- published: 15 Apr 2012
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Albania
Albania (
i/ælˈbeɪniə/ al-BAY-nee-ə, Albanian: Shqipëri/Shqipëria; Gheg Albanian: Shqipnia), officially known as the Republic of Albania (Albanian: Republika e Shqipërisë pronounced Albanian pronunciation: [ɾɛpuˈblika ɛ ʃcipəˈɾiːs]), is a country in Southern Europe. It is bordered by Montenegro to the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the east and Greece to the south and southeast. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the west, and on the Ionian Sea to the southwest. It is less than 72 km (45 mi) from Italy, across the Strait of Otranto which links the Adriatic Sea to the Ionian Sea.
Albania is a member of the UN, NATO, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, Council of Europe, World Trade Organisation, Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and one of the founding members of the Union for the Mediterranean. Albania has been a potential candidate for accession to the European Union since January 2003, and it formally applied for EU membership on 28 April 2009.
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Americas
The Americas, or America, are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World.
In the English language, the Americas refers to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, whereas America, in current usage, usually refers to the United States of America.
The Americas cover 8.3% of the Earth's total surface area (28.4% of its land area) and contain about 13.5% of the human population (about 900 million people).
The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000–17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific Northwest coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age.
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Argentina
Argentinai/ˌɑrdʒənˈtiːnə/, officially the Argentine Republic (Spanish: República Argentina [reˈpuβlika aɾxenˈtina]), is a country in South America, the continent's second largest by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations.
Argentina's continental area is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the Atlantic Ocean in the east. It borders Paraguay and Bolivia to the north, Brazil and Uruguay to the northeast, and Chile to the west and south. Argentine claims over Antarctica, as well as overlapping claims made by Chile and the United Kingdom, are suspended by the Antarctic Treaty of 1961. Argentina also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, which are administered by the United Kingdom as British Overseas Territories.
A recognised middle power, Argentina is Latin America's third-largest economy, with a "very high" rating on the Human development index. Within Latin America, Argentina has the fifth highest nominal GDP per capita and the highest in purchasing power terms. Analysts have argued that the country has a "foundation for future growth due to its market size, levels of foreign direct investment, and percentage of high-tech exports as share of total manufactured goods", and it is classed by investors as middle emerging economy. Argentina is a founding member of the United Nations, Mercosur, the Union of South American Nations, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization, and is one of the G-15 and G-20 major economies.
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Australia
Australia (
/əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent as well as the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.
For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups. After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.
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Austria
Austria (i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] (
listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire (German: Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling Kaisertum Österreich) was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867 to 1918) was itself dissolved by the victors at the end of World War I and broken into separate new states.
The term "Austrian Empire" is also used for the Habsburg possessions before 1804, which had no official collective name, although Austria is more frequent; the term of Austria-Hungary has also been used.[citation needed]
The Austrian Empire was founded by the Habsburg monarch Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (who became Emperor Francis I of Austria), as a state comprising his personal lands within and outside of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.
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Banja Luka
Banja Luka (pronounced [bâːɲaː lǔːka]) or sometimes Banjaluka ([baɲalǔːka]), in Serbian Cyrillic Бања Лука, or Бањалука, is the second largest city in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the administrative capital of the Republika Srpska entity. Traditionally it has been the center of the Bosanska Krajina region, located in the north-western part of the country. It is home of the University of Banja Luka, as well as numerous state and entity institutions of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The city lies on the Vrbas river and is well known in the countries of the Former Yugoslavia for being full of tree-lined avenues, boulevards, gardens, and parks.
• Agino Selo • Banja Luka • Barlovci • Bastasi • Bistrica • Bočac • Borkovići • Bronzani Majdan • Cerici • Čokori • Debeljaci • Dobrnja • Dragočaj • Drakulić • Dujakovci • Goleši • Ivanjska • Jagare • Kmećani • Kola • Kola Donja • Krmine • Krupa na Vrbasu • Kuljani • Lokvari • Lusići • Ljubačevo • Melina • Motike • Obrovac • Pavići • Pavlovac • Pervan Donji • Pervan Gornji • Piskavica • Ponir • Prijakovci • Priječani • Prnjavor Mali • Radmanići • Radosavska • Ramići • Rekavice • Slavićka • Stratinska • Stričići • Subotica • Šargovac • Šimići • Šljivno • Verići • Vilusi • Zalužani • Zelenci
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Bay of Kotor
The Bay of Kotor (Serbo-Croatian: Boka Kotorska, Cyrillic script: Бока Которска, pronounced [bɔ̂ka kɔ̂tɔrskaː]) in south-western Montenegro is a winding bay on the Adriatic Sea. The bay, sometimes called Europe's southernmost fjord, is in fact a ria of the disintegrated Bokelj River which used to run from the high mountain plateaus of Mount Orjen. It is an important tourist attraction in Montenegro.
The Verige strait represent the narrowest section of the bay and is located between Cape St. Nedjelja and Cape Opatovo; it separates the inner bay east of the strait from the remainder and belongs to the Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor, A World Heritage Site. Montenegro is planning to build a bridge that would span the strait, the so called Verige bridge.
The bay has been inhabited since antiquity and has some well preserved medieval towns. The picturesque towns of Kotor, Risan, Tivat, Perast, Prčanj, Herceg Novi and Budva along with their natural surroundings, are major tourist attractions.
wn.com/Bay_of_Kotor -
Bačka
Bačka (Serbian: Bačka or Бачка (pronounced [bâːtʃkaː]), Hungarian: Bácska (pronounced [ˈbaːtʃkɒ]), Croatian: Bačka, Bunjevac: Bačka, Slovak: Báčka, Rusyn: Бачка, German: Batschka) is a geographical area within the Pannonian plain bordered by the river Danube to the west and south, and by the river Tisza to the east of which confluence is located near Titel. It is divided between Serbia and Hungary, however, there are small uninhabited pockets of the area on the left bank of the Danube which are de jure parts of Croatia according to the Badinter Commission. Nonetheless, the disputed areas have been under de facto Serbian control since 1991 (see disputes of Croatia and Serbia). Most of the area is located within the Vojvodina region in Serbia. Novi Sad, the capital of Vojvodina, lies on the border between Bačka and Syrmia, on the banks of the river Danube. Smaller northern part of the geographical area is located within Bács-Kiskun County, in Hungary.
Bačka is a typical Slavic name form, created from "Bač" (name of historical town in Bačka) and sufix "ka" (which designating "the land that belong to Bač"). There are many other similar name forms used in Serbian and other Slavic languages, for example Šajkaška, Srpska, Hrvatska (Croatia), Timočka Krajina, Bugarska (Bulgaria), Polska (Poland), etc. The name of "Bač" (Bács) town itself is of uncertain origin and its existence was recorded among Vlachs, Slavs and Hungarians in the Middle Ages. The origin of the name could be Paleo-Balkanic,Romanian, Slavic, or Old Turkic.
wn.com/Bačka -
Belgium
Belgium (i/ˈbɛldʒəm/ BEL-jəm), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO. Belgium covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi), and it has a population of about 11 million people. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Latin Europe, Belgium is home to two main linguistic groups, the Dutch-speakers, mostly Flemish (about 60%), and the French-speakers, mostly Walloons (about 40%), plus a small group of German-speakers. Belgium's two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region, officially bilingual, is a mostly French-speaking enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia. Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in the political history and a complex system of government.
wn.com/Belgium -
Belgrade
Belgrade ( /ˈbɛlɡreɪd/; Serbian: Београд; [beǒɡrad] ( listen); names in other languages) is the capital and largest city of Serbia. The city is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers, where the Pannonian Plain meets the Balkans. Its name in English translates to White city. The city proper has a population of over 1.1 million, while its metropolitan area has over 1.6 million people, making it one of the largest cities in Southeast Europe.
One of the largest prehistoric cultures of Europe, the Vinča culture, evolved around the area Belgrade in the 6th millennium BC. In antiquity, Thraco-Dacians inhabited the region, and after 279 BC Celts conquered the city, naming it Singidūn. It was conquered by the Romans during the reign of Augustus, and awarded city rights in the mid 2nd century. It was settled by the Slavs in the 520s, and changed hands several times before it became the capital of King Stephen Dragutin (1282–1316). In 1521 Belgrade was conquered by the Ottoman Empire and became the seat of a the Sanjak of Smederevo. It frequently passed from Ottoman to Habsburg rule, which saw the destruction of most of the city during the Austro-Ottoman wars. Belgrade was again named the capital of Serbia in 1841. The north of Belgrade remained a Habsburg outpost until 1918, when it was merged into the capital city. As a strategic location, the city was battled over in 115 wars and razed to the ground 44 times. Belgrade was the capital of Yugoslavia (in various forms of governments) from its creation in 1918, to its final dissolution in 2006.
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Brazil
Brazili/brəˈzɪl/ (Portuguese: Brasil, IPA: [bɾaˈziw]), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: República Federativa do Brasil, listen (help·info)), is the largest country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country, both by geographical area and by population with over 192 million people. It is the only Portuguese-speaking country in the Americas and the largest lusophone country in the world.
Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean on the east, Brazil has a coastline of 7,491 km (4,655 mi). It is bordered on the north by Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname and the French overseas region of French Guiana; on the northwest by Colombia; on the west by Bolivia and Peru; on the southwest by Argentina and Paraguay and on the south by Uruguay. Numerous archipelagos form part of Brazilian territory, such as Fernando de Noronha, Rocas Atoll, Saint Peter and Paul Rocks, and Trindade and Martim Vaz. It borders all other South American countries except Ecuador and Chile.
Brazil was a colony of Portugal from the landing of Pedro Álvares Cabral in 1500 until 1815, when it was elevated to the rank of kingdom and the United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and the Algarves was formed. The colonial bond was in fact broken in 1808, when the capital of the Portuguese colonial empire was transferred from Lisbon to Rio de Janeiro, after Napoleon invaded Portugal.Independence was achieved in 1822 with the formation of the Empire of Brazil, a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system. The country became a presidential republic in 1889, when a military coup d'état proclaimed the Republic, although the bicameral legislature, now called Congress, dates back to the ratification of the first constitution in 1824. Its current Constitution, formulated in 1988, defines Brazil as a Federal Republic. The Federation is formed by the union of the Federal District, the 26 States, and the 5,564 Municipalities.
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Budapest
Budapest ( /ˈbuːdəpɛst/, /ˈbuːdəpɛʃt/ or /ˈbʊdəpɛst/; Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈbudɒpɛʃt] ( listen); names in other languages) is the capital and the largest city of Hungary, the largest in East-Central Europe and the seventh largest in the European Union. It is the country's principal political, cultural, commercial, industrial, and transportation centre, sometimes described as the primate city of Hungary. According to 2011 Census, Budapest had 1.74 million inhabitants, down from its 1989 peak of 2.1 million due to suburbanization. The Budapest Commuter Area is home to 3.3 million people. The city covers an area of 525 square kilometres (202.7 sq mi) within the city limits. Budapest became a single city occupying both banks of the river Danube with a unification on 17 November 1873 of west-bank Buda and Óbuda with east-bank Pest.
The history of Budapest began with Aquincum, originally a Celtic settlement that became the Roman capital of Lower Pannonia.Hungarians arrived in the territory in the 9th century. Their first settlement was pillaged by the Mongols in 1241-42. The re-established town became one of the centres of Renaissance humanist culture in the 15th century. Following the Battle of Mohács and nearly 150 years of Ottoman rule, development of the region entered a new age of prosperity in the 18th and 19th centuries, and Budapest became a global city after the 1873 unification. It also became the second capital of Austria-Hungary, a great power that dissolved in 1918. After the Treaty of Trianon in 1920, when Hungary lost 72% of its former territory, culturally and economically the country became wholly Budapest-dominated. The capital dominates the country both by the size of its population—which dwarfs those of Hungary's other cities Budapest was the focal point of the Hungarian Revolution of 1848, the Hungarian Soviet Republic of 1919, Operation Panzerfaust in 1944, the Battle of Budapest of 1945, and the Revolution of 1956.
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Canada
Canada ( /ˈkænədə/) is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories. Located in the northern part of the continent, it extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west, and northward into the Arctic Ocean. Spanning over 9,900,000 km2 (3,800,000 sq mi), Canada is the world's second-largest country by total area, and its common border with the United States is the longest land border in the world.
The land that is now Canada has been inhabited for millennia by various Aboriginal peoples. Beginning in the late 15th century, British and French colonial expeditions explored, and later settled, along the region's Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy; the Canada Act 1982 severed the vestiges of legal dependence on Britain.
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Caucasus
The Caucasus, also Caucas or Caucasia (for endonyms, see below), is a geopolitical region at the border of Europe and Asia, and situated between the Black and the Caspian sea. It is home to the Caucasus Mountains, which contain Europe's highest mountain, Mt. Elbrus. Politically, the Caucasus region is separated between northern and southern parts.
The northern portion of the Caucasus is known as the Ciscaucasus and the southern portion as the Transcaucasus.
The Ciscaucasus contains the larger majority of the Greater Caucasus Mountain range, also known as the Major Caucasus mountains. It includes Southwestern Russia and northern parts of Georgia and Azerbaijan.
The Transcaucasus is bordered on the north by Russia, on the west by the Black Sea and Turkey, on the east by the Caspian Sea, and on the south by Iran. It includes the Caucasus Mountains and surrounding lowlands. All of Armenia, Azerbaijan (excluding the northern parts) and Georgia (excluding the northern parts) are in South Caucasus.
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Central Serbia
Central Serbia (Serbian: Централна Србија or Centralna Srbija), also referred to as Serbia proper (Serbian: Ужа Србија or Uža Srbija), was the region of Serbia from 1945 to 2009. It included central parts of Serbia outside of the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. The region of Central Serbia was not an administrative division of Serbia as such; it was under the direct jurisdiction of the republic authorities. With the formation of new statistical regions of Serbia in 2009-2010, territory of Central Serbia was officially transformed into 3 statistical regions: Region of Belgrade, Region of South and East Serbia, and Region of Šumadija and Western Serbia.
Central Serbia was divided into 17 districts and the city of Belgrade, while districts were further divided into municipalities. The districts were:
Viminacium (present-day Kostolac) was a capital of the Roman province of Upper Moesia in the 2nd century. The capitals of several medieval Serbian states were also located in the territory of later Central Serbia: Stari Ras (the capital of Raška), Debrc and Belgrade (the capitals of the Kingdom of Syrmia of Stefan Dragutin), Kruševac (the capital of the Moravian Serbia of Lazar Hrebeljanović), and Smederevo (the capital of the Serbian Despotate).
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Chile
Chile (i/ˈtʃɪliː/ or /ˈtʃɪleɪ/), officially the Republic of Chile (Spanish: República de Chile [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈtʃile] ( listen)), is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far south. Along with Ecuador, it is one of two countries in South America that do not border Brazil. Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas and Easter Island. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica, although all claims are suspended under the Antarctic Treaty.
Chile's distinctive shape—4,300 kilometres (2,700 mi) long and on average 175 kilometres (109 mi) wide—makes it the longest country in the world, north to south, with the fifth lengthiest coastline at over 78 thousand kilometers. The diverse climate of Chile ranges from the world's driest desert in the north—the Atacama—through a Mediterranean climate in the centre, humid subtropical in Easter Island, to an Oceanic climate, including alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south. The northern desert contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. The relatively small central area dominates in terms of population and agricultural resources, and is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it incorporated its northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands.
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Congress of Berlin
The Congress of Berlin (13 June – 13 July 1878) was a meeting of the European Great Powers' and the Ottoman Empire's leading statesmen in Berlin in 1878. In the wake of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, the meeting's aim was to reorganize the countries of the Balkans.
German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck, who led the Congress, undertook to stabilize the Balkans, recognize the reduced power of the Ottoman Empire, and balance the distinct interests of Britain, Russia and Austria-Hungary; at the same time he tried to diminish Russian gains in the region and to prevent the rise of a big Bulgaria. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply; Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire; Eastern Rumelia was restored to the Turks under a special administration; and Macedonia was returned outright to the Turks, who promised reform. Romania achieved full independence, turning over part of Bessarabia to Russia and gaining Northern Dobruja in return. Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories, with Austria-Hungary occupying the Sandžak (Raška) region. Austria-Hungary also took over Bosnia and Herzegovina, whereas Britain took over Cyprus.
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Constantinople
Constantinople (Greek: Κωνσταντινούπολις, Konstantinoúpolis; Latin: Constantinopolis; Ottoman Turkish: قسطنطینیه, Qostantiniyye; and modern Turkish: İstanbul) was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, the Latin and the Ottoman Empires. It was founded in AD 330, at ancient Byzantium as the new capital of the Roman Empire by Constantine I, after whom it was named. The city was the largest and wealthiest European city of the Middle Ages, and shared the glories of the Byzantine Empire, which was eventually reduced to the city and its environs.
Although besieged on numerous occasions by various peoples, it was taken only in 1204 by the army of the Fourth Crusade, in 1261 by Michael VIII, and in 1453 by the Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II. An inner wall was erected by Constantine I, and the city was surrounded by a triple wall of fortifications, begun during the 5th century by Theodosius II. The city was built on seven hills as well as on the Bosporus, and thus presented an impregnable fortress enclosing magnificent palaces, domes and towers. The Church of Hagia Sophia, the sacred palace of the emperors, the hippodrome, and the Golden Gate were among the largest of the many churches, public edifices, and monuments lining the arcaded avenues and squares.
