- published: 16 May 2012
- views: 716
- author: MrLangridge1
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- 10th century
- 1960 U-2 incident
- 9th century
- Able Archer 83
- Active measures
- Albania
- Albanian language
- Aleksei Antonov
- Angolan Civil War
- ANZUS
- April 9 tragedy
- Armistice of Focşani
- Arms race
- ASEAN Declaration
- Battle of Sirmium
- Bay of Pigs Invasion
- Beatrice Heuser
- Belgrade Convention
- Berlin Blockade
- Berlin Wall
- Black January
- Boxer Protocol
- Brezhnev Doctrine
- Bricker Amendment
- Bulgaria
- Bulgarian language
- Bunkers in Albania
- Cambodian Civil War
- Capitalism
- Carnation Revolution
- Carter Doctrine
- Castroism
- Category Cold War
- Central Europe
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- German language
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- Great Turkish War
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- Hungarian language
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- Hungary
- Igor Gouzenko
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- Invasion of Grenada
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-
Albania
Albania (
i/ælˈbeɪniə/ al-BAY-nee-ə, Albanian: Shqipëri/Shqipëria; Gheg Albanian: Shqipnia), officially known as the Republic of Albania (Albanian: Republika e Shqipërisë pronounced Albanian pronunciation: [ɾɛpuˈblika ɛ ʃcipəˈɾiːs]), is a country in Southern Europe. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the west, and on the Ionian Sea to the southwest. It is less than 72 km (45 mi) from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which links the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea.
Albania is a member of the UN, NATO, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Council of Europe, World Trade Organisation, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and one of the founding members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Albania has been a potential candidate for accession to the European Union since January 2003, and it formally applied for EU membership on 28 April 2009.
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Berlin Wall
The Berlin Wall (German: Berliner Mauer) was a barrier constructed by the German Democratic Republic (GDR, East Germany) starting on 13 August 1961, that completely cut off West Berlin from surrounding East Germany and from East Berlin. The barrier included guard towers placed along large concrete walls, which circumscribed a wide area (later known as the "death strip") that contained anti-vehicle trenches, "fakir beds" and other defenses. The Eastern Bloc claimed that the wall was erected to protect its population from fascist elements conspiring to prevent the "will of the people" in building a socialist state in East Germany. In practice, the Wall served to prevent the massive emigration and defection that marked Germany and the communist Eastern Bloc during the post-World War II period.
The Berlin Wall was officially referred to as the "Anti-Fascist Protection Rampart" (German: Antifaschistischer Schutzwall) by GDR authorities, implying that neighbouring West Germany had not been fully de-Nazified. The West Berlin city government sometimes referred to it as the "Wall of Shame"—a term coined by mayor Willy Brandt—while condemning the Wall's restriction on freedom of movement. Along with the separate and much longer Inner German border (IGB) that demarcated the border between East and West Germany, both borders came to symbolize the "Iron Curtain" that separated Western Europe and the Eastern Bloc during the Cold War.
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Black January
Black January (Azerbaijani: Qara Yanvar), also known as Black Saturday or the January Massacre, was a violent crackdown on the Azerbaijani independence movement in Baku on January 19–20, 1990, pursuant to a state of emergency during the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
In a resolution of January 22, 1990, the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR declared that the decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR of January 19, used to impose emergency rule in Baku and military deployment, constituted an act of aggression. Black January is seen as the rebirth of the Azerbaijan Republic. It was one of the occasions during the glasnost and perestroika era in which the USSR used force against dissidents.
In December 1989, Azerbaijanis living in regions bordering Iran ripped down border fences, demanding closer ties with ethnic Azerbaijanis living in Iran. The local authorities in Jalilabad surrendered to rioters, turning over administration to the Popular Front of Azerbaijan. This was followed by a non-violent turnover of the Lankaran administration to the Popular Front two weeks later.
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Bulgaria
Coordinates: 42°45′N 25°30′E / 42.75°N 25.5°E / 42.75; 25.5
Bulgariai/bʌlˈɡɛəriə/ (Bulgarian: България, IPA: [bɤ̞ɫˈɡarijɐ]), is a country located in Southeastern Europe. It is bordered by Romania to the north, Serbia and the Macedonia to the west, Greece and Turkey to the south and the Black Sea to the east. With a territory of 110,994 square kilometres (42,855 sq mi), Bulgaria is Europe's 14th-largest country. Its location has made it a historical crossroad for various civilisations and as such it is the home of some of the earliest metalworking, religious and other cultural artifacts in the world.
Prehistoric cultures began developing on Bulgarian lands during the Neolithic period. Its ancient history was marked by the presence of the Thracians, and later by the Greeks and Romans. The emergence of a unified Bulgarian ethnicity and state dates back to the First Bulgarian Empire, which dominated most of the Balkans and functioned as a cultural hub for Slavic peoples during the Middle Ages. With the downfall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in 1396, its territories came under Ottoman rule for nearly five hundred years. The Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 resulted in the Third Bulgarian State, recognised in 1908. The following years saw several conflicts with its neighbours, which prompted Bulgaria to align with Germany in both World Wars. In 1946 it became a Communist republic with a single-party system until 1989, when the Communist Party allowed multi-party elections. After 1990 Bulgaria transitioned to democracy and a market-based economy.
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Bunkers in Albania
During the forty-year leadership of Enver Hoxha of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania, over 700,000 bunkers were built in the country – one for every four inhabitants. The bunkers (Albanian: bunkeri) are still a ubiquitous sight in Albania, with an average of 24 bunkers for every square kilometer of the country.
Hoxha's programme of "bunkerisation" resulted in the construction of bunkers in every corner of Albania, from mountain passes to city streets. They are considered to have had little military value and were never used for their intended purpose during the years of Communist rule (1945–1990). The cost of constructing them was a drain on Albania's resources, diverting them away from more pressing needs such as dealing with the country's housing shortage and poor roads.
The bunkers were abandoned following the collapse of Communism in 1990. Most are now derelict, though some have been reused for a variety of purposes including residential accommodation, cafés, storehouses and shelters for animals or the homeless. A few briefly saw use in the Balkan conflicts of the 1990s but their most common use now is said to be as a convenient place for young Albanians to lose their virginity.
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Congress of Vienna
The Congress of Vienna (German: Wiener Kongress) was a conference of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens Wenzel von Metternich, and held in Vienna from September, 1814 to June, 1815. The objective of the Congress was to settle the many issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars, the Napoleonic Wars, and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire.
This objective resulted in the redrawing of the continent's political map, establishing the boundaries of France, the Duchy of Warsaw, the Netherlands, the states of the Rhine, the German province of Saxony, and various Italian territories, and the creation of spheres of influence through which Austria, Britain, France and Russia brokered local and regional problems. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe, and served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations and United Nations.
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Cuban Missile Crisis
The Cuban Missile Crisis, – known as the October Crisis in Cuba and the Caribbean Crisis (Russian: Kарибский кризис) in the USSR – was a thirteen-day confrontation between the Soviet Union and Cuba on one side and the United States on the other; the crisis occurred in October 1962, during the Cold War. In August 1962, after some unsuccessful operations by the US to overthrow the Cuban regime (Bay of Pigs, Operation Mongoose), the Cuban and Soviet governments secretly began to build bases in Cuba for a number of medium-range and intermediate-range ballistic nuclear missiles (MRBMs and IRBMs) with the ability to strike most of the continental United States. This action followed the 1958 deployment of Thor IRBMs in the UK (Project Emily) and Jupiter IRBMs to Italy and Turkey in 1961 – more than 100 US-built missiles having the capability to strike Moscow with nuclear warheads. On October 14, 1962, a United States Air Force U-2 plane on a photoreconnaissance mission captured photographic proof of Soviet missile bases under construction in Cuba.
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Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia (Czech and Slovak: Československo, Česko-Slovensko) was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992. From 1939 to 1945, the state did not de facto exist because of its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, but the Czechoslovak government-in-exile nevertheless continued to exist during this period. In 1945, the eastern part of Carpathian Ruthenia was taken over by the Soviet Union. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Form of state:
Neighbours:
Topography:
The country was of generally irregular terrain. The western area was part of north-central European uplands. The eastern region was composed of northern reaches of Carpathian Mountains and Danube River basin lands.
Climate:
The weather was predominantly continental, but varied from the moderate temperature of Western Europe in the west, to more severe weather of Eastern Europe and the western Soviet Union in the east.
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East Germany
The German Democratic Republic (GDR; German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik [ˈdɔʏtʃə demoˈkʀaːtɪʃə ʀepuˈbliːk] or DDR), informally known as East Germany (German: Ostdeutschland), was a socialist state established by the USSR in 1949 in the Soviet zone of occupied Germany, including East Berlin of the Allied-occupied capital city. The GDR had an area of 107,771 km2 (41,610 mi2), bordering Czechoslovakia to the south, West Germany to the south and west, Poland to the east, and the Baltic Sea to the north. East Germany was dissolved upon joining the institutions of West Germany in the German reunification, on 3 October 1990.
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East Prussia
East Prussia (German: Ostpreußen, pronounced [ˈɔstˌpʁɔʏsən] (
listen); Polish: Prusy Wschodnie; Lithuanian: Rytų Prūsija or Rytprūsiai; Russian: Восточная Пруссия or Vostochnaya Prussiya; Latin: Borussia orientalis) was the main part of the region of Prussia along the southeastern Baltic Coast from the 13th century to the end of World War II in May 1945. From 1772–1829 and 1878–1945, the Province of East Prussia was part of the German state of Prussia. The capital city was Königsberg.
East Prussia enclosed the bulk of the ancestral lands of the Baltic Old Prussians. During the 13th century, the native Prussians were conquered by the crusading Teutonic Knights. The indigenous Balts who survived the conquest were gradually converted to Christianity. Because of Germanization and colonisation over the following centuries, Germans became the dominant ethnic group, while Poles and Lithuanians formed minorities. From the 13th century, East Prussia was part of the monastic state of the Teutonic Knights, which became the Duchy of Prussia in 1525. The Old Prussian language had become extinct by the 17th or early 18th century.
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Hungary
Hungaryi/ˈhʌŋɡəri/ (Hungarian: Magyarország [ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ] ( listen)) is a country, which is located in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The country's capital, and largest city, is Budapest. Hungary is a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, and is a Schengen state. The official language is Hungarian, also known as Magyar, which is part of the Finno-Ugric group and is the most widely spoken non-Indo-European language in Europe.
Following a Celt (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (AD 9 - c. 430) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late 9th century by the Hungarian prince Árpád, whose great-grandson Saint Stephen I was crowned with a crown sent by the pope from Rome in 1000 AD. The Kingdom of Hungary lasted for 946 years, and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centres of the Western world. After about 150 years of partial Ottoman occupation (1541–1699), Hungary was integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy, and later constituted half of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy (1867–1918).
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Jeltoqsan
The Jeltoqsan (Kazakh: Желтоқсан) or "December" of 1986 were riots that took place in Alma-Ata, Kazakhstan in response to General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev's dismissal of Dinmukhamed Konayev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan and an ethnic Kazakh, and the subsequent appointment of Gennady Kolbin, an outsider from the Russian SFSR. Some sources cite Kolbin's nationality as Russian, others as Chuvash.
The events lasted from 16 December until 19 December 1986. The protests began in the morning of 17 December, as a student demonstration attracted thousands of participants as they marched through Brezhnev Square across to the CPK Central Committee building. As internal troops and OMON forces entered the city violence erupted throughout the former capital of Kazakhstan. In the following days, protests spread to Shymkent, Taldykorgan and Karaganda.
The dismissal of the long-serving First Secretary of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan, Dinmukhamed Kunayev (1964-1986) on 16 December and the appointment of an outsider, Gennady Kolbin (1986-1989) as the First Secretary was the primary reason for the peaceful student demonstrations that started in the early morning of 17 December.
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NATO
Coordinates: 50°52′34.16″N 4°25′19.24″E / 50.8761556°N 4.4220111°E / 50.8761556; 4.4220111
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO (
/ˈneɪtoʊ/ NAY-toh; French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN)), also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the world's defence spending.
For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political association. However, the Korean War galvanized the member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, which formed in 1955. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down." Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion—doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure in 1966.
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Nazi Germany
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..." Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
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Poland
Polandi/ˈpoʊlənd/ (Polish: Polska), officially the Republic of Poland (Polish: Rzeczpospolita Polska; Kashubian: Pòlskô Repùblika; Silesian: Polsko Republika), is a country in Central Europe, bordered by Germany to the west; the Czech Republic and Slovakia to the south; Ukraine, Belarus and Lithuania to the east; and the Baltic Sea and Kaliningrad Oblast, a Russian exclave, to the north. The total area of Poland is 312,679 square kilometres (120,726 sq mi), making it the 69th largest country in the world and the 9th largest in Europe. Poland has a population of over 38 million people, which makes it the 34th most populous country in the world and the sixth most populous member of the European Union, being its most populous post-communist member. Poland is a unitary state made up of 16 voivodeships. Poland is a member of the European Union, NATO, the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), European Economic Area, International Energy Agency, Council of Europe, Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, International Atomic Energy Agency, G6, Council of the Baltic Sea States, Visegrád Group, Weimar Triangle and Schengen Agreement.
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Poznań 1956 protests
The Poznań 1956 protests, also known as Poznań 1956 uprising or Poznań June (Polish: Poznański Czerwiec), were the first of several massive protests of the Polish people against the communist government of the People's Republic of Poland. Demonstrations by workers demanding better conditions began on June 28, 1956, at Poznań's Cegielski Factories and were met with violent repression.
A crowd of approximately 100,000 gathered in the city center near the UB secret police building. About 400 tanks and 10,000 soldiers of Ludowe Wojsko Polskie and the Internal Security Corps under Polish-Soviet general Stanislav Poplavsky were ordered to suppress the demonstration and during the pacification fired at the protesting civilians.
The death toll was placed between 57 and over a hundred people, including a 13-year-old boy, Romek Strzałkowski. Hundreds of people sustained injuries. Nonetheless the Poznań protests were an important milestone on the way to the installation of a less Soviet-controlled government in Poland in October.
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Prague
Prague ( /ˈprɑːɡ/; Czech: Praha pronounced [ˈpraɦa] ( listen)) is the capital and largest city of the Czech Republic and fourteenth largest city in European Union. Situated in the north-west of the country on the Vltava river, the city is home to about 1.3 million people, while its metropolitan area is estimated to have a population of nearly 2.0 million. The city has a temperate oceanic climate with warm summers and chilly winters.
Prague has been a political, cultural, and economic centre of central Europe with waxing and waning fortunes during its 1,100 year existence. Founded during the Romanesque and flourishing by the Gothic and Renaissance eras, Prague was the seat of two Holy Roman Emperors and thus then also the capital of the Holy Roman Empire. It was an important city to the Habsburg Monarchy and its Austro-Hungarian Empire and after World War I became the capital of Czechoslovakia. The city played major roles in the Protestant Reformation, the Thirty Years' War, and in modern history generally as the principal conurbation in Bohemia and Moravia whose second city is Brno.
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Romania
Romania (i/roʊˈmeɪniə/ roh-MAY-nee-ə; dated: Roumania; or Rumania;Romanian: România [romɨˈni.a] ( listen)) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and Moldova to the northeast and east, and Bulgaria to the south.
At 238,400 square kilometers (92,000 sq mi), Romania is the ninth largest country of the European Union by area, and has the seventh largest population of the European Union with over 19 million people. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest, the tenth largest city in the EU with about two million people.
The Kingdom of Romania emerged when the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were united under Prince Alexander Ioan Cuza in 1859. Independence from the Ottoman Empire was declared on 9 May 1877, and was internationally recognized the following year. At the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the Kingdom of Romania. Greater Romania emerged into an era of progression and prosperity that would continue until World War II. By the end of the War, many north-eastern areas of Romania's territories were occupied by the Soviet Union, and Romania forcibly became a socialist republic and a member of the Warsaw Pact.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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The Barricades
The Barricades were events that took place between 13 and 27 January 1991 in Latvia. Latvia, which had declared independence from the Soviet Union a year earlier, anticipated that Soviet Union might attempt to violently regain control over the country.
After attacks of pro-Soviet OMON of Riga in early January the government called on people to build barricades for protection of possible targets (mainly in the capital city of Riga and nearby Ulbroka, as well as Kuldīga and Liepāja). At least 7 people were killed in further attacks, and a total of 15,611 people have registered themselves as participants of the Barricades.
During World War II Latvia had been occupied by USSR. In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev introduced glasnost and perestroika policies, hoping to salvage the failing Soviet economy. The reforms also lessened restrictions on political freedom in the Soviet Union. This led to unintended consequences as problems within the Soviet Union and crimes of the Soviet regime, previously kept secret and denied by the government, were exposed, causing public dissatisfaction, further deepened by the war in Afghanistan and the Chernobyl disaster.
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Warsaw
Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa [varˈʂava] ( listen); see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly 260 kilometres (160 mi) from the Baltic Sea and 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most populous city proper in the European Union. The area of the city covers 516.9 square kilometres (199.6 sq mi), while the city's agglomeration covers 6,100.43 square kilometres (2,355.39 sq mi).
Warsaw is an Alpha- global city, a major international tourist destination and an important economic hub in Central Europe. It is also known as the "phoenix city" because it has survived many wars throughout its history. Most notably, the city had to be painstakingly rebuilt after the extensive damage it suffered from World War II, during which 80% of its buildings were destroyed. On 9 November 1940 the city was awarded Poland's highest military decoration for heroism, the Virtuti Militari, for the Siege of Warsaw (1939).
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West Germany
West Germany (German: Westdeutschland) is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany or FRG (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland) in the period between its creation in May 1949 to German reunification on 3 October 1990.
During this period, West Germany and the communist East Germany were divided by the Inner German border. After 1961, West Berlin was physically separated from East Berlin as well as from East Germany by the Berlin Wall. This situation ended when East Germany was dissolved and its five states joined the ten states of the Federal Republic of Germany along with the reunified city-state of Berlin. The enlarged Federal Republic of Germany with sixteen states (known simply as "Germany") is thus the continuation of the pre-1990 Federal Republic of Germany.
The Federal Republic of Germany was established from eleven states formed in the three Allied Zones of occupation held by the United States, the United Kingdom and France (the "Western Zones"). The city of Bonn was its provisional capital city. The fourth Allied occupation zone (the East Zone, or Ostzone) was held by the Soviet Union. The parts of this zone lying east of the Oder-Neisse were in fact annexed by the Soviet Union and communist Poland; the remaining central part around Berlin became the communist German Democratic Republic (abbreviated GDR; in German Deutsche Demokratische Republik or DDR) with its de facto capital in East Berlin. As a result, West Germany had a territory about half the size of the interwar democratic Weimar Republic.
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Yalta Conference
The Yalta Conference, sometimes called the Crimea Conference and codenamed the Argonaut Conference, held February 4–11, 1945 , was the wartime meeting of the heads of government of the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union, represented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and General Secretary Joseph Stalin, respectively, for the purpose of discussing Europe's post-war reorganization. The conference convened in the Livadia Palace near Yalta, in the Crimea.
The meeting was intended mainly to discuss the re-establishment of the nations of war-torn Europe. Within a few years, with the Cold War dividing the continent, Yalta became a subject of intense controversy. To some extent, it has remained controversial.
Yalta was the second of three wartime conferences among the Big Three (Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin). It had been preceded by the Tehran Conference in 1943, and it was followed by the Potsdam Conference in July 1945, which was attended by Harry S Truman, who replaced the late Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill, who was replaced mid-point by the newly elected British Prime Minister Clement Attlee.
wn.com/Yalta_Conference
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Aleksei Antonov
Aleksei Innokentievich Antonov (Russian: Алексе́й Инноке́нтьевич Анто́нов) (9 September 1896 - 16 June 1962) was a General of the Soviet Army, awarded the Order of Victory for his efforts in World War II.
Born in Grodno, the son of a Tsarist artillery officer, Antonov graduated from Frunze Military Academy in 1921 and joined the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. He became an instructor at Frunze Military Academy in 1938.
In 1941, Antonov became Chief of Staff for the Soviet Southwestern Front and Southern Front. In the following year he became Deputy Chief General Staff of the combined Soviet forces and Head of the Operations Directorate. His duty was to liaise with other officers and inform Stalin of the military situation. Richard Overy writes of him at this time:
wn.com/Aleksei_Antonov -
Angolan Civil War
The Angolan Civil War was a major civil conflict in the Southern African state of Angola, beginning in 1975 and continuing, with some interludes, until 2002. The war began immediately after Angola became independent from Portugal in November 1975. Prior to this, a decolonisation conflict had taken place in 1974–75, following the Angolan War of Independence. The Civil War was primarily a struggle for power between two former liberation movements, the People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). At the same time, it served as a surrogate battleground for the Cold War, due to heavy intervention by major opposing powers such as the Soviet Union and the United States.
