin. "Christopher Hitchens's Jewish Problem". Jewish Ideas Daily. http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/content/module/2010/12/13/main-feature/1/christopher-hitchenss-jewish-problem. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
- ^ a b "Frontpage Interview: Christopher Hitchens Part II". FrontPage Magazine. http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=11253. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
- ^ Just a Pretty Face? by Sean O'Hagan, The Observer, 11 July 2004
- ^ Question and answers on Mother Teresa's opposition to women's rights Poverty linked to reproductive rights, 2006
- ^ Lisa Miller (2008-11-28). "Belief Watch: Pro-life Atheists". Newsweek.com. http://www.newsweek.com/id/171240. Retrieved 2012-01-24.
- ^ Galloway vs. Hitchens: The Transcript endusmilitarism, 16 September 2005
- ^ These Men Are "Peacemakers"? Ian Paisley and Gerry Adams make me want to spew Slate, 2 April 2007
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (6 December 2000). "End of the line". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2000/dec/06/monarchy.features11.
- ^ "In Defense of WWII: Chapter 5 of 5". Youtube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VB9uqI62ikA. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
- ^ "Shed No Tears for Milosevic". FrontPage Magazine. 14 March 2006. http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=C83A870D-93BE-4ACD-B8E0-E082B1D313C0. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
- ^ Bodansky, Yossef (1996). Some Call It Peace: Waiting for the War In the Balkans. International Media Corp. Ltd. ISBN 0-9520070-5-3.
- ^ Video: Christopher Hitchens (15 May 2007) appearance on Anderson Cooper 360 YouTube
- ^ Video: Christopher Hitchens (16 May 2007) appearance on Hannity & Colmes about Rev. Falwell's Death YouTube
- ^ Unmitigated Galloway Weekly Standard, 30 May 2005
- ^ Mel Gibson's Meltdown Slate, 31 July 2006
- ^ His material highness Salon.com article by Christopher Hitchens
- ^ Unfairenheit 9/11 Slate, 21 June 2004
- ^ Christopher Hitchens "Daniel Pipes is not a man of peace", Slate, 11 August 2003
- ^ "The stupidity of Ronald Reagan". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/2101842/. Retrieved 9 May 2007.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens (7 July 2008). "Farewell to a Provincial Redneck". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/2194921/.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens, Cindy Sheehan's Sinister Piffle, Slate, 15 August 2005
- ^ http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/fighting_words/2003/08/hopeless.html
- ^ Michael Kinsley "In God, Distrust" The New York Times Book Review, 13 May 2007
- ^ Here's the hitch by Michael Skapinker in The Financial Times
- ^ Associated Press. Web.archive.org (13 October 2007). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ Hardcover Nonfiction The New York Times Best Seller list, 3 June 2007
- ^ Free Speech onegoodmove, March 2007
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (May 2007). God is not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything. New York: Twelve Books. p. 283.
- ^ Honorary Associate: Christopher Hitchens National Secular Society
- ^ Biography — Christopher Hitchens Secular Coalition for America Advisory Board
- ^ "Is Christianity Good for the World?" Christianity Today, 8 May 2007
- ^ "Hitchens apparent winner in religion debate. CBC News. Retrieved 27 November 2010". News.ca.msn.com. 27 November 2010. http://news.ca.msn.com/top-stories/cbc-article.aspx?cp-documentid=26520521. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ "Munk Debates Website". Munkdebates.com. http://www.munkdebates.com/debates/. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Pareene, Alex (4 February 2006). "Instant Team Party Crash: Legoland Uber Alles". Wonkette. http://wonkette.com/156915/instant-team-party-crash-legoland-uber-alles. Retrieved 9 Dec 2010.
- ^ Look Who's Hammering Mel[dead link] 1 August 2006
- ^ "Hood, John Hollowed Be Thy Name". Miami Sun Post Web.archive.org (21 May 2007). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ a b Tom Piatak, The Purest Neocon: Christopher Hitchens, an unreconstructed Bolshevik, finds his natural home on the pro-war Right, The American Conservative, 10 October 2005
- ^ "Godless Provocateur Christopher Hitchens Pledges Allegiance to America". Holidaydmitri.com. 1 May 2007. http://www.holidaydmitri.com/hitch.html. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Scarborough County Transcripts for 12 March 2004
- ^ Hitch-22
- ^ a b Look who's talking The Observer, 14 April 2002
- ^ Hitch-22, page 352.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens at NYPL w. Paul Holdengräber (4-Jun-10)(2–9)(THE INTERVIEW series). YouTube (18 September 2010). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ "Honorary FFRF Board Announced". http://ffrf.org/news/releases/honorary-ffrf-board-announced/. Retrieved 20 August 2008.