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Croatia
Croatia (i/kroʊˈeɪʃə/ kroh-AY-shə; Croatian: Hrvatska pronounced [xř̩ʋaːtskaː]), officially the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska listen (help·info)), is a unitary democratic parliamentary republic in Europe at the crossroads of Central Europe, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. The country is divided into 20 counties and the city of Zagreb. Croatia covers 56,594 square kilometres (21,851 square miles) and has diverse, mostly continental and Mediterranean climates. Croatia's Adriatic Sea coast contains more than a thousand islands. The country's population is 4.29 million, most of whom are Croats, with the most common religious denomination being Roman Catholicism.
In the early 7th century the Croats arrived in area of present-day Croatia. They organised the state into two dukedoms by the 9th century. Tomislav became the first king by 925 AD, elevating Croatia to the status of a kingdom. The Kingdom of Croatia retained its sovereignty for nearly two centuries, reaching its peak during the rule of Kings Peter Krešimir IV and Dmitar Zvonimir. Croatia entered a personal union with Hungary in 1102. In 1527, faced with Ottoman conquest the Croatian Parliament elected Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg to the Croatian throne. In 1918, after World War I, Croatia was included in the short-lived State of Slovenes, Croats, and Serbs that declared independence from Austria–Hungary and co-founded the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. A Croatian state briefly existed during World War II as a fascist puppet state. After the war, Croatia became a founding member and a federal constituent of the Second Yugoslavia, a socialist state. In June 1991, Croatia declared independence, which came into effect on 8 October of the same year. The Croatian War of Independence was fought successfully during the four years following the declaration.
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Csepel Island
Csepel Island (Hungarian: Csepel-sziget) is the largest island of the River Danube in Hungary. It is 48 km long; its width is 6–8 km. Its area comprises 257 km². The word Csepel is pronounced CHE-pel.
Csepel Island extends south from Budapest; its northern point is Csepel, which is Budapest's District XXI. Most of the island is accessible from Budapest by the suburban railway.
Notable towns include Ráckeve, Szigetszentmiklós, Szigethalom and Tököl.
Csepel island was the first centre of conquering Hungarians, being the lodgement of Árpád's tribe. The island is named after Árpád's horse groom, Csepel.
Coordinates: 47°15′N 18°57′E / 47.25°N 18.95°E / 47.25; 18.95
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Czech Republic
The Czech Republic (i/ˈtʃɛk/ CHEK;Czech: Česká republika, pronounced [ˈtʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka] ( listen), short form Česko Czech pronunciation: [ˈtʃɛskɔ]) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Poland to the north, Germany to the west, Austria to the south and Slovakia to the east. Its capital and largest city, with 1.3 million inhabitants, is Prague.
It is a pluralist multi-party parliamentary representative democracy, a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the OSCE, the Council of Europe and the Visegrád Group.
The Czech state, formerly known as Bohemia, was formed in the late 9th century as a small duchy around Prague, at that time under dominance of the powerful Great Moravian Empire (which reached its greatest territorial extent during the reign of Svatopluk I from the House of Mojmír). After the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power was transferred from Moravia to Bohemia, under the Přemyslids. During the rule of Přemyslid dukes/kings and their successors, the Luxembourgs, the country reached its greatest territorial extent (13th–14th century). Life in the country was significantly affected by the Hussite wars, during which it faced economic embargo and crusades from all over Europe. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg monarchy as one of its three principal parts alongside the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Bohemian Revolt (1618–20) led to the further centralization of the monarchy including forced recatholization and Germanization. During radical reforms in the 18th century the Bohemian Crown was even de facto abolished (1749). In the 19th century the Czech lands became the industrial powerhouse of the monarchy and the core of the Republic of Czechoslovakia which was formed in 1918, following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire after World War I.
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Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia (Czech and Slovak: Československo, Česko-Slovensko) was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992. From 1939 to 1945, the state did not de facto exist because of its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, but the Czechoslovak government-in-exile nevertheless continued to exist during this period. In 1945, the eastern part of Carpathian Ruthenia was taken over by the Soviet Union. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Form of state:
Neighbours:
Topography:
The country was of generally irregular terrain. The western area was part of north-central European uplands. The eastern region was composed of northern reaches of Carpathian Mountains and Danube River basin lands.
Climate:
The weather was predominantly continental, but varied from the moderate temperature of Western Europe in the west, to more severe weather of Eastern Europe and the western Soviet Union in the east.
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Dalmatia
Dalmatia (Croatian: Dalmacija, Croatian pronunciation: [dǎlmaːt͡sija]; see names in other languages) is a historical region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, in Croatia. It stretches from the island of Rab in the northwest to the Bay of Kotor in the southeast. The hinterland, the Dalmatian Zagora, ranges from fifty kilometers in width in the north to just a few kilometers in the south. The Dalmatian dog received its name from Dalmatia, as does the dalmatic, a Roman Catholic liturgical vestment worn by deacons and bishops.
The name Dalmatia derives from the name of the tribe of the Dalmatae, which is connected with the Illyrian word delme, dele in modern Albanian, meaning "sheep" in English.
In antiquity the Roman province of Dalmatia was much larger than the present-day Dalmatia County of Croatia, stretching from Istria in the north to historical Albania in the south. Dalmatia signified not only a geographical unit, but was an entity based on common culture and settlement types, a common narrow eastern Adriatic coastal belt, Mediterranean climate, sclerophyllous vegetation of the Illyrian province, Adriatic carbonate platform, and karst geomorphology.
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Denmark
The Kingdom of Denmark (Danish: Kongeriget Danmark, pronounced [ˈkɔŋəʁiːəð ˈdanmɑɡ̊] ( listen)) is a constitutional monarchy and sovereign state consisting the country of Denmark in northern Europe and two autonomous constituent countries, the Faroe Islands in the North Atlantic and Greenland in North America. The kingdom is a unitary state with some power being devolved from Denmark proper to Greenland and the Faroe Islands; this polity is referred to as the Danish Realm. Denmark proper is the hegemonial area, where judicial, executive, and legislative power resides. The Faroe Islands are defined to be a community of people within the kingdom, and the Greenlandic people are defined as a separate people with the right to self-determination.
Denmark is the southernmost of the Nordic countries, located southwest of Sweden and south of Norway, and bordered to the south by Germany. The country consists of a large peninsula, Jutland and many islands, most notably Zealand, Funen, Lolland, Falster and Bornholm, as well as hundreds of minor islands often referred to as the Danish Archipelago.
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Dubai
Dubai (/duːˈbaɪ/ doo-BY; Arabic: دبيّ Dubeii; IPA: [du'beii]) is an emirate within the United Arab Emirates (UAE). A city within the emirate is also named Dubai. The emirate is located south east of the Persian Gulf on the Arabian Peninsula and has the largest population with the second-largest land territory by area of all the emirates, after Abu Dhabi. Dubai and Abu Dhabi are the only two emirates to have veto power over critical matters of national importance in the country's legislature. Dubai City is located on the emirate's northern coastline.
The earliest mention of Dubai is in 1095, and the earliest settlement known as Dubai town dates from 1799. Dubai was formally established in 1833 by Sheikh Maktoum bin Buti al Maktoum when he persuaded 800 members of the Bani Yas tribe, living in what is now part of Saudi Arabia, to follow him to the Dubai Creek by the Al Abu Falasa clan of Bani Yas. It remained under clan control when the United Kingdom assumed the protection of Dubai in 1892. Its geographical location made it an important trading hub and by the beginning of the 20th century, it was an important port.
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Dubrovnik
Dubrovnik (pronounced [dǔbroːʋnik], note that the stress is on the first syllable) is a Croatian city on the Adriatic Sea coast, positioned at the terminal end of the Isthmus of Dubrovnik. It is one of the most prominent tourist destinations on the Adriatic, a seaport and the centre of Dubrovnik-Neretva county. Its total population is 42,641 (census 2011). In 1979, the city of Dubrovnik joined the UNESCO list of World Heritage Sites.
The prosperity of the city of Dubrovnik has always been based on maritime trade. In the Middle Ages, as the Republic of Ragusa, also known as a Maritime Republic (together with Amalfi, Pisa, Genoa, Venice and other Italian cities), it became the only eastern Adriatic city-state to rival Venice. Supported by its wealth and skilled diplomacy, the city achieved a high level of development, particularly during the 15th and 16th centuries.
The beginning of tourism in Dubrovnik is often associated with the construction of the late 19th-century luxury hotels in Croatia, such as Grand Hotel (1890) in Opatija and the Hotel Imperial (1897) in Dubrovnik. According to CNNGo, Dubrovnik is among the 10 best medieval walled cities in the world and among the 10 best places in the world for a fairytale proposal of the Valentine's Day. Although Dubrovnik was demilitarised in the 1970s to protect it from war, in 1991, after the breakup of Yugoslavia, it was besieged by Serb-Montenegrin forces for 7 months and received significant shelling damage.
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France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
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Germany
Germany (i/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] ( listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
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Greece
Greecei/ˈɡriːs/ (Greek: Ελλάδα, Ellada, IPA: [eˈlaða] ( listen) historically in Katharevousa and Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, Hellas, IPA: [eˈlas] and [helːás] respectively), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Elliniki Dimokratia, IPA: [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia]), is a country in Southern Europe, politically considered part of Western Europe.Athens is the capital and the largest city in the country (its urban area also including Piraeus). The population of the country is around 11 million.
Greece has land borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a vast number of islands (approximately 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited), including Crete, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian Islands among others. Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains, of which Mount Olympus is the highest at 2,917 m (9,570 ft).
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Herzegovina
Herzegovina ( /ˌhɛərtsɨˈɡoʊvɨnə/ or /ˌhɜrtsəɡoʊˈviːnə/;Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian: Hercegovina, Serbian Cyrillic: Херцеговина, [xɛ̌rtsɛɡov̞ina]) is the southern region of Bosnia and Herzegovina. While there is no official border distinguishing it from the Bosnian region, it is generally accepted that the borders of the region are Croatia to the west, Montenegro to the south, the canton boundaries of the Herzegovina-Neretva Canton to the east, and Gornji Vakuf-Uskoplje to the north. Measurements of the area range from 11,419 km2 (4,409 sq mi), or around 22% of the total area of the present-day country to 12,276 km2 (4,740 sq mi), around 24% of the country.
The name Herzegovina means "duke's land", referring to the medieval duchy of Stjepan Vukčić Kosača who took title "Herzeg of Saint Sava". Herceg is derived from the German title Herzog.
While the population of Herzegovina throughout history has been ethnically mixed, the Bosnian War in the 1990s resulted in mass ethnic cleansing and large-scale displacement of peoples. The last pre-war census in 1991 recorded a population of 437,095 inhabitants.
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Hungary
Hungaryi/ˈhʌŋɡəri/ (Hungarian: Magyarország [ˈmɒɟɒrorsaːɡ] ( listen)) is a country, which is located in Central Europe. It is situated in the Carpathian Basin and is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine and Romania to the east, Serbia and Croatia to the south, Slovenia to the southwest and Austria to the west. The country's capital, and largest city, is Budapest. Hungary is a member of the European Union, NATO, the OECD, the Visegrád Group, and is a Schengen state. The official language is Hungarian, also known as Magyar, which is part of the Finno-Ugric group and is the most widely spoken non-Indo-European language in Europe.
Following a Celt (after c. 450 BC) and a Roman (AD 9 - c. 430) period, the foundation of Hungary was laid in the late 9th century by the Hungarian prince Árpád, whose great-grandson Saint Stephen I was crowned with a crown sent by the pope from Rome in 1000 AD. The Kingdom of Hungary lasted for 946 years, and at various points was regarded as one of the cultural centres of the Western world. After about 150 years of partial Ottoman occupation (1541–1699), Hungary was integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy, and later constituted half of the Austro-Hungarian dual monarchy (1867–1918).
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Indianapolis
Indianapolis /ˌɪndiəˈnæpɵlɨs/ (abbreviated Indy /ˈɪndi/) is the capital of the US state of Indiana, and the county seat of Marion County, Indiana. As of the 2010 United States Census, the city's population is 829,718. It is Indiana's largest city and, as of the 2010 U.S. Census, is the 12th largest city in the U.S., the second largest city in the Midwest (behind Chicago), the second most populous state capital (after Phoenix, Arizona), and the most populous state capital east of the Mississippi River. Indianapolis is also one of the fastest growing regions in the United States.
For much of its history, Indianapolis has oriented itself around government and industry, particularly manufacturing. Today, Indianapolis has a much more diversified economy, contributing to the fields of education, health care, and finance. Tourism is also a vital part of the economy of Indianapolis, and the city plays host to numerous conventions and sporting events. Of these, perhaps the most well known is the annual Indianapolis 500 and the NHRA U.S. Nationals. Other major sporting events include the Brickyard 400 and the Men's and Women's NCAA Basketball Tournaments. 2012 marked the first time Indianapolis hosted the Super Bowl. Super Bowl XLVI was played at Lucas Oil Stadium, on February 5, 2012 in Downtown Indianapolis. Also held in Lucas Oil Stadium is the Drum Corps International World Championships, and the Music for All Bands of America Grand National Championships.
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Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
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Kingdom of Serbia
The Kingdom of Serbia (Serbian: Краљевина Србија or Kraljevina Srbija) was created when Prince Milan Obrenović IV, ruler of the Principality of Serbia, was crowned King in 1882. The Principality of Serbia was ruled by the Karađorđevic dynasty from 1817 onwards (at times replaced by the Obrenović dynasty). The Principality, suzerain to the Porte, had expelled all Ottoman troops by 1867, de facto securing its independence. The Congress of Berlin in 1878 recognized the formal independence of the Principality of Serbia.
In 1918, Serbia joined the with the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later known as Yugoslavia) under the rule of the Karađorđević dynasty who had come to power in 1903.
The Principality of Serbia was a state in the Balkans that came into existence as a result of the Serbian revolution which lasted between 1804 and 1817. Despite serious and extremely brutal oppression and revenge by the Ottoman authorities, the revolutionary leaders, first Karađorđe and then Miloš Obrenović, succeeded in their goal to liberate Serbia after centuries of Turkish rule.
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Kosovo
Kosovo ( /ˈkɒsəvoʊˌ ˈkoʊsəvoʊ/; Albanian: Kosovë, Kosova; Serbian: Косово or Косово и Метохија or Космет, Kosovo or Kosovo i Metohija or Kosmet) is a region in southeastern Europe. In antiquity, it was known as the independent kingdom, and later Roman province, of Dardania. Part of the medieval Serbia, it was then conquered by the Ottoman Empire, later incorporated into Serbia after the First Balkan War and before the constitution of Yugoslavia, later still it became the Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija (Serbian: Autonomna Pokrajina Kosovo i Metohija) within Serbia (Serbia then being one of the constituent republics of Yugoslavia). Long-term severe ethnic tensions between Kosovo's Albanian and Serb populations have left Kosovo ethnically divided, resulting in inter-ethnic violence, including the Kosovo War of 1999. Following the Kosovo War, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY) relinquished governance of this territory, whose governance was taken over by the United Nations, Kosovo remained legally the sovereign territory of the FRY after the transfer of authority. The partially recognised Republic of Kosovo (Albanian: Republika e Kosovës; Serbian: Република Косово, Republika Kosovo), a self-declared independent state, has de facto control over most of the territory, while North Kosovo, the largest Kosovo Serb enclave, is under the control of institutions of the Republic of Serbia.Serbia does not recognise the unilateral secession of Kosovo and considers it a UN-governed entity within its sovereign territory.
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Kozara
Kozara (Козара) is a mountain in western Bosnia and Herzegovina, in the Bosanska Krajina region, bounded by the rivers Sava to the north, Vrbas to he east, Sana to the south, and Una to the west. Its tallest peak is Lisina (978m). In 1942 Kozara was the site of the Battle on the Kozara, a part of the Yugoslav National Liberation War and Partisan resistance during World War II.
Coordinates: 45°00′N 17°00′E / 45°N 17°E / 45; 17
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Kragujevac
Kragujevac (Serbian Cyrillic: Крагујевац, pronounced [krǎɡujeʋat͡s] ( listen)) is the fourth largest city in Serbia, the main city of the Šumadija region and the administrative centre of Šumadija District. It is situated on the banks of the river Lepenica. According to official,results of the 2011 census, the city has a population of 147,281 inhabitants, while municipality has a population of 177,468.
Kragujevac was the first capital of modern Serbia (1818–1839), and the first constitution in the Balkans was proclaimed in this city in 1835. Further on, the first full- fledged university in the newly independent Serbia was founded in 1838, preceded by the first grammar school (Gimnazija), Printworks (both in 1833), professional National theatre (1835) and the Military academy (1837).
Belgrade took the lead by becoming the seat of the throne in 1841. The University of Kragujevac was not reestablished until 1976. Contemporary Kragujevac is known for its weapons, munition, and Zastava Automobiles company.
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Kumanovo
Kumanovo (Macedonian: Куманово Macedonian pronunciation: [kuˈmanɔvɔ], Albanian: Kumanova, Kumanovë) is a city in the Republic of Macedonia and is the seat of Kumanovo Municipality which is the largest municipality in the country. Municipal institutions include a city council, mayor and other administrative bodies.
The name of the city in Serbian and Bulgarian, it is the same as in Macedonian: Kumanovo (Куманово). The etymology of the name is connected with Turkic tribe Cumans' invasion in the area in the early 12th century.
Kumanovo is situated in the northeastern part of the Republic of Macedonia, near the capital city of Skopje. The coordinates of the city are approximately 42°05'N and 21°40'E. Kumanovo lies 340 m (1,115.49 ft) above sea level and is surrounded by the Karadag part of Skopska Crna Gora mountain on its western side, Gradishtanska planina mountain on its southern side, and Mangovica and German mountain on the eastern side. Kumanovo has a temperate climate. Skopje airport also serves Kumanovo.