Each organisation had different roots in the Angolan social fabric and mutually incompatible leaderships, despite their sharing the aim of ending colonial occupation. Although both the MPLA and UNITA had socialist leanings, for the purpose of mobilising international support they posed as "Marxist-Leninist" and "anti-communist", respectively. A third movement, the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), having fought the MPLA alongside UNITA during the war for independence and the decolonization conflict, played almost no role in the Civil War. Additionally, the Front for the Liberation of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC), an association of separatist militant groups, fought for the independence of the province of Cabinda from Angola.
wn.com/Angolan_Civil_War -
Beatrice Heuser
Beatrice Heuser (born in 1961) is an historian and political scientist. She is currently a professor of International Relations at the University of Reading.
Heuser has a B.A. in History from Bedford College, a M.A. in International History from the London School of Economics and a D.Phil. in Political Science from the University of Oxford. In addition, she holds a Higher Doctorate from the University of Marburg. From 1989 to 1991, she worked at the Royal Institute of International Affairs in London. Subsequently, she became a lecturer and later a professor of Strategic Studies at King's College London. She has also taught in France at the University of Reims, and the Graduate School of Journalism in Lille, and in Germany at the University of Potsdam and Bundeswehr University of Munich. Before joining the University of Reading, she had been a director of the German Armed Forces Military History Research Office in Potsdam from 2003 to 2007.
Heuser specialises in strategic studies, especially nuclear strategy, strategic theory and strategic culture, the transatlantic relations as well as the foreign and defence policies of Germany, France and Great Britain.
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Cambodian Civil War
The Cambodian Civil War was a conflict that pitted the forces of the Communist Party of Kampuchea (known as the Khmer Rouge) and their allies the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the Viet Cong against the government forces of Cambodia (after October 1970, the Khmer Republic), which were supported by the United States (U.S.) and the Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam).
The struggle was exacerbated by the influence and actions of the allies of the two warring sides. People's Army of Vietnam (North Vietnamese Army) involvement was designed to protect its Base Areas and sanctuaries in eastern Cambodia, without which the prosecution of its military effort in South Vietnam would have been more difficult. Then following the Cambodian coup of 1970, the North Vietnamese Army's attempt to overrun the entire country in March–April 1970 plunged Cambodia into civil war. The U.S. was motivated by the need to buy time for its withdrawal from Southeast Asia and to protect its ally, the South Vietnamese regime. American and both South and North Vietnamese forces directly participated (at one time or another) in the fighting. The central government was mainly assisted by the application of massive U.S. aerial bombing campaigns and direct material and financial aid.
wn.com/Cambodian_Civil_War -
Congo Crisis
The Congo Crisis (1960–1966) was a period of turmoil in the First Republic of the Congo that began with national independence from Belgium and ended with the seizing of power by Joseph Mobutu. At various points, it had the characteristics of anti-colonial struggle, a secessionist war with the province of Katanga, a United Nations peacekeeping operation, and a Cold War proxy battle between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Crisis resulted in the deaths of some 100,000 people (King Léopold II’s rule had resulted in the deaths of around 10,000,000 Congolese people). It led to the assassination of Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba, as well as a traumatic setback to the United Nations following the death of UN Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld in a plane crash as he sought to mediate.
Prior to the establishment of the First Republic in 1960, the native Congolese elites had formed semi-political organizations which gradually evolved into the main parties striving for independence. These organizations were formed on one of three foundations: ethnic kinship, connections formed in schools, and urban intellectualism[citation needed].
wn.com/Congo_Crisis -
Forest Brothers
The Forest Brothers (also Brothers of the Forest; Forest Brethren; Forest Brotherhood; Estonian: metsavennad, Latvian: meža brāļi, Lithuanian: miško broliai) were Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian partisans who waged a guerrilla war against Soviet rule during the Soviet invasion and occupation of the three Baltic states during, and after, World War II. Similar anti-Soviet Eastern European resistance groups fought against Soviet and communist rule in Bulgaria, Poland, Romania, Croatia and western Ukraine.
The Red Army occupied the independent Baltic states in 1940–1941 and, after a period of German occupation, again in 1944–1945. As Stalinist repression intensified over the following years, 50,000 residents of these countries used the heavily-forested countryside as a natural refuge and base for armed anti-Soviet resistance.
Resistance units varied in size and composition, ranging from individually operating guerrillas, armed primarily for self-defense, to large and well-organized groups able to engage significant Soviet forces in battle.
wn.com/Forest_Brothers -
Igor Gouzenko
Igor Sergeyevich Gouzenko (January 13, 1919 – June 28, 1982) was a cipher clerk for the Soviet Embassy to Canada in Ottawa, Ontario. He defected on September 5, 1945, with 109 documents on Soviet espionage activities in the West. This forced Prime Minister Mackenzie King to call a Royal Commission to investigate espionage in Canada.
Gouzenko exposed Joseph Stalin's efforts to steal nuclear secrets, and the technique of planting sleeper agents. The "Gouzenko Affair" is often credited as a triggering event of the Cold War.
Gouzenko was born to a Ukrainian family on January 26, 1919, in the village of Rogachevo not far from Moscow. At the start of World War II, he joined the military where he trained as a cipher clerk. In 1943, he was stationed in Ottawa, where for two years he enciphered outgoing messages and deciphered incoming messages for the GRU. His position gave him knowledge of Soviet espionage activities in the West.
In 1945, hearing that he and his family were to be sent home to the Soviet Union and dissatisfied with the quality of life and the politics of his homeland, he decided to defect. Gouzenko walked out of the embassy door carrying with him a briefcase with Soviet code books and deciphering materials. He initially went to the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, but the RCMP officers on duty refused to believe his story. He then went to the Ottawa Journal newspaper, but the paper's night editor was not interested, and suggested he go to the Department of Justice – however nobody was on duty at night when he arrived. Terrified that the Soviets had discovered his duplicity, he went back to his apartment and hid his family in the apartment across the hall for the night. Gouzenko, hidden by a neighbour, watched through the keyhole as a group of Soviet agents broke into his apartment. They began searching through his belongings, and only left when confronted by Ottawa police.
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Imre Nagy
Imre Nagy (7 June 1896 – 16 June 1958) was a Hungarian communist politician who was appointed Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the People's Republic of Hungary on two occasions. Nagy's second term ended when his non-Soviet-backed government was brought down by Soviet invasion in the failed Hungarian Revolution of 1956, resulting in Nagy's execution on charges of treason two years later.
Nagy (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈnɒɟ]) was born in Kaposvár, to a peasant family and was apprenticed to a locksmith. He enlisted in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I and served on the Eastern Front. He was taken prisoner in 1915. He became a member of the Russian Communist Party, and joined the Red Army.
Nagy returned to Hungary in 1921. In 1930 he travelled to the Soviet Union and joined the communist party. He was engaged in agricultural research, and also worked in the Hungarian section of the Comintern. He was expelled from the party in 1936 and later worked for the Soviet Statistical Service. Rumours that he was an agent of the Soviet secret service surfaced later, begun by Hungarian party-leader Károly Grósz in 1989 in an attempt to discredit Nagy. There is evidence, however, that Nagy did serve as an informant for the NKVD during his time in Moscow and provided names to the secret police as a way to prove his loyalty (not an uncommon tactic for foreign communists in the Soviet Union at the time).
wn.com/Imre_Nagy -
Ivan Konev
Ivan Stepanovich Konev (Russian: Ива́н Степа́нович Ко́нев; 28 December [O.S. 16 December] 1897 – 21 May 1973), was a Soviet military commander, who led Red Army forces on the Eastern Front during World War II, retook much of Eastern Europe from occupation by the Axis Powers, and helped in the capture of Germany's capital, Berlin.
In 1956, as the Commander of Warsaw Pact forces, Konev led the suppression of the Hungarian Revolution by Soviet armoured divisions.
Konev was born into a peasant family near Podosinovets in Vologda Governorate (now - Kirov Oblast). He had little formal education, and worked as a lumberjack before being conscripted into the Russian Army in 1916.
When the Russian Revolution broke out in 1917 he was demobilised and returned home, but in 1919 he joined the Bolshevik party and the Red Army, serving as an artilleryman. During the Russian Civil War he served with the Red Army in the Russian Far Eastern Republic. His commander at this time was Kliment Voroshilov, later a close colleague of Joseph Stalin and Commissar for defense. This alliance was the key to Konev's subsequent career.
wn.com/Ivan_Konev -
Korean War
The Korean War (Korean: 한국전쟁 or 조선전쟁, Hanja: 韓國戰爭 or 朝鮮戰爭; 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953) was a war between the Republic of Korea (supported primarily by the United States of America, with contributions from allied nations under the aegis of the United Nations) and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (supported by the People's Republic of China, with military and material aid from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics). The Korean War was primarily the result of the political division of Korea by an agreement of the victorious Allies at the conclusion of the Pacific War at the end of World War II. The Korean Peninsula was ruled by the Empire of Japan from 1910 until the end of World War II. Following the surrender of the Empire of Japan in September 1945, American administrators divided the peninsula along the 38th parallel, with U.S. military forces occupying the southern half and Soviet military forces occupying the northern half.
wn.com/Korean_War -
Mozambican Civil War
The Mozambican Civil War began in 1977, two years after the end of the war of independence. The ruling party, Front for Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO) and the national armed forces FAM (Armed Forces of Mozambique), was violently opposed from 1977 by the Rhodesian- and (later) South African-funded Mozambique Resistance Movement (RENAMO). About 1 000 000 people died in fighting and from starvation, five million civilians were displaced, many were made amputees by landmines, a legacy from the war that continues to plague Mozambique. Fighting ended in 1992 and the country's first multi-party elections were held in 1994.
Mozambican resistance began to surface, as some groups within the Mozambican society eventually started to blame the Portuguese authorities for centuries of exploitation, oppression and neglect.[citation needed] After a successful wave of independence movements in other African territories, cold war powers and the international community started to suggest that Portugal should leave its territories in Africa. Sentiment for Mozambique's own national independence developed and on 25 June 1962 several Mozambican anti-Portuguese political groups formed the Mozambique Liberation Front (FRELIMO) in Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania.
wn.com/Mozambican_Civil_War -
Napoleon
Napoleon Bonaparte (French: Napoléon Bonaparte [napoleɔ̃ bɔnɑpaʁt]) (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821) was a French military and political leader who rose to prominence during the latter stages of the French Revolution. As Napoleon I, he was Emperor of the French from 1804 to 1815. His legal reform, the Napoleonic Code, has been a major influence on many civil law jurisdictions worldwide, but he is best remembered for his role in the wars led against France by a series of coalitions, the so-called Napoleonic Wars. He established hegemony over most of continental Europe and sought to spread the ideals of the French Revolution, while consolidating an imperial monarchy which restored aspects of the deposed Ancien Régime. Due to his success in these wars, often against numerically superior enemies, he is generally regarded as one of the greatest military commanders of all time and his campaigns are studied at military academies throughout much of the world.
Napoleon was born in Corsica to parents of noble Genoese ancestry, and trained as an artillery officer in mainland France. He rose to prominence under the French First Republic and led successful campaigns against the First and Second Coalitions arrayed against France. In 1799, he staged a coup d'état and installed himself as First Consul; five years later the French Senate proclaimed him emperor. In the first decade of the 19th century, the French Empire under Napoleon engaged in a series of conflicts—the Napoleonic Wars—involving every major European power.
wn.com/Napoleon -
Rhodesian Bush War
The Rhodesian Bush War – also known as the Second Chimurenga or the Zimbabwe War of Liberation – was a civil war which took place between July 1964 and December 1979 in the unrecognised country of Rhodesia (latterly Zimbabwe Rhodesia). The conflict pitted three forces against one another: on one side was the Rhodesian government, under Ian Smith (later the Zimbabwe Rhodesian government under Abel Muzorewa), on another was the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army, the military wing of Robert Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union, and on the third was the Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army of Joshua Nkomo's Zimbabwe African People's Union.
The war and its subsequent Internal Settlement, signed in 1978 by Smith and Muzorewa, led to the implementation in June 1979 of universal suffrage and end of white minority rule in Rhodesia, which was renamed Zimbabwe Rhodesia under a black majority government. However, this new order failed to win international recognition and the war continued. Negotiations between the government of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, the British government and Mugabe and Nkomo's united "Patriotic Front" took place at Lancaster House, London in December 1979, and the Lancaster House Agreement was signed. The country returned temporarily to British control and new elections were held under British and Commonwealth supervision in March 1980. ZANU won the election and Mugabe became the first Prime Minister of Zimbabwe on 18 April 1980, when the country achieved internationally-recognised independence.
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Vojtech Mastny
Vojtech Mastny (born in Prague, Czechoslovakia, in 1936) is an American historian of Czech descent, professor of political science and international relations, specializing in the history of the Cold War. He has been considered one of the leading American authorities on Soviet affairs. Mastny received his Ph.D. from Columbia University and has been professor of history and international relations at Columbia, University of Illinois, Boston University and the Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies, as well as professor of strategy at U.S. Naval War College, Fulbright professor at the University of Bonn, Senior Research Scholar at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars and Senior Fellow at the National Security Archive. He is the coordinator of the Parallel History Project. In 1996-1998 he was the first researcher awarded Manfred Wörner Fellowship by NATO. Mastny's books include The Czechs under Nazi Rule, which won him the Clarke F. Ansley award in 1971, Russia's Road to the Cold War (1979), The Helsinki Process and the Reintegration of Europe (1992) and The Cold War and Soviet Insecurity: The Stalin Years, which won the American Historical Association's 1997 George L. Beer Prize.
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Václav Havel
Václav Havel (Czech pronunciation: [ˈvaːt͡slaf ˈɦavɛl] ( listen); 5 October 1936 – 18 December 2011) was a Czech playwright, essayist, poet, dissident and politician.
Havel was the ninth and last president of Czechoslovakia (1989–1992) and the first president of the Czech Republic (1993–2003). He wrote more than 20 plays and numerous non-fiction works, translated internationally.
Havel was voted 4th in Prospect magazine's 2005 global poll of the world's top 100 intellectuals. At the time of his death he was Chairman of the New York-based Human Rights Foundation. He was the founder of the VIZE 97 Foundation and the principal organizer of the Forum 2000 annual global conference.
Havel was one of the signatories of the Charter 77 manifesto, a founding signatory of the Prague Declaration on European Conscience and Communism, and a council member of the Victims of Communism Memorial Foundation. Havel received many recognitions, including the United States Presidential Medal of Freedom, the Gandhi Peace Prize, the Philadelphia Liberty Medal, the Order of Canada, the freedom medal of the Four Freedoms Award, and the Ambassador of Conscience Award.
wn.com/Václav_Havel -
World War I
World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939 (World War II), and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of enormous increases in lethality of weapons, thanks to new technology, without corresponding improvements in protection or mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.
wn.com/World_War_I
RELEASE
ALBUMS
- Inside the Line
- Gutz
- At a Later Date
- The Kill
- You're No Good for Me
- At a Later Date (live)
- Novelty
- Warsaw
- No Love Lost
- Leaders of Men
- Failures
- Ice Age
- Walked in Line
- The Kill
- Gutz
- At a Later Date
- The Kill
- Inside the Line
- You're No Good for Me
- All of This for You
- Leaders of Men
- They Walked in Line
- Failures
- Novelty
- No Love Lost
- Transmission
- Living in the Ice Age
- Interzone
- Warsaw
- Shadowplay
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9. NATO and the Warsaw Pact
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:29
- Updated: 22 Jan 2013
NATO was set up in 1949 after the Berlin Blockade, this one explains the key causes, events and results of NATO and the Warsaw Pact which was the Soviet response to NATO.
http://wn.com/9_NATO_and_the_Warsaw_Pact
NATO was set up in 1949 after the Berlin Blockade, this one explains the key causes, events and results of NATO and the Warsaw Pact which was the Soviet response to NATO.
Warsaw Pact Exercises
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:49
- Updated: 28 Aug 2012
http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact_Exercises
Polish Immigrant Insists Warsaw Pact Country Was As Free As USA. Former Soviet Citizen: Reeeally?!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:24
- Updated: 26 Jan 2013
Martial law in Poland en.wikipedia.org Wojciech Jaruzelski en.wikipedia.org topics.nytimes.com
http://wn.com/Polish_Immigrant_Insists_Warsaw_Pact_Country_Was_As_Free_As_USA_Former_Soviet_Citizen_Reeeally?!
Martial law in Poland en.wikipedia.org Wojciech Jaruzelski en.wikipedia.org topics.nytimes.com
- published: 25 Jun 2012
- views: 2745
- author: Vladimir Jaffe
Join the Warsaw Pact! (Fulda Gap Recruitment!)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:57
- Updated: 02 Dec 2012
Disclaimer: This video does not necessarily convey the opinions or political affiliations of any members of the paintball team SoVa, nor does it wish to promote communism or the former Soviet Union. This video is purely for promotion of one of the best scenario games in the country. Just have fun with it ;) This song is in Russian and the subtitles are NOT what he is actually singing about. I put this here now in the hopes to minimize the redundant comments below. Finally, this video has been approved by Comrade Aldva himself. You can contact him at aldva@sovaspecops.com for Warsaw recruitment.
http://wn.com/Join_the_Warsaw_Pact!_Fulda_Gap_Recruitment!
Disclaimer: This video does not necessarily convey the opinions or political affiliations of any members of the paintball team SoVa, nor does it wish to promote communism or the former Soviet Union. This video is purely for promotion of one of the best scenario games in the country. Just have fun with it ;) This song is in Russian and the subtitles are NOT what he is actually singing about. I put this here now in the hopes to minimize the redundant comments below. Finally, this video has been approved by Comrade Aldva himself. You can contact him at aldva@sovaspecops.com for Warsaw recruitment.