- ^ Hichens, Christopher (2010-06-2). "The Commander: My Father, Eric Hitchens". Slate.com. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/fighting_words/features/2010/hitch22/the_commander_my_father_eric_hitchens.html. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ Lynn Barber (2002-04-13). "Lynn Barber meets Christopher Hitchens". Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2002/apr/14/politics. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ Hitch-22: A Memoir, Huffington post
- ^ Christopher Hitchens (16 May 2005). "O Brother, Why Art Thou?". Vanity Fair. Condé Nast Publications. http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2005/06/hitchens200506. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
- ^ "Hitchens v. Hitchens: Faith, Politics & War". Grand Valley State University. http://www.gvsu.edu/hauenstein/index.cfm?id=3425B4C3-DA0C-48A1-FDE23503A04A3318. Retrieved 29 March 2008.
- ^ "Can Civilization Survive Without God?". http://pewforum.org/Belief-in-God/Can-Civilization-Survive-Without-God-.aspx.
- ^ The Sunday Times (London) December 18, 2011 Sunday Edition 1; Northern Ireland Christopher Hitchens; OBITUARIES ; Polemicist who lived a life of dissolution and contrariness SECTION: NEWS REVIEW;FEATURES; OBITUARIES; Pg. 8
- ^ Edward Luce, Lunch with the Financial Times, 11 January 2008
- ^ Christopher Hitchens, Living Proof, Vanity Fair, March 2003
- ^ Introduction to Everyday Drinking: The Distilled Kingsley Amis, by Kingsley Amis (New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2008), x.
- ^ Unmitigated Galloway , The Weekly Standard, 30 May 2005
- ^ "There's only one popinjay here, George", Evening Standard, 19 May 2005
- ^ George Galloway Is Gruesome, Not Gorgeous, Slate, 13 September 2005
- ^ a b Ian Parker (OCTOBER 16, 2006). "He Knew He Was Right". The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/10/16/061016fa_fact_parker?currentPage=all.
- ^ Oliver Burkeman, War of words, The Guardian, 28 October 2006
- ^ A Short Footnote on the Grape and the Grain, Slate, 6 June 2010
- ^ "Q & A". Q-and-a.org. http://www.q-and-a.org/Program/?ProgramID=1322. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ "Reliable Source – Christopher Hitchens diagnosed with cancer, cuts short his book tour". Voices.washingtonpost.com. http://voices.washingtonpost.com/reliable-source/2010/06/rs-_hitchens.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Goldberg, Jeffrey (6 August 2010). "Hitchens Talks to Goldblog About Cancer and God". The Atlantic. http://www.theatlantic.com/culture/archive/2010/08/hitchens-talks-to-goldblog-about-cancer-and-god/61072/. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
- ^ "Hitchens cancels NYC Jewish Center Ten Commandments panel". Daily Hitchens. 4 November 2010. http://www.dailyhitchens.com/2010/11/hitchens-cancels-nyc-jewish-center-ten.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (1 August 2011). "The New Commandments | Culture". Vanity Fair. http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2010/04/hitchens-201004. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Eaton, George. "Interview: Christopher Hitchens". New Statesman. UK. http://www.newstatesman.com/books/2010/07/conservative-course-presidency. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Neville, Simon (26 March 2011). "Atheist Christopher Hitchens turns to evangelical Christian doctor in his fight against cancer". Daily Mail (UK). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1370145/Atheist-Christopher-Hitchens-turns-evangelical-Christian-doctor-fight-cancer.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011. "Dr Francis Collins, the former director of the National Human Genome Research Project was one part of the team which developed techniques to map out the entire human DNA make-up is using Hitchens as a guinea pig for a new treatment. Hitchens, author of God is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything, has had his genome mapped out in its entirety by taking DNA from healthy tissue and from his cancerous tumour."
- ^ "Atheist Hitchens Credits Evangelical Francis Collins for Cancer Hope". The Christian Post. http://www.christianpost.com/news/atheist-hitchens-credits-evangelical-francis-collins-for-cancer-hope-49615/. Retrieved 16 December 2011. "In an interview with U.K. Telegraph Magazine, Hitchens said that Collins, who was formerly the director of the National Center for Human Genome Research and now serves as director of the National Institutes of Health, is partially responsible for developing a new cancer treatment that maps out the patient's entire genetic make-up and targets damaged DNA."
- ^ a b Scienceblogs.com article: "Hitchens' address to American Atheists."