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Kuwait
Kuwait, officially the State of Kuwaiti/kuːˈweɪt/ (Arabic: دولة الكويت, Dawlat al-Kuwayt) is a sovereign Arab state situated in the north-east of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south at Khafji, and Iraq to the north at Basra. It lies on the north-western shore of the Persian Gulf. The name Kuwait is derived from the Arabic أكوات ākwāt, the plural of كوت kūt, meaning a fortress built near water. The country covers an area of 17,820 square kilometers (6,880 sq mi) and has a population of about 3.5 million.
Historically, the region was the site of Characene, a major Parthian port for trade between Mesopotamia and India. The Bani Utbah tribe were the first permanent Arab settlers in the region, and laid the foundation of the modern emirate. By the 19th century, Kuwait came under the influence of the Ottoman Empire, and after World War I, it emerged as an independent sheikhdom under the protection of the British Empire. Kuwait's large oil fields were discovered in the late 1930s.
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Ljubljana
Ljubljana (locally: [lʲubˈlʲana] (
listen); German: Laibach, Italian: Lubiana, Latin: Labacum or Aemona) is the capital of Slovenia and its only centre of international importance. It is located in the centre of the country in the Ljubljana Basin, and is the centre of the City Municipality of Ljubljana. With approximately 272,000 inhabitants, it classifies as the only Slovenian large town. Throughout its history, it has been influenced by its geographic position at the crossroads of the Slavic world with the Germanic and Latin cultures.
For centuries, Ljubljana was the capital of the historical region of Carniola. Now it is the cultural, educational, economic, political and administrative centre of Slovenia, independent since 1991. Its transport connections, concentration of industry, scientific and research institutions and cultural tradition are contributing factors to its leading position.
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Luxembourg
Luxembourg (i/ˈlʌksəmbɜrɡ/ LUKS-əm-burg), officially the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Luxembourgish: Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg, French: Grand-Duché de Luxembourg, German: Großherzogtum Luxemburg, Dutch: Groothertogdom Luxemburg), is a landlocked country in western Europe, bordered by Belgium, France, and Germany. It has two principal regions: the Oesling in the North as part of the Ardennes massif, and the Gutland ("good country") in the south. Luxembourg has a population of over half a million people in an area of approximately 2,586 square kilometres (998 sq mi). A representative democracy with a constitutional monarch, it is ruled by a grand duke. It is now the world's only remaining sovereign grand duchy. The country has a highly developed economy, with the world's highest GDP (nominal) per capita according to the IMF. Its historic and strategic importance dates back to its founding as a Roman era fortress site and Frankish count's castle site in the Early Middle Ages. It was an important bastion along the Spanish Road when Spain was the principal European power influencing the whole western hemisphere and beyond in the 16th–17th centuries.
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Lórév
Lórév (Serbian: Ловра, Lovra) is a village on Csepel Island in Hungary. It is situated in Pest County.
Lórév means "horse ford" in Hungarian referring to the nearby ford of the Danube.
Lórév is the only settlement in Hungary with an ethnic Serb majority. This small village of 307 people had 180 (58.63%) Serb inhabitants in 2001 (and 202 people with a Serb "cultural heritage"). 39.09% of the population are Hungarians (120 people).
According to the 2001 census the religious distribution of the population included 69 Roman Catholic, 32 Calvinist and 181 mainly Serb Orthodox.
Coordinates: 47°07′N 18°54′E / 47.117°N 18.9°E / 47.117; 18.9
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Montenegro
Montenegro (i/ˌmɒntɨˈneɪɡroʊ/ or /ˌmɒntɨˈniːɡroʊ/; or /ˌmɒntɨˈnɛɡroʊ/; Montenegrin: Crna Gora Црна Гора [tsr̩̂ːnaː ɡɔ̌ra] ( listen), meaning "Black Mountain") is a country in Southeastern Europe. It has a coast on the Adriatic Sea to the south-west and is bordered by Croatia to the west, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the northwest, Serbia to the northeast and Albania to the southeast. Its capital and largest city is Podgorica, while Cetinje is designated as the Prijestonica (Пријестоница), meaning the former Royal Capital City.
In the 10th century, there existed three Slavic principalities on the territory of Montenegro: Duklja, roughly corresponding to the southern half, Travunia, the west, and Rascia, the north. In 1042, archon Stefan Vojislav led a revolt that resulted in independence of Duklja and the establishment of the Vojislavljević dynasty. Duklja reached its zenith under Vojislav's son, Mihailo (1046–81), and his son Bodin (1081–1101). By the 13th century, Zeta had replaced Duklja when referring to the realm, which at the time was part of the Serbian Grand Principality of the Nemanjić dynasty.
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NATO
Coordinates: 50°52′34.16″N 4°25′19.24″E / 50.8761556°N 4.4220111°E / 50.8761556; 4.4220111
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization or NATO ( /ˈneɪtoʊ/ NAY-toh; French: Organisation du traité de l'Atlantique Nord (OTAN)), also called the (North) Atlantic Alliance, is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of collective defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are in Brussels, Belgium, one of the 28 member states across North America and Europe, the newest of which, Albania and Croatia, joined in April 2009. An additional 22 countries participate in NATO's Partnership for Peace, with 15 other countries involved in institutionalized dialogue programs. The combined military spending of all NATO members constitutes over 70% of the world's defence spending.
For its first few years, NATO was not much more than a political association. However, the Korean War galvanized the member states, and an integrated military structure was built up under the direction of two U.S. supreme commanders. The course of the Cold War led to a rivalry with nations of the Warsaw Pact, which formed in 1955. The first NATO Secretary General, Lord Ismay, stated in 1949 that the organization's goal was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down." Doubts over the strength of the relationship between the European states and the United States ebbed and flowed, along with doubts over the credibility of the NATO defence against a prospective Soviet invasion—doubts that led to the development of the independent French nuclear deterrent and the withdrawal of the French from NATO's military structure in 1966.
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Niš
Niš (Serbian: Ниш, pronounced [nîːʃ] ( listen)) is the largest city of southern Serbia and the third-largest city in Serbia (after Belgrade and Novi Sad). According to the preliminary results of the 2011 census, the city has an urban population of 182,208 inhabitants, while its municipality has a population of 257,867. The city covers an area of 597 km², including the urban core, town of Niška Banja and 68 suburbs. Niš is the administrative center of the Nišava District.
It is one of the oldest cities in the Balkans and Europe, and has from ancient times been considered a gateway between the East and the West. The Paleo-Balkan Thracians first inhabited the area in the Iron Age, and Triballians dwelled here prior to the Celtic invasion in 279 BC which established the Scordisci as masters of the region. Modern-day Niš was among the cities taken in the Roman conquest in 75 BC. The Romans built the Via Militaris in the 1st century, with Naissus being one of the key towns. Niš is also notable as the birthplace of Constantine the Great, the first Christian Roman Emperor and the founder of Constantinople, as well as two other Roman emperors, Constantius III and Justin I. It is home to one of Serbia's oldest churches dating to the 4th century AD in the suburb of Mediana.
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Norway
Norwayi/ˈnɔrweɪ/ (Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and the subantarctic Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of about 5 million. It is the second least densely populated country in Europe. The majority of the country shares a border to the east with Sweden; its northernmost region is bordered by Finland to the south and Russia to the east; in its south Norway borders the Skagerrak Strait across from Denmark. The capital city of Norway is Oslo. Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords.
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Novi Sad
Novi Sad (Serbian Cyrillic: Нови Сад, pronounced [nɔ̝̂v̞iː sâːd] ( listen)) is the second largest city in Serbia, capital of the northern Serbian province of Vojvodina, and the administrative centre of the South Bačka District.
According to preliminary results of the latest census in Serbia conducted in October 2011, the urban area of Novi Sad has a population of 221,854, while its municipal area has a population of 335,701. It is located in the southern part of Pannonian Plain, on the border of the Bačka and Srem regions, on the banks of the Danube river and Danube-Tisa-Danube Canal, facing the northern slopes of Fruška Gora mountain.
The city was founded in 1694, when Serb merchants formed a colony across the Danube from the Petrovaradin fortress, a Habsburg strategic military post. In the 18th and 19th centuries, it became an important trading and manufacturing centre, as well as a centre of Serbian culture of that period, earning the nickname Serbian Athens. The city was heavily devastated in the 1848 Revolution, but it was subsequently restored. During the city's long history, it has maintained its multi-cultural identity, with Serbs, Hungarians and Germans being the main ethnic groups. Today, Novi Sad is an industrial and financial centre of the Serbian economy, as well as a major cultural hub.
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Ontario
Ontario /ɒnˈtɛərioʊ/ is one of the provinces of Canada, located in east-central Canada. It is Canada's most populous province or territory and fourth largest in total area. It is home to the nation's most populous city, Toronto, and the nation's capital, Ottawa.
Ontario is bordered by the province of Manitoba to the west, Hudson Bay to the north, Quebec to the east, and to the south by the U.S. states of Minnesota, Michigan (portions to the west), New York (portions to the east), Ohio and Pennsylvania. All but a small part of Ontario's 2,700 km (1,677 mi) border with the United States follow inland waterways: from the west at Lake of the Woods, eastward along the major rivers and lakes of the Great Lakes/St. Lawrence River drainage system. These are the Rainy River, the Pigeon River, Lake Superior, the St. Mary's River, Lake Huron, the St. Clair River, Lake St. Clair, the Detroit River, Lake Erie, the Niagara River, Lake Ontario, and along the St. Lawrence River from Kingston, Ontario to the Quebec boundary just east of Cornwall, Ontario.
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Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf is located in Western Asia between Iran (Persia) and the Arabian Peninsula. It is an extension of the Indian Ocean.
The Persian Gulf was the focus of the 1980–1988 Iran-Iraq War, in which each side attacked the other's oil tankers. In 1991, the Persian Gulf again was the background for what was called the "Persian Gulf War" or the "Gulf War" when Iraq invaded Kuwait and was subsequently pushed back, despite the fact that this conflict was primarily a land conflict.
The Persian Gulf has many good fishing grounds, extensive coral reefs, and abundant pearl oysters, but its ecology has come under pressure from industrialization, and in particular, oil and petroleum spillages during wars in the region.
Historically and internationally known as the Persian Gulf, this body of water is sometimes controversially referred to as the Arabian Gulf or simply The Gulf by most Arab states, although neither of the latter two terms are recognized internationally. The name Gulf of Iran (Persian Gulf) is used by the International Hydrographic Organization.
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Peć
Peć (pronounced [pɛ̂ːt͡ɕ], Serbian: Пећ / Peć) or Pejë (pronounced [ˈpɛjə]) is a city and municipality in north-western Kosovo, and the administrative centre of the homonymous district. The governor of the city is Ali Berisha .
The Serbian name of the city is Peć (Пећ); the Albanian name's definite form is Peja and the indefinite Pejë. Other names of the city include the Latin Pescium and Siparantum, the Greek Episkion (Επισκιον), the Ottoman Turkish ايپك (İpek), the Slavonic Petcha, and the formerly used form Pentza. In Serbian language Peć means furnace or cave and its name is probably connected with nearby caves in Rugova Canyon which served as hermit cells for orthodox monks. In mediaeval Ragusan documents, the Serbian name of the city (Peć, lit. "furnace") is sometimes translated as Forno, meaning furnace in Italian.
The municipality covers an area of 602 km2 (232 sq mi), including the city of Peć and 95 villages; it is divided into 28 territorial communities. As of 2011, the whole municipality has a population of approximately 95,723, of which ca. 60,000 live in the city of Peć.
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Podgorica
Podgorica (/ˈpɒdɡəriːtsə/ POD-gorr-ee-tsə;Montenegrin/Serbian: Podgorica / Подгорица [pǒdgoritsa], lit. "under the small hill") is the capital and largest city of Montenegro.
Podgorica's favourable position at the confluence of the Ribnica and Morača rivers and the meeting point of the fertile Zeta Plain and Bjelopavlići Valley has encouraged settlement. The city is close to winter ski centres in the north and seaside resorts on the Adriatic Sea.
A census in 2011 put the city's population at 150,977. The Podgorica municipality contains 10.4% of Montenegro's territory and 29.9% of its population. It is the administrative centre of Montenegro and its economic, cultural and educational focus.
The name Podgorica means "under the Gorica" in Montenegrin language. Gorica (meaning "little hill" or hillock) is the name of the cypress-covered hill that overlooks the city centre.
Some three kilometres (1.9 miles) north-west of Podgorica lie the ruins of Doclea, a town known in Greek, pre-Roman and Roman times. The Roman Emperor Diocletian came from this region. In later centuries, Romans "corrected" the name to Dioclea, guessing wrongly that an "i" had been lost in vulgar speech. "Duklja" is the later (Slavic) version of that word.
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Pojejena
Pojejena (Romanian: Pojejena, pronounced [poʒeʒena];[needs stress]Serbian: Пожежена or Požežena; Hungarian: Alsópozsgás) is a commune in Caraş-Severin County, Romania. Тhe commune is located in the geographical area known as Clisura Dunării (Banatska Klisura in Serbian). In 2002, its population numbered 3,300 people, of whom the majority are ethnic Serbs. It is composed of five villages: Belobreşca (Белобрешка; Fejérdomb), Divici (Дивић; Divécs), Pojejena, Radimna (Радимна; Rádonya) and Şuşca (Шушка; Sisak).
In 2002, its population was made up of: [1]
The commune is officially bilingual, with both Romanian and Serbian being used as working languages on public signage and in administration, education and justice.
Coordinates: 44°46′N 21°35′E / 44.767°N 21.583°E / 44.767; 21.583
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Pécs
Pécs (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈpeːtʃ] ( listen); known by alternative names) is the fifth largest city of Hungary, located on the slopes of the Mecsek mountains in the south-west of the country, close to its border with Croatia. It is the administrative and economical centre of Baranya county. Pécs is also the seat of Roman Catholic Diocese of Pécs.
The city Sopianae was founded by Romans at the beginning of the 2nd century, on an area peopled by Celts and Pannoni tribes. By the 4th century it became the capital of Valeria province and a significant early Christian center. The early Christian necropolis is from this era which became an UNESCO World Heritage Site in December 2000.
Its episcopate was founded in 1009 by Steven I, and the first university in Hungary was founded in Pécs in 1367 by Louis I the Great. (The largest university still resides in Pécs with about 34,000 students). Pécs was formed into one of the cultural and arts center of the country by bishop Janus Pannonius, the great, Hungarian, humanist poet. Pécs has a rich heritage from the age of a 150 year long Ottoman occupation, like the mosque of Pasha Qasim the Victorious on Széchenyi square.
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Qatar
Qatar (i/ˈkɑːtɑr/ or i/kəˈtɑr/;Arabic: قطر [ˈqɑtˤɑr]; local vernacular pronunciation: [ɡɪtˤɑr]), also known as the country or State of Qatar or locally Dawlat Qaṭar, is a sovereign Arab state, located in Western Asia, occupying the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeasterly coast of the much larger Arabian Peninsula. Its sole land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait of the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island state of Bahrain.
Qatar has been ruled as an absolute monarchy by Al Thani family since the mid-19th century. Formerly a British protectorate noted mainly for pearling, it became independent in 1971, and has become one of the region's wealthiest states due to its enormous oil and natural gas revenues. In 1995, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani became Emir when he seized power from his father, Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani, in a peaceful coup d'état. The most important positions in Qatar are held by the members of the Al Thani family, or close confidants of the al-Thani family. Beginning in 1992, Qatar has built intimate military ties with the United States, and is now the location of U.S. Central Command’s Forward Headquarters and the Combined Air Operations Center.
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Republika Srpska
Republika Srpska listen (help·info) (Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian: Republika Srpska, Cyrillic script: Република Српскa, [rɛpǔblika sr̩̂pskaː]) is one of the two main political entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Constitution of Republika Srpska defines it as a territorially unified, indivisible and inalienable constitutional and legal entity that independently performs its constitutional, legislative, executive and judicial functions. The National Assembly and the Government of Republika Srpska are based in Banja Luka, although Sarajevo remains the official capital.
In the name Republika Srpska, the first word means republic. The second word is a nominalized adjective derived by adding the suffix -ska to srb-, the root of the noun Srbin, meaning Serb. The -ps- sequence rather than -bs- is a result of voicing assimilation. Adjectives derived in this way from ethnonyms are often used in Serbian as names of countries: e.g., Škot – Škotska (Scot – Scotland), Hrvat – Hrvatska (Croat – Croatia).
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Romania
Romania (i/roʊˈmeɪniə/ roh-MAY-nee-ə; dated: Roumania; or Rumania;Romanian: România [romɨˈni.a] ( listen)) is a country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeastern Europe, on the Lower Danube, within and outside the Carpathian arch, bordering on the Black Sea. Romania shares a border with Hungary and Serbia to the west, Ukraine and Moldova to the northeast and east, and Bulgaria to the south.
At 238,400 square kilometers (92,000 sq mi), Romania is the ninth largest country of the European Union by area, and has the seventh largest population of the European Union with over 19 million people. Its capital and largest city is Bucharest, the tenth largest city in the EU with about two million people.
The Kingdom of Romania emerged when the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia were united under Prince Alexander Ioan Cuza in 1859. Independence from the Ottoman Empire was declared on 9 May 1877, and was internationally recognized the following year. At the end of World War I, Transylvania, Bukovina and Bessarabia united with the Kingdom of Romania. Greater Romania emerged into an era of progression and prosperity that would continue until World War II. By the end of the War, many north-eastern areas of Romania's territories were occupied by the Soviet Union, and Romania forcibly became a socialist republic and a member of the Warsaw Pact.