- published: 24 Aug 2011
- views: 3285
- author: SoVaPaintball
Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia part1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:01
- Updated: 29 Apr 2012
On the night of August 20 - August 21, 1968, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary and Poland invaded the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic in order to halt Alexander Dubček's Prague Spring political liberalization reforms. In the operation, codenamed Danube, varying estimates of between 175000 and 500000 troops attacked Czechoslovakia; approximately 500 Czechoslovaks were wounded and death of 108 was related to the invasion. The invasion successfully stopped liberalization reforms and strengthened the authority of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. The foreign policy of the Soviet Union during this era would be known as the Brezhnev Doctrine
http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia_part1
On the night of August 20 - August 21, 1968, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary and Poland invaded the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic in order to halt Alexander Dubček's Prague Spring political liberalization reforms. In the operation, codenamed Danube, varying estimates of between 175000 and 500000 troops attacked Czechoslovakia; approximately 500 Czechoslovaks were wounded and death of 108 was related to the invasion. The invasion successfully stopped liberalization reforms and strengthened the authority of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. The foreign policy of the Soviet Union during this era would be known as the Brezhnev Doctrine
- published: 20 Aug 2009
- views: 6565
- author: Mesherschmit
Warsaw Pact troops on attack
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:14
- Updated: 21 Jan 2013
Compilation of some scenes from the history of Warsaw Pact
http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact_troops_on_attack
Compilation of some scenes from the history of Warsaw Pact
- published: 02 Jul 2009
- views: 11399
- author: Karol Tott
NATO vs Warsaw Pact - Video Game Like (Arte HD)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:01
- Updated: 21 Jan 2013
NATO vs Warsaw Pact - Video Game Like (Arte HD)
http://wn.com/NATO_vs_Warsaw_Pact_Video_Game_Like_Arte_HD
NATO vs Warsaw Pact - Video Game Like (Arte HD)
- published: 10 Mar 2010
- views: 10221
- author: SlowmotionViewty
Soviet Military Exersice-Warsaw Pact -HQ-
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:59
- Updated: 08 Jan 2013
Soviet-Russian Military Exersice including Warsaw pact countrys MetaTags: army war fights porn strip tanks rockets vehicle top speed 500 km hour Russia Power And Usa against Terrorism tankete Germany GDR FRG Warsaw Warsaw Pack
http://wn.com/Soviet_Military_Exersice-Warsaw_Pact_-HQ-
Soviet-Russian Military Exersice including Warsaw pact countrys MetaTags: army war fights porn strip tanks rockets vehicle top speed 500 km hour Russia Power And Usa against Terrorism tankete Germany GDR FRG Warsaw Warsaw Pack
- published: 29 Aug 2009
- views: 3237
- author: 21StCenturyWarfare
Waffenbruderchaft Warsaw Pact exercise 1980 (part 2)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:56
- Updated: 20 Oct 2012
Part 2! Socalism! The Party is always right, especially when it is wrong! Brought to you from Stadtkommandantur der Haupstadt der DDR Berlin See us at: nva-uk.webs.com
http://wn.com/Waffenbruderchaft_Warsaw_Pact_exercise_1980_part_2
Part 2! Socalism! The Party is always right, especially when it is wrong! Brought to you from Stadtkommandantur der Haupstadt der DDR Berlin See us at: nva-uk.webs.com
- published: 13 Jan 2012
- views: 523
- author: James Smith
POLISH ARMY - WARSAW PACT PARADE - COLD WAR
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:40
- Updated: 14 Jan 2013
ZŁOTE CZASY POLSKIEJ ARMII Договор о дружбе, сотрудничестве и взаимной помощи People's Republic of Albania (withheld support in 1961 because of the Sino-Soviet split, formally withdrew in 1968) People's Republic of Bulgaria Czechoslovak Republic (Czechoslovak Socialist Republic since 1960) German Democratic Republic (withdrew in September 1990, before German reunification) People's Republic of Hungary People's Republic of Poland People's Republic of Romania (later Socialist Republic of Romania between 1965 and 1989) Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
http://wn.com/POLISH_ARMY_WARSAW_PACT_PARADE_COLD_WAR
ZŁOTE CZASY POLSKIEJ ARMII Договор о дружбе, сотрудничестве и взаимной помощи People's Republic of Albania (withheld support in 1961 because of the Sino-Soviet split, formally withdrew in 1968) People's Republic of Bulgaria Czechoslovak Republic (Czechoslovak Socialist Republic since 1960) German Democratic Republic (withdrew in September 1990, before German reunification) People's Republic of Hungary People's Republic of Poland People's Republic of Romania (later Socialist Republic of Romania between 1965 and 1989) Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
- published: 07 Nov 2010
- views: 16881
- author: streetboyg17
Ceausescu Romania vs Soviet Union & Warsaw Pact
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:17
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
IULIAN ROMANIA
http://wn.com/Ceausescu_Romania_vs_Soviet_Union_Warsaw_Pact
Wargame: European Escalation Beta Gameplay: First Look at the Warsaw Pact
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:49
- Updated: 06 Nov 2012
http://wn.com/Wargame_European_Escalation_Beta_Gameplay_First_Look_at_the_Warsaw_Pact
The Warsaw Pact - Live @ Fowlers Live, August 25th 2011
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:51
- Updated: 29 Aug 2011
for more photos, videos and live review from the night.. spoz.blogspot.com
http://wn.com/The_Warsaw_Pact_Live_@_Fowlers_Live,_August_25th_2011
for more photos, videos and live review from the night.. spoz.blogspot.com
- published: 26 Aug 2011
- views: 173
- author: Spoz Spozington
Warsaw Pact 7.62x39 Surplus Ammo
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:20
- Updated: 12 Jan 2013
Russian manufactured 7.62x39 ammo. Made in the now closed State Factory at Frunze, Kyrgystan. Made in 1975. Copper washed steel case and steel (?) bullet or at least steel core bullet.
http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact_762x39_Surplus_Ammo
Russian manufactured 7.62x39 ammo. Made in the now closed State Factory at Frunze, Kyrgystan. Made in 1975. Copper washed steel case and steel (?) bullet or at least steel core bullet.
- published: 01 Mar 2012
- views: 7541
- author: Glockster42
Cold War - Warsaw Pact (Blue Monday)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:17
- Updated: 28 Nov 2012
http://wn.com/Cold_War_Warsaw_Pact_Blue_Monday
Waffenbruderchaft Warsaw Pact exercise (Part 3)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:55
- Updated: 14 Jan 2013
Part 3 of glorious socialist progress! In Soviet Russia, youtube watches you! Brought to you by Stadtkommandantur der Haupstadt der DDR Berlin: nva-uk.webs.com
http://wn.com/Waffenbruderchaft_Warsaw_Pact_exercise_Part_3
Part 3 of glorious socialist progress! In Soviet Russia, youtube watches you! Brought to you by Stadtkommandantur der Haupstadt der DDR Berlin: nva-uk.webs.com
- published: 14 Jan 2012
- views: 482
- author: James Smith
Wargame: European Escalation - Warsaw Pact Introductory Gameplay
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 28:06
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
Author: Geniuswas Like our Facebook page: www.facebook.com Join our Steam group: steamcommunity.com Short introductory gameplay, exploring some of the units of Warsaw Pact, which consists of: Soviet Union, Czech Republic (pre-1991 Communist rule), Poland (Communist), East Germany. On map "Blitz"
http://wn.com/Wargame_European_Escalation_Warsaw_Pact_Introductory_Gameplay
Author: Geniuswas Like our Facebook page: www.facebook.com Join our Steam group: steamcommunity.com Short introductory gameplay, exploring some of the units of Warsaw Pact, which consists of: Soviet Union, Czech Republic (pre-1991 Communist rule), Poland (Communist), East Germany. On map "Blitz"
- published: 16 Sep 2012
- views: 443
- author: xXGamerEmpireXx
Varsjárbandalagið / Warsaw Pact - surreal music video
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:22
- Updated: 16 Jan 2013
A music video to the song "Vestmannaeyjar" by the Klezmer and Balkan band Varsjárbandalagið (The Warsaw Pact) from their album "Russian Bride" Album available here: www.gogoyoko.com The band: www.varsjarbandalagid.is The filmmaker: vimeo.com
http://wn.com/Varsjárbandalagið_Warsaw_Pact_surreal_music_video
A music video to the song "Vestmannaeyjar" by the Klezmer and Balkan band Varsjárbandalagið (The Warsaw Pact) from their album "Russian Bride" Album available here: www.gogoyoko.com The band: www.varsjarbandalagid.is The filmmaker: vimeo.com
- published: 19 May 2011
- views: 4266
- author: raneinivdlab
Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 38:55
- Updated: 25 Oct 2012
National Archives - Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia - National Security Council. Central Intelligence Agency. (09/18/1947 - 12/04/1981). - This Czechoslovakian language film documents the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia and its goal of ousting Alexander Dubcek from power. - DVD Copied by IASL Scanner Thomas Gideon. - 1968 - ARC 1536420 / LI 263.594
http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact_Invasion_of_Czechoslovakia
National Archives - Warsaw Pact Invasion of Czechoslovakia - National Security Council. Central Intelligence Agency. (09/18/1947 - 12/04/1981). - This Czechoslovakian language film documents the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia and its goal of ousting Alexander Dubcek from power. - DVD Copied by IASL Scanner Thomas Gideon. - 1968 - ARC 1536420 / LI 263.594
- published: 25 Jun 2011
- views: 925
- author: PublicResourceOrg
Warsaw Pact 7.62 UPDATE
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:44
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
Guys, look UNDER the lid!! Thanks WolfNewark!!
http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact_762_UPDATE
Guys, look UNDER the lid!! Thanks WolfNewark!!
- published: 01 Mar 2012
- views: 335
- author: Glockster42
Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia part2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 8:01
- Updated: 08 Sep 2011
On the night of August 20 - August 21, 1968, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary and Poland invaded the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic in order to halt Alexander Dubček's Prague Spring political liberalization reforms. In the operation, codenamed Danube, varying estimates of between 175000 and 500000 troops attacked Czechoslovakia; approximately 500 Czechoslovaks were wounded and death of 108 was related to the invasion. The invasion successfully stopped liberalization reforms and strengthened the authority of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. The foreign policy of the Soviet Union during this era would be known as the Brezhnev Doctrine
http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact_invasion_of_Czechoslovakia_part2
On the night of August 20 - August 21, 1968, the Soviet Union, Bulgaria, the German Democratic Republic (East Germany), Hungary and Poland invaded the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic in order to halt Alexander Dubček's Prague Spring political liberalization reforms. In the operation, codenamed Danube, varying estimates of between 175000 and 500000 troops attacked Czechoslovakia; approximately 500 Czechoslovaks were wounded and death of 108 was related to the invasion. The invasion successfully stopped liberalization reforms and strengthened the authority of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. The foreign policy of the Soviet Union during this era would be known as the Brezhnev Doctrine
- published: 20 Aug 2009
- views: 1961
- author: Mesherschmit
Communist States Sign The Warsaw Pact
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:04
- Updated: 02 Oct 2012
1955 - Communist States Sign The Warsaw Pact THIS WEEK IN HISTORY, Week 20 from EnglishClub For more details, vocabulary and quiz: www.englishclub.com
http://wn.com/Communist_States_Sign_The_Warsaw_Pact
1955 - Communist States Sign The Warsaw Pact THIS WEEK IN HISTORY, Week 20 from EnglishClub For more details, vocabulary and quiz: www.englishclub.com
- published: 16 Jun 2012
- views: 58
- author: englishclub
Supporting Alpha (Fulda Gap 2012 Warsaw Pact) 1080P HelmetCam Combat Footage!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:20
- Updated: 28 Dec 2012
http://wn.com/Supporting_Alpha_Fulda_Gap_2012_Warsaw_Pact_1080P_HelmetCam_Combat_Footage!
photo: White House / Pete Souza
24 Jan 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. In the world of politics and imagination, theater usually trumps theology while history is most often vanquished by histrionics. President Barack Obama's swearing-in ceremony for a second term reflects this truth, specifically as he uses two historic bibles-one belonging to Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and another used only by Abraham Lincoln ... "With malice toward none; with charity for all."....(size: 7.3Kb)
photo: AP / Mohammad Hannon
25 Jan 2013
Republicans wanted nothing more than to summon Secretary of State Hillary Clinton to Capitol Hill and grill her about the tragic fiasco in Benghazi. Sadly for them, they got their wish. Clinton’s smooth and confident performance at Wednesday’s Senate and House committee hearings was fun to watch. When her would-be inquisitors asked serious questions, she gave serious answers. But when Sen ... Fat chance ... Benghazi ... Perhaps not ... ....(size: 4.8Kb)
photo: US Army / Edward N. Johnson
25 Jan 2013
By Charles Armstrong, Special to CNN. Editor’s note. Charles Armstrong is the director of the Center for Korean Research at Columbia University. The views expressed are his own. Anyone who has followed North Korean affairs for the last several years (or the last two decades) could have predicted North Korea’s defiant response to the U.N ... sanctions not by giving up missiles and nukes, but ratcheting up the rhetoric ... More from GPS ... Post by ... ... ....(size: 15.8Kb)
photo: AP / Hossam Ali
26 Jan 2013
An Egyptian court has handed down 21 death sentences in connection with the deadly riot last year at a football stadium in Port Said located along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The defendants sentenced on Saturday are mostly members of the "Ultras," die-hard football fans who support Port Said's al-Masry squad ... Al-Masry fans stormed the pitch after their team won, throwing stones, bottles and fireworks at al-Ahly supporters....(size: 17.2Kb)
photo: UN / Martine Perret
25 Jan 2013
At least one in five people, including half of schoolchildren, were infected with swine flu during the first year of the pandemic in 2009, according to data from 19 countries. It is thought the virus killed 200,000 people around the world. A World Health Organization-led study looked for evidence of the body's immune system fighting the virus ... Anti-bodies ... ....(size: 2.1Kb)
photo: AP / Petr David Josek
27 Jan 2013
PRAGUE — Milos Zeman, a former leftist prime minister and economist known for his outspoken populism, was elected president of the Czech Republic on Saturday, becoming the country's first popularly elected president ... He had joined the Communist Party during the 1968 Prague Spring, a short-lived blossoming of freedom that was smashed by the invasion of Czechoslovakia by roughly 750,000 Warsaw Pact troops ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
Orlando Sentinel
20 Jan 2013
Yahoo Daily News
18 Jan 2013
Author Paul Evancoe claims that as rogue nations like Iran, Myanmar and North Korea proceed in their nuclear weapon development quest, the threat of terrorists acquiring and using a nuclear weapon against us increases exponentially ... There are thousands of technically trained and experienced persons with detailed knowledge of, and access to, former Warsaw Pact forces weapon development facilities, stockpiles and maintenance depots ... ....(size: 3.5Kb)
Bloomberg
18 Jan 2013
Two years ago, I was the son of a broken nation ... I despaired of ever seeing my country free ... It has been just two years since the emergence of the Arab Spring and the start of Libya’s Feb. 17, 2011, uprising ... Where were they two years after the Berlin Wall fell? They were at war in Yugoslavia, still struggling to overthrow the regime in the Soviet Union, and in various states of economic free fall in the former Warsaw Pact countries ... ....(size: 8.4Kb)
The Independent
16 Jan 2013
What is the point of spending a minimum of £25billions renewing the Trident missile system? Its initial purpose was to deter the Warsaw Pact armies from invading Britain. The Warsaw Pact is no more, the frontier with Russia has moved almost a thousand miles eastwards, and the suicide bombers people who pose the biggest threat to British domestic security these days are not deterred by nuclear weapons ... Recent Posts on McSmith ... 5iBet ... ....(size: 4.0Kb)
Deccan Herald
15 Jan 2013
Mumbai Race Results. An Acquired Taste, ridden by S John and trained by Altamash A, landed the spoils in the Ramniwas Ramnarain Ruia Gold Cup, Grade II race over 2000 metres, the feature event held here on Tuesday. 1. Allaire Plate (Div II) -- 1200M. Quando Quando (A Sandesh) 1; Vaile Rouge (Dashrath S) 2; Midnight. Lady (D Naik) 3; Negredo (Sandeep Jadhav) 4; WB. 2-1/4, 2-1/4, 4-1/2L; T ... Vaile Rouge. 2 ... 3 ... 4 ... Warsaw Pact Plate -- 1800M ... ....(size: 3.6Kb)
The Hindu
15 Jan 2013
An Acquired Taste ridden by S.John won the Ramniwas Ramnarain Ruia Gold Cup (Gr. II), the feature event of the races held here on Tuesday (Jan. 15). The winner is owned by Dr. Nevil R.Devlaliwalla & Aap Racing and Stud Farms Ltd. Altamash A.Ahmed trains the winner. 1. ALLAIRE PLATE DIV. II (1,200m), Cl. V, rated 01 to 26 ... 2-1/4, 2-1/4, 4-1/2. 1m 13.26s. Rs. 73 (w), 17, 10 and 45 (p). SHP. Rs. 36, FP. Rs. 194, Q. Rs ... WARSAW PACT PLATE (1,800m), Cl....(size: 4.8Kb)
Deccan Herald
14 Jan 2013
Mumbai race card. Shivalik Hero, to be ridden by O’Donoghue and trained by M Narredu, is fancied to clinch the 2000-metre Ramniwas Ramnarain Ruia Gold Cup (Grade II), the feature event here on Tuesday. 1. Allaire Plate (Div II) (Cl V, rated 1-26) -- 1200M, 1.30 pm. 1. Ace Image 59 P Naidu 2; 2. Vaile Rouge 59 Dashrath S 5; 3. Negredo 58.5 Sandeep Jadhav 1; 4 ... 2 ... 1 ... 3 ... 1 ... 4 ... 1 ... 5 ... 1 ... 6. Warsaw Pact Plate (Cl IV, rated 20-46) -- 1800M, 4.00 pm. 1....(size: 4.3Kb)
The Hindu
13 Jan 2013
Machiavellianism, who won the Indian 2000 Guineas in style, is maintaining form and may score an encore in the Ramniwas Ramnarain Ruia Gold Cup (Gr. II), the feature event of the races to be held here on Tuesday (Jan. 15). The following are the acceptances and selections. ALLAIRE PLATE DIV.II (1,200m), Cl. V, rated 01 to 26, 1-30 p.m. 1. Ace Image 59, 2. Vaile Rouge 59, 3. Negredo 58.5, 4. Quando Quando 57.5, 5 ... WARSAW PACT PLATE (1,800m), Cl....(size: 3.3Kb)
Antiwar
11 Jan 2013
To say that the events of September 11, 2001, had a distorting effect on American foreign policy is to seriously understate the case ... Citing Colin Powell, Woodward wrote. ... In short ... If we measure the length of the Unipolar Moment beginning in the mid-1980s, when the first big cracks began to appear in the Warsaw Pact and in the Soviet Union itself, and ending with the crash of ’08, we have a grand total of barely 20 years ... Don’t you?....(size: 14.3Kb)
The Washington Times
09 Jan 2013
As Americans seek to find an alternative to the stark and unappetizing choice between acceptance of Iran’s rabid leadership having nuclear weapons or pre-emptively bombing its nuclear facilities, one analyst offers a credible third path ... Abraham D. Sofaer, a former U.S ... Not since 1988, Mr ... The U.S ... Mr ... Mr ... Mr ... “It is time to apply to Iran the policies which won the Cold War, liberated the Warsaw Pact, and reunited Europe ... ....(size: 5.1Kb)
CounterPunch
07 Jan 2013
We are saved —so our politicians tell us —from a plunge off the fiscal cliff ... Brilliant! ... That’s the spirit, boys! ... Framing any threat to Pentagon funding as seditious is key ... Don’t talk to those who might research and understand other forms of power, you know, the ones who might know about how the Velvet Revolution happened across the Warsaw Pact, the Colored Revolutions, or Arab Spring in Tunisia and Egypt ... each MLK Day?. Tom H....(size: 2.9Kb)
Bloomberg
07 Jan 2013
The bear hugs on the Black Sea didn't mask the irony of the moment ... Billionaire Facebook Inc. co-founder Eduardo Saverin renounced his U.S ... Still, France, the U.S. and the U.K., which are all struggling to contain public spending and government debt, should consider whether there is a broader lesson to be learned from their old Warsaw Pact foes and the tiger economies of Asia on how low taxes can make economies more dynamic ... ....(size: 3.6Kb)
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This article may be expanded with text translated from the corresponding article in the German Wikipedia. (April 2012) Don't speak German? Click here to read a machine-translated version of the German article. Click [show] on the right to review important translation instructions before translating.
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Not to be confused with the Warsaw Convention (airlines), and the Treaty of Warsaw (1970) between West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland.
| Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance | ||||
| Military alliance | ||||
|
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| Motto Союз мира и социализма (Russian) "Union of peace and socialism" |
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| Capital | Not specified | |||
| Language(s) | Russian, Polish, German, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Romanian, Bulgarian, Albanian | |||
| Political structure | Military alliance | |||
| Supreme Commander | ||||
| - 1955–60 (first) | Ivan Konev | |||
| - 1989–91 (last) | Petr Lushev | |||
| Head of Unified Staff | ||||
| - 1955–62 (first) | Aleksei Antonov | |||
| - 1989–90 (last) | Vladimir Lobov | |||
| Historical era | Cold War | |||
| - Established | 14 May 1955 | |||
| - Hungarian crisis | 4 November 1956 | |||
| - Czechoslovakian crisis | 21 August 1968 | |||
| - German reunification² | 3 October 1990 | |||
| - Disestablished | 1 July 1991 | |||
| ¹ HQ in Moscow, USSR. ² A 24 September 1990 treaty withdrew the German Democratic Republic from the Warsaw Treaty; at reunification, it became integral to NATO Pact. |
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The Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance (1955–1991), more commonly referred to as the Warsaw Pact, was a mutual defense treaty between eight communist states of Eastern Europe in existence during the Cold War. The founding treaty was established under the initiative of the Soviet Union and signed on 14 May 1955, in Warsaw. The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon), the regional economic organization for the communist states of Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact was a Soviet military response to the integration of West Germany[1] into NATO in 1955, per the Paris Pacts of 1954.[2][3][4]
Contents |
Nomenclature[link]
In the West, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance; abbreviated WAPA, Warpac, and WP. Elsewhere, in the former member states, the Warsaw Treaty is known as:
- Albanian: Pakti i miqësisë, bashkpunimit dhe i ndihmës së përbashkët
- Bulgarian: Договор за дружба, сътрудничество и взаимопомощ
- Romanized Bulgarian: Dogovor za druzhba, satrudnichestvo i vzaimopomosht
- Czech: Smlouva o přátelství, spolupráci a vzájemné pomoci
- Slovak: Zmluva o priateľstve, spolupráci a vzájomnej pomoci
- German: Vertrag über Freundschaft, Zusammenarbeit und gegenseitigen Beistand
- Hungarian: Barátsági, együttműködési és kölcsönös segítségnyújtási szerződés
- Polish: Układ o Przyjaźni, Współpracy i Pomocy Wzajemnej
- Romanian: Tratatul de prietenie, cooperare şi asistenţă mutuală
- Russian: Договор о дружбе, сотрудничестве и взаимной помощи
- Romanized Russian: Dogovor o druzhbe, sotrudnichestve i vzaimnoy pomoshchi
Structure[link]
The Warsaw Treaty’s organization was two-fold: the Political Consultative Committee handled political matters, and the Combined Command of Pact Armed Forces controlled the assigned multi-national forces, with headquarters in Warsaw, Poland. Furthermore, the Supreme Commander of the Unified Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organization was also a First Deputy Minister of Defense of the USSR, and the head of the Warsaw Treaty Combined Staff also was a First Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the USSR. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces.[5]
Strategy[link]
The strategy of the Warsaw Pact was dominated by the desire to prevent, at all costs, the recurrence of an invasion of Russian territory as had occurred under Napoleon in 1812, German forces in 1918 (ended with the Treaty of Brest Litovsk) as well as Hitler in 1941, leading to extreme devastation and human losses in all cases, but especially in the third; the USSR emerged from the Second World War with the greatest total losses in life of any participant in the war except China.