- ^ Liz Monteiro (6 June 2011). "Hitchens feted with standing ovation at UW video link debate". Waterloo Region Record. http://www.therecord.com/news/local/article/543148--hitchens-feted-with-standing-ovation-at-u-of-w-video-link-debate.
- ^ Charles McGrath (9 October 2011). "A Voice, Still Vibrant, Reflects on Mortality". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/10/books/christopher-hitchens-on-writing-mortality-and-cancer.html.
- ^ George Eaton (24 November 2011). "Hitch's Rolls-Royce mind is still purring". New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/ideas/2011/11/hitchens-remembered-polemicist. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Arnold, Laurence (16 December 2011). "Christopher Hitchens, Who Wrote of War, God, Cancer Battle, Dies Aged 62". Bloomberg. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-12-16/christopher-hitchens-who-wrote-of-war-god-cancer-battle-dies-aged-62.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ "Memorial Gatherings". dailyhitchens.com. 24 December 2011. http://www.dailyhitchens.com/2011/12/memorial-gatherings.html.
- ^ a b The Associated Press: Quotes on the death of pundit Christopher Hitchens. Google.com. Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ The Blog : Hitch. Sam Harris (18 December 2011). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ Collins, Francis S.. (18 December 2011) In remembrance of my friend Hitch – Guest Voices. The Washington Post. Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ Hitchens, Peter. (16 December 2011) In Memoriam, my courageous brother Christopher, 1949–2011. Mail Online. Retrieved on 24 December 2011.
- ^ Ralph Blumenthal (12 May 2006). "Army Acts to Curb Abuses of Injured Recruits". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/12/us/12training.html?pagewanted=2. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
- ^ "The Devil You Know". new Republic. http://www.tnr.com/article/politics/the-devil-you-know.
- ^ "Olbermann, Assange, and the Holocaust Denier When you want to believe, you'll believe anything.". Reason. http://reason.com/archives/2010/12/07/olbermann-assange-and-the-holo.
- ^ Cockburn, Alexander. (16 December 2011) Farewell to CH. Counterpunch. Retrieved on 24 December 2011.
- ^ Dennett, Daniel. (19 December 2011) [1]. Washington Post
- ^ Kraus, Lawrence. (23 December 2011) [2]. richarddawkins.net
- ^ Fry, Stephen. (16 December 2011) [3]. thedailybeast.com
- ^ McEwan, Ian. (16 December 2011) [4]. theguradian.co.uk
- ^ Grayling, A.C. (16 December 2011) [5]. barnesandnoble.com
- ^ Vanity, Fair. (15 December 2011) [6]. Vanity Fair
- ^ Gottlieb, Anthony (2007-05-21). "Atheists with Attitude". The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/05/21/070521crbo_books_gottlieb. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ September 23, 2011 10:05 pm The war on error By Jason Cowley
- ^ "Christopher Hitchens". Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0386899/. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ "Hitchens Web". http://www.hitchensweb.com/. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
- ^ "Charlie Rose". http://www.charlierose.com/. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
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- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Christopher Hitchens at the Internet Movie Database
- Christopher Hitchens on Charlie Rose
- Daily Hitchens, an archive of material on or by Hitchens
- Christopher Hitchens on National Public Radio in 2010
- Drexel Interview (One-hour video interview) with Paula Marantz Cohen, June 2010
- Works by or about Christopher Hitchens in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Christopher Hitchens collected news and commentary at The Guardian
- Christopher Hitchens collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Christopher Hitchens collected news and commentary at The Boston Globe
- "Journalist Christopher Hitchens fully embraces the Bush war camp" from the World Socialist Website, October 2002
- "Christopher Hitchens[dead link]" feature story in Prospect magazine, May 2008
- "Incendiary Author Spares No Targets" feature story in The New Zealand Herald, May 2008
- "Such, Such are His Joys" David Brooks assessment in The New York Times, 1 July 2010
- Hitchens on Dying with Cancer, video interview with The Atlantic, August 2010
- "Christopher Hitchens: 'You have to choose your future regrets'" The Guardian, 13 November 2010
- "Christopher Hitchens's Jewish Problem" feature article on Jewish Ideas Daily, 13 December 2010
- A debate between Hitchens and Berlinski 2010
- Outspoken and outrageous: Christopher Hitchens a 60 Minutes profile aired 6 March 2011
- Articles by Hitchens
- Contributor page at Vanity Fair
- Column archive at The Atlantic
- Article archive at The Guardian
- Hitchens articles at Slate
- Article archive at Journalisted
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hitchens, Christopher Eric |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | English author, journalist and literary critic |
| Date of birth | 13 April 1949 |
| Place of birth | Portsmouth, England |
| Date of death | 15 December 2011 |
| Place of death | Houston, Texas, United States |
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