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Russia
Russiai/ˈrʌʃə/ or /ˈrʊʃə/ (Russian: Россия, tr. Rossiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijə] ( listen)), also officially known as the Russian Federation (Russian: Российская Федерация, tr. Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; IPA: [rɐˈsʲijskəjə fʲɪdʲɪˈratsɨjə] ( listen)), is a country in northern Eurasia. It is a federal semi-presidential republic, comprising 83 federal subjects. From northwest to southeast, Russia shares borders with Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Poland (both via Kaliningrad Oblast), Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It also has maritime borders with Japan by the Sea of Okhotsk, and the US state of Alaska by the Bering Strait. At 17,075,400 square kilometres (6,592,800 sq mi), Russia is the largest country in the world, covering more than one eighth of the Earth's inhabited land area. Russia is also the eighth most populous nation with 143 million people. It extends across the whole of northern Asia and 40% of Europe, spanning nine time zones and incorporating a wide range of environments and landforms. Russia has the world's largest reserves of mineral and energy resources and is the largest producer of oil and natural gas globally. Russia has the world's largest forest reserves and its lakes contain approximately one-quarter of the world's fresh water.
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Sarajevo
Sarajevo (Cyrillic: Сарајево) (pronounced [sǎrajɛʋɔ]) is the capital and largest city of Bosnia and Herzegovina, with an estimated population of over 311,161 people within its administrative limits. It is also the capital of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina entity, as well as the center of the Sarajevo Canton, which has a population of 438,757. Nestled within the greater Sarajevo valley of Bosnia, it is surrounded by the Dinaric Alps and situated along the Miljacka River in the heart of Southeastern Europe and the Balkans.
Sarajevo is the leading social and cultural center of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and its region-wide influence in politics, education, entertainment, media, fashion, science, and the arts contribute to its status as Bosnia and Herzegovina's major economic center.
The city is historically famous for its traditional cultural and religious diversity, with adherents of Islam, Orthodoxy, Catholicism and Judaism coexisting there for centuries. Due to this long and rich history of religious and cultural variety, Sarajevo is often called the "Jerusalem of Europe" or "Jerusalem of the Balkans". It was, until recently in the 20th century, the only major European city to have a mosque, cathedral, Orthodox church and synagogue within the same neighborhood.
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Semberija
Semberija (Cyrillic: Семберија, pronounced [sɛ̌mbɛːrija]) is a geographical region in north-eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina. The main city in the region is Bijeljina. Semberija is located between Drina and Sava rivers and Majevica mountain. Most of the region is situated in the entity of Republika Srpska, and the smaller part in the entity of Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Semberija has a very rich history. It was first mentioned in 1533 during the Ottoman rule. During the Austrian rule villages in Semberija were destroyed. Name Semberija is from Hungarian origin and probably related to the time of XII-XVI century when this area occasionally held the Hungarian Kingdom. Today in area of Semberija lives about 200 000 inhabitants, but mosty in the municipality of Bijeljina.
Municipalities in the region of Semberija:
The Tavna Monastery is located in the southern part of the Bijeljina municipality. The date of foundation is hidden somewhere in the shadows of the far past. The cronichles of monasteries Tronosha and Pech say it was built by Dragutin's sons Vladislav i Urosic. Stefan Dragutin was the King of Serbia from 1276 to 1282 and king of Srem from 1282 to 1316. The present church of monastery Tavna, is built in the same place as the original one. The Tavna Monastery is older than the other monasteries in the region such as Ozrena, Liplja, Vozuce and Gostovica. Tavna was damaged in the first years of Turkish rule, but was restored by the people. This was not the only time the monastery was damaged. It was damaged many times during the Turkish period and also during World War Two. Between 1941 and 1945 Tavna was bombed by the Ustase. On one of the gravestones it says "Zdravko Jovacnovic Killed 1943 by the Ustasa Blue Division protecting and defending the monastery". After World War II Tavna was rebuilt.
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Serbia
Serbiai/ˈsɜrbiə/, officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian: Република Србија / Republika Srbija, pronounced [rɛpǔblika sř̩bija]), is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and Southeast Europe, covering the southern part of the Carpathian basin and the central part of the Balkans. Serbia borders Hungary to the north; Romania and Bulgaria to the east; the Republic of Macedonia to the south; and Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Montenegro to the west; additionally, it borders Albania through Kosovo, whose status as part of Serbia is disputed. Serbia covers an area of 88,361 km2 and has a population of just over 7.1 million, while the capital and largest city is Belgrade.
The arrival of the Serbs to the Balkans in the 7th century, established several states, eventually forming the Serbian Empire in the 14th century. By the 16th century, Serbia was conquered and occupied by the Ottoman Empire, at times interrupted by the Habsburgs. In the early 19th century the Serbian revolution re-established the country as the region's first constitutional monarchy, which subsequently expanded its territory and pioneered the abolition of feudalism in the Balkans. The former Habsburg crownland of Vojvodina united with Serbia in 1918. Following World War I, Serbia formed Yugoslavia with other South Slavic peoples which existed in several forms up until 2006, when the National Assembly of Serbia declared independence and the legal succession to the former State Union. In February 2008 the parliament of UNMIK-governed Kosovo, Serbia's southern province, declared independence, with mixed responses from international governments.
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Sisak
Sisak (pronounced [sǐːsak]) is a city in central Croatia. The city's population in 2011 was 33,049, with a total of 49,699 in the administrative region and it is also the administrative centre of the Sisak-Moslavina county. Sisak is located at the confluence of the Kupa, Sava, and Odra rivers, 57 km (35 mi) southeast of the Croatian capital Zagreb.
Prior to the invasion by the Roman Empire, the region was Celtic and the city there was named Segestica.
In German the town is known as Sissek, in Hungarian as Sziszek, Latin as Siscia, in Serbian Cyrillic as Сисак, and in Slovene as Sisek
Sisak is usually considered to be where the Posavina (Sava basin) begins, with an elevation of 99 m.
Sisak is Croatia's biggest river port and a centre of river shipping industry (Dunavski Lloyd). Sisak lies on the main road Zagreb-Sisak-Petrinja (M12.2) and the railroad Zagreb-Sisak-Sunja.
The long history of urban life here (around 2,500 years) as well the extremely favourable position on the confluence of three rivers, (the Sava, the Kupa and the Odra), have made Sisak an important town in the history of Croatia.
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Skopje
Skopje (Macedonian: Скопје, [ˈskɔpjɛ] ( listen)) is the capital and largest city of the Republic of Macedonia with about a third of the total population. It is the country's political, cultural, economic, and academic centre. It was known in the Roman period under the name Scupi.
The territory of Skopje has been inhabited since at least 4000 BC; remains of Neolithic settlements have been found within the old Kale Fortress that overlooks the modern city centre. On the eve of the 1st century AD, the settlement was seized by the Romans and became a military camp. When the Roman Empire was divided into eastern and western halves in 395 AD, Scupi came under Byzantine rule from Constantinople. During much of the early medieval period, the town was contested between the Byzantines and the Bulgarian Empire, whose capital it was between 972 and 992. From 1282 the town was part of the Serbian realm and its capital city since 1346. In 1392 the city was conquered by the Ottoman Turks who called the town Üsküp. The town stayed under Ottoman control over 500 years, serving as the capital of pashasanjak of Üsküb and later the Vilayet of Kosovo. At that time the city was famous for its oriental architecture. In 1912 the city was conquered by the Kingdom of Serbia during the Balkan Wars and after the First World War the city became part of the newly formed Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (Kingdom of Yugoslavia). In the Second World War the city was conquered by the Bulgarian Army, which was part of Axis powers. In 1944 it became the capital city of Democratic Macedonia (later Socialist Republic of Macedonia), which was a federal state, part of Democratic Federal Yugoslavia (later Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia). The city developed rapidly after World War II, but this trend was interrupted in 1963 when it was hit by a disastrous earthquake. In 1991 it became the capital city of independent Macedonia.
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Slavonia
Slavonia (Croatian: Slavonija) is a geographical and historical region in eastern Croatia. Slavonia consists of five counties—Brod-Posavina, Osijek-Baranja, Požega-Slavonia, Virovitica-Podravina and Vukovar-Syrmia, although the territory of the counties includes Baranja, and the definition of the western extent of Slavonia as a region varies. The five counties comprise territory of 12,556 square kilometres (4,848 square miles) and a population of 806,192. The largest city in the region is Osijek, followed by Slavonski Brod, Vinkovci, Vukovar and Požega. Slavonia has undergone considerable demographic changes, reflecting the course of its political history and conquests. It is located in the Pannonian Basin, largely bordered by the Danube, Drava and Sava rivers. The western part of the region consists of the Sava and Drava valleys, and the mountains and hills surrounding the Požega valley; the highest among them is 984-metre (3,228 ft) Psunj. The eastern part of the region largely consists of plains. Slavonia enjoys a moderately warm and rainy continental climate, with relatively low precipitation.
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Slovenia
Slovenia (i/sloʊˈviːniə/ sloh-VEE-nee-ə, Slovene: Slovenija), officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija, [reˈpublika sloˈveːnija]) is a Slavic nation state, situated in South-Central Europe, at the crossroad of main European cultural and trade routes. It borders Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Croatia to the south and southeast, and Hungary to the northeast. It covers 20,273 square kilometres (7,827 sq mi) and has a population of 2.05 million. It is a parliamentary republic, member of the European Union and NATO. Relative to its geography, history, economy, culture, and language, it is a very diverse country distinguished by a transitional character. It is characterised by a high economic and social level. Its capital and largest city is Ljubljana.
The territory of Slovenia is mainly hilly or mountainous and has an exceptionally high landscape and biological diversity and a mosaic structure, which are a result of natural attributes and the long-lasting presence of humans. Four major European geographic units interweave here: the Alps, the Dinaric Alps, the Mediterranean, with a small portion of coastline along the Adriatic Sea, and the Pannonian Plain. The climate is temperate and significantly influenced by the variety of territory, with a strong interaction of the continental climate, the sub-Mediterranean climate and Alpine climate across most of the country. The country is one of the water-richest in Europe, with a dense river network, a rich aquifer system, and significant karstic underground watercourses. Over half of the territory is covered by forest.
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Socol
Socol (Romanian: Socol, Serbian: Сокол/Sokol, or Соколовац/Sokolovac, Hungarian: Nérasolymos) is a commune in Caraş-Severin County, Romania (in the Clisura Dunării area of Banat). In 2002, the population of the commune (comprising five villages) numbered 2,301 people and its population was ethnically mixed. It is composed of five villages: Baziaş, Câmpia, Pârneaura, Socol and Zlatiţa.
Sokol means "hawk" in Serbian. The commune is officially bilingual, with both Romanian and Serbian being used as working languages on public signage and in administration, education and justice.
In 2002, population included:
Baziaş (Serbian: Базјаш, Bazjaš; Hungarian: Báziás) is a village of Socol commune, notable as the place where the Danube enters Romania, and where, in 1854, the first railway line was opened on the territory of present-day Romania—the line ran from Baziaş to Oraviţa, at a time when the area was under Austrian administration. The village has a significant Serbian heritage, being the site of Baziaş Monastery, said to have been founded in 1225 by Saint Sava while on a brief refuge there, and rebuilt several times. The local forest includes several protected plant species.
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Spain
Spain (i/ˈspeɪn/ SPAYN; Spanish: España, pronounced: [esˈpaɲa] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Spain (Spanish: Reino de España), is a sovereign state and a member of the European Union located in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Its mainland is bordered to the south and east by the Mediterranean Sea except for a small land boundary with the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar; to the north and north east by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; and to the northwest and west by the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal.
Spanish territory also includes the Balearic Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands in the Atlantic Ocean off the African coast, and two autonomous cities in North Africa, Ceuta and Melilla, that border Morocco. Furthermore, the town of Llívia is a Spanish exclave situated inside French territory. With an area of 504,030 square kilometres (194,610 sq mi), it is the second largest country in Western Europe and the European Union after France, and the fourth largest country in Europe after Russia, Ukraine and France.
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Sremski Karlovci
Sremski Karlovci (Serbian Cyrillic: Сремски Карловци, pronounced [srɛ̂ːmskiː kâːrlɔːv̞t͡si]) is a town and municipality in Serbia, in the autonomous province of Vojvodina, situated on the bank of the river Danube, 8 km from Novi Sad. The population in 2011 was 8,722. The town has traditionally been known as the seat of Serbian Orthodox Church in the Habsburg Monarchy, as well as political and cultural capital of Serbian Vojvodina after the May Assembly and during the Revolution in 1848.
In Serbian, the town is known as Sremski Karlovci (Сремски Карловци), in Croatian as Srijemski Karlovci, in German as Karlowitz or Carlowitz, in Hungarian as Karlóca, in Polish as Karłowice, and in Turkish as Karlofça. The former Serbian name used for the town was Karlovci (Карловци) - it is used today as well, but unofficially.
The town is situated in the geographical region of Srem, but it is part of South Bačka District.
In ancient times, a small Roman fortress existed at this location. The town was first mentioned in historical documents in 1308 with the name Karom. The fortress of Karom was built on the ruins of the ancient Roman one. Until 1521, the Karom was a possession of the Hungarian noble families, of which the most well known were Báthory and Morović.
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Sviniţa
Sviniţa (Romanian: Sviniţa, Serbian: Свињица or Svinjica, Hungarian: Szinice) is a commune in Mehedinţi County, Romania, located on the Danube (in the area of the Banat known as Clisura Dunării - Banatska Klisura in Serbian). It is composed of a single village, Sviniţa. In 2011, its population numbered 928 people and was mostly composed of Serbs. It is one of four localities in the county located in the Banat.
The name Svinjica means "the pig place" or "little pig" in Serbian.
In the autumn of 1848, the locality was the site of a daring escape of Wallachian revolutionaries kept in Ottoman custody. Maria Rosetti and Constantin Daniel Rosenthal called on the local mayor to demand that Ottoman guards hand in their weapons on what was at the time Austrian soil, and all persons arrested were consequently free to go.
Ethnic groups (2011 census):
The commune is officially bilingual, with both Romanian and Serbian being used as working languages on public signage and in administration, education and justice.
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Sweden
Sweden (i/ˈswiːdən/ SWEE-dən; Swedish: Sverige [ˈsværjɛ] ( listen)), officially the Kingdom of Sweden (Swedish: Konungariket Sverige (help·info)), is a Nordic country on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. Sweden borders with Norway and Finland, and is connected to Denmark by a bridge-tunnel across the Øresund.
At 450,295 square kilometres (173,860 sq mi), Sweden is the third largest country in the European Union by area, with a total population of about 9.4 million. Sweden has a low population density of 21 inhabitants per square kilometre (54 /sq mi) with the population mostly concentrated to the southern half of the country. About 85% of the population live in urban areas. Sweden's capital city is Stockholm, which is also the largest city.
Sweden emerged as an independent and unified country during the Middle Ages. In the 17th century, the country expanded its territories to form the Swedish Empire. The empire grew to be one of the great powers of Europe in the 17th and early 18th century. Most of the conquered territories outside the Scandinavian Peninsula were lost during the 18th and 19th centuries. The eastern half of Sweden, present-day Finland, was lost to Russia in 1809. The last war in which Sweden was directly involved was in 1814, when Sweden by military means forced Norway into a personal union. Since then, Sweden has been at peace, practicing "non-participation in military alliances during peacetime and neutrality during wartime". However, Sweden has been a member of the European Union since 1 January 1995 and is a member of the OECD.
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Switzerland
Switzerland (German: die Schweiz[ˈʃvaɪts]; French: Suisse [sɥis(ə)]; Italian: Svizzera [ˈzvit͡sːɛra]; Romansh: Svizra [ˈʒviːtsrɐ] or [ˈʒviːtsʁːɐ]), in its full name the Swiss Confederation (Latin: Confoederatio Helvetica, hence its abbreviation CH), is a federal republic consisting of 26 cantons, with Bern as the seat of the federal authorities. The country is situated in western Europe, where it is bordered by Germany to the north, France to the west, Italy to the south, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east.
Switzerland is a landlocked country geographically divided between the Alps, the Swiss Plateau and the Jura, spanning an area of 41,285 km2 (15,940 sq mi). While the Alps occupy the greater part of the territory, the Swiss population of approximately 8 million people is concentrated mostly on the Plateau, where the largest cities are to be found. Among them are the two global cities and economic centres of Zurich and Geneva.
The Swiss Confederation has a long history of armed neutrality—it has not been in a state of war internationally since 1815—and did not join the United Nations until 2002. It pursues, however, an active foreign policy and is frequently involved in peace-building processes around the world. Switzerland is also the birthplace of the Red Cross and home to a large number of international organizations, including the second largest UN office. On the European level, it is a founding member of the European Free Trade Association and is part of the Schengen Area – although it is notably not a member of the European Union, nor the European Economic Area.
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Syrmia
Syrmia (Serbian: Срем, Srem; Croatian: Srijem) is a fertile region of the Pannonian Plain in Europe, between the Danube and Sava rivers. It is divided between Serbia in the east and Croatia in the west.
Most of Syrmia is located in the Srem and South Bačka districts of Serbia's Autonomous Province of Vojvodina. Smaller part of the region around Novi Beograd, Zemun, and Surčin belongs to the City of Belgrade. The westernmost part lies in eastern Croatia, in Vukovar-Srijem County.
Today, the name Srem/Срем is used in Serbian to designate the region, whereas the name Srijem is used in Croatian.
Other names for the region include:
Syrmia has been a part of the Roman Empire, the Hun Empire, the Ostrogothic Kingdom, the Gepid Kingdom, the Lombard state, the Byzantine Empire, the Avar Khaganate, the Frankish Empire, the Bulgarian Empire, Pannonian Croatia, the Kingdom of Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, the Habsburg Monarchy, the Austrian Empire, Austria-Hungary, the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs, the Kingdom of Serbia, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, and the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia which, upon advice from the Ðilas Commission, assigned the eastern part of the region to the Federated Republic of Serbia and the western part to the Federated Republic of Croatia in 1945. After the recognition of Croatian independence in January 1992 and the creation of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in April 1992, the division became an international border. In 2003, the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was transformed into the state union of Serbia and Montenegro, which was abolished in 2006, making the eastern part of Syrmia part of an independent Republic of Serbia.