History[link]
On 14 May 1955, the USSR established the Warsaw Pact in response to the integration of the Federal Republic of Germany into NATO in October 1954 – only nine years after the defeat of Nazi Germany (1933–45) that ended with the Soviet and Allied invasion of Germany in 1944/45 during World War II in Europe. The reality was that a "Warsaw"-type pact had been in existence since 1945, when Soviet forces initially occupied Eastern Europe, and maintained there after the war. The Warsaw Pact merely formalized the arrangement.
The eight member countries of the Warsaw Pact pledged the mutual defense of any member who would be attacked; relations among the treaty signatories were based upon mutual non-intervention in the internal affairs of the member countries, respect for national sovereignty, and political independence.
The founding signatories to the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance consisted of the following communist governments:
People's Republic of Albania (withheld support in 1961 because of the Sino–Soviet split, formally withdrew in 1968)
People's Republic of Bulgaria
Czechoslovak Republic (Czechoslovak Socialist Republic since 1960)
German Democratic Republic (withdrew in September 1990, before German reunification)
People's Republic of Hungary
People's Republic of Poland
People's Republic of Romania (Socialist Republic of Romania from 1965)
Soviet Union
For 36 years, NATO and the Warsaw Treaty never directly waged war against each other in Europe; the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies implemented strategic policies aimed at the containment of each other in Europe, while working and fighting for influence within the wider Cold War on the international stage.
In 1956, following the declaration of the Imre Nagy government of withdrawal of Hungary from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet troops entered the country and removed the government.
The multi-national Communist armed forces’ sole joint action was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. All member countries, with the exception of the Socialist Republic of Romania and the People's Republic of Albania participated in the invasion.
Beginning at the Cold War’s conclusion, in late 1989, popular civil and political public discontent forced the Communist governments of the Warsaw Treaty countries from power – independent national politics made feasible with the perestroika- and glasnost-induced institutional collapse of Communist government in the USSR.[6] In the event the populaces of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Albania, East Germany, Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria deposed their Communist governments in the period from 1989–91.
On 25 February 1991 the Warsaw Pact was declared disbanded at a meeting of defense and foreign ministers from Pact countries meeting in Hungary.[7] On the 1 July 1991, in Prague, the Czechoslovak President Václav Havel formally ended the 1955 Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation, and Mutual Assistance and so disestablished the Warsaw Treaty after 36 years of military alliance with the USSR. Five months later, the USSR disestablished itself in December 1991.
Central and Eastern Europe after the Warsaw Treaty[link]
On 12 March 1999, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland joined NATO; Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania, and Slovakia joined in March 2004; Croatia and Albania joined on 1 April 2009.
Russia and some other post-USSR states joined in the Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO).
In November 2005, the Polish government opened its Warsaw Treaty archives to the Institute of National Remembrance who published some 1,300 declassified documents in January 2006. Yet the Polish government reserved publication of 100 documents, pending their military declassification. Eventually, 30 of the reserved 100 documents were published; 70 remained secret, and unpublished. Among the documents published is the Warsaw Treaty's nuclear war plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine – a short, swift attack capturing Western Europe, using nuclear weapons, in self-defense, after a NATO first strike. The plan originated as a 1979 field training exercise war game, and metamorphosed into official Warsaw Treaty battle doctrine, until the late 1980s – thus why the People’s Republic of Poland was a nuclear weapons base, first, to 178, then, to 250 tactical-range rockets. Doctrinally, as a Soviet-style (offensive) battle plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine gave commanders few defensive-war strategies for fighting NATO in Warsaw Treaty territory.[citation needed]
Notes[link]
- ^ Yorst, David S. (1998). NATO Transformed: The Alliance's New Roles in International Security. Washington, DC: U.S. Institute of Peace Press. p. 31. ISBN 1-878379-81-X.
- ^ Broadhurst, Arlene Idol (1982). The Future of European Alliance Systems. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. p. 137. ISBN 0-86531-413-6.
- ^ Christopher Cook, Dictionary of Historical Terms (1983)
- ^ The Columbia Enclopedia, fifth edition (1993) p. 2926
- ^ Fes'kov, V. I.; Kalashnikov, K. A.; Golikov, V. I. (2004). Sovetskai͡a Armii͡a v gody "kholodnoĭ voĭny," 1945–1991 [The Soviet Army in the Cold War Years (1945–1991)]. Tomsk: Tomsk University Publisher. p. 6. ISBN 5-7511-1819-7.
- ^ The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought, third edition, 1999, pp. 637–8
- ^ Warsaw Pact and Comecon To Dissolve This Week
References[link]
- Modern History Sourcebook: The Warsaw Pact, 1955 (full text of the treaty)
- Parallel History Project on Cooperative Security
- Library of Congress / Federal Research Division / Country Studies / Area Handbook Series / Soviet Union / Appendix C: The Warsaw Pact (1989)
This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the Library of Congress Country Studies.
Further reading[link]
- Havel, Václav (2007). To the Castle and Back. Trans. Paul Wilson. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-307-26641-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=GaWwabF35Y0C&lpg=PP1&dq=editions%3AkJCaIwFlq-QC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- Heuser, Beatrice (1998). "Victory in a Nuclear War? A Comparison of NATO and WTO War Aims and Strategies". Contemporary European History 7 (3): 311–327. DOI:10.1017/S0960777300004264.
- Lewis, William Julian (1982). The Warsaw Pact: Arms, Doctrine, and Strategy. Cambridge, Mass.: Institute for Foreign Policy Analysis. ISBN 978-0-07-031746-8.
- Mastny, Vojtech; Byrne, Malcolm (2005). A Cardboard Castle ?: An Inside History of the Warsaw Pact, 1955–1991. Budapest: Central European University Press. ISBN 978-963-7326-07-3. http://books.google.com/books?id=Jm4L_b8CHycC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- Umbach, Frank (2005) (in German). Das rote Bündnis: Entwicklung und Zerfall des Warschauer Paktes 1955 bis 1991. Berlin: Ch. Links Verlag. ISBN 978-3-86153-362-7.
External links[link]
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http://wn.com/Warsaw_Pact
Related pages:
http://it.wn.com/Patto di Varsavia
http://cs.wn.com/Varšavská smlouva
http://id.wn.com/Pakta Warsawa
http://es.wn.com/Pacto de Varsovia
http://ru.wn.com/Организация Варшавского договора
http://pl.wn.com/Układ Warszawski
http://fr.wn.com/Pacte de Varsovie
http://de.wn.com/Warschauer Pakt
http://pt.wn.com/Pacto de Varsóvia
http://nl.wn.com/Warschaupact
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warsaw_Pact
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is about the Polish capital. For other uses, see Warsaw (disambiguation).
"Warszawa" redirects here. For other uses, see Warszawa (disambiguation).
| Warsaw Warszawa |
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|---|---|---|---|
| Capital City of Warsaw Miasto Stołeczne Warszawa |
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| Motto: Semper invicta (Latin "Ever Invincible") | |||
 Warsaw
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| Coordinates: 52°13′56.28″N 21°00′30.36″E / 52.2323°N 21.0084333°E / 52.2323; 21.0084333 | |||
| Country | Poland |
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| Voivodeship | Masovian | ||
| County | city county | ||
| City rights | turn of the 12th to 13th century | ||
| Boroughs | |||
| Government | |||
| • President | Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz (PO) | ||
| Area | |||
| • City | 517,24 km2 (19,971 sq mi) | ||
| • Metro | 6,100.43 km2 (2,355.39 sq mi) | ||
| Elevation | 78–116 m (328 ft) | ||
| Population (31.03.2012.) | |||
| • City | 1 720 398 | ||
| • Density | 3,326/km2 (8,610/sq mi) | ||
| • Metro | 90,000,100 | ||
| • Metro density | 549.19/km2 (1,422.4/sq mi) | ||
| Demonym | Varsovian | ||
| Time zone | CET (UTC+1) | ||
| • Summer (DST) | CEST (UTC+2) | ||
| Postal code | 00-001 to 04–999 | ||
| Area code(s) | +48 22 | ||
| Car plates | WA, WB, WD, WE, WF, WH, WI, WJ, WK, WN, WT, WU, WW, WX, WY | ||
| Website | warszawa.pl | ||
Warsaw (Polish: Warszawa [varˈʂava] ( listen); see also other names) is the capital and largest city of Poland. It is located on the Vistula River, roughly 260 kilometres (160 mi) from the Baltic Sea and 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the Carpathian Mountains. Its population in 2010 was estimated at 1,716,855 residents with a greater metropolitan area of 2,631,902 residents, making Warsaw the 10th most populous city proper in the European Union.[1][2] The area of the city covers 516.9 square kilometres (199.6 sq mi), while the city's agglomeration covers 6,100.43 square kilometres (2,355.39 sq mi).[3]
Warsaw is an Alpha- global city, a major international tourist destination and an important economic hub in Central Europe.[4][5][6] It is also known as the "phoenix city" because it has survived many wars throughout its history. Most notably, the city had to be painstakingly rebuilt after the extensive damage it suffered from World War II, during which 80% of its buildings were destroyed.[7][8] On 9 November 1940 the city was awarded Poland's highest military decoration for heroism, the Virtuti Militari, for the Siege of Warsaw (1939).[9]
Warsaw is the source for naming entities such as Warsaw Confederation, the Warsaw Pact, the Duchy of Warsaw, the Warsaw Convention, the Treaty of Warsaw, the Warsaw Uprising, the Warsaw Ghetto, and the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising. The Warszawianka is widely considered the unofficial anthem of the city.[10]
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Etymology and names[link]
Warsaw's name in the Polish language, Warszawa (also formerly spelled Warszewa and Warszowa), means "belonging to Warsz", Warsz being a shortened form of the masculine name of Slavic origin Warcisław; see also etymology of Wrocław.[11] Folk etymology attributes the city name to a fisherman Wars and his wife Sawa. According to legend, Sawa was a mermaid living in the Vistula River who Wars fell in love with.[12] Actually, Warsz was a 12th/13th century nobleman who owned a village located at the site of today's Mariensztat neighbourhood.[13] The official city name in full is miasto stołeczne Warszawa (English: "The Capital City of Warsaw").[14] A native or resident of Warsaw is known as a Varsovian.
Other names for Warsaw include Warschau (German and Dutch), Varsovia (Spanish and Latin), Varsovie (French), Varsavia (Italian), וואַרשע/Varshe (Yiddish), ורשה/Varsha (Hebrew), Варшава/Varshava (Bulgarian, Slavomacedonian, Russian and Serbian), Varšava (Slovak, Czech, Latvian, Slovenian, Serbian and Croatian), Varšuva (Lithuanian), Varsó (Hungarian), Huáshā 華沙 (Mandarin Chinese), and وارسو/فارسوفيا Wārsō/Fārsōfyā (Arabic).
For the name of Warsaw in various languages, see wikt:Warsaw.
History[link]
Main article: History of Warsaw
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Warsaw Timeline[15]
Year Event
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Early history[link]
The first fortified settlements on the site of today's Warsaw were Bródno (9th/10th century) and Jazdów (12th/13th century).[16] After Jazdów was raided, a new similar settlement was established on the site of a small fishing village called Warszowa. The Płock prince Bolesław II of Masovia, established this settlement, the modern Warsaw, about 1300. In the beginning of the 14th century it became one of the seats of the Dukes of Masovia, becoming the capital of Masovia in 1413.[16] 14th-century Warsaw's economy rested on crafts and trade. Upon the extinction of the local ducal line, the duchy was reincorporated into the Polish Crown in 1526.[16]
16th to 18th centuries[link]
In 1529 Warsaw for the first time became the seat of the General Sejm, permanent from 1569.[16] In 1573 the city gave its name to the Warsaw Confederation, formally establishing religious freedom in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. Due to its central location between the Commonwealth's capitals of Kraków and Vilnius, Warsaw became the capital of the Commonwealth, and of the Polish Crown, in 1596, when King Sigismund III Vasa moved the court from Kraków to Warsaw.[16]
In the following years the town expanded towards the suburbs. Several private independent districts were established, the property of aristocrats and the gentry, which were ruled by their own laws. Three times between 1655–1658 the city was under siege and three times it was taken and pillaged by the Swedish, Brandenburgian and Transylvanian forces.[16][17]
In 1700, the Great Northern War broke out. The city was besieged several times and was obliged to pay heavy contributions.[15] Warsaw turned into an early-capitalistic principal city.
Stanisław August Poniatowski, who remodelled the interior of the Royal Castle in Warsaw, also made Warsaw a centre of culture and the arts.[18][19] This earned Warsaw the name of the Paris of the east.[20]
19th and 20th centuries[link]
Warsaw remained the capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth until 1795, when it was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia to become the capital of the province of South Prussia. Liberated by Napoleon's army in 1806, Warsaw was made the capital of the newly created Duchy of Warsaw.[16] Following the Congress of Vienna of 1815, Warsaw became the centre of the Congress Poland, a constitutional monarchy under a personal union with Imperial Russia.[16] The Royal University of Warsaw was established in 1816.
Following the repeated violations of the Polish constitution by the Russians, the 1830 November Uprising broke out. However, the Polish-Russian war of 1831 ended in the uprising's defeat and in the curtailment of the Kingdom's autonomy.[16] On 27 February 1861 a Warsaw crowd protesting against the Russian rule over Poland was fired upon by the Russian troops.[21][22] Five people were killed. The Underground Polish National Government resided in Warsaw during January Uprising in 1863–64.[22]
Warsaw flourished in the late 19th century under Mayor Sokrates Starynkiewicz (1875–92), a Russian-born general appointed by Tsar Alexander III. Under Starynkiewicz Warsaw saw its first water and sewer systems designed and built by the English engineer William Lindley and his son, William Heerlein Lindley, as well as the expansion and modernisation of trams, street lighting and gas works.[16]
| “ | The history of contemporary civilisation knows no event of greater importance than the Battle of Warsaw, 1920, and none of which the significance is less appreciated. | ” |
The Russian Empire Census of 1897 recorded 626,000 people living in Warsaw, making it the third-largest city of the Empire after St. Petersburg and Moscow.
Warsaw was occupied by Germany from the 4 August 1915 until 1918. It then became the capital of the newly independent Poland in 1918. In the course of the Polish-Bolshevik War of 1920, the huge Battle of Warsaw was fought on the eastern outskirts of the city in which the capital was successfully defended and the Red Army defeated.[24] Poland stopped by itself the full brunt of the Red Army and defeated an idea of the "export of the revolution".[25][26]
World War II[link]
During World War II, central Poland, including Warsaw, came under the rule of the General Government, a German Nazi colonial administration. All higher education institutions were immediately closed and Warsaw's entire Jewish population – several hundred thousand, some 30% of the city – herded into the Warsaw Ghetto.[28] The city would become the center of urban resistance to Nazi rule in occupied Europe.[29] When the order came to annihilate the ghetto as part of Hitler's "Final Solution" on 19 April 1943, Jewish fighters launched the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.[30] Despite being heavily outgunned and outnumbered, the Ghetto held out for almost a month.[30] When the fighting ended, almost all survivors were massacred, only few managed to escape or hide.[30][31]
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Warsaw'44
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By July 1944, the Red Army was deep into Polish territory and pursuing the Germans toward Warsaw.[33] Knowing that Stalin was hostile to the idea of an independent Poland, the Polish government-in-exile in London gave orders to the underground Home Army (AK) to try to seize control of Warsaw from the Germans before the Red Army arrived. Thus, on 1 August 1944, as the Red Army was nearing the city, the Warsaw Uprising began.[33] The armed struggle, planned to last 48 hours, went on for 63 days. Stalin gave orders to his troops to wait outside of Warsaw.[34] Eventually the Home Army fighters and civilians assisting them were forced to capitulate.[33] They were transported to PoW camps in Germany, while the entire civilian population was expelled.[33] Polish civilian deaths are estimated at between 150,000 and 200,000.[35]
The Germans then razed Warsaw to the ground. Hitler, ignoring the agreed terms of the capitulation, ordered the entire city to be razed to the ground and the library and museum collections taken to Germany or burned.[33] Monuments and government buildings were blown up by special German troops known as Verbrennungs- und Vernichtungskommando ("Burning and Destruction Detachments").[33] About 85% of the city had been destroyed, including the historic Old Town and the Royal Castle.[36]
On 17 January 1945 – after the beginning of the Vistula–Oder Offensive of the Red Army – Soviet troops entered the ruins of Warsaw, and liberated Warsaw's suburbs from German occupation. The city was swiftly taken by the Soviet Army, which rapidly advanced towards Łódź, as German forces regrouped at a more westward position.
Modern times[link]
In 1945, after the bombing, the revolts, the fighting, and the demolition had ended, most of Warsaw lay in ruins.
After the war, under a Communist regime set up by the conquering Soviets, large prefabricated housing projects were erected in Warsaw to address the housing shortage, along with other typical buildings of an Eastern Bloc city, such as the Palace of Culture and Science. The city resumed its role as the capital of Poland and the country's centre of political and economic life. Many of the historic streets, buildings, and churches were restored to their original form. In 1980, Warsaw's historic Old Town was inscribed onto UNESCO's World Heritage list.[37]
John Paul II's visits to his native country in 1979 and 1983 brought support to the budding solidarity movement and encouraged the growing anti-communist fervor there.[38] In 1979, less than a year after becoming pope, John Paul celebrated Mass in Victory Square in Warsaw and ended his sermon with a call to "renew the face" of Poland: Let Thy Spirit descend! Let Thy Spirit descend and renew the face of the land! This land![38] These words were very meaningful for the Polish citizens who understood them as the incentive for the democratic changes.[38]
In 1995, the Warsaw Metro opened. With the entry of Poland into the European Union in 2004, Warsaw is currently experiencing the biggest economic boom of its history.[39] The opening match of UEFA Euro 2012 is scheduled to take place in Warsaw.[40]
Geography[link]
Location and topography[link]
Warsaw lies in east-central Poland about 300 km (190 mi) from the Carpathian Mountains and about 260 km (160 mi) from the Baltic Sea, 523 km (325 mi) east of Berlin, Germany.[41] The city straddles the Vistula River. It is located in the heartland of the Masovian Plain, and its average elevation is 100 metres (330 ft) above sea level. The highest point on the left side of the city lies at a height of 115.7 metres (379.6 ft) (“Redutowa” bus depot, district of Wola), on the right side – 122.1 metres (400.6 ft) (“Groszówka” estate, district of Wesoła, by the eastern border). The lowest point lies at a height 75.6 metres (248.0 ft) (at the right bank of the Vistula, by the eastern border of Warsaw). There are some hills (mostly artificial) located within the confines of the city – e.g. Warsaw Uprising Hill (121 metres (397.0 ft)), Szczęśliwice hill (138 metres (452.8 ft) – the highest point of Warsaw in general).
Warsaw is located on two main geomorphologic forms: the plain moraine plateau and the Vistula Valley with its asymmetrical pattern of different terraces. The Vistula River is the specific axis of Warsaw, which divides the city into two parts, left and right. The left one is situated both on the moraine plateau (10 to 25 m (32.81 to 82.02 ft) above Vistula level) and on the Vistula terraces (max. 6.5 m (21.33 ft) above Vistula level). The significant element of the relief, in this part of Warsaw, is the edge of moraine plateau called Warsaw Escarpment. It is 20 to 25 m (65.62 to 82.02 ft) high in the Old Town and Central district and about 10 m (32.81 ft) in the north and south of Warsaw. It goes through the city and plays an important role as a landmark.