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Szeged
Szeged (Hungarian pronunciation: [ˈsɛɡɛd] ( listen); German: Szegedin; Romanian: Seghedin; Serbo-Croatian: Segedin, Сегедин; see also other alternative names) is the third largest city of Hungary, the largest city and regional centre of the Southern Great Plain and the county town of Csongrád county. The University of Szeged is one of the most distinguished universities in Hungary.
The famous Open Air Plays of Seged (first held in 1931) are one of the main attractions; they are held every summer. Seged celebrates the Day of the city on May 21.
The name Seged might come from an old Hungarian word for corner (szeg), pointing to the turn of the river Tisza that flows through the city. Others say it derives from the Hungarian word sziget which means 'island'. Others still contend that szeg means 'dark blond' (sötétszőkés) – a reference to the color of the water where the rivers Tisza and Maros merge.
The city has its own name in a number of foreign languages: Serbo-Croatian, Segedin (Сегедин); Romanian, Seghedin; Bulgarian, Belarusian, Russian and Ukrainian, Сегед (Seged); German, Szegedin / Segedin; Italian, Seghedino; Latin, Partiscum; Latvian, Segeda; Lithuanian, Segedas; Polish, Segedyn; Slovak, Segedín; Turkish, Segedin.
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Szentendre
Szentendre (Croatian: Senandrija, Serbian: Сентандреја, Sentandreja) is a riverside town in Pest county, Hungary, near the capital city Budapest. It is known for its museums (most notably the Open-Air Ethnographic Museum), galleries, and artists. Due to its picturesque appearance and easy rail and river access, it has become a popular destination for tourists staying in Budapest. There are many facilities, including souvenir shops and restaurants, catering to these visitors.
The name of the town is ultimately based on the Medieval Latin form Sankt Andrae (English: St.Andrew). Because of the diverse mix of nations to have once settled in Szentendre, the settlement has a variety of names according to language. The Hungarian name for the town is Szentendre; the German name is Sankt Andrä; in Serbian, the name is Sentandreja (Serbian Cyrillic: Сентандреја); the Slovak name is Svätý Ondrej.
Populated for well over a millennium, under the Romans it was called Ulcisia Castra, meaning "Wolf Castle". Since the 16th century it was considered the center of the Hungarian Serb community. At one point it had as many as eight Serbian Orthodox church buildings and 3 chapels, and only one each Roman-Catholic and Evangelical. It is still the see of the Buda Diocese of the Serb Orthodox Church. Szentendre and the surrounding villages were also inhabited by Bulgarians ever since the Middle Ages. In 1690, the Serbian teacher and hegumen Stevan notes that Szentendre was even called Bolgarija by some. It had a Bulgarian neighbourhood of Catholic settlers from Chiprovtsi and a Roman Catholic "Chiprovtsi church" (Csiprovacska templom). The names of locals clearly hint at a Bulgarian population.
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Trieste
Trieste (/triːˈɛst/;Italian pronunciation: [triˈɛste] listen (help·info); Slovene: Trst, German: Triest) is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is situated towards the end of a narrow strip of land lying between the Adriatic Sea and Italy's border with Slovenia, which lies almost immediately south and east of the city. Trieste is located at the head of the Gulf of Trieste and throughout history it has been influenced by its location at the crossroads of Germanic, Latin and Slavic cultures. In 2009, it had a population of about 205,000 and it is the capital of the autonomous region Friuli-Venezia Giulia and Trieste province.
Trieste was one of the oldest parts of the Habsburg Monarchy from 1382 until 1918. In the 19th century, it was the most important port of one of the Great Powers of Europe. As a prosperous seaport in the Mediterranean region, Trieste became the fourth largest city of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (after Vienna, Budapest, and Prague). In the fin-de-siecle period, it emerged as an important hub for literature and music. However, the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Trieste's union to Italy after World War I led to some decline of its "Mittel-European" cultural and commercial importance. Enjoying an economic revival during the 1930s and throughout the Cold War, Trieste was an important spot in the struggle between the Eastern and Western blocs. Today, the city is in one of the richest regions of Italy, and has been a great centre for shipping, through its port (Port of Trieste), shipbuilding and financial services.
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Turkey
Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye), known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( Türkiye Cumhuriyeti (help·info)), is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia (mostly in the Anatolian peninsula) and in East Thrace in Southeastern Europe. Turkey is bordered by eight countries: Bulgaria to the northwest; Greece to the west; Georgia to the northeast; Armenia, Azerbaijan (the exclave of Nakhchivan) and Iran to the east; and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. The Mediterranean Sea and Cyprus are to the south; the Aegean Sea is to the west; and the Black Sea is to the north. The Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles (which together form the Turkish Straits) demarcate the boundary between East Thrace and Anatolia; they also separate Europe and Asia.
Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states. The vast majority of the population are Muslims. The country's official language is Turkish, whereas Kurdish and Zazaki languages are spoken by Kurds and Zazas, who constitute 18% of the population.
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Ukraine
Ukraine (i/juːˈkreɪn/ yew-KRAYN; Ukrainian: Україна, transliterated: Ukrayina, [ukrɑˈjinɑ]; Russian: Украина; Crimean Tatar: Ukraina) is a country in Central and Eastern Europe. Ukraine borders the Russian Federation to the east and northeast, Belarus to the northwest, Poland, Slovakia and Hungary to the west, Romania and Moldova to the southwest, and the Black Sea and Sea of Azov to the south and southeast, respectively. It has an area of 603,628 km², making it the second largest contiguous country on the European continent, after the Russian Federation.
According to a popular and well established theory, the medieval state of Kievan Rus was established by the Varangians in the 9th century as the first historically recorded East Slavic state which emerged as a powerful nation in the Middle Ages until it disintegrated in the 12th century. By the middle of the 14th century, Ukrainian territories were under the rule of three external powers—the Golden Horde, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, and the Kingdom of Poland. After the Great Northern War (1700–1721) Ukraine was divided between a number of regional powers and, by the 19th century, the largest part of Ukraine was integrated into the Russian Empire with the rest under Austro-Hungarian control. A chaotic period of incessant warfare ensued, with several internationally recognized attempts at independence from 1917 to 1921, following World War I and the Russian Civil War. Ukraine emerged from its own civil war, and on December 30, 1922 Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic became one of the founding republics of the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian SSR's territory was enlarged westward during the civil war shortly before, and after World War II, and further south in 1954 with the Crimea transfer. In 1945, the Ukrainian SSR became one of the founding members of the United Nations.
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United Arab Emirates
The United Arab Emirates
i/juːˌnaɪtɨd ˌærəb ˈɛmɪrɨts/ (Arabic: دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة, Al Imārāt al ‘Arabīyah al Muttaḥidah), sometimes simply called the Emirates or the UAE, is a country situated in the southeast of the Arabian Peninsula in Western Asia on the Persian Gulf, bordering Oman to the east and Saudi Arabia to the south, as well as sharing sea borders with Qatar to the west and Iran to the north.
The UAE is a federation of seven emirates (equivalent to principalities), each governed by a hereditary emir, with a single national president. The constituent emirates are Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al-Khaimah, Sharjah, and Umm al-Quwain. The capital is Abu Dhabi, which is also the state's center of political, industrial, and cultural activities.
Prior to independence in 1971, the UAE was known as the Trucial States or Trucial Oman, in reference to a 19th-century truce between the local sheikhs, hereditary rulers of the territories, and the United Kingdom. The term Pirate Coast was also used by some to refer to the emirates from the 18th to the early 20th century, owing to the preponderance of pirates operating from Emirati ports.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Vienna
Vienna ( /viːˈɛnə/; German: Wien (help·info) [viːn]) is the capital and largest city of Austria and one of the nine states of Austria. Vienna is Austria's primary city, with a population of about 1.723 million (2.4 million within the metropolitan area, more than 25% of Austria's population), and is by far the largest city in Austria, as well as its cultural, economic, and political centre. It is the 9th-largest city by population in the European Union. Until the beginning of the 20th century it was the largest German speaking city in the world, and before the first world war and the splitting of the Austro-Hungarian empire the city had 2 million inhabitants. Vienna is host to many major international organizations, including the United Nations and OPEC. The city lies in the east of Austria and is close to the borders of the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. These regions work together in a European Centrope border region. Along with nearby Bratislava, Vienna forms a metropolitan region with 3 million inhabitants. In 2001, the city centre was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
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Vojvodina
Vojvodina, officially the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina (Serbian: Аутономна Покрајина Војводина / Autonomna Pokrajina Vojvodina [ʋǒjʋodina] ( listen) (see Name for other languages)), is an autonomous province of Serbia, located in the northern part of the country, in the Pannonian Plain of Central Europe. Its capital and largest city is Novi Sad.
Vojvodina has a population of about 2 million (approximately 27% of Serbia's total). It has a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural identity, with a number of mechanisms for the promotion of minority rights; there are more than 26 ethnic groups in the province, which has six official languages.
The name "Vojvodina" in Serbian language means a type of duchy – more specifically, a voivodeship. It derives from the word "vojvoda" (See: voivode) which stems from the Proto-Slavic language word "voevoda". Those words are etymologically connected with modern-day words "vojnik" (soldier) and "voditi" (to lead). Its original name (from 1848) was the "Serbian Voivodeship" (Srpska Vojvodina).
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Wales
Walesi/ˈweɪlz/ (Welsh: Cymru;Welsh pronunciation: [ˈkəm.rɨ] ( listen)) is a country that is part of the United Kingdom and the island of Great Britain,bordered by England to its east and the Atlantic Ocean and Irish Sea to its west. It has a population of three million, and a total area of 20,779 km2 (8,023 sq mi). Wales has over 1,200 km (750 mi) of coastline, including its offshore islands; the largest, Anglesey (Ynys Môn), is also the largest island in the Irish Sea. Wales is largely mountainous, with its highest peaks in the north and central areas, especially in Snowdonia (Eryri), which contains Snowdon (Yr Wyddfa), its highest summit.
During the Iron Age and early medieval period, Wales was inhabited by the Celtic Britons. A distinct Welsh national identity emerged in the centuries after the Roman withdrawal from Britain in the 5th century, and Wales is regarded as one of the modern Celtic nations today. Gruffydd ap Llywelyn was recognised as King of Wales in 1057. Llywelyn ap Gruffydd's death in 1282 marked the completion of Edward I of England's conquest of Wales. The castles and town walls erected to ensure its permanence are now UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Owain Glyndŵr briefly restored independence to what was to become modern Wales, in the early 15th century. Wales was subsequently annexed by England under the Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542 since when, excluding those matters now devolved to Wales, English law has been the legal system of Wales and England. Distinctive Welsh politics developed in the 19th century. Welsh Liberalism, exemplified in the early 20th century by Lloyd George, was displaced by the growth of socialism and the Labour Party. Welsh national feeling grew over the century; Plaid Cymru was formed in 1925 and The Welsh Language Society in 1962. The National Assembly for Wales, created in 1999 following a referendum, holds responsibility for a range of devolved policy matters.
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West Macedonia
West Macedonia is one of the thirteen regions of Greece, consisting of the western part of Greek Macedonia. It is divided into the regional units of Florina, Grevena, Kastoria, and Kozani.
The region of West Macedonia is situated in north-western Greece, bordering with the regions of Central Macedonia (east), Thessaly (south), Epirus (west), and bounded to the north at the international borders of Greece with the Republic of Macedonia (Bitola region) and Albania (Korçë County).
Although it covers a total surface of 9,451 km2 (3,649 sq mi) (7,2% of country’s total), it has a total population of 302,892 inhabitants (2.9% of the country’s total), thus it is a low-density populated Region (32 per km², as compared to the country’s 79.7 relevant figure). This is mainly due to the mountainous nature of the Region, as 82% of the total surface are mountainous and semi-mountainous areas. This is also reflected in the population distribution, as the major part of the population (56%) lives in rural areas. Capital of the region is Kozani with 47,451 inhabitants. Other main towns are Ptolemaida (32,775), Grevena (16,704), Florina (14,318) and Kastoria (13,959).
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Yugoslavia
Yugoslavia (Croatian, Serbian, Slovene, Macedonian: Jugoslavija; Cyrillic: Југославија) was a country in the western part of the Balkans during most of the 20th century which was established three times under differing forms of government.
The first country to be known by this name was the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, which before 3 October 1929 was known as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. It was established on 1 December 1918 by the union of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia (the Kingdom of Montenegro was annexed on 13 November 1918, and the Conference of Ambassadors in Paris gave international recognition to the union on 13 July 1922). The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was invaded by the Axis powers in 1941, and because of the events that followed, was officially abolished in 1943 and 1945.
The second country with this name was the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia, proclaimed in 1943 by the Yugoslav Partisans resistance movement during World War II. It was renamed to the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia in 1946, when a communist government was established. In 1963, it was renamed again to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY). This was the largest Yugoslav state, as Istria, Rijeka and Zadar were added to the new Yugoslavia after the end of World War II.
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Zagreb
Zagreb (Croatian pronunciation: [zǎːɡrɛb]) is the capital and the largest city of the Republic of Croatia. It is in the northwest of the country, along the Sava river, at the southern slopes of the Medvednica mountain. Zagreb lies at an elevation of approximately 122 m (400 ft) above sea level. In the last official census of 2011, the population of the settlement of Zagreb was 686,568, while the total population of its administrative area was 792,875. The wider Zagreb metropolitan area includes the City of Zagreb and the separate Zagreb County with a population of 317,642, bringing the total metropolitan area population up to 1,110,517. It is the only metropolitan area in Croatia with a population of over one million.
Its favourable geographic position in the southwestern part of the Pannonian Basin, which extends to the Alpine, Dinaric, Adriatic and Pannonic regions, provides an excellent connection for traffic between Central Europe and the Adriatic Sea. The transport connections, concentration of industry, scientific and research institutions and industrial tradition underlie its leading economic position in Croatia. Zagreb is the seat of the central government, administrative bodies and almost all government ministries.
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Zlatibor
Zlatibor (Serbian Cyrillic: Златибoр, pronounced [zlǎtibɔ̝r]) is a mountain region situated in the western part of Serbia, a part of the Dinaric Alps.
The mountain range spreads over an area of 300 km², 27 miles in length, southeast to northwest, and up to 23 miles in width. The highest peak is Tornik at 1496 m. Zlatibor is situated between 43° 31' N, and 43° 51' N, and between 19° 28' E, and 19° 56' E.
Zlatibor is administratively divided into three municipalities within Serbia: Čajetina, Užice and Nova Varoš, in the Zlatibor District. The railroad Belgrade-Bar passes through Zlatibor.
The southern and the eastern border of Zlatibor are natural - the rivers Uvac and Veliki Rzav. In the west Zlatibor borders Bosnia - its villages of Mokra Gora, Semegnjevo and Jablanica mark the border. Zlatibor is located in the northern part of the Stari Vlah region, a historical border region between Raška, Herzegovina and Bosnia. The hill called Cigla near the village of Jablanica still has some borderline markings of the Kingdom of Serbia, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. In the Middle Ages, Zlatibor was known as Rujno, a župa that was part of Raška. The name Zlatibor started to be used in the 18th century, but its etymology is uncertain. It probably stems from the Serbian words zlatni (golden) and bor (pine) — a particular type of a pine originates from the mountain, whose Latin name is Pinus sylvestris var. zlatiborica, and today is endangered.
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Abkhaz people
The Abkhaz or Abkhazians (Abkhaz: Аҧсуа, Apswa) are a Caucasian ethnic group, mainly living in Abkhazia, a disputed region on the Black Sea coast. A large Abkhaz diaspora population resides in Turkey, the origins of which lie in the emigration from the Caucasus in the late 19th century known as muhajirism. Many Abkhaz also live in other parts of the former Soviet Union, particularly in Russia and Ukraine.
The Abkhaz language belongs to the Northwest Caucasian languages group. Classical sources speak of several tribes dwelling in the region, but their exact identity and location remains controversial. The Abasgoi and Apsilai of the Graeco-Roman authors are considered as the predecessors of modern-day Abkhaz.
The integration of various smaller ethnic subgroups into the modern-day Abkhaz people was basically completed by the late 10th century, but some of these groups were deprived of their homeland when the Russian conquest of northwestern Caucasus forced them to become muhajirun and emigrate to the Ottoman possessions.
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Albanians
Albanians (Albanian: Shqiptarët) are an ethnic group native to Albania and neighbouring countries. In the context of an ethnicity, they are commonly referred to as ethnic Albanians to distinguish the group from the use of the term Albanians as referring to citizens of Albania. They speak the Albanian language. More than half of all Albanians live in Albania and Kosovo. The Albanian diaspora also exists in a number of other countries.
While the exonym Albania for the general region inhabited by the Albanians does hark back to Classical Antiquity, the name was lost within the Albanian language, the Albanian endonym being shqiptar, from the term for the Albanian language, shqip, a derivation of the verb shqiptoj "to utilize a correct Albanian pronunciation ". This theory pertains to Hahn and it holds that perhaps the word is ultimately a loan from Latin excipio. Thus, the Albanian endonym, like Slav and others, is in origin a term for "those who speak [intelligibly, the same language]". However another plausible theory has been advanced by Maximilian Lambertz to explain the endonym as derived from the Albanian noun shqype or shqiponjë (eagle), which, according to Albanian folk etymology, denoted a bird totem dating from the times of Skanderbeg, as displayed on the Albanian flag.