The plain moraine plateau has only a few natural and artificial ponds and also groups of clay pits. The pattern of the Vistula terraces is asymmetrical. The left side consist mainly of two levels: the highest one contains former flooded terraces and the lowest one the flood plain terrace. The contemporary flooded terrace still has visible valleys and ground depressions with water systems coming from the Vistula old – riverbed. They consist of still quite natural streams and lakes as well as the pattern of drainage ditches. The right side of Warsaw has a different pattern of geomorfological forms. There are several levels of the plain Vistula terraces (flooded as well as former flooded once) and only small part and not so visible moraine escarpment. Aeolian sand with a number of dunes parted by peat swamps or small ponds cover the highest terrace. These are mainly forested areas (pine forest).
Climate[link]
Warsaw's climate is humid continental (Koppen Dfb) with cold winters and mild summers. The average temperature is −3 °C (27 °F) in January and 19.3 °C (66.7 °F) in July. Temperatures may often reach 30 °C (86 °F) in the summer. Yearly rainfall averages 495 millimetres (19.5 in), wettest month being July. Spring and Autumn are usually beautiful seasons, the former crisp and sunny and full of blooms and the latter alternately sunny and misty, and cool but not cold.
| Climate data for Warsaw | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
| Record high °C (°F) | 12.5 (54.5) |
15.9 (60.6) |
23.3 (73.9) |
29.1 (84.4) |
32.7 (90.9) |
34.8 (94.6) |
36.0 (96.8) |
36.4 (97.5) |
33.0 (91.4) |
26.1 (79.0) |
19.3 (66.7) |
16.1 (61.0) |
36.4 (97.5) |
| Average high °C (°F) | 0.1 (32.2) |
0.9 (33.6) |
4.7 (40.5) |
12.2 (54.0) |
19.4 (66.9) |
21.7 (71.1) |
23.8 (74.8) |
23.0 (73.4) |
18.3 (64.9) |
12.9 (55.2) |
5.0 (41.0) |
2.1 (35.8) |
12.0 (53.6) |
| Daily mean °C (°F) | −3 (27) |
−2.3 (27.9) |
1.7 (35.1) |
8.2 (46.8) |
14.0 (57.2) |
17.6 (63.7) |
19.3 (66.7) |
18.3 (64.9) |
14.0 (57.2) |
8.2 (46.8) |
2.9 (37.2) |
−0.5 (31.1) |
8.2 (46.8) |
| Average low °C (°F) | −6.1 (21.0) |
−5.5 (22.1) |
−1.3 (29.7) |
4.2 (39.6) |
8.6 (47.5) |
13.5 (56.3) |
14.8 (58.6) |
13.6 (56.5) |
9.7 (49.5) |
3.5 (38.3) |
0.8 (33.4) |
−3.1 (26.4) |
4.4 (39.9) |
| Record low °C (°F) | −30.7 (−23.3) |
−30.4 (−22.7) |
−23.5 (−10.3) |
−10.1 (13.8) |
−3.6 (25.5) |
0.3 (32.5) |
4.2 (39.6) |
2.0 (35.6) |
−4.7 (23.5) |
−9 (16) |
−18.2 (−0.8) |
−27.4 (−17.3) |
−30.7 (−23.3) |
| Precipitation mm (inches) | 21 (0.83) |
25 (0.98) |
24 (0.94) |
33 (1.3) |
44 (1.73) |
62 (2.44) |
73 (2.87) |
63 (2.48) |
42 (1.65) |
37 (1.46) |
38 (1.5) |
33 (1.3) |
495 (19.49) |
| % humidity | 81 | 82 | 78 | 71 | 67 | 68 | 72 | 74 | 75 | 77 | 80 | 86 | 76 |
| Avg. precipitation days | 15 | 14 | 13 | 12 | 12 | 13 | 13 | 12 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 16 | 159 |
| Mean monthly sunshine hours | 43 | 59 | 115 | 150 | 211 | 237 | 226 | 214 | 153 | 99 | 39 | 25 | 1,571 |
| Source: [42] | |||||||||||||
Districts[link]
Until 1994, there were 7 districts in Warsaw: Śródmieście, Praga Północ, Praga Południe, Żoliborz, Wola, Ochota, Mokotów. Between 1994 and 2002, there were 11 districts: Centrum, Białołęka, Targówek, Rembertów, Wawer, Wilanów, Ursynów, Włochy, Ursus, Bemowo, Bielany. In 2002, the town Wesoła was incorporated and the territorial division of Warsaw was established as follows:
| District | Population | Area |
|---|---|---|
| Mokotów | 225,571 | 35.4 km2 (13.7 sq mi) |
| Praga Południe | 182,588 | 22.4 km2 (8.6 sq mi) |
| Ursynów | 148,876 | 48.6 km2 (18.8 sq mi) |
| Wola | 137,692 | 19.26 km2 (7.44 sq mi) |
| Bielany | 133,778 | 32.3 km2 (12.5 sq mi) |
| Śródmieście | 126,143 | 15.57 km2 (6.01 sq mi) |
| Targówek | 123,214 | 24.37 km2 (9.41 sq mi) |
| Bemowo | 113,066 | 24.95 km2 (9.63 sq mi) |
| Ochota | 89,383 | 9.7 km2 (3.7 sq mi) |
| Białołęka | 89,234 | 73.04 km2 (28.20 sq mi) |
| Praga Północ | 71,675 | 11.4 km2 (4.4 sq mi) |
| Wawer | 69,898 | 79.71 km2 (30.78 sq mi) |
| Ursus | 50,355 | 9.35 km2 (3.61 sq mi) |
| Żoliborz | 48,060 | 8.5 km2 (3.3 sq mi) |
| Włochy | 39,690 | 28.63 km2 (11.05 sq mi) |
| Rembertów | 23,320 | 19.30 km2 (7.45 sq mi) |
| Wesoła | 22,757 | 22.6 km2 (8.7 sq mi) |
| Wilanów | 19,146 | 36.73 km2 (14.18 sq mi) |
| Total | 1,714,446 | 521.81 km2 (201.47 sq mi) |
Warsaw is a powiat (county), and is further divided into 18 boroughs, each one known as a dzielnica (districts – see map), each one with its own administrative body.[43] Each of the boroughs includes several neighbourhoods which have no legal or administrative status. Warsaw has two historic districts, called Old Town (Stare Miasto) and New Town (Nowe Miasto) in the borough of Śródmieście.[44]
Cityscape[link]
Overview[link]
Warsaw's mixture of architectural styles reflects the turbulent history of the city and country. During WWII, Warsaw was razed to the ground by bombing raids and planned destruction.[33] After liberation, rebuilding began as in other cities of the communist-ruled PRL. Most of the historical buildings were thoroughly reconstructed. However, some of the buildings from the 19th century that had been preserved in reasonably reconstructible form were nonetheless eradicated in the 1950s and 1960s (e.g. Leopold Kronenberg Palace).[45] Mass residential blocks were erected, with basic design typical of Eastern bloc countries.
Public spaces attract heavy investment, so that the city has gained entirely new squares, parks and monuments. Warsaw's current urban landscape is one of modern and contemporary architecture.
Architecture[link]
Main article: Architecture of Warsaw
Warsaw's palaces, churches and mansions display a richness of color and architectural details. Buildings are representatives of nearly every European architectural style and historical period. The city has wonderful examples of architecture from the gothic, renaissance, baroque and neoclassical periods, all of which are located within easy walking distance of the town centre.
Gothic architecture is represented in the majestic churches but also at the burgher houses and fortifications. The most significant buildings are St. John's Cathedral (14th century), the temple is a typical example of the so-called Masovian gothic style, St. Mary's Church (1411), a town house of Burbach family (14th century),[46] Gunpowder Tower (after 1379) and the Royal Castle Curia Maior (1407–1410). The most notable examples of Renaissance architecture in the city are the house of Baryczko merchant family (1562), building called "The Negro" (early 17th century) and Salwator tenement (1632). The most interesting examples of mannerist architecture are the Royal Castle (1596–1619) and the Jesuit Church (1609–1626) at Old Town. Among the first structures of the early baroque the most important are St. Hyacinth's Church (1603–1639) and Zygmunt's Column (1644).
Building activity occurred in numerous noble palaces and churches during the later decades of the 17th century. One of the best examples of this architecture are Krasiński Palace (1677–1683), Wilanów Palace (1677–1696) and St. Kazimierz Church (1688–1692). The most impressive examples of rococo architecture are Czapski Palace (1712–1721), Palace of the Four Winds (1730s) and Visitationist Church (façade 1728–1761). The neoclassical architecture in Warsaw can be described by the simplicity of the geometrical forms teamed with a great inspiration from the Roman period. Some of the best examples of the neoclassical style are the Palace on the Water (rebuilt 1775–1795), Królikarnia (1782–1786), Carmelite Church (façade 1761–1783) and Evangelical Holy Trinity Church (1777–1782). The economic growth during the first years of Congress Poland caused a rapid rise architecture. The Neoclassical revival affected all aspects of architecture, the most notable are the Great Theater (1825–1833) and buildings located at Bank Square (1825–1828).
Exceptional examples of the bourgeois architecture of the later periods were not restored by the communist authorities after the war (like mentioned Kronenberg Palace and Insurance Company Rosja building) or they were rebuilt in socialist realism style (like Warsaw Philharmony edifice originally inspired by Palais Garnier in Paris). Despite that the Warsaw University of Technology building (1899–1902)[47] is the most interesting of the late 19th century architecture. Lot of the 19th century buildings is restored in Praga (Vistula’s right bank), though they are in a pretty bad condition. Warsaw’s municipal government authorities have decided to rebuild the Saxon Palace and the Brühl Palace, the most distinctive buildings in prewar Warsaw.[48]
Notable examples of contemporary architecture include the Palace of Culture and Science (1952–1955), a Soc-realist skyscraper located in the city centre, and the Constitution Square with its monumental Socialist realism architecture (MDM estate).[49] The central part of the right-bank (east) Praga borough it is a place where very run-down houses stand right next to modern apartment buildings and shopping malls.
Modern architecture in Warsaw is represented by the Metropolitan Office Building at Pilsudski Square by Lord Foster,[50] Warsaw University Library (BUW) by Marek Budzyński and Zbigniew Badowski, featuring a garden on its roof and view of the Vistula River, Rondo 1 office building by Skidmore, Owings and Merrill and Golden Terraces, consisting of seven overlapping domes retail and business centre.
It has been said that Warsaw, together with Frankfurt, London, Paris, Moscow, Istanbul and Rotterdam is one of the tallest cities in Europe.[51] Of the 21 tallest skyscrapers in Poland, 18 are situated in Warsaw (the first of the list which is not in Warsaw, is the 9th – the Sea Tower in Gdynia).
Flora and fauna[link]
Greenspace covers 40% of the surface area of Warsaw,[52] including a broad range of greenstructures, from small neighborhood parks, green spaces along streets and in courtyards, trees and avenues to large historic parks, nature conservation areas and the urban forests at the fringe of the city.
There are as many as 82 parks in the city which cover 8% of its area.[53] The oldest ones, once parts of representative palaces, are Saxon Garden, the Krasiński Palace Garden, the Royal Baths Park, the Wilanów Palace Park and the Królikarnia Palace Park (See also: Greenery in the city).
The Saxon Garden, covering the area of 15.5 ha, was formally a royal garden. There are over 100 different species of trees and the avenues are a place to sit and relax. At the east end of the park, the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier is situated. In the 19th century the Krasiński Palace Garden was remodelled by Franciszek Szanior. Within the central area of the park one can still find old trees dating from that period: maidenhair tree, black walnut, Turkish hazel and Caucasian wingnut trees. With its benches, flower carpets, a pond with ducks on and a playground for kids, the Krasiński Palace Garden is a popular strolling destination for the Varsovians. The Monument of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising is also situated here. The Royal Baths Park covers the area of 76 ha. The unique character and history of the park is reflected in its landscape architecture (pavilions, sculptures, bridges, cascades, ponds) and vegetation (domestic and foreign species of trees and bushes). What makes this park different from other green spaces in Warsaw is the presence of peacocks and pheasants, which can be seen here walking around freely, and royal carps in the pond. The Wilanów Palace Park, dates back to the second half of the 17th century. It covers the area of 43 ha. Its central French-styled area corresponds to the ancient, baroque forms of the palace. The eastern section of the park, closest to the Palace, is the two-level garden with a terrace facing the pond. The park around the Królikarnia Palace is situated on the old escarpment of the Vistula. The park has lanes running on a few levels deep into the ravines on both sides of the palace.
Other green spaces in the city include the Botanic Garden and the University Library garden. They have extensive botanical collection of rare domestic and foreign plants, while a palm house in the New Orangery displays plants of subtropics from all over the world.[54] Besides, within the city borders, there are also: Pole Mokotowskie (a big park in the northern Mokotów, where was the first horse racetrack and then the airport), Park Ujazdowski (close to the Sejm and John Lennon street), Park of Culture and Rest in Powsin, by the southern city border, Park Skaryszewski by the right Vistula bank, in Praga. The oldest park in Praga, the Praga Park, was established in 1865–1871 and designed by Jan Dobrowolski.[55] In 1927 a zoological garden (Ogród Zoologiczny) was established on the park grounds,[56] and in 1952 a bear run, still open today.
The flora of the city may be considered very rich in species. The species richness is mainly due to the location of Warsaw within the border region of several big floral regions comprising substantial proportions of close-to-wilderness areas (natural forests, wetlands along the Vistula) as well as arable land, meadows and forests. Bielany Forest, located within the borders of Warsaw, is the remaining part of the Masovian Primeval Forest. Bielany Forest nature reserve is connected with Kampinos Forest.[57] It is home to rich fauna and flora. Within the forest there are three cycling and walking trails. Other big forest area is Kabaty Forest by the southern city border. Warsaw has also two botanic gardens: by the Łazienki park (a didactic-research unit of the University of Warsaw) as well as by the Park of Culture and Rest in Powsin (a unit of the Polish Academy of Science).
There is 13 nature reserves in Warsaw – among others, Bielany Forest, Kabaty Woods, Czerniaków Lake. About 15 km from Warsaw, the Vistula river's environment changes strikingly and features a perfectly preserved ecosystem, with a habitat of animals that includes the otter, beaver and hundreds of bird species.[58] There is also several lakes in Warsaw – mainly the oxbow lakes, like Czerniaków Lake, the lakes in the Łazienki or Wilanów Parks, Kamionek Lake. There are lot of small lakes in the parks, but only part of them is permanent – the most of them is being emptied before winter to clean them of plants and sediments.
The Warsaw Zoo covers an area of 40 hectares (99 acres).[59] There are about 5,000 animals representing nearly 500 species.[59] Although officially created in 1928,[59] it traces back its roots to 17th century private menageries, often open to the public.[60][61]
Demographics[link]
| Historical populations | ||
|---|---|---|
| Year | Pop. | ±% |
| 1700 | 30,000 | — |
| 1792 | 120,000 | +300.0% |
| 1800 | 63,400 | −47.2% |
| 1830 | 139,700 | +120.3% |
| 1850 | 163,600 | +17.1% |
| 1882 | 383,000 | +134.1% |
| 1901 | 711,988 | +85.9% |
| 1909 | 764,054 | +7.3% |
| 1925 | 1,003,000 | +31.3% |
| 1933 | 1,178,914 | +17.5% |
| 1939 | 1,300,000 | +10.3% |
| 1945 | 422,000 | −67.5% |
| 1950 | 803,800 | +90.5% |
| 1960 | 1,136,000 | +41.3% |
| 1970 | 1,315,600 | +15.8% |
| 1980 | 1,596,100 | +21.3% |
| 1990 | 1,655,700 | +3.7% |
| 2000 | 1,672,400 | +1.0% |
| 2002 | 1,688,200 | +0.9% |
| 2006 | 1,702,100 | +0.8% |
| 2009 | 1,714,466 | +0.7% |
| Note: 2006[62] | ||
Historically, Warsaw has been a destination for internal and foreign immigration, especially from Central and Eastern Europe. For nearly 300 years it was known as the "Paris of the North" or "Second Paris".[27] It was always a centre of European culture, existed as a major European city, and was a destination for many Europeans. Demographically it was the most diverse city in Poland, with a significant numbers of foreign-born inhabitants. In addition to the Polish majority, there was a significant Jewish minority in Warsaw. According to Russian census of 1897, out of the total population of 638,000, Jews constituted 219,000 (around 34% percent).[63] Warsaw's prewar Jewish population of more than 350,000 constituted about 30 percent of the city's total population.[64] In 1933 out of 1,178,914 inhabitants 833,500 were of Polish mother tongue.[65] World War II changed all of this, and to this day there is much less ethnic diversity than in the previous 300 years of the city's history.[64] Most of the modern day population growth is based on internal migration and urbanisation.
In 1939, ca. 1,300,000 people lived in Warsaw,[66] but in 1945 – only 420,000. During the first years after the war, the population growth was ca. 6%, so shortly the city started to suffer from the lack of flats and of areas for new houses. The first remedial measure was the Warsaw area enlargement (1951) – but the city authorities were still forced to introduce registration limitations: only the spouses and children of permanent residents as well as some exceptional persons (like good and famous specialists) were allowed to get registration. These limitations caused that the population growth decreased ca. twofold, but aroused among other Poles some kind of belief that the Varsovians feel themselves as somebody better than others only because they live in the capital. This belief unfortunately still lives in Poland (in much lower intensity) – even though there are not registration limitations anymore (since 1990).[67][68]
Municipal government[link]
The municipal government existed in Warsaw until World War II and was restored in 1990 (during the communist times, the National City Council – Miejska Rada Narodowa – governed in Warsaw). Since 1990, the system of city administration has been changed several times – also as the result of the reform which restored powiats, cancelled in 1975. Finally, according the Warsaw Act, the city is divided into 18 districts and forms one city powiat with a unified municipal government.[69]
The basic unit of territorial division in Poland is a commune (gmina).[70] A city is also a commune – but with the city charter.[70] Both cities and communes are being governed by a mayor – but in the communes the mayor is vogt (wójt in Polish), however in the cities – burmistrz. Some bigger cities obtain the entitlements, i.e. tasks and privileges, which are possessed by the units of the second level of the territorial division – counties or powiats. An example of such entitlement is a car registration: a gmina cannot register cars, this is a powiat's task (i.e. a registration number depends on what powiat a car had been registered, not gmina). In this case we say about city county or powiat grodzki. Such cities are for example Kraków, Gdańsk, Poznań. In Warsaw, its districts additionally have some of powiat's entitlements – like already mentioned car registration. For example, the district Wola has its own evidence and the district Ursynów – its own (and the cars from Wola have another type of registration number than these from Ursynów). But for instance the districts in Kraków do not have entitlements of powiat, so the registration numbers in Kraków are of the same type for all districts.
Legislative power in Warsaw is vested in a unicameral Warsaw City Council (Rada Miasta), which comprises 60 members.[69] Council members are elected directly every four years. Like most legislative bodies, the City Council divides itself into committees which have the oversight of various functions of the city government.[69] Bills passed by a simple majority are sent to the mayor (the President of Warsaw), who may sign them into law. If the mayor vetoes a bill, the Council has 30 days to override the veto by a two-thirds majority vote.
Each of the 18 separate city districts has its own council (Rada dzielnicy).[69] Their duties are focused on aiding the President and the City Council, as well as supervising various municipal companies, city-owned property and schools. The head of each of the District Councils is named the Mayor (Burmistrz) and is elected by the local council from the candidates proposed by the President of Warsaw.
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The mayor of Warsaw is called President. Generally, in Poland, the mayors of bigger cities are called presidents – i.e. such cities, which have over 100,000 people or these, where already was president before 1990. The first Warsaw President was Jan Andrzej Menich (1695–1696).[71] Between 1975 and 1990 the Warsaw Presidents was simultaneously the Warsaw Voivode. Since 1990 the President of Warsaw had been elected by the City council.[72] In the years of 1994–1999 the mayor of the district Centrum automatically was designed as the President of Warsaw: the mayor of Centrum was elected by the district council of Centrum and the council was elected only by the Centrum residents. Since 2002 the President of Warsaw is elected by all of the citizens of Warsaw.[72]
The current President of Warsaw is Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz (since 2006-12-02) – the former president of the National Bank of Poland.[73] The first president elected according these rules was Lech Kaczyński. When he was elected on the President of Polish Republic (December 2005), there was not an additional election in Warsaw, hence formally he was simultaneously the President of Poland and the President of Warsaw.
Politics[link]
As the capital of Poland, Warsaw is the political centre of the country. All state agencies are located there, including the Polish Parliament, the Presidential Office and the Supreme Court. In the Polish parliament the city and the area are represented by 31 MPs (out of 460). Additionally, Warsaw elects two MEPs.
The Sejm is the lower house of the Polish parliament. The Sejm is made up of 460 deputies, or Poseł in Polish (literally 'Envoy'). It is elected by universal ballot and is presided over by a speaker called the Marshal of the Sejm (Marszałek Sejmu).