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Albanians in Kosovo
Albanians are the largest ethnic group in Kosovo . According to the 1991 Serbian census, boycotted by Albanians, there were 1,596,072 ethnic Albanians in Kosovo or 81.6% of population. By the estimation in year 2000, there were between 1,584,000 and 1,733,600 Albanians in Kosovo or 88% of population, as of today their population is over 92%. Albanians in Kosovo speak Gheg Albanian, more specifically the Northern and Northeastern Gheg variants.
Kosovar Albanians are ethnic Albanians with of Kosovan ancestry or descent, regardless of whether they live in Kosovo. A large Kosovan diaspora has formed since the Kosovo War, mostly in Germany and Switzerland. An estimated 500,000 Kosovar Albanians live in either Switzerland or Germany (about 300,000 in Germany and 200,000 in Switzerland), accounting for roughly one fifth of the total number of Kosovar Albanians.
According to the 1991 census, Albanians were a majority in 23 of the 29 present municipalities of Kosovo (in the remaining 6 municipalities, the majority was Serb or Gorani).
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Altay people
The Altay or Altai are a conglomerative ethnic group of Mongolic, Tungusic and Turkic peoples living in the Siberian Altai Republic and Altai Krai and surrounding areas of Tuva and Mongolia and Manchuria. For alternative ethnonyms see also Teleut, Tele, Telengit, Mountain Kalmuck, White Kalmuck, Black Tatar, Oirat/Oirot.
The Uriankhai people were annexed by the Oirat Zunghars in the 16th century. After the fall of the Zunghar Khanate in the 18th century, the Uriankhai were subjugated by the Qing Dynasty; and their one part, Altayans, was called by the Qing court as Altan Nuur Uriyangkhai. They have had skills in metalworking dating back to the 2nd millennium BC. The Altay came into contact with Russians in the 18th century. In the tsarist period, the Altay were known as oirot or oyrot (this name means oirat and would later be carried on for the Oyrot Autonomous Oblast). The Altay report that many of them became addicted to the Russians' vodka, which they called "fire water".
The Altay were originally nomadic, with a lifestyle based on hunting / trapping and pastoralism (mainly cattle, sheep, goats), but many of them settled as a result of Russian influence. In regard to religion, some of the Altay remain Tengriists or Shamanists, while others (in a trend beginning in the mid-19th century) have converted to the Orthodox. (The Altai mission took shape under Saint Makarii Glukharev, Apostle to the Altai.) In 1904, a religious movement called Ak Jang or Burkhanism arose, perhaps in response to Russian colonization.
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Amhara people
The Amhara (Amharic: አማራ?, Ge'ez: አምሐራ) are an ethnic group (but see below) inhabiting the central highlands of Ethiopia. Numbering about 19.8 million people, they comprise 26% of the country's population according to the 2007 national census. They speak Amharic, an Afro-Asiatic tongue, which is the working language of the federal authorities of Ethiopia.
The derivation of the name "Amhara" is debated; according to some it comes from the word amari, meaning "pleasing, agreeable, beautiful and gracious" (also mehare, "gracious", containing the same m-h-r root as the verb to learn), while some Ethiopian historians such as Getachew Mekonnen Hasen say it is an ethnic name connected with Himyarites. Still others say that it derives from Ge'ez, meaning "free people" (i.e. from Ge'ez ዓም "ʿam" meaning "people," and ሓራ "h.ara", meaning "free" or "soldier"), though others, such as Donald Levine, have dismissed this as a folk etymology. Ultimately, however, the name for the language and ethnic group came from the medieval province of Amhara, located in central Ethiopia in modern Amhara Region and the pre-1995 province of Wollo.
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Ammianus Marcellinus
Ammianus Marcellinus (325/330–after 391) was a fourth-century Roman historian. He wrote the penultimate major historical account surviving from Antiquity (the last was written by Procopius). His work chronicled in Latin the history of Rome from 96 to 378, although only the sections covering the period 353–378 are extant.
Ammianus was born between 325 and 330 in the Greek-speaking East, possibly at Antioch on the Orontes. The surviving books of his history, the Res Gestae, cover the years 353 to 378. Ammianus served as a soldier in the army of Constantius II in Gaul and Persia.
He was "a former soldier and a Greek" (miles quondam et graecus), he tells us, and his enrollment among the elite protectores domestici (household guards) shows that he was of noble birth. He entered the army at an early age, when Constantius II was emperor of the East, and was sent to serve under Ursicinus, governor of Nisibis in Mesopotamia, and magister militum.
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Antes people
The Antes or Antae were an ancient Slavic-Iranian tribal union[citation needed] in Eastern Europe who lived north of the lower Danube and the Black Sea (on the territory of modern Moldova and Ukraine) in the 6th and 7th century AD and who are associated with the archaeological Penkovka culture.[citation needed]
Procopius and Jordanes mention the Antes, who inhabited the left (north) bank of the lower Danube. They remarked that they looked and sounded 'identical' (i.e. very similar) to the Sclavanoi, who dwelt along the middle Danube.[citation needed]
The word Antes is considered by some linguists to be an Iranic name. They suggest that the Antes were one of the Sarmato-Alanic tribes that in the 4th century inhabited the region between the Caucasus and Ukrainian steppes, perhaps between the Prut and lower Dneister rivers in what is now modern Moldova and southwestern Ukraine. With time, their center of power shifted northward into what is now western and central Ukraine.[citation needed] In the fifth and sixth centuries they settled in Volhynia and subsequently in the middle Dnieper region near the present-day city of Kiev. As they moved north from the open steppe to the forest steppe, they mixed with Slavic tribes. They organised the Slavic tribes and the name Antes came to be used for the mixed Slavo-Alanic body. Eventually they were completely absorbed by the Slavs, but the name was preserved. A comparable theory exists for other Slavic tribes, namely Serbs and Croats.[citation needed]
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Armenians
Armenian people or Armenians (Armenian: հայեր, Armenian pronunciation: [hɑˈjɛɾ]) are a nation and ethnic group native to the Armenian Highland.
The largest concentration is in Armenia, having a nearly homogeneous population with 97.9% or 3,145,354 being ethnic Armenian. Because of wide-ranging and long-lasting diaspora, an estimated total of 3 million people of full or partial Armenian ancestry live outside of Armenia. As a result of the Armenian Genocide, a large number of survivors fled to many countries throughout the world, most notably the Russian Empire, the Near East, the United States, France, Iran, Georgia and other parts of Europe (see Armenian diaspora).
Christianity began to spread in Armenia soon after Jesus's death, due to the efforts of two of his apostles, St. Thaddeus and St. Bartholomew In the early 4th century, the Kingdom of Armenia became the first nation to adopt Christianity as a state religion. Most Armenians adhere to the Armenian Apostolic Church, a non-Chalcedonian church, which is also the world's oldest national church.
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Aromanians
Aromanians, or Vlachs (Aromanian: Armânji, Rromânji,Makidonji), are a Latin people native throughout the southern Balkans, especially in northern and central Greece, southern Albania, the Republic of Macedonia, south-western Bulgaria, and, as an emigrant community, in Serbia and Romania (Dobrudja). They are a native people in the regions of Epirus, Thessalia and Macedonia. An older term used for them is Macedo-Aromanians. Especially in Greece, the term Vlachs (Vlahoi) is widespread; this term is sometimes used outside Greece to encompass all Latin-descended peoples of the Balkans, including the modern day Romanians.
The Vlachs speak Aromanian, a Latin-derived language similar to Romanian, which has many slightly varying dialects of its own. The Aromanian language descends from the vulgar Latin spoken by native Balkan people subsequent to their Latinization by Rome. It is a mix of domestic and Latin language with additional influences from other surrounding languages of the Balkan peninsula, such as Bulgarian, Greek and Albanian.
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Assyrian people
The Assyrian people, most commonly known as Assyrians and other later names, such as: Chaldeans, Syrians, Syriacs (see names of Syriac Christians), are a distinct ethnic group whose origins lie in ancient Mesopotamia. They are Eastern Aramaic speaking Semites who trace their ancestry back to the Sumero-Akkadian civilisation that emerged in Mesopotamia circa 4000- 3500 BC, and in particular to the northern region of the Akkadian lands, which would become known as Assyria by the 24th Century BC. The Assyrian nation existed as an independent state, and often a powerful empire, from the 24th century BC until the end of the 7th century BC.
Today that ancient territory is part of several nations; Assyria remained a Geo-political entity after its fall, and was ruled as an occupied province under the rule of various empires from the late 7th century BC until the mid 7th century AD when it was dissolved, and the Assyrian people have gradually become a minority in their homelands since that time. They are indigenous to, and have traditionally lived all over what is now Iraq, north east Syria, north west Iran, and Southeastern Turkey. They are predominantly Christian.
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Austria
Austria (i/ˈɒstriə/ or /ˈɔːstriə/; German: Österreich [ˈøːstɐˌʁaɪç] ( listen)), officially the Republic of Austria (German: Republik Österreich (help·info)), is a landlocked country of roughly 8.47 million people in Central Europe. It is bordered by the Czech Republic and Germany to the north, Hungary and Slovakia to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The territory of Austria covers 83,855 square kilometres (32,377 sq mi) and has a temperate and alpine climate. Austria's terrain is highly mountainous due to the presence of the Alps; only 32% of the country is below 500 metres (1,640 ft), and its highest point is 3,798 metres (12,461 ft). The majority of the population speak local Austro-Bavarian dialects of German as their native language, and German in its standard form is the country's official language. Other local official languages are Burgenland Croatian, Hungarian and Slovene.
The origins of modern-day Austria date back to the time of the Habsburg dynasty when the vast majority of the country was a part of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation. During the 17th and 18th centuries, Austria became one of the great powers of Europe and, in response to the coronation of Napoleon I as the Emperor of the French, the Austrian Empire was officially proclaimed in 1804. In 1867, the Austrian Empire was reformed into Austria-Hungary.
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Banat Bulgarians
The Banat Bulgarians (Banat Bulgarian: palćene or banátsći balgare; common Bulgarian: банатски българи, banatski balgari) are a distinct Bulgarian minority group which settled in the 18th century in the region of the Banat, which was then ruled by the Habsburgs and after World War I was divided between Romania, Serbia, and Hungary. Unlike most other Bulgarians, they are Roman Catholic by confession and stem from groups of Paulicians and Roman Catholics from modern northern and northwestern Bulgaria.
Banat Bulgarians speak a distinctive codified form of the Eastern Bulgarian vernacular with much lexical influence from the other languages of the Banat. Although strongly acculturated to the Central European region, they have preserved their Bulgarian identity. Since the Liberation of Bulgaria in 1878, many have returned to Bulgaria and founded separate villages there.
The official Romanian census states that 6,468 people of Bulgarian origin inhabit the Romanian part of the Banat. The Serbian census of 2002 recognized 1,658 Bulgarians in Vojvodina, the autonomous province that covers the Serbian part of the Banat. Bulgarian researchers estimate that 12,000 Banat Bulgarians live in Romania and 3,000 in Serbia.
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Banat Swabians
The Banat Swabians are an ethnic German population in Southeast Europe, part of the Danube Swabians. They emigrated in the 18th century to what was then the Austrian Banat province, which had been left sparsely populated by the wars with Turkey. This once strong and important ethnic Banat Swabian minority has now become quite small. Most of its members were expelled to the West by the Soviet Union and its subsidiaries after World War II. Others left for economic and emotional reasons after 1990. At the end of World War I in 1918, an attempt was made by the Swabian minority to establish an independent multi-ethnic Banat Republic; however, the province was divided according to the Wilsonian Principles of self-determination (the wish of the majority population), by the Treaty of Versailles of 1919, and the Treaty of Trianon of 1920. The greater part was annexed by Romania, a smaller part by former Yugoslavia, and a small region around Szeged remained part of Hungary.
The Banat colonists are often grouped with other German-speaking ethnic groups in the area under the name Danube Swabians. Besides the Banat, these groups lived in nearby western Bačka in Vojvodina, Serbia, in Swabian Turkey (present-day southern Hungary), in Slavonia, (present-day Croatia), and in Satu Mare, Romania. All of these areas were under Austrian rule, when immigrants were encouraged to settle among local populations into the lands newly recovered from Turkish rule.
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Basil I
Basil I, called the Macedonian (Greek: Βασίλειος ὁ Μακεδών, Basíleios hō Makedṓn; Armenian: Բարսեղ Ա Մակեդոնացի, Barsegh A Makedonatsi; 830/835 – August 29, 886) was a Byzantine Emperor of probable Armenian descent who reigned from 867 to 886. Born a simple peasant in the Byzantine theme of Macedonia, he rose in the Imperial court, and usurped the Imperial throne from Emperor Michael III (r. 842–867). Despite his humble origins, he showed great ability in running the affairs of state, leading a revival of Imperial power and to a renaissance of Byzantine art. He was perceived by the Byzantines as one of their greatest emperors, and the dynasty he founded, the Macedonian (Greek: Μακεδονική δυναστεία), ruled over what is regarded as the most glorious and prosperous era of the Byzantine Empire.
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Belarusians
Belarusians (Belarusian: беларусы, biełarusy, Russian: белорусы, byelorusy) are an East Slavic ethnic group who populate the majority of the Republic of Belarus. There are over 8 million people who associate themselves with the Belarusian nationality today.
Belarusians also form minorities in neighboring Poland (especially in the Podlaskie Voivodeship), Russia and Lithuania. At the beginning of 20th century Belarusians constituted a majority in the regions around Smolensk.[citation needed]
Noticeable numbers have emigrated to the United States, Brazil and Canada in the early 20th century. During Soviet times, many Belarusians were deported or migrated to various regions of the USSR, including Siberia, Kazakhstan and Ukraine.
Since the breakup of the USSR several hundred thousand have emigrated to the European Union, United States, Canada and Russia.
The most spoken language in Belarus is Russian, principally spoken by 72% of the population, while the other official language, Belarusian, is only used by 11.9% in every day life. Statistical data shows that Belarusian is fluently communicated, read and written by 29.4%, while 52.5% of the population can communicate and read in Belarusian. Belarusian is a language of the Eastern Slavic group.
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Bokelji
The Bay of Kotor (Serbo-Croatian: Boka Kotorska, Cyrillic script: Бока Которска, pronounced [bɔ̂ka kɔ̂tɔrskaː]) in south-western Montenegro is a winding bay on the Adriatic Sea. The bay, sometimes called Europe's southernmost fjord, is in fact a ria of the disintegrated Bokelj River which used to run from the high mountain plateaus of Mount Orjen. It is an important tourist attraction in Montenegro.
The Verige strait represent the narrowest section of the bay and is located between Cape St. Nedjelja and Cape Opatovo; it separates the inner bay east of the strait from the remainder and belongs to the Natural and Culturo-Historical Region of Kotor, A World Heritage Site. Montenegro is planning to build a bridge that would span the strait, the so called Verige bridge.
The bay has been inhabited since antiquity and has some well preserved medieval towns. The picturesque towns of Kotor, Risan, Tivat, Perast, Prčanj, Herceg Novi and Budva along with their natural surroundings, are major tourist attractions.
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Bosniaks
The Bosniaks or Bosniacs (Bosnian: Bošnjak, pl: Bošnjaci, pronounced [bɔːˈʃɲaːtsi]) are a South Slavic ethnic group, living mainly in Bosnia and Herzegovina, with a smaller minority also present in other lands of the Balkan Peninsula especially in Serbia, Montenegro and Croatia. Bosniaks are typically characterized by their historic tie to the Bosnian historical region, traditional adherence to Islam since the 15th and 16th centuries, common culture and language. In the English-speaking world, Bosniaks are also referred to as Bosnian Muslims or simply Bosnians. Bosniak has replaced Muslim as an official ethnic term in part to avoid confusion with the religious term Muslim - an adherent of Islam. The term Bosnian is used to denote all inhabitants of Bosnia regardless of ethnic origin.
Bosniaks are a South Slavic people. Nonetheless, it has been proposed, based on genetic signatures, that their roots also date back to pre-Slavic inhabitants of the Dinaric region, effectively predating many modern European homogenous ethnic groups. There are well over two million Bosniaks living in the Balkans today, with an estimated additional million settled and living around the world.[citation needed] Several instances of ethnic cleansing and genocide have had a tremendous effect on the territorial distribution of the population. Partially due to this,[citation needed] a notable Bosniak diaspora exists in a number of countries, including Austria, Germany, Australia, Sweden, Turkey, Canada and the United States. Both within the region and throughout the world, Bosniaks are often noted for their unique culture, which has been influenced by both eastern and western civilizations and schools of thought over the course of their history.
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Bosniaks of Serbia
Bosniaks are an ethnic group living in Serbia. According to the last census from 2002, the total number of Bosniaks in Serbia was 136,087 and they comprised 1.82% of population. According to the Census 2002, Bosniaks are the third largest ethnic group in the country, after Serbs and Hungarians.
Bosniaks primarily live in south-western Serbia, in the area called Sandžak – here they are locally called Sandžaklije – and they form majority in three municipalities: Novi Pazar (76.28%), Tutin (94.23%), and Sjenica (73.34%). The town of Novi Pazar is a cultural and political centre of the Bosniaks in Serbia. The territory of Sandžak is divided between Serbia and Montenegro. Bosniaks make up the majority in the eastern part of the Sandžak region that belong to Serbia, while western part is populated mainly by Serbs. Many Bosniaks from the Sandžak area left after the fall of the Ottoman Empire to continental Turkey. Over the years a large number of Bosniaks from the Sandžak region left to other countries, such as Bosnia and Herzegovina, Turkey, Germany, Sweden, United States, Canada, Australia etc. Today, many Bosniaks have retained their identity and culture.