Transportation[link]
Main article: Transportation in Warsaw
Warsaw has seen major infrastructural changes over the past few years amidst increased foreign investment and economic growth. The city has a much improved infrastructure with new roads, flyovers, bridges, etc.[74]
Warsaw lacks a good circular road system and most traffic goes directly through the city centre. Warsaw ring road has been planned consisting of three express roads: S2, S8 and S17. Currently parts of S2 and S8 are under construction and to be completed up to 2012. The city has one international airport, Warsaw Frédéric Chopin Airport, located just 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) from the city centre, with Warsaw-Modlin Airport located 35 kilometres (22 mi) to the north scheduled to become the city's second international airport in July 2012.[75] With around 100 international and domestic flights a day and with over 9,268,551 passengers served in 2007, it is by far the biggest airport in Poland.[75]
Public transport in Warsaw includes buses, trams (streetcars), Metro, light rail Warszawska Kolej Dojazdowa line, urban railway Szybka Kolej Miejska and regional rail Koleje Mazowieckie (Mazovian Railroads).[76] The buses, trams, urban railway and Metro are managed by Zarząd Transportu Miejskiego (ZTM, the Warsaw Transport Authority).
The regional rail and light rail is operated by Polish State Railways (PKP). There are also some suburban bus lines run by private operators.[77] Bus service covers the entire city, with approximately 170 routes totalling about 2,603 kilometres (1,617 mi) long, and with some 1,600 vehicles.
Currently, the Tramwaje Warszawskie (Warsaw Trams) company runs 863 cars on over 240 kilometres (150 mi) of tracks. Twenty-odd lines run across the city with additional lines opened on special occasions (such as All Saints' Day).
The first section of the Warsaw Metro was opened in 1995 initially with a total of 11 stations.[78] It now has 21 stations running a distance of approximately 23 kilometres.[79] Initially, all of the trains were Russian built. In 1998, 108 new carriages were ordered from Alstom.[78] The second line running east-west will be about 31 kilometres. The central section is now under construction and will be 6 km. long with seven stations.[78] The main railway station is Warszawa Centralna serving both domestic traffic to almost every major city in Poland, and international connections. There are also five other major railway stations and a number of smaller suburban stations.
Infrastructure[link]
Main article: Infrastructure in Warsaw
Like many cities in Central and Eastern Europe, infrastructure in Warsaw suffered considerably during communism. However, over the past decade it has seen many improvements due to solid economic growth, an increase in foreign investment as well as funding from the European Union. In particular, the city's underground transit system, roads, sidewalks, health care facilities and sanitation facilities have improved markedly.[74]
Today, Warsaw has some of the best medical facilities in Poland and Central Europe. The city is home to the Children's Memorial Health Institute (CMHI), the highest-reference hospital in all of Poland, as well as an active research and education center.[80] While the Maria Skłodowska-Curie Institute of Oncology it is one of the largest and most modern oncological institutions in Europe.[81] The clinical section is located in a 10-floor building with 700 beds, 10 operating theatres, an intensive care unit, several diagnostic departments as well as an outpatient clinic.[81]
Religion[link]
Main article: Religion in Warsaw
Throughout its existence, Warsaw has been a multi-cultural city.[82] According to a census of 1901, out of 711,988 inhabitants there were 56,2% Catholics, 35,7% Jews, 5% Greek orthodox Christians and 2,8% Protestants.[83] Eight years later, in 1909, there were 281,754 Jews (36,9%), 18,189 Protestants (2,4%) and 2,818 Mariavites (0,4%).[84] This led to construction of hundreds of places of religious worship in all parts of the town. Most of them were destroyed in the aftermath of the Warsaw Uprising of 1944. After the war the new communist authorities of Poland discouraged church construction and only a small part of them were rebuilt.[85]
Leisure activities[link]
Events[link]
Several commemorative events take place every year. Gatherings of thousands of people on the banks of the Vistula on Midsummer’s Night for a festival called Wianki (Polish for Wreaths) have become a tradition and a yearly event in the programme of cultural events in Warsaw.[86][87] The festival traces its roots to a peaceful pagan ritual where maidens would float their wreaths of herbs on the water to predict when they would be married, and to whom.[86] By the 19th century this tradition had become a festive event, and it continues today.[86] The city council organize concerts and other events.[87] Each Midsummer’s Eve, apart from the official floating of wreaths, jumping over fires, looking for the fern flower, there are musical performances, dignitaries' speeches, fairs and fireworks by the river bank.[87]
The Warsaw Film Festival, an annual festival that takes place every October.[88] Films are usually screened in their original language with Polish subtitles and participating cinemas include Kinoteka (Palace of Science and Culture), Multikino at Golden Terraces and Kultura. Over 100 films are shown throughout the festival, and awards are given to the best and most popular films.[88]
Sports[link]
Main article: Sport in Warsaw
On 9 April 2008 the President of Warsaw, Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz, obtained from the mayor of Stuttgart Wolfgang Schuster a challenge award – a commemorative plaque awarded to Warsaw as the European capital of Sport in 2008.[89]
The National Stadium, a planned 56,000 seat football (soccer) stadium, is currently under construction on the site of Warsaw's recently demolished 10th-Anniversary Stadium.[90] The national stadium is due to host the opening match (a group match), remaining 2 group matches, a quarterfinal, and a semifinal of the UEFA Euro 2012 hosted jointly by Poland and Ukraine.[91]
There are many sports centres in the city as well. Most of these facilities are swimming pools and sports halls, many of them built by the municipality in the past several years. The main indoor venue is Hala Torwar, used for all kinds of indoor sports (mainly, indoor skating rink). There is also open-air skating rink (Stegny) and the horse racetrack (Służewiec).
The best of the city's swimming centres is at Wodny Park Warszawianka, 4 km south of the centre at Merliniego Street, where there's an Olympic-sized pool as well as water slides and children's areas.[92]
From the Warsovian football teams, the most famous is Legia Warszawa – the army club with a nationwide following play at Polish Army Stadium, just southeast of the centre at Łazienkowska Street. Established in 1916, they have won the country’s championship 8 times (most recently in 2006) and won the Polish Cup 14 times. They have never been relegated divisions. In the Champions League season 1995/96 they reached the quarter-finals, where they lost to Panathinaikos Athens.
Their local rivals, Polonia Warsaw, have significantly fewer supporters, yet they managed to win Ekstraklasa Championship in 2000. They also won the country’s championship in 1946, and won the cup twice as well. Polonia's home venue is located at Konwiktorska Street, a ten-minute walk north from the Old Town.
| Club | Sport | Founded | League | Venue | Head Coach |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Legia Warszawa[93] | Football | 1916 | Ekstraklasa | Polish Army Stadium | Maciej Skorża |
| Polonia Warszawa[94] | Football | 1911 | Ekstraklasa | Stadion Polonii | Jacek Zieliński |
| Legia Warszawa[95] | Basketball | 1947 | Second League | OSiR Bemowo | Wojciech Kiełbasiewicz |
| Polonia Gaz Ziemny Warszawa[96] | Basketball | 1911 | Polska Liga Koszykówki | Hala Sportowa "Koło" | Wojciech Kamiński |
| AZS Politechnika Warszawa | Volleyball | 1918 | Polska Liga Siatkówki | Hala UCSiR | Radosław Panas |
| Cumann Warszawa (Warsaw GAA) | Gaelic Football and Hurling | 2009 | European Gaelic Football Championship | Stadion Skra, Pole Mokotowskie | Eoin Sheedy |
Culture[link]
European Capital of Culture 2016 Candidate[link]
Warsaw is a shortlisted candidate for the European Capital of Culture 2016 title.[97] With the title of European Capital of Culture 2016, Warsaw has the chance to become a city known for how it managed the transition from improvisation, chaos and unpredictable processes into a truly contemporary metropolis, which found innovative solutions to its problems.[97]
The Core Themes of Warsaw's application include: The Vistula: River of Possibilities, City of Talents and Warsaw under Construction.
Theatre in the past[link]
From 1833 to the outbreak of World War II, Plac Teatralny (Theatre Square) was the country's cultural hub and home to the various theatres.[98]
The main building housed the Great Theatre from 1833 to 1834, the Rozmaitości Theatre from 1836 to 1924 and then the National Theatre, the Reduta Theatre from 1919 to 1924, and from 1928 to 1939 – the Nowy Theatre, which staged productions of contemporary poetical drama, including those directed by Leon Schiller.[98]
Nearby, in Ogród Saski (the Saxon Garden), the Summer Theatre was in operation from 1870 to 1939,[99] and in the inter-war period, the theatre complex also included Momus, Warsaw's first literary cabaret, and Leon Schiller's musical theatre Melodram. The Wojciech Bogusławski Theatre (1922–26), was the best example of "Polish monumental theatre". From the mid-1930s, the Great Theatre building housed the Upati Institute of Dramatic Arts – the first state-run academy of dramatic art, with an acting department and a stage directing department.[98]
Plac Teatralny and its environs was the venue for numerous parades, celebrations of state holidays, carnival balls and concerts.
Theatre[link]
Warsaw is home to over 30 major theatres spread throughout the city, including the National Theatre (founded in 1765) and the Grand Theatre (established 1778).[100]
Warsaw also attracts many young and off-stream directors and performers who add to the city's theatrical culture. Their productions may be viewed mostly in smaller theatres and Houses of Culture (Domy Kultury), mostly outside Śródmieście (Central Warsaw). Warsaw hosts the International Theatrical Meetings.
Music[link]
Thanks to numerous musical venues, including the Teatr Wielki, the Polish National Opera, the Chamber Opera, the National Philharmonic Hall and the National Theatre, as well as the Roma and Buffo music theatres and the Congress Hall in the Palace of Culture and Science, Warsaw hosts many events and festivals. Among the events worth particular attention are: the International Frederick Chopin Piano Competition, the International Contemporary Music Festival Warsaw Autumn, the Jazz Jamboree, Warsaw Summer Jazz Days, the International Stanisław Moniuszko Vocal Competition, the Mozart Festival, and the Festival of Old Music.[101]
Museums and art galleries[link]
|
Museums in Warsaw
Name and official website
|
The levelling of Warsaw during the war has left gaping holes in the city's historic collections. [102] And although a considerable amount of treasures were spirited away to safety as the storm clouds gathered in 1939, it is also true that a great number of collections from palaces and museums in the countryside were brought to Warsaw at that time as the capital was considered a safer place than some remote castle in the borderlands.[102] Thus losses were heavy.[102]
Yet in spite of this, Warsaw still boasts some wonderful museums. As interesting examples of expositions the most notable are: the world’s first Museum of Posters boasting one of the largest collections of art posters in the world,[103] Museum of Hunting and Riding and the Railway Museum. From among Warsaw’s 60 museums, the most prestigious ones are National Museum with a wide collection of works whose origin ranges in time from antiquity till the present epoch as well as one of the best collections of paintings in the country and Museum of the Polish Army whose set portrays the history of arms.
The collections of Łazienki and Wilanów palaces (both buildings came through the war in good shape) are a delight, as are those of the Royal Castle. The Palace in Natolin – a former rural residence of Duke Czartoryski. Its interiors and park are accessible to tourists.
Holding Poland's largest private collection of art, the Carroll Porczyński Collection Museum[104] displays works from such varied artists as Rubens, Goya, Constable, Renoir, van Gogh and Dalí, and countless others.[105]
A fine tribute to the fall of Warsaw and history of Poland can be found in the Warsaw Uprising Museum and in the Katyń Museum which preserves the memory of the crime.[106] Museum of Independence host of sentimental and patriotic paraphernalia connected with these fateful epochs, as well as some invaluable art collections. Dating back to 1936 Warsaw Historical Museum contains 60 rooms which host a permanent exhibition of the history of Warsaw from its origins until today.
The 17th century Royal Ujazdów Castle currently houses Centre for Contemporary Art, with some permanent and temporary exhibitions, concerts, shows and creative workshops. The centre also develops unique art programs that correlated with the reconstruction and organization of the Ujazdów Castle architectural spaces. The Centre of Contemporary Art currently realizes about 500 projects a year.
Zachęta National Gallery of Art is the oldest exhibition site in Warsaw, with a tradition stretching back to the mid-19th century. The gallery organises exhibitions of modern art by Polish and international artists and promotes art in many other ways.
The city also possesses some marvellous oddities such as the Museum of Caricature (the only one of its kind in the world)[107] and a magnificent Motorisation Museum in Otrębusy.[108]
The newly established in 2011 Erotic Museum in Warsaw is the only such museum in Poland and one of the few of a kind in Europe.[109] Over 2,000 exhibits collected by the Erotic Museum, reveals the erotic fascinations of artists from all continents.[109] Museum collections include the 14th century German chastity belts, erotic Peruvian pottery, Persian miniatures, Tibetan votive paintings, Indian carvings, Chinese porcelain, African folk art, Japanese Shunga paintings, Thai votive penises and many other exhibits.[109]
Media and film[link]
See also: List of films featuring Warsaw
Warsaw is the media centre of Poland, and the location of the main headquarters of TVP and other numerous local and national TV and radio stations, such as TVN, Polsat, TV4, TV Puls, Canal+ Poland, Cyfra+ and MTV Poland.[110]
Since May 1661 the first Polish newspaper, Polish Ordinary Mercury, was printed in Warsaw. The city is also the printing capital of Poland with a wide variety of domestic and foreign periodicals expressing diverse views, and domestic newspapers are extremely competitive. Rzeczpospolita, Gazeta Wyborcza, Dziennik Polska-Europa-Świat Poland's large nationwide daily newspapers[111] have their headquarters in Warsaw.
Warsaw also has a sizable movie and television industry. The city houses several movie companies and studios. Among the movie campanies are TOR, Czołówka, Zebra and Kadr who is behind several international movie productions.[112]
Over the next few years the new Film City in Nowe Miasto, located a mere 80 km from Warsaw, will become the centre of Polish film production and international co-production.[112] It is to be the largest high-tech film studio in Europe.[112] The first projects filmed in the new Film City will be two films about the Warsaw Uprising.[112] Two backlots will be constructed for these projects – a lot of pre-WWII Warsaw and city ruins.[112]
Since World War II, Warsaw has been the most important centre of film production in Poland. It has also been featured in numerous movies, both Polish and foreign, for example: Kanał and Korczak by Andrzej Wajda, The Decalogue by Krzysztof Kieślowski, also including Oscar winner The Pianist by Roman Polański.[113]
Education[link]
Main article: Education in Warsaw
|
Higher education in Warsaw
Name and year established
|
Warsaw holds some of the finest institutions of higher education in Poland. It is home to four major universities and over 62 smaller schools of higher education.[114] The overall number of students of all grades of education in Warsaw is almost 500,000 (29.2% of the city population; 2002). The number of university students is over 280,000.[115] Most of the reputable universities are public, but in recent years there has also been an upsurge in the number of private universities.
The University of Warsaw was established in 1816, when the partitions of Poland separated Warsaw from the oldest and most influential Polish academic center, in Kraków.[116] Warsaw University of Technology is the second academic school of technology in the country, and one of the largest in Central Europe, employing 2,000 professors.[117] Other institutions for higher education include the Medical University of Warsaw, the largest medical school in Poland and one of the most prestigious, the National Defence University, highest military academic institution in Poland, the Fryderyk Chopin Music Academy the oldest and largest music school in Poland, and one of the largest in Europe,[118] the Warsaw School of Economics, the oldest and most renowned economic university in the country,[119] and the Warsaw University of Life Sciences the largest agricultural university founded in 1818.[120]
Warsaw has numerous libraries, many of which contain vast collections of historic documents. The most important library in terms of historic document collections include the National Library of Poland. Library holds 8.2 million volumes in its collection.[121] Formed in 1928[122] sees itself as a successor to the Załuski Library, the biggest in Poland and one of the first and biggest libraries in the world.[122][123]
Another important library – the University Library, founded in 1816,[124] is home to over two million items.[125] The building was designed by architects Marek Budzyński and Zbigniew Badowski and opened on 15 December 1999.[126] It is surrounded by green. The University Library garden, designed by Irena Bajerska, was opened on 12 June 2002. It is one of the largest and most beautiful roof gardens in Europe with an area of more than 10,000 m2 (107,639.10 sq ft), and plants covering 5,111 m2 (55,014.35 sq ft).[127] As the university garden it is open to the public every day.[127]
Economy[link]
In 2011, Warsaw was ranked the world's 46th most expensive city to live in.[128] It was classified as an Alpha- world city (also known as a "major world city") by the Globalization and World Cities (GaWC) Study Group and Network from Loughborough University, placing it on a par with cities such as Amsterdam or Rome.[129] The city also ranked 8th out of 65 cities on Mastercard's Emerging Markets Index (2008).[130]
Business and commerce[link]
Warsaw, especially its city centre (Śródmieście), is home not only to many national institutions and government agencies, but also to many domestic and international companies. In 2006, 304,016 companies were registered in the city.[131] Warsaw's ever-growing business community has been noticed globally, regionally, and nationally. Mastercard Emerging Market Index has noted Warsaw's economic strength and commercial center. Moreover, Warsaw was ranked as the 7th greatest emerging market. Foreign investors' financial participation in the city's development was estimated in 2002 at over 650 million euro. Warsaw produces 12% of Poland's national income,[132] which in 2008 was 305.1% of the Polish average, per capita (or 160% of the European Union average). The GDP per capita in Warsaw amounted to PLN 94 000 in 2008 (ca. EUR 23 800, USD 33 000).[133] Warsaw leads the region of Central Europe in foreign investment and in 2006, GDP growth met expectations with a level of 6.1%.[134] It also has one of the fastest growing economies, with GDP growth at 6.5 percent in 2007 and 6.1 percent in the first quarter of 2008.[135]
At the same time the unemployment rate is one of the lowest in Poland, not exceeding 3%, according to the official figures. The city itself collects around 8,740,882,000 złotys in taxes and direct government grants.
Warsaw Stock Exchange[link]
Main article: Warsaw Stock Exchange
Warsaw's first stock exchange was established in 1817 and continued trading until World War II. It was re-established in April 1991, following the end of the post-war communist control of the country and the reintroduction of a free-market economy.[136] Today, the Warsaw Stock Exchange (WSE) is, according to many indicators,[135] the largest market in the region, with 374 companies listed and total capitalization of 162 584 mln EUR as of 31 August 2009.[137] From 1991 until 2000, the stock exchange was, ironically, located in the building previously used as the headquarters of the Polish United Workers' Party (PZPR).[138] The city is considered to be one of the most attractive business locations in Europe.[135]
Industry[link]
During Warsaw's reconstruction after World War II, the communist authorities decided that the city would become a major industrial centre. As a result, numerous large factories were built in and around the city. The largest were the Huta Warszawa Steel Works, the car factory FSO and the tractor factory “Ursus”.
As the communist economy deteriorated, these factories lost significance and most went bankrupt after 1989.[139][140] Today, the Arcelor Warszawa Steel Mill (formerly Huta Warszawa) is the only major factory remaining.
The FSO Car Factory was established in 1951. A number of vehicles have been assembled there over the decades, including the Warszawa, Syrena, Fiat 125p (under license from Fiat, later renamed FSO 125p when the license expired) and the Polonez. The last two models listed were also sent abroad and assembled in a number of other countries, including Egypt and Columbia. In 1995 the factory was purchased by the South Korean car manufacturer Daewoo, which assembled the Tico, Espero, Nubia, Tacuma, Leganza, Lanos and Matiz there for the European market. In 2005 the factory was sold to AvtoZAZ, a Ukrainian car manufacturer which assembled there the Chevrolet Aveo. The license for the production of the Aveo expired in February 2011 and has since not been renewed.
The “Ursus” factory opened in 1893 and is still in operation today. Throughout its history various machinery was assembled there, including motorcycles, military vehicles, trucks and buses. However, since World War II only tractors are still being assembled there.
The number of state-owned enterprises continues to decrease while the number of companies operating with foreign capital is on the rise, reflecting the continued shift towards a modern market-based economy.[139] The largest foreign investors are Daewoo, Coca-Cola Amatil and Metro AG.[139] Warsaw has the biggest concentration of electronics and high-tech industry in Poland, while the growing consumer market perfectly fosters the development of the food-processing industry.[139]
Tourist attractions[link]
Main article: Tourist attractions in Warsaw
Sights[link]
| Historic Centre of Warsaw * | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Country | Poland |
| Type | Cultural |
| Criteria | ii, vi |
| Reference | 30 |
| Region ** | Europe |
| Inscription history | |
| Inscription | 1980 (4th Session) |
| * Name as inscribed on World Heritage List ** Region as classified by UNESCO |
|
|
Warsaw Old Town
|
Although today's Warsaw is a fairly young city, it has many tourist attractions. Apart from the Warsaw Old Town quarter, reconstructed after World War II, each borough has something to offer. Among the most notable landmarks of the Old Town are the Royal Castle, King Zygmunt's Column, Market Square, and the Barbican.