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Bosnians
Bosnians (Bosnian: Bosanci) are people who reside in, or come from, Bosnia and Herzegovina. By modern state definition, a Bosnian can be anyone who holds citizenship of the state. This includes, but is not limited to, members of the constituent ethnic groups of Bosnia and Herzegovina: Bosniaks, Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats. Those who reside in the geographical region of Herzegovina prefer to call themselves Herzegovinians in a localized, regional sense. Ethnic minorities such as Jews, Roma, Albanians, Montenegrins and others may consider Bosnian to be attached to their ethnicity (e.g. Bosnian Albanians).
In addition, there is a sizable population in Bosnia and Herzegovina who believe that Bosnians are a people that constitute a distinct collective cultural identity.
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Bosut culture
Bosut culture (Serbian: Bosutska kultura / Босутска култура or Bosutska grupa / Босутска група) is a name of an prehistoric Iron Age culture, which was named after Gradina on Bosut archaeological site in Serbia. It is sometimes grouped with related Basarabi culture into Bosut-Basarabi complex. There are different views about ethnic identity of the people of Bosut culture; according to one view, they were Triballi, while according to another view, they were Daco-Getaes. The culture flourished in the first half of the 1st millennium BC, until the arrival of the Scythian tribes.
The Bosut culture is dated into early Iron Age and it is generally divided into three development stages: 1. Kalakača-Bosut, 2. Basarabi, and 3. Bosut III. The area of this culture included territory of present-day Vojvodina and northern part of present-day Central Serbia.
Earliest settlements of the Bosut culture originated from the late Bronze Age Belegiš culture. Large fortified settlements were built on the sites of former settlements that were situated on a higher ground near rivers, on a slopes of Fruška Gora and Vršac Mountains, or on the edge of the Titel Hill. Large settlements were mutually interconnected into a chain of common defense. Smaller settlements and farms were located around larger ones. Houses in the fortified settlements were located close one to another and narrow passes existed between them. Defensive trenches were located around settlement walls.
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Bulgarians in Serbia
Bulgarians are an ethnic group in Serbia. This article focuses on Bulgarians in south-eastern Serbia, one of the two areas in which ethnic Bulgarians are concentrated.
Around 10,000 Bulgarians live in the city of Bosilegrad, the rest of them are found in the cities of Pirot and Dimitrovgrad (Tsaribrod) and surrounding areas, and other border cities. For information about the ethnic Bulgarians in Banat, a region which straddles Serbia and Romania, see the article on Banat Bulgarians.
With the capture of the Pomoravlje region by Serbia in 1878, the Bulgarians living around the South Morava river were persecuted and assimilated, or forced to emigrate[citation needed]. Later, following World War I, four territories, now known to the Bulgarian community as the Western Outlands, passed to the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes from Bulgaria as a war indemnity, and the remains of the old border can be seen at Vlasina lake. In the Interwar Period, the Internal Western Outland Revolutionary Organisation, countering Yugoslav rule in the region, was engaged in repeated attacks against the Yugoslav police and army. During World War II Bulgaria retook the Western Outlands, as well as Pirot and Vranje. After the Second World War, these regions were returned to Yugoslavia. After Serbia's independence, these areas remained within the Serbian state.
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Bulgars
The Bulgars (also Bolgars, Bulghars, Huno-Bulgars) were a semi-nomadic people who flourished in the Pontic Steppe and the Volga basin in the 7th century. Ethnically, the Bulgars comprised Turkic and probably Scytho-Sarmatian elements. They had enveloped also other ethnic groups by their migration westwards across the Eurasian steppe.
The Bulgars emerged after the collapse of the Hunnic Empire in the 5th century. Initially, they conquered the Pontic-Caspian steppe and around the lower Volga basin, by the 7th century dispersing further towards Bessarabia. Originating as nomadic equestrians of Central Asia, they became sedentary during the 7th century, establishing the polities (khanates) of Old Great Bulgaria in the Pontic steppe and Volga Bulgaria on the middle Volga.
Old Great Bulgaria was absorbed by the Khazar Empire in the 8th century, but in the 680s, Khan Asparukh conquered Scythia Minor, opening access to Moesia, and established the First Bulgarian Empire, which was however Slavicized by the 10th century. Volga Bulgaria preserved their national identity well into the 13th century by repelling the first Mongol attacks in 1223. But they were eventually subdued, and their capital Bolghar city became one of major cities of the Mongol Golden Horde. Later, Volga Bulgars mixed with Tatars of Kazan.
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Bunjevci
Bunjevci (pronounced [bǔɲeːʋtsi] or [bǔːɲeːʋtsi]) are a South Slavic community and ethnic group living mostly in the Bačka region of Serbia (province of Vojvodina) and southern Hungary (Bács-Kiskun county, particularly in the Baja region). They presumably originate from western Herzegovina region, from where they migrated into the Dalmatia, and from there to Lika and Bačka in 16th and 17th century. Bunjevci who remained in the original areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as those in modern Croatia, today maintain the designation chiefly as an ethno-regional identity, and declare themselves as Croats. In Bunjevac-populated areas of Serbia, some people declaring themselves as Croat or Yugoslav are of Bunjevac ancestry.
Bunjevci are Roman Catholic, and speak with an Ikavian accent (Bunjevci dialect) with certain archaic characteristics. During the 18th and 19th century, they formed a sizable part of population of northern Bačka, but many of them were gradually assimilated into Hungarians, while some other adopted Croat or Serb identity.
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Celts
The Celts (usually pronounced /ˈkɛlts/ but sometimes /ˈsɛlts/, see pronunciation of Celtic) or Kelts were an ethno-linguistic group of tribal societies in Iron Age and Medieval Europe who spoke Celtic languages and had a similar culture.
The earliest archaeological culture that may justifiably be considered as Proto-Celtic is the Late Bronze Age Urnfield culture of central Europe from the last quarter of the second millennium BC. Their fully Celtic descendants in central Europe were the people of the Iron Age Hallstatt culture (c. 800-450 BC) named for the rich grave finds in Hallstatt, Austria. By the later La Tène period (c. 450 BC up to the Roman conquest), this Celtic culture had expanded over a wide range of regions, whether by diffusion or migration: to the British Isles (Insular Celts), France and The Low Countries (Gauls), much of Central Europe, the Iberian Peninsula (Celtiberians, Celtici and Gallaeci) and northern Italy (Golaseccans and Cisalpine Gauls) and following the Gallic invasion of the Balkans in 279 BC as far east as central Anatolia (Galatians).
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Charlemagne
Charlemagne ( /ˈʃɑrlɨmeɪn/ or /ˈʃɑrləmeɪn/; French pronunciation: [ʃaʁ.lə.maɲ]; c. 742 – 28 January 814), also known as Charles the Great (Latin: Carolus Magnus or Karolus Magnus), was King of the Franks from 768 and Emperor of the Romans (Imperator Romanorum) from 800 to his death in 814. He expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of Western and Central Europe. During his reign, he conquered Italy and was crowned Imperator Augustus by Pope Leo III on 25 December 800 in Rome.
His rule is also associated with the Carolingian Renaissance, a revival of art, religion, and culture through the medium of the Catholic Church. Through his foreign conquests and internal reforms, Charlemagne helped define both Western Europe and the European Middle Ages. He is numbered as Charles I in the regnal lists of Germany, the Holy Roman Empire, and France.
The son of King Pepin the Short and Bertrada of Laon, a Frankish queen, he succeeded his father in 768 and was initially co-ruler with his brother Carloman I. It has often been suggested that the relationship between Charlemagne and Carloman was not good, but it has also been argued that tensions were exaggerated by Carolingian chroniclers.
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Chukchi people
The Chukchi, or Chukchee (Russian: чукчи (plural), чукча (singular)) are an indigenous people inhabiting the Chukchi Peninsula and the shores of the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea region of the Arctic Ocean within the Russian Federation. They speak the Chukchi language. The Chukchi originated from the people living around the Okhotsk Sea.
The majority of Chukchi reside within Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, but some also reside in the neighboring Sakha Republic to the west, Magadan Oblast to the southwest, and Koryak Autonomous Okrug to the south. Some Chukchi also reside in other parts of Russia, as well as in Europe and North America. The total number of Chukchi in the world slightly exceeds 15,000.
The Chukchi are traditionally divided into the Maritime Chukchi, who had settled homes on the coast and lived primarily from sea mammal hunting, and the Reindeer Chukchi, who nomadised in the inland tundra region with their herds of reindeer. The Russian name "Chukchi" is derived from the Chukchi word Chauchu ("rich in reindeer"), which was used by the 'Reindeer Chukchi' to distinguish themselves from the 'Maritime Chukchi,' called Anqallyt ("the sea people"). The indigenous name for a member of the Chukchi ethnic group as a whole is Luoravetlan (literally 'true person').
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Chuvash people
The Chuvash people (Chuvash: Чăвашсем; Russian: Чуваши) are a Turkic ethnic group, native to an area stretching from the Volga Region to Siberia. Most of them live in Republic of Chuvashia and surrounding areas, although Chuvash communities may be found throughout all Russia.
There is no universally accepted etymology of the word Chuvash. However, there are two main theories that try to explain it.
According to one theory, "Chuvash" is a Shaz-Turkic adaptation of Lir-Turkic Suvar, an ethnonym of people that are widely considered to be the ancestors of modern Chuvashes. Compare Lir-Turkic Chuvash: huran to Shaz-Turkic Tatar: qazan (cauldron).
Another theory suggests that the word "Chuvash" may be derived from Common Turkic jăvaš ("friendly", "peaceful") as opposed to şarmăs ("warlike").
There are rival schools of thought on the origin of Chuvash people. One is that they originated from a mixing between the Turkic Suar and Sabir tribes of Volga Bulgaria with local Mari tribes and also the Finno-Ugrian population of the Volga Basin. Another is that the Chuvash are a remainder of the pre-Volga Bulgar population of the Volga region, merged with Scythians, Volga Bulgars and Mari.
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Constans II
Constans II (Greek: Κώνστας Β', Kōnstas II), also called Constantine the Bearded (Kōnstantinos Pogonatos), (November 7, 630 – September 15, 668) was Byzantine Emperor from 641 to 668. He also was the last emperor to become consul in 642, becoming the last Roman consul in history.
Constans is a diminutive nickname given to the Emperor, who had been baptized Herakleios and reigned officially as Constantine. The nickname established itself in Byzantine texts, and has become standard in modern historiography.
Constans was the son of Constantine III and Gregoria. Due to the rumours that Heraklonas and Martina had poisoned Constantine III he was named co-emperor in 641. Later that same year his uncle was deposed and Constans II was left as sole emperor.
Constans owed his throne to a popular reaction against his uncle and to the protection of the soldiers led by the general Valentinus. Although the precocious emperor addressed the senate with a speech blaming Heraklonas and Martina for eliminating his father, he reigned under a regency of senators led by Patriarch Paul II of Constantinople. In 644 Valentinus attempted to seize power for himself but failed.
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Constantine VII
Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos or Porphyrogenitus, "the Purple-born" (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος Ζ΄ Πορφυρογέννητος, Kōnstantinos VII Porphyrogennētos; September 2, 905 – November 9, 959) was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 913 to 959. He was the son of the emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife Zoe Karbonopsina, and the nephew of his predecessor, the emperor Alexander.
Most of his reign was dominated by other co-regents: from 913 until 919, he was under the regency of his mother, while from 920 until 945, he shared his throne with Romanos Lekapenos, whose daughter Helena he married, and his sons. Constantine VII is best known for his four books, De Administrando Imperio, De Ceremoniis, De Thematibus and Vita Basilii.
His nickname alludes to the Purple Room of the Imperial palace, decorated with porphyry, where legitimate children of reigning emperors were normally born. Constantine was also born in this room, although his mother Zoe had not been married to Leo at that time. Nevertheless, the epithet allowed him to underline his position as the legitimized son, as opposed to all others who claimed the throne during his lifetime. Sons born to a reigning Emperor held precedence in the Eastern Roman line of succession over elder sons not born "in the purple".
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Croats
Croats (Croatian: Hrvati) are a South Slavic ethnic group mostly living in Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and nearby countries. There are around 4 million Croats living inside Croatia and up to 4.5 million throughout the rest of the world. Responding to political, social and economic pressure, many Croats have migrated throughout the world, and established a notable Croatian diaspora. Large Croat communities exists in The United States, Chile, Argentina, Germany, Austria, Australia, Peru, Canada, Serbia, New Zealand and South Africa. Croats are noted for their culture, which has been influenced by a number of other neighbouring cultures through the ages. The strongest influences came from Central Europe and the Mediterranean where, at the same time, Croats have made their own contribution. The Croats are predominantly Catholic with minor groups of Protestants, Muslims, Orthodox, Jews and secular non religious atheists and agnostics. Their language is Croatian.
Croatia is the nation state of the Croats, while in the adjacent Bosnia and Herzegovina they are one of the three constituent peoples alongside Bosniaks and Serbs.
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Czechs
Czechs, or Czech people (Czech: Češi, Czech pronunciation: [ˈtʃɛʃɪ], archaic Czech: Čechové [ˈtʃɛxɔvɛː]) are a western Slavic people of Central Europe, living predominantly in the Czech Republic. Small populations of Czechs also live in Slovakia, Austria, the United States, the United Kingdom, Chile, Argentina, Canada, Germany, Russia and other countries. They speak the Czech language, which is closely related to the Slovak and Upper Sorbian language.
Among the ancestors of the Czechs are ancient Slavic tribes who inhabited the regions of Bohemia, Moravia, and Upper Silesia from the 6th century onwards.
The Czechs are descended from the Celts, early Slavs, and Germanic tribes. According to an international project called Family Tree DNA results a very slight majority of the Czech population forms an offspring of the Celts (28.8%), followed by Slavic (28.4%) and Germanic (13.0%) forefathers.West Slavic tribes have inhabited the regions of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia since the 6th century, and eventually absorbed pre-Slavic populations. Within the West Slavs, the Czechs form part of the Czech-Slovak group (together with the Slovaks), alongside the Lechites and the Sorbs.
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Dacians
The Dacians ([pronunciation?]; Latin: Daci, Ancient Greek: Δάκοι Dakoi, Δάοι Daoi, Δάκες "Dakes"; Medieval Greek Δάκαι Dákai[citation needed]) were an Indo-European people, very close or part of the Thracians.[citation needed] Dacians were the ancient inhabitants of Dacia (located in the area in and around the Carpathian Mountains and east of there to the Black Sea). This area includes the present-day countries of Romania and Moldova, as well as parts of Sarmatia (mostly in eastern Ukraine), Moesia (Eastern Serbia, Northern Bulgaria), Slovakia and Poland. They spoke the Dacian language, believed to have been closely related to Thracian, but were culturally influenced by the neighbouring Scythians and by the Celtic invaders of the 4th century BC.
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Dalmatae
The Dalmatae or Delmatae were an ancient people who inhabited the core of what would then become known as Dalmatia after the Roman conquest - now the eastern Adriatic coast in Croatia, between the rivers Krka and Neretva. The Delmatae are mostly classed as an Illyrian tribe, although for most of their history they were independent of the Illyrian kingdom which bordered to the southeast of them.
The name Dalmatae is connected with the Illyrian word delmë, dele in modern Albanian, which means sheep in English. The Illyrian town of Delminium has the same etymology.
Archaeology and onomastic shows that the Delmatae were akin to eastern Illyrians and northern Pannonii. Delmatae were a younger nomadic[citation needed] tribe in ancient Illyria (West Balkans); they emerged there since 4th century BC, partly repulsing[citation needed] from their area the earlier peoples of Liburni westwards, Daorsi and Ardiaei (Vardaei) eastwards. They were formed as a tribal alliance[citation needed] of culturally similar communities in 4th-3rd century BC, like the Tariotes and the others. The tribe was subject to Celtic influences..One of the Dalmatian tribes was called Baridustae that later was settled in Roman Dacia.
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Danube Swabians
The Danube Swabians ( Donauschwaben (help·info)) is a collective term for the German-speaking population who lived in the former Kingdom of Hungary, especially alongside the Danube River valley. Because of different developments within the territory settled, the Danube Swabians cannot be seen as a unified people. They include the Germans of Hungary, Satu Mare Swabians, the Banat Swabians, and the Vojvodina Germans in Serbia's Vojvodina who called themselves Schwowe, and Croatia's Slavonia (especially in Osijek region). The Carpathian Germans and Transylvanian Saxons are not included within the Danube Swabian group.
Beginning in the 12th century, German merchants and miners began to settle in the Kingdom of Hungary at the invitation of the Hungarian monarchy (see Ostsiedlung). Although there were significant colonies of Carpathian Germans in the Spiš mountains and Transylvanian Saxons in Transylvania, German settlement throughout the rest of the kingdom had not been extensive until this time.
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Dolgans
Dolgans (Russian: долганы; self-designation: долган, тыа-кихи, саха) are a Turkic-speaking people, who mostly inhabit Krasnoyarsk Krai, Russia. The 2002 Census counted 7,261 Dolgans. This number includes 5,517 in former Taymyr Autonomous Okrug. There are 26 Dolgans in Ukraine, four of whom speak Dolgan (2001 Ukrainian Census).
Dolgans speak Dolgan language. Some believe that it is a dialect of Yakut language. Dolgan identity emerged in the 19th – early 20th century, when some of the Evenks, Yakuts, Enets, and the so-called Tundra peasants migrated to the region away from the Lena River and Olenyok River. Originally, the Dolgans were nomadic reindeer breeders and hunters. They were eventually forced to settle and form kolkhozes during the Soviet times, engaging in reindeer breeding, hunting, fishing, dairy farming as well as market gardening.
Most Dolgans are Orthodox Christians, belonging to the Russian Orthodox Church; old shamanistic beliefs, however, survive among them.