Further south is the so-called Royal Route, with many classicist palaces, the Presidential Palace and the University of Warsaw campus. Wilanów Palace, the former royal residence of King John III Sobieski, is notable for its baroque architecture and parks.[141]
Warsaw's oldest public park, the Saxon Garden, is located within 10 minutes' walk from the old town.[142] Warsaw's biggest public park is the Royal Baths Park, established in the 17th century and given its current classical shape in late 18th century.[143] It is located further south, on the Royal Route, about 3 km (1.9 mi) from the Warsaw Old Town.
The Powązki Cemetery is one of the oldest cemeteries in Europe,[144] full of sculptures, some of them by the most renowned Polish artists of the 19th and 20th centuries. Since it serves the religious communities of Warsaw, be it Catholics, Orthodox, Jews, Muslims or Protestants, it is often called a necropolis. Nearby is the Okopowa Street Jewish Cemetery, one of the largest Jewish cemeteries in Europe.
In many places in the city the Jewish culture and history resonates down through time.[145] Among them the most notable are the Jewish theater, the Nożyk Synagogue, Janusz Korczak's Orphanage and the picturesque Próżna Street.[145] The tragic pages of Warsaw’s history are commemorated in places such as the Monument to the Ghetto Heroes, the Umschlagplatz, fragments of the Ghetto wall on Sienna Street and a mound in memory of the Jewish Combat Organization.[145]
There are also many places commemorating the heroic history of Warsaw.[146] Pawiak, an infamous German Gestapo prison now occupied by a Mausoleum of Memory of Martyrdom and the museum, is only the beginning of a walk in the traces of Heroic City.[146] The Warsaw Citadel, an impressive 19th century fortification built after the defeat of the November Uprising, was a place of martyr for the Poles.[146] Another important monument, the statue of Little Insurgent located at the ramparts of the Old Town, commemorates the children who served as messengers and frontline troops in the Warsaw Uprising, while the impressive Warsaw Uprising Monument by Wincenty Kućma was erected in memory of the largest insurrection of World War II.[146][147]
In Warsaw there are many places connected with the life and work of Frédéric Chopin. The heart of Polish-born composer is sealed inside Warsaw's Holy Cross Church.[148] During the summer time the Chopin Statue in the Royal Baths Park is a place where pianists give concerts to the park audience.[149]
Also many references to Marie Curie, her work and her family can be found in Warsaw: Marie's birthplace at the Warsaw New Town, the working places where she did her first scientific works[150] and the Radium Institute at Wawelska Street for the research and the treatment of cancer which she founded in 1925.[151]
Warsaw Mermaid[link]
Main article: Coat of arms of Warsaw
The mermaid (syrenka) is Warsaw's symbol[152] and can be found on statues throughout the city and on the city's coat of arms. This imagery has been in use since at least the mid-14th century.[153] The oldest existing armed seal of Warsaw is from the year 1390, consisting of a round seal bordered with the Latin inscription Sigilium Civitatis Varsoviensis (Seal of the city of Warsaw).[154] City records as far back as 1609 document the use of a crude form of a sea monster with a female upper body and holding a sword in its claws.[155] In 1653 the poet Zygmunt Laukowski asks the question:
| “ | Warsaw of strong walls; why was the emblem Mermaid with sharp sword, given you by the kings? | ” |
|
—Zygmunt Laukowski[156] |
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The origin of the legendary figure is not fully known. The best-known legend, by Artur Oppman, is that long ago two of Triton's daughters set out on a journey through the depths of the oceans and seas. One of them decided to stay on the coast of Denmark and can be seen sitting at the entrance to the port of Copenhagen. The second mermaid reached the mouth of the Vistula River and plunged into its waters. She stopped to rest on a sandy beach by the village of Warszowa, where fishermen came to admire her beauty and listen to her beautiful voice. A greedy merchant also heard her songs; he followed the fishermen and captured the mermaid.[157]
Another legend says that a mermaid once swam to Warsaw from the Baltic Sea for the love of the Griffin, the ancient defender of the city, who was killed in a struggle against the Swedish invasions of the 17th century. The mermaid, wishing to avenge his death, took the position of defender of Warsaw, becoming the symbol of the city.[157]
Every member of the Queen's Royal Hussars of the United Kingdom light cavalry wears the Maid of Warsaw, the crest of the City of Warsaw, on the left sleeve of his No. 2 (Service) Dress.[158] Members of 651 Squadron Army Air Corps of the United Kingdom also wear the Maid of Warsaw on the left sleeve of their No. 2 (Service) Dress.[159]
Famous people[link]
Further information: Category:People from Warsaw
One of the most famous people born in Warsaw was Maria Skłodowska-Curie, who achieved international recognition for her research on radioactivity.[160] Famous musicians include Władysław Szpilman and Frédéric Chopin. Chopin was born in the village of Żelazowa Wola, about 60 kilometers from Warsaw, but moved to the city with his family when he was seven months old.[161] Kazimierz Pułaski, a hero of the American Revolutionary War, was born here in 1745.
Tamara de Lempicka was a famous artist born in Warsaw.[162] She was born Maria Górska in Warsaw to wealthy parents and in 1916 married a Polish lawyer Tadeusz Łempicki.[163] Better than anyone else she represents the Art Deco style in painting.[162] Nathan Alterman, the Israeli poet, was born in Warsaw, as was Moshe Vilenski, the Israeli composer, lyricist, and pianist, who studied music at the Warsaw Conservatory.[164] Warsaw was the beloved city of Isaac Bashevis Singer, which he described in many of his novels:[165] Warsaw has just now been destroyed. No one will ever see the Warsaw I knew. Let me just write about it. Let this Warsaw not not disappear forever, he commented.[166]
Rankings[link]
- Largest cities of the European Union: ranked 9th.
- Most expensive cities: ranked 113th of 144.
- Best cities in terms of quality of living: ranked 87th of 100.
International relations[link]
Twin towns and sister cities[link]
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References – city's official site[181]
Varieties[link]
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See also[link]
- Tourism in Poland
- Battle of Warsaw
- Street names of Warsaw
- Warsaw dialect
- Warsaw Fire Brigade
- Warsaw concentration camp
References[link]
Bibliography[link]
- Crowley, David (2003). Warsaw. Reaktion Books. ISBN 1-86189-179-2. http://books.google.com/?id=E4cM2Hf8KYsC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
- Olchowik-Adamowska, Liliana; Ławecki, Tomasz (1 April 2006). Travellers Warsaw (First ed.). Peterborough, United Kingdom: Thomas Cook Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84157-492-9. http://books.google.com/books?id=xXbqAQAACAAJ. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
Notes[link]
- ^ "European Metropolitan Transport Authorities". EMTA. http://www.emta.com/article.php3?id_article=43. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
- ^ "CityProfiles". Urban Audit. http://www.urbanaudit.org/CityProfiles.aspx?CityCode=PL001C&CountryCode=PL. Retrieved 3 June 2011.
- ^ (English) "Warsaw". www.goeuro2012.com. Archived from the original on 3 June 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080603015458/http://www.goeuro2012.com/html/warsaw.html. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
- ^ "Top 150 City Destinations: London Leads the Way". blog.euromonitor.com. 11 October 2007. http://blog.euromonitor.com/2007/10/top-150-city-destinations-london-leads-the-way.html. Retrieved 18 November 2011. "City Ranking '000 tourist arrivals / Warsaw 29 2,925"
- ^ George Friedman (30 November 2010). "Geopolitical Journey, Part 6: Ukraine". www.stratfor.com. http://www.stratfor.com/weekly/20101129_geopolitical_journey_part_6_ukraine. Retrieved 18 November 2011. "Far more interesting than their geopolitical speculation was their fixation on Warsaw. (...) But what was most interesting was how little talk there was of Ukrainian oligarchs compared to Warsaw markets. The oligarchs might have been way beyond them and therefore irrelevant, but it was Warsaw, not the European Union or the power structure, that got their juices flowing."
- ^ "Warsaw Stock Exchange to List Bulgarian Companies". www.novinite.com. 15 February 2010. http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=113177. Retrieved 18 November 2011. "Bulgarian public companies will now be able to secure the financing of their projects through investors on the Warsaw Stock Exchange, according to the site DarikFinance."
- ^ (English) "The SETAC Europe 18th Annual Meeting". www.setac.eu. Archived from the original on 28 May 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080528233643/http://www.setac.eu/warsaw/city.html. Retrieved 22 January 2009.
- ^ (Polish) "The city of phoenix – War*saw everything". http://miastofeniksa.pl/. Retrieved 22 January 2009.
- ^ (English) "Coat of Arms and Colours of the Capital City of Warsaw". bip.warszawa.pl. http://bip.warszawa.pl/English/Main_Menu/capital_city_of_warsaw/coat_of_arms_colours.htm. Retrieved 14 January 2009.
- ^ (Polish) Piotr Olechno (28 August 2008). "Sen zamiast Warszawianki". www.polskatimes.pl. http://www.polskatimes.pl/warszawa/40061,sen-zamiast-warszawianki,id,t.html. Retrieved 3 March 2009.
- ^ (Polish) Kazimierz Rymut (1987). Nazwy miast Polski. Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich. ISBN 83-04-02436-5.
- ^ "The Warsaw Mermaid". http://www.warsaw-life.com/poland/warsaw-legend. Retrieved 11 February 2008.
- ^ "Historia Warszawy" (in Polish). Archived from the original on 13 May 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20100513082637/http://www.um.warszawa.pl/v_syrenka/miasto/historia.htm. Retrieved 11 February 2008.
- ^ (Polish) "Ustawa o ustroju miasta stołecznego Warszawy". www.prawo.lex.pl. Archived from the original on 1 January 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070101150852/http://www.prawo.lex.pl/bap/samorzad/Dz.U.2002.41.361.html. Retrieved 15 July 2008.
- ^ a b (Polish) Historia Warszawy (History of Warsaw). Warsaw. 2004. ISBN 83-89632-04-7.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j (English) "Warsaw's history". www.e-warsaw.pl. http://www.e-warsaw.pl/miasto/historia.htm. Retrieved 24 July 2008.
- ^ (English) Neal Ascheron. "The Struggles for Poland". www.halat.pl. http://www.halat.pl/poland2.html. Retrieved 24 July 2008.
- ^ (English) Michał Rożek, Doris Ronowicz (1988). Cracow: a treasury of Polish culture and art. Interpress Publishers. p. 74. ISBN 83-223-2245-3.
- ^ (English) John Stanley (March–June 2004). "Literary Activities and Attitudes in the Stanislavian Age in Poland (1764–1795): A Social System?". findarticles.com. Archived from the original on 14 May 2011. http://web.archive.org/web/20110514133024/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3763/is_200403/ai_n9363971/?tag=content;col1. Retrieved 23 April 2009.
- ^ (English) Cornelia Golna (2004). City of man's desire: a novel of Constantinople. Go-Bos Press. p. 318. ISBN 90-804114-4-2. http://books.google.pl/books?id=xHXGa8HSQIQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ (French) Zbigniew Naliwajek. Romain Rolland et la littérature polonaise. Revue de littérature comparée 3/2003 (n°307), p. 325-338.
- ^ a b (English) Augustin P. O'Brien (1864). Petersburg and Warsaw: Scenes Witnessed During a Residence in Poland and Russia in 1863–64. R. Bentley. http://books.google.com/?id=WlYBAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Petersburg+and+Warsaw:+scenes+witnessed#PPR1,M1. Retrieved 28 January 2009.
- ^ (English) "Vistula River Victory". www.electronicmuseum.ca. Archived from the original on 9 May 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070509034826/http://www.electronicmuseum.ca/Soviet-Polish-War/spw_3.html. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "Poland, History " Poland in the 20th century " From the Treaty of Versailles to the Treaty of Riga". www.britannica.com. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/466681/Poland/28213/From-the-Treaty-of-Versailles-to-the-Treaty-of-Riga#ref=ref397007&tab=active~checked%2Citems~checked&title=Poland%20%3A%3A%20From%20the%20Treaty%20of%20Versailles%20to%20the%20Treaty%20of%20Riga%20--%20Britannica%20Online%20Encyclopedia. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
- ^ (English) Witold Lawrynowicz. "Battle Of Warsaw 1920". www.scrapbookpages.com. http://www.hetmanusa.org/engarticle1.html. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
- ^ (English) Zdzisław G. Kowalski. "Documents of the Battle of Warsaw 1920". Memory of the World. http://www.archiwa.gov.pl/memory/sub_listakrajowa/index.php?va_lang=en&fileid=019. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
- ^ a b (English) M.M. (2 August 2006). "Warsaw: A Last Glimpse". www.warsawvoice.pl. http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/11932/. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "Warsaw". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005069. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ Snyder (2010). Bloodlands. London: The Bodley Head. p. 280.
- ^ a b c (English) "The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080517043736/http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/wgupris.htm. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising". www.aish.com. Archived from the original on 23 June 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080623220055/http://www.aish.com/holocaust/overview/he05n27.htm. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "Warsaw Uprising". ww.britannica.com. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/636161/Warsaw-Uprising. Retrieved 5 February 2009. Hoping to gain control of Warsaw before the Red Army could "liberate" it, the Home Army followed the Soviet suggestion to revolt.
- ^ a b c d e f g (English) "Warsaw Uprising of 1944". www.warsawuprising.com. http://www.warsawuprising.com/timeline.htm. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
- ^ The Soviet troops, ordered by Stalin to wait until the Germans had destroyed the remnants of Polish resistance, then moved into what was left of Warsaw, flushed out the remaining Germans, and proclaimed themselves liberators of the city.
(English) Wesley Adamczyk (2004). When God looked the other way: an odyssey of war, exile, and redemption. University of Chicago Press. p. 170. ISBN 0-226-00443-0. http://books.google.com/?id=77sneNTXojQC&pg=PA170&dq=The+Soviet+troops,+ordered+by+Stalin+to+wait+until#v=onepage&q=The%20Soviet%20troops%2C%20ordered%20by%20Stalin%20to%20wait%20until&f=false. - ^ Borkiewicz, Adam (1957). Powstanie warszawskie 1944: zarys działań natury wojskowej. Warsaw: PAX.
- ^ (English) "Warsaw Uprising of 1944". www.warsawuprising.com. http://www.warsawuprising.com/faq.htm#Warsaw%20Ghetto%20Uprising. Retrieved 14 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "Historic Centre of Warsaw". whc.unesco.org. http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/30. Retrieved 24 July 2008.
- ^ a b c (English) "Pope in Warsaw". www.destinationwarsaw.com. http://www.destinationwarsaw.com/site.php5/Show/135.html. Retrieved 5 February 2009.
- ^ (English) "Attracting foreign investments". www.polandtrade.com.hk. The Warsaw Voice. http://www.polandtrade.com.hk/new/eng/news_september2004.htm. Retrieved 24 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "The National Stadium in Warsaw". www.poland2012.net. http://www.poland2012.net/stadiums-in-poland/. Retrieved 24 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "Geography of Warsaw". geography.howstuffworks.com. http://geography.howstuffworks.com/europe/geography-of-warsaw.htm. Retrieved 27 February 2009.
- ^ (English) "Institute of Meteorology and Water Management". www.imgw.pl. http://www.imgw.pl/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=147&Itemid=180.
- ^ (Polish) "Dzielnice". www.um.warszawa.pl. Archived from the original on 1 July 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080701114815/http://www.um.warszawa.pl/v_syrenka/miasto/dzielnice.htm. Retrieved 11 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "Old Town Warsaw". www.scrapbookpages.com. http://www.scrapbookpages.com/poland/Warsaw/Warsaw02.html. Retrieved 11 July 2008.
- ^ (Polish) "Pałac Leopolda Kronenberga". www.warszawa1939.pl. http://www.warszawa1939.pl/index.php?r1=malachowskiego_4&r3=0. Retrieved 29 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "A town house of Burbach family". eGuide / Treasures of Warsaw on-line. http://um.warszawa.pl/v_syrenka/perelki/index_en.php?mi_id=43&dz_id=2. Retrieved 23 February 2009. [dead link]
- ^ (Polish) "Politechnika Warszawska". www.warszawa1939.pl. http://www.warszawa1939.pl/index.php?r1=politechnika&r3=0. Retrieved 27 February 2009.
- ^ (English) "As good as new". www.e-warsaw.pl. http://www.e-warsaw.pl/new/index.php?dzial=aktualnosci&ak_id=551&kat=3. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ (English) Sampo Ruoppila (2004). Processes of Residential Differentiation in Socialist Cities. European Journal of Spatial Development. pp. 9–10. http://www.nordregio.se/ejsd/refereed9.pdf. Retrieved 10 October 2010. [dead link]
- ^ (English) "Metropolitan Life". www.warsawvoice.pl. 4 February 2004. http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/4682/. Retrieved 23 February 2009.
- ^ (English) "Europes Top Skyscraper Cities". www.skyscrapernews.com. http://www.skyscrapernews.com/britains.htm. Retrieved 29 April 2009.
- ^ (English) Warsaw Tourist Office. "Parks & Gardens". www.warsawtour.pl. http://www.warsawtour.pl/en/warsaw-for-everyone/parks-gardens-2075.html. Retrieved 23 February 2009. "Warsaw is a green city. Almost 1/4 of its area is comprisedof fields, parks, green squares and lush gardens, making Warsaw a European metropolis that truly offers its visitors a breath of fresh air."
- ^ (Polish) "Parki i lasy Warszawy". www.um.warszawa.pl. http://www.um.warszawa.pl/v_syrenka/miasto/parki-5.php. Retrieved 25 February 2009. [dead link]
- ^ (Polish) "Nowa Pomarańczarnia". ePrzewodnik / Perełki Warszawy on-line. Archived from the original on 8 February 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060208182537/http://um.warszawa.pl/v_syrenka/perelki/?mi_id=148&dz_id=14. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
- ^ (Polish) "Park Praski". zielona.um.warszawa.pl. Archived from the original on 13 March 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20100313065613/http://zielona.um.warszawa.pl/tereny-zielone/park-praski. Retrieved 19 April 2011. Powstał w latach 1865–1871, według projektu Jana Dobrowolskiego, na prawym brzegu Wisły.
- ^ (Polish) "Park Praski". naszemiasto.pl. Archived from the original on 14 March 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080314235541/http://warszawa.naszemiasto.pl/rekreacja_i_wypoczynek/58717_63.html. Retrieved 18 February 2008.
- ^ (English) "Nature reserves as a refuge of Grifola frondosa (DICKS.: FR.) GRAY in central Poland". bpn.com.pl. http://bpn.com.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=230&Itemid=170. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
- ^ (English) "Kayaking on the Vistula". www.warsawvoice.pl. 30 August 2006. http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/12179/. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
- ^ a b c (English) "Warsaw Zoo". www.zoo.waw.pl. http://www.zoo.waw.pl/. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
- ^ Warsaw Zoo opened 11 March 1928, on Ratuszowa Street. It was not the first zoological garden in Warsaw; King Jan Sobieski III kept a court menagerie in Wilanów. Several private zoos were also established in Warsaw in the 19th century. (English) "New Zoo Revue". www.warsawvoice.pl. 24 April 2003. http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/2044/. Retrieved 9 May 2009.
- ^ (English) Vernon N. Kisling, ed. (2000). Zoo and aquarium history: ancient animal collections to zoological gardens. CRC Press. pp. 118–119. ISBN 0-8493-2100-X. http://books.google.pl/books?id=dxTrR5nOE0UC&printsec=frontcover.
- ^ (English) "Demographic Yearbooks of Poland 1939–1979, 1980–1994". www.stat.gov.pl. Central Statistical Office of Poland. http://www.stat.gov.pl/gus/index_ENG_HTML.htm. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
- ^ (English) Joshua D. Zimmerman (2004). Poles, Jews and the politics of nationality. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 16. ISBN 0-299-19464-7. http://books.google.com/?id=6sbr9cZyw_4C&pg=PA16&dq=population+Brest+Poles+Jews.
- ^ a b (English) "Warsaw". www.ushmm.org. http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/article.php?lang=en&ModuleId=10005069. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
- ^ (German) F.A. Brockhaus Verlag Leipzig (1935). Der Grosse Brockhaus: Handbuch des Wissens. 20 (15 ed.). Brockhaus. p. 25.
- ^ (English) Dānishgāh-i Tihrān. Faculty of Fine Arts (1990). International Conference on Reconstruction of War-Damaged Areas: 6–16 March 1986 : Faculty of Fine Arts, University of Tehran, Iran. University of Tehran Press. p. 148.
- ^ (Polish) Michał Kopiński (28 November 2008). "Warszawa da się lubić? Nie w Poznaniu". poznan.gazeta.pl/poznan. http://poznan.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36001,6000225.html. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
- ^ (Polish) Joanna Blewąska (28 November 2008). "Warszawa da się lubić?". wyborcza.pl. http://wyborcza.pl/1,76842,5999966,Warszawa_da_sie_lubic_.html. Retrieved 29 September 2010.
- ^ a b c d (English) "Administration". e-warsaw.pl. http://e-warsaw.pl/2/index.php?id=568. Retrieved 31 January 2009.
- ^ a b (English) Uwe Altrock (2006). Spatial planning and urban development in the new EU member states: from adjustment to reinvention. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 262. ISBN 0-7546-4684-X.
- ^ (Polish) Barbara Petrozolin-Skowrońska (1994). "Encyklopedia Warszawy". Warsaw Encyclopedia. Polish Scientific Publishers PWN. p. 94. ISBN 83-01-08836-2. http://books.google.com/?id=BjjjAAAAMAAJ.
- ^ a b (English) Masa Djordjevic (2006). [web.ceu.hu/polsci/ADC/2006/papers/Djordjevic%20Masa%20paper.doc Politics of Urban Development Planning: Building Urban Governance in Post-Socialist Warsaw?]. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 8. web.ceu.hu/polsci/ADC/2006/papers/Djordjevic%20Masa%20paper.doc. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
- ^ (English) "Mayor of Warsaw". e-warsaw.pl. http://www.e-warsaw.pl/2/index.php?id=566. Retrieved 10 October 2010.
- ^ a b (English) Michal Jeziorski (7 March 2007). "Improving Infrastructure". www.warsawvoice.pl. http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/14144. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
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- ^ (English) Ewa Pronicka and coordinators (27 April 2004). "Perfect for Children". www.warsawvoice.pl. http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/5508/. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
- ^ a b (English) Denise Wise, PT, PhD, with Kristin Wodzinski, PT. "People to People: Russia and Poland". www.apta.org. Archived from the original on 1 December 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081201112737/http://www.apta.org/AM/Template.cfm?Section=Home&TEMPLATE=/CM/HTMLDisplay.cfm&CONTENTID=28705. Retrieved 2 March 2009.
- ^ (English) Geert Mak (2008). In Europe: travels through the twentieth century. Pantheon Books. p. 427. ISBN 0-307-28057-8. Today Warsaw is a monocultural city, which is some people's ideal. But before 1939 it was a typically multicultural society. Those were the city's most productive years. We lost that multicultural character during the war.
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- ^ (German) Erich Zechlin (1916). Die Bevölkerungs- und Grundbesitzverteilung im Zartum Polen (The distribution of population and property in tsaristic Poland). Reimer, Berlin. pp. 82–83.
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- ^ Official name: Museum of John Paul II Collection
- ^ (English) "Museum of John Paul II Collection". www.muzeummalarstwa.pl. http://www.muzeummalarstwa.pl/collection.htm. Retrieved 24 February 2009.
- ^ (English) Mark Baker, Kit F. Chung (2009). Frommer's Poland. Frommer's. p. 79. ISBN 0-470-15819-0. http://books.google.pl/books?id=ypJ5fzK_uSkC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false.
- ^ (English) "Exhibitions". www.warsaw.com. http://www.warsaw.com/v/exhibitions/. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ (English) "Museum history". www.muzeum-motoryzacji.com.pl. Archived from the original on 27 January 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090129094040/http://muzeum-motoryzacji.com.pl/podstrony/hist_muzeum_ang.html. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ a b c (English) "Museum history". muzeumerotyki.com. http://muzeumerotyki.com/index.php?lang=en. Retrieved 27 August 2011. "The Erotic Museum in Warsaw is a unique place in Poland and one of a few in Europe where you can see pieces of art hidden bashfully from visitors in order museums. (...) Over 2000 exhibits displayed in the Erotic Museum in Warsaw let you explore erotic fantasies of artists from all over the world."
- ^ (English) Chris Dziadul. "A decade of progress". www.broadbandtvnews.com. http://www.broadbandtvnews.com/2007/10/05/a-decade-of-progress/. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
- ^ (English) "Press release". www.instytut.com.pl. 6 October 2008. http://www.instytut.com.pl/IMM/o_firmie/Press_release_media_August2008.pdf. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
- ^ a b c d e (English) "Poland film production guide 2008". www.pisf.pl. http://www.pisf.pl/pliki/47/ed/47ed315731f90c9/pg2008_i.pdf. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
- ^ (English) "The Pianist". www.thepianistmovie.com. Archived from the original on 22 August 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080822051023/http://www.thepianistmovie.com/index2.html. Retrieved 14 February 2009.
- ^ (English) "Statistical Yearbook of the Republic of Poland 2008". www.stat.gov.pl. http://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/gus/PUBL_as_statitical_yearbook_of_the_rep_of_poland_2008.pdf. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ (Polish) "Studia w liczbach: Warszawa bije Kraków". miasta.gazeta.pl. 10 March 2008. http://miasta.gazeta.pl/krakow/1,37650,5009717.html. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ (English) "University of Warsaw". www.uw.edu.pl. http://www.uw.edu.pl/en/page.php/about_uw/rese.html. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ (English) "Warsaw University of Technology (WUT)". www.onelab.eu. http://www.onelab.eu/index.php/about/management/steering-committee/122-warsaw-university-of-technology-wut.html. Retrieved 30 January 2009. With over 30,000 students served by over 2,000 professors and instructors, WUT is the largest and the highest-ranking engineering university in Poland.
- ^ (English) "The Fryderyk Chopin University of Music". www.infochopin.pl. http://www.infochopin.pl/en/miejsca.php/99/. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ (English) "Warsaw School of Economics – Overview". www.sgh.waw.pl. http://www.sgh.waw.pl/en/ogolne-en/. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ (English) "Warsaw University of Life Sciences". www.sggw.pl. http://www.sggw.pl/2009/10/12/warsaw-university-of-life-sciences/?lang=en. Retrieved 30 January 2009. Warsaw University of Life Sciences – SGGW (WULS – SGGW) is the oldest agricultural academic school in Poland, its history dates back to 1816.
- ^ (Polish) "Historia zbiorów". www.bn.org.pl. http://www.bn.org.pl/index.php?id=4. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ a b (English) Maria Witt (15 September and 15 October 2005). "The Zaluski Collection in Warsaw". The Strange Life of One of the Greatest European Libraries of the Eighteenth Century. FYI France. http://www.fyifrance.com/f102005c.htm. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
- ^ (English) S.D. Chrostowska. "Polish Literary Criticism Circa 1772: A Genre Perspective". utoronto.ca. http://www.utoronto.ca/tsq/14/chrostowska14.shtml. Retrieved 17 February 2008.
- ^ (Polish) "Historia". www.buw.uw.edu.pl. http://www.buw.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=blogcategory&id=32&Itemid=76. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ (Polish) "Zbiory główne". www.buw.uw.edu.pl. http://www.buw.uw.edu.pl/index.php?option=com_content&task=blogcategory&id=56&Itemid=121. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ (English) "Library building". www.buw.uw.edu.pl. http://www.buw.uw.edu.pl/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=285&Itemid=91. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ a b (English) "Garden". www.buw.uw.edu.pl. http://www.buw.uw.edu.pl/en/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=286&Itemid=91. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
- ^ "The most expensive and richest cities in the world". UBS. 18 August 2011. http://www.citymayors.com/economics/expensive_cities2.html. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
- ^ "The World According to GaWC 2008". http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2008t.html. Retrieved 6 September 2009.
- ^ "New MasterCard Research Ranks 65 Cities in Emerging Markets Poised to Drive Long-Term Global Economic Growth | MasterCard". Mastercard.com. 22 October 2008. http://www.mastercard.com/us/company/en/newsroom/pr_new_mastercard_research_ranks_65_Cities_in_emerging_markets.html. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
- ^ (Polish) "Podmioty gospodarki narodowej". www.stat.gov.pl. 15 February 2007. http://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/warsz/ASSETS_podmioty_war_2006.pdf. Retrieved 28 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "Warsaw City Report – March 2007". www.pbwfund.com. http://www.pbwfund.com/_php/get.php/Warsaw%20city%20report%20-%20March%202007.pdf?id=51&content=application%2Fpdf. Retrieved 28 July 2008. [dead link]
- ^ (English) "GDP Per Capita". www.stat.gov.pl. http://www.stat.gov.pl/cps/rde/xbcr/warsz/ASSETS_09_wwa_18_02.pdf. Retrieved 27 October 2010.
- ^ (English) "Agriculture and industry". www.pmrconsulting.com. http://www.pmrconsulting.com/Countries/Poland.html. Retrieved 29 April 2009.
- ^ a b c (English) "Big Chance for the Capital". Warsaw – CEE Financial Hub Conference. www.warsawvoice.pl. 11 June 2008. http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/18028. Retrieved 28 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "History". www.gpw.pl. http://www.gpw.pl/historia_en. Retrieved 24 May 2012.
- ^ "Giełda Papierów Wartościowych w Warszawie". Gpw.pl. http://www.gpw.pl/gpw.asp?cel=e_informacje&k=1&i=/periodical_statistic/opis_statistic&sky=1&nagnaz=Information%20and%20statistics. Retrieved 22 January 2010. [dead link]
- ^ (English) "Tourism". www.poland.gov.pl. http://www.poland.gov.pl/Poland,and,Poles,545.html. Retrieved 28 July 2008.
- ^ a b c d (English) "Industry". www.e-warsaw.pl. http://www.e-warsaw.pl/ekonomia/przemysl.htm. Retrieved 28 July 2008.
- ^ (English) Jerzy J. Parysek. "The socio-economic and spatial transformation of Polish cities after 1989". www.ff.uni-lj.si. http://www.ff.uni-lj.si/oddelki/geo/Publikacije/Dela/files/Dela_21/012%20parysek.pdf. Retrieved 28 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "Palace". wilanow-palac.art.pl. http://www.wilanow-palac.art.pl/index.php?id=343&menuid=136. Retrieved 21 February 2008.
- ^ (English) Polish Academy of Sciences (1985). Fragmenta faunistica. Instytut zoologii, Polska Akademia Nauk. p. 317. http://books.google.com/?id=VeQaAAAAMAAJ&q=The+Saxon+Garden+(Ogr.+Saski).+The+oldest+public+park+in+Warsaw,+founded+in+1713.&dq=The+Saxon+Garden+(Ogr.+Saski).+The+oldest+public+park+in+Warsaw,+founded+in+1713.. The Saxon Garden (Ogr. Saski). The oldest public park in Warsaw, founded in 1713.
- ^ (Polish) "Historia". www.lazienki-krolewskie.pl. http://www.lazienki-krolewskie.pl/. Retrieved 31 January 2009.
- ^ "Short and long history of the Powiązki Cemetery" (in Polish). http://ceo.rsi.pl/dokument.php?dzial=2143&id=48006&PHPSESSID=f6c400ad7970068b81fd2708234f8f93. Retrieved 11 February 2008. [dead link]
- ^ a b c (English) "Warsaw Judaica". www.um.warszawa.pl. Archived from the original on 5 August 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070805045632/http://www.um.warszawa.pl/v_syrenka/perelki/index_en.php?mi_id=270&dz_id=18. Retrieved 26 January 2010.
- ^ a b c d (English) "Heroic City". www.um.warszawa.pl. http://www.um.warszawa.pl/v_syrenka/perelki/index_en.php?mi_id=174&dz_id=17. Retrieved 26 January 2010. [dead link]
- ^ (English) James Ramsay Montagu Butler, Norman Henry Gibbs, J. M. A. Gwyer, John Patrick William Ehrman, Michael Eliot Howard (1976). "History of the Second World War; United Kingdom military series 5". In James Ramsay Montagu Butler. Grand strategy. H. M. Stationery Off. p. 369.
- ^ (English) "Church of the Holy Cross". eGuide / Treasures of Warsaw on-line. Archived from the original on 18 February 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060218162926/http://um.warszawa.pl/v_syrenka/perelki/index_en.php?mi_id=112&dz_id=16. Retrieved 23 February 2009.
- ^ (English) "Frédéric Chopin Monument". eGuide / Treasures of Warsaw on-line. http://um.warszawa.pl/v_syrenka/perelki/index_en.php?mi_id=165&dz_id=16. Retrieved 23 February 2009. [dead link]
- ^ (English) "Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)". www.aip.org. American Institute of Physics. http://www.aip.org/history/curie/polgirl2.htm. Retrieved 25 February 2009.
- ^ (English) "The Radium Institute (1919–1934)". www.aip.org. American Institute of Physics. http://www.aip.org/history/curie/radinst1.htm. Retrieved 25 February 2009.
- ^ "The Mermaid". http://www.ucl.ac.uk/atlas/polish/mywarsaw/warsaw10.html. Retrieved 11 February 2008.
- ^ "Warsaw Mermaid's Statue". Archived from the original on 7 December 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20081207092210/http://www.um.warszawa.pl/v_syrenka/perelki/index_en.php?mi_id=47&dz_id=2. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "History of Warsaw's Coat of Arms". www.e-warsaw.pl. http://www.e-warsaw.pl/miasto/herb.htm. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
- ^ (English) Ewa Bratosiewicz. "Other symbols of Warsaw". www.warsaw-guide.invito.pl. http://www.warsaw-guide.invito.pl/index.php?str=x41. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
- ^ "Warsaw Mermaid – Syrena". http://biega.com/syrena.html. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
- ^ a b (English) "History of Warsaw's Coat of Arms". www.e-warsaw.pl. http://www.e-warsaw.pl/miasto/herb-1.htm. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "The Maid of Warsaw". The Queen's Own Hussars Museum. http://www.qohmuseum.org.uk/maid.htm. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "RAF Odiham". www2.army.mod.uk. p. 16. http://www2.army.mod.uk/linkedfiles/soldierwelfare/supportagencies/aws/communityguides/swf_sa_aws_cg_w/raf_odiham_2008/raf_odiham_section_1.pdf. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
- ^ (English) "Marie Curie – The Nobel Prize in Physics 1903". nobelprize.org. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/marie-curie-bio.html. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
- ^ (English) Joanna Ławrynowicz. "Frederick Francois Chopin, the most eminent Polish composer". www.infochopin.pl. http://www.infochopin.pl/en/artykuly.php/1/. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
- ^ a b (English) Women artists in the 20th and 21st century. Taschen. 2001. p. 576. ISBN 3-8228-5854-4. http://books.google.com/?id=ZSvSfCmzo2wC&printsec=frontcover.
- ^ (Polish) "Tamara Łempicka". www.marchand.pl. http://www.marchand.pl/artysta.php?id=134&biografia=f&l=pl. Retrieved 22 January 2009.
- ^ "Moshe Vilensky". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org. http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Vilensky.html. Retrieved 31 July 2011.
- ^ (Polish) "The 5th Festival of Jewish Culture 'Singer's Warsaw'". www.jewish-theatre.com. http://www.jewish-theatre.com/visitor/article_display.aspx?articleID=2973. Retrieved 4 March 2009.
- ^ (English) Richard Burgin, Issac Bashevis Singer (1978). Issac bashevis Singer Talks... About Everything. The New York Times Magazine. p. 46. in: David Neal Miller, Isaac Bashevis Singer (1986). Recovering the canon: essays on Isaac Bashevis Singer. BRILL. p. 40. ISBN 90-04-07681-6. http://books.google.com/?id=O6hNoUXlCXwC&pg=PA40&dq=Warsaw+has+just+now+been+destroyed.+No+one+will+ever+see+the+Warsaw+I+knew.+Let+me+just+write+about+it.+Let+this+Warsaw+not+not+disappear+forever#v=onepage&q=Warsaw%20has%20just%20now%20been%20destroyed.%20No%20one%20will%20ever%20see%20the%20Warsaw%20I%20knew.%20Let%20me%20just%20write%20about%20it.%20Let%20this%20Warsaw%20not%20not%20disappear%20forever&f=false.
- ^ "Miasta partnerskie Warszawy". um.warszawa.pl. Biuro Promocji Miasta. 4 May 2005. http://www.um.warszawa.pl/node/2920?page=0,0. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
- ^ "Berlin's international city relations". Berlin Mayor's Office. http://www.berlin.de/rbmskzl/staedteverbindungen/warschau.en.html. Retrieved 1 July 2009. Berlin and Warsaw’s agreement on friendship and cooperation and a corresponding supporting program was signed in Berlin on 12 August 1991.
- ^ (Spanish) "Listado de ciudades hermanas". www.buenosaires.gov.ar. Gobierno de la Ciudad de Buenos Aires. http://www.buenosaires.gov.ar/areas/internacionales/hermanamientos.pdf. Retrieved 15 October 2011. "1990. Praga. 1992. Rótterdam. 1990. Varsovia."
- ^ "Twin Towns". www.amazingdusseldorf.com. http://www.amazingdusseldorf.com/community-local/people/twin-towns.html. Retrieved 29 October 2009.
- ^ "Sister Cities of Istanbul". http://www.greatistanbul.com/sister_cities.htm. Retrieved 8 September 2007.
- ^ Erdem, Selim Efe (3 November 2003). "İstanbul'a 49 kardeş" (in Turkish). Radikal. http://www.radikal.com.tr/haber.php?haberno=94185. "49 sister cities in 2003"
- ^ Madrid city council webpage "Mapa Mundi de las ciudades hermanadas". Ayuntamiento de Madrid. http://www.munimadrid.es/portal/site/munimadrid/menuitem.dbd5147a4ba1b0aa7d245f019fc08a0c/?vgnextoid=4e84399a03003110VgnVCM2000000c205a0aRCRD&vgnextchannel=4e98823d3a37a010VgnVCM100000d90ca8c0RCRD&vgnextfmt=especial1&idContenido=508c7aefd9b5b010VgnVCM100000d90ca8c0RCRD Madrid city council webpage.
- ^ "Partners – Oslo kommune". www.oslo.kommune.no. Archived from the original on 2 January 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090102135652/http://www.oslo.kommune.no/the_city_of_oslo/international_cooperation/.
- ^ "Twin cities of Riga". Riga City Council. http://www.riga.lv/EN/Channels/Riga_Municipality/Twin_cities_of_Riga/default.htm. Retrieved 27 July 2009.
- ^ "Saint Petersburg in figures – International and Interregional Ties". Saint Petersburg City Government. http://eng.gov.spb.ru/figures/ities. Retrieved 23 March 2008.
- ^ "Online Directory: California, USA". Sister Cities International. Archived from the original on 16 January 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080116164532/http://www.sister-cities.org/icrc/directory/usa/CA. Retrieved 22 April 2009.
- ^ Seul Metropolitan Government. "International Cooperation: Sister Cities". http://english.seoul.go.kr/gover/cooper/coo_02sis.html.
- ^ Sister city list[dead link] (.DOC)
- ^ "Tel Aviv sister cities" (in Hebrew). Tel Aviv-Yafo Municipality. Archived from the original on 14 February 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090214183503/http://www.tel-aviv.gov.il/Hebrew/Cityhall/TwinCities/Index.asp. Retrieved 14 July 2009.
- ^ (Polish) "Miasta partnerskie Warszawy". um.warszawa.pl. Biuro Promocji Miasta. 4 May 2005. Archived from the original on 4 July 2010. http://web.archive.org/web/20100704163612/http://um.warszawa.pl/v_syrenka/new/index.php?dzial=aktualnosci&ak_id=3284&kat=11. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
- ^ The return of squads of Polish army from Wierzbna is showing the general view of Krakowskie Przedmieście with Tyszkiewicz Palace (left).
- ^ The painting shows the Vistula embankment near the Kierbedź Bridge in Warsaw. The framework bridge was constructed by Stanisław Kierbedź in 1850–1864. It was recognized by once as modern structure and as "amazing heap of iron" by others. The bridge was destroyed by the Nazis in 1944.
- ^ Full name: Nowy Świat Street in Warsaw on a Summer's Day.
- ^ "Poet of Flaming Warsaw". http://www.warsawuprising.com/paper/baczynski.htm. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
- ^ "Rescuing poetry". http://info-poland.buffalo.edu/classroom/milosz/Resc.html. Retrieved 10 July 2008.
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Coordinates: 52°13′48″N 21°00′39″E / 52.23°N 21.01083°E / 52.23; 21.01083
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