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Emir Kusturica
Emir Nemanja Kusturica (Serbian: Емир Немања Кустурица, Serbo-Croatian pronunciation: [ěmiːr nɛ̌maɲa kǔsturitsa]); born 24 November 1954 in Sarajevo) is a Serbian filmmaker, actor and musician, recognized for several internationally acclaimed feature films. He is a two-time winner of the Palme d'Or at Cannes (for When Father Was Away on Business and Underground), as well as being a Commander of the French Ordre des Arts et des Lettres.
Since the mid-2000s, Kusturica's primary residence is Drvengrad, a village in the Mokra Gora region of Serbia. He had portions of the historic village reconstructed for his film Life Is a Miracle.
Born to Murat Kusturica, a journalist employed at the Sarajevo's Secretariate of Information, and Senka Numankadić, a court secretary, Emir grew up as the only child of a secular family in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina, then a constituent republic within Yugoslavia.
Emir was something of a delinquent while growing up in Sarajevo, according to his own account. Through his father's friendship with the well-known director Hajrudin "Šiba" Krvavac, 17-year-old Emir got a small part in Krvavac's 1972 Walter Defends Sarajevo, a partisan film funded by the Yugoslav state.
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Epirus
Epirus /ɨˈpaɪərəs/ is a geographical and historical region in southeastern Europe, shared between Greece and Albania. It lies between the Pindus Mountains and the Ionian Sea, stretching from the Bay of Vlorë in the north to the Ambracian Gulf in the south. It is currently divided between the region of Epirus in northwestern Greece and the counties of Gjirokastër, Vlorë, and Berat in southern Albania. The largest city in Epirus is Ioannina, seat of the region of Epirus, with Gjirokastër the largest city in the Albanian part of Epirus.
A rugged and mountainous region, Epirus lay on the periphery of the ancient Greek world. It was inhabited by the Greek tribes of the Chaonians, Molossians, and Thesprotians, and home to the sanctuary of Dodona, the oldest ancient Greek oracle, and the most prestigious one after Delphi. Unified into a single state in 370 BC by the Aeacidae dynasty, Epirus achieved fame during the reign of Pyrrhus I of Epirus, whose campaigns against Rome are the origin of the term "Pyrrhic victory". Epirus subsequently became part of the Roman Empire along with the rest of Greece in 146 BC, which was followed by the Byzantine Empire. Following the fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade, Epirus became the center of the Despotate of Epirus, one of the successor states to the Byzantine Empire. Conquered by the Ottoman Empire in the 15th century, Epirus became semi-independent during the rule of Ali Pasha in the early 19th century, but the Ottomans re-asserted their control in 1821. Following the Balkan Wars and World War I, southern Epirus became part of Greece, while northern Epirus became part of the newly created state of Albania.
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Gagauz people
The Gagauz people are a Turkic group living mostly in southern Moldova (Gagauzia), southwestern Ukraine (Budjak), south-eastern Romania (Dobrogea), northeastern Bulgaria, Greece, Brazil, America and Canada. Unlike most other Turkic speaking people, the Gagauz are predominantly Orthodox Christians. There is a related ethnic group also called Gagavuz (or Gajal) living in the European part of northwestern Turkey.
Today Gagauz people outside Moldova live mainly in the Ukrainian regions of Odesa and Zaporizhia, as well as in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Bulgaria, Romania, Brazil, Turkmenistan, Belarus, Estonia, Latvia, Georgia, Turkey and the Russian region of Kabardino-Balkaria.
There are also nearly 20,000 descendants of Gagauzes living in the Balkan country of Bulgaria, as well as upwards of 2,000 living in the United States of America, Brazil and Canada. Most of Gagauz immigrants in the USA are Evangelical Christians, who left their homeland in Moldova as refugees. They were persecuted by the communist government of the Soviet Union. Gagauz immigrants live in Sacramento, California; Salem, Oregon; Seattle, Washington; Broken Arrow, Oklahoma; Tacoma, Washington; Charlotte, North Carolina; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and in Massachusetts. The official figures in the latter group of countries cited in this article are much lower due to the loss of Gagauz identity during the last century.
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Germans of Serbia
The Germans of Serbia are an ethnic minority which numbers about 3,900 people, mostly in the autonomous Vojvodina region. The Germans of Vojvodina refer to themselves as Swabian. The Hungarian and Serbian populations also refer to them as Swabian as well. They are known as the Danube Swabians or Banat Swabians. In the interwar period, Germans were the largest national minority on the territory of what is today Serbia, second only to the Hungarians in Vojvodina. In 1943 Heinrich Himmler introduced compulsory military service for ethnic Germans in Serbia. The German defeat in World War II resulted in expulsion of the almost entire German community, more than 350,000[citation needed] strong, from Serbia's territory.
In 2007, the minority formed a national council for the first time since the Second World War. In the 2000s several monuments to the pre-war German population have been erected. In 2008 the Association of Danube Swabians requested that the government of the city of Sremska Mitrovica exhume the bodies of Germans who died in a post-war camp in the town.
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Gorani people
The Gorani or Goranci (Cyrillic: Горани or Горанци, meaning Highlanders, pronounced [gɔ̌rani] or [gɔrǎːntsi]) are a South Slavic ethnic group inhabiting the Gora region of the Balkans, located at the triangle between Albania, Kosovo and Macedonia. Another autonym of this people is "Našinci", which literally means "our people". Gorani speak the Gora dialect, which belongs to the Torlak group of South Slavic languages.
The Gora region comprises Dragaš municipality in Kosovo and Shishtavec village in Albania. They are adherents to Islam and have a rich and varied folk culture. They have been claimed by Albanians, Bosniaks, Bulgarians, Macedonians and Serbs but the general view is that they should be treated as a distinct minority group, which is indeed their own view of themselves. Part of these people are already albanised. By the last censuses at the end of 20th century in Yugoslavia they have declared themselves to be Muslims by nationality. In Republic of Macedonia their identity is also based mainly on their religion.
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Gordoservon
In records from Bithynia in the year 680, the city of Gordoservon or Gordoserbon (Greek: Γορδόσερβον, Serbian: Srbograd, Grad Srba, Гордосервон) was a Byzantine city inhabited by Serbs. The name is derived from the Serbs that resettled in Asia Minor (in ca 649 or 667) by Byzantine Emperor Constans II (641–668), who came from the areas "around the river Vardar". A "Bishop of Gordoservon" named Isidore is mentioned in 680/681, and the fact that this town was an episcopal seat gives ground to the thesis that it had a large Serbian population. The Serbs were recruited in large numbers into the Byzantine army especially under Justinian II in the 680s, until the defection of a 30,000-strong Serbian contingent led to the disastrous loss of the Battle of Sebastopolis in 692/693.
Around the year 1200 AD this city is mentioned as Servochoria (Greek: Σερβοχώρια, "Serbian habitations"). The city was situated where the Phrygian kingdom once had been.
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Greeks
The Greeks, also known as the Hellenes (Greek: Ἕλληνες, [ˈelines]), are a nation and ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and other regions. They also form a significant diaspora, with Greek communities established around the world.
Greek colonies and communities have been historically established in most corners of the Mediterranean, but Greeks have always been centered around the Aegean Sea, where the Greek language has been spoken since antiquity. Until the early 20th century, Greeks were uniformly distributed between the Greek peninsula, the western coast of Asia Minor, Pontus, Egypt, Cyprus and Constantinople; many of these regions coincided to a large extent with the borders of the Byzantine Empire of the late 11th century and the Eastern Mediterranean areas of the ancient Greek colonization.
In the aftermath of the Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922), a large-scale population exchange between Greece and Turkey transferred and confined Christians from Turkey, except Constantinople (effectively ethnic Greeks) into the borders of the modern Greek state and Cyprus. Other ethnic Greek populations can be found from southern Italy to the Caucasus and in diaspora communities in a number of other countries. Today, most Greeks are officially registered as members of the Greek Orthodox Church.
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Henry Hoyle Howorth
Sir Henry Hoyle Howorth KCIE FRS (1 July 1842 – 15 July 1923) was a British Conservative politician, barrister and amateur historian and geologist.
He was born in Lisbon, Portugal, the son of Henry Howorth, a merchant in that city. He was educated at Rossall School before studying law. He was called to the bar by the Inner Temple in 1867, and practised on the Northern Circuit. He was also the maternal great uncle of anthropologist Sir Edmund Ronald Leach.[citation needed]
He was a Unionist in politics, and was elected as Conservative member of parliament for Salford South in 1886. He was re-elected in 1892 and 1895 before retiring from the Commons at the 1900 general election.
Apart from the law and politics, Howorth was deeply interested in archaeology, history, numismatics and ethnography. He was a prolific writer, contributing articles to a number of journals.
In 1892 he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Indian Empire in recognition of his works on the history and ethnography of Asia. In 1893 he was made a Fellow of the Royal Society, against considerable opposition as he lacked any formal scientific education. He subsequently became honorary librarian of Chetham College and a trustee of the British Museum.
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History of the Serbs
The History of the Serbs (Serbian: Историја српског народа) spans from the first mention of the people by Roman historians to present.
Serbs (Срби, Srbi) are a South Slavic people who live mainly in Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and, to a lesser extent, in Croatia. They are also a significant minority in the Republic of Macedonia. A Serbian diaspora dispersed people of Serbian descent to Germany, Switzerland, Austria, the United States, Canada and Slovenia.
The Slavs invaded Balkans during Justinian I rule (527–565), when eventually up to 100,000 Slavs raided Thessalonica. The Western Balkans was settled with "Sclaveni", the east with Antes. Archaeological evidence in Serbia and Macedonia conclude that the White Serbs may have reached the Balkans earlier, between 550-600, as much findings; fibulae and pottery found at Roman forts point at Serb characteristics. and thus could have been a fraction of the early invading Slavs who upon organizing in their refuge of the Dinaric region, formed the ethnogenesis of Serbs and were pardoned by the Byzantine Empire after acknowledging their suzerainty.
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Illyrians
The Illyrians (English pronunciation: /ɪˈlɪəriəns/; Ancient Greek: Ἰλλυριοί; Latin: Illyrii or Illyri) were a group of tribes who inhabited part of the western Balkans in antiquity and the south-eastern coasts of the Italian peninsula (Messapia). The territory the Illyrians covered came to be known as Illyria to Greek and Roman authors, corresponding to parts of the former Yugoslavia and Albania, between the Adriatic Sea in the west, the Drava river in the north, the Morava river in the east and the mouth of the Vjosë river in the south. The first account of Illyrian peoples comes from Periplus or Coastal Passage, an ancient Greek text of the middle of the 4th century BC.
These tribes, or at least a number of tribes considered "Illyrians proper", are assumed to have been united by a common Illyrian language, of which only small fragments are attested enough to classify it as a branch of Indo-European, while it was extinct by the 5th century AD. However, the name "Illyrians" as applied by the ancient Greeks to their northern neighbors may have referred to a broad, ill-defined group of peoples, and it is today unclear to what extent they were linguistically and culturally homogeneous. In fact, an Illyric origin was and still is attributed also to a few ancient peoples in Italy, in particular the Iapyges, Dauni and Messapi, as it is thought that, most likely, they had shored to the Peninsula, coming from the geographic "Illyria". The Illyrian tribes never collectively regarded themselves as 'Illyrians', and it is unlikely that they used any collective nomenclature for themselves. However, the name Illyrians seems to be the name of a specific Illyrian tribe, which was the first to come in contact with the ancient Greeks during the Bronze Age, causing the name Illyrians to be applied to all people of similar language and customs.
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John the Baptist
John the Baptist (Hebrew: יוחנן המטביל, Yoḥanan ha-mmaṭbil, Arabic: يحيى بن زكريا Yahya ibn Zakariya, Aramaic: ܝܘܚܢܢ Yoḥanan, Greek: Ὁ Ἅγιος/Τίμιος Ἐνδοξος Προφήτης, Πρόδρομος καὶ Βαπτιστής Ἰωάννης Ho Hágios/Tímios Endoxos, Profḗtēs, Pródromos, kaì Baptistḗs Ioánnes) (c. 6 BC – c. AD 30-36) was an itinerant preacher and a major religious figure mentioned in the Canonical gospels and the Qur'an. He is described in the Gospel of Luke as a relative of Jesus who led a movement of baptism at the Jordan River. Some scholars maintain that he was influenced by the Essenes, who were semi-ascetic, expected an apocalypse, and practiced rituals corresponding strongly with baptism, although there is no direct evidence to substantiate this. John is regarded as a prophet in Christianity, Islam, the Bahá'í Faith, and Mandaeism.
Most biblical scholars agree that John baptized Jesus at "Bethany beyond the Jordan," by wading into the water with Jesus from the eastern bank. John the Baptist is also mentioned by Jewish historian Josephus, in Aramaic Matthew, in Pseudo-Clementine, and in the Qur'an. Accounts of John in the New Testament appear compatible with the account in Josephus. There are no other historical accounts of John the Baptist from around the period of his lifetime.
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Jovan Cvijić
Jovan Cvijić (Serbian Cyrillic: Јован Цвијић, pronounced [jɔ̌ʋan tsʋǐːjitɕ]; 11 October 1865 – 16 January 1927) was a Serbian geographer, president of the Serbian Royal Academy of Sciences, and rector of the University of Belgrade. A world-renowned scientist, Cvijić is considered the founder of geography in Serbia.
Jovan (John) Cvijić was born on October 11 (September 19. according to Julian calendar) 1865. year in Loznica to Cvijić family of Spasojevic branch of Pivljani. His father's name was Todor Cvijić and originated from Old Herzegovina, today Montenegro. Jovan's grandfather was a chairman of Loznica municipality and a well-known supporter of House of Obrenović. Zivko was a "katana", during the "katana rising" against the defenders of the Constitution during 1844, and he was punished by lashing after a successful action conducted by Toma Vučić-Perišić. Soon he died.
His father, Jovan's great-grandfather, Cvijo Spasojević was pater familias of Cvijić family. Cvijo was a famous (hajduk leader in that part of Old Herzegovina. He fought against the Ottoman Empire during the First Serbian Uprising of 1804, and after its failure in 1813, he moved to Loznica where he built a two-storey house between the trend and church and opened a store, a trading business for his family.
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Jovan Nenad
Jovan Nenad (also Jovan the Black or Tsar Jovan Nenad; Serbian: Цар Јован Ненад, Car Jovan Nenad, Јован Црни, Jovan Crni; c. 1492 – July 26, 1527) was a 16th-century military commander of Serbmercenaries in the Kingdom of Hungary who took advantage of a Hungarian military defeat in the Battle of Mohács and subsequent struggle over the Hungarian throne to carve out his own state and styled himself emperor (tsar), ruling over a short-lived liberated area.
He is attributed by Serbian historians as the founder of Vojvodina and the leader of the last independent Serbian state before the Ottoman conquest.
He was born c. 1492, perhaps in Lipova near the Mureş River in northern Banat (today in Romania). He was of Serb ethnicity, although other facts about his origins are uncertain. He himself claimed to be "a descendant of Serbian and Byzantine rulers", although other contemporaries thought that he was descending of the Serbian despots or that he was a man of low rank.
In the Battle of Mohács on August 29, 1526, the Ottoman Empire destroyed the army of Hungarian-Czech King Louis Jagellion, who was killed on the battlefield. After this battle, the Kingdom of Hungary became divided in three parts: Royal Hungary in the north and west became a Habsburg province, Transylvania in the east became an independent state, while the former central and southern parts of the Kingdom of Hungary were absorbed by the Ottoman Empire.
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Justinian I
Justinian I ( /dʒʌˈstɪniən/) (Latin: Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus Augustus, Ancient Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ἰουστινιανός) (c. 482 – 14 November 565), commonly known as Justinian the Great, was Byzantine Emperor from 527 to 565. During his reign, Justinian sought to revive the Empire's greatness and reconquer the lost western half of the classical Roman Empire.
One of the most important figures of Late Antiquity and the last Roman Emperor to speak Latin as a first language, Justinian's rule constitutes a distinct epoch in the history of the Eastern Roman Empire. The impact of his administration extended far beyond the boundaries of his time and domain. Justinian's reign is marked by the ambitious but only partly realized renovatio imperii, or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was expressed by the partial recovery of the territories of the defunct Western Roman Empire. His general Belisarius swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa, extending Roman control to the Atlantic Ocean. Subsequently Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic Kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the Empire after more than half a century of barbarian control.
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Kalmyk people
Kalmyk people (or Kalmyks) (Kalmyk: Хальмгуд, Halm'gud) is the name given to the Oirats, western Mongols in Russia, whose descendants migrated from Dzhungaria in 1607. Today they form a majority in the autonomous Republic of Kalmykia on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. Kalmykia is Europe's only Buddhist government. Through emigration, small Kalmyk communities have been established in the United States, France, Germany, Switzerland, and the Czech Republic.
The Kalmyks are a branch of the Oirats whose ancient grazing lands are now located in Kazakhstan, Russia, Mongolia and the People's Republic of China. After the fall of the Yuan Dynasty in 1368, the Oirats emerged as a formidable foe against the Eastern Mongols, the Ming Chinese and their successor, the Manchu who founded the Qing Dynasty, in a nearly 400 year military struggle for domination and control over both Inner Mongolia and Outer Mongolia. The struggle ended in 1757 with the defeat of the Oirats in Dzungaria, the last of the Mongol groups to resist vassalage to China (Grousset, 1970: 502-541).
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Karamanlides
The Karamanlides (Greek: Καραμανλήδες; Turkish: Karamanlılar), or simply Karamanlis (Also referred to as Cappadocian Greeks or Greeks of Cappadocia), are a Greek Orthodox, Turkish-speaking people native to the Karaman and Cappadocia regions of Anatolia. Today, a majority of the population live within Greece, though there is a notable diaspora in Western Europe and North America.
Karamanlides is an umbrella term used to describe all Greek Orthodox Christians in Central Anatolia who had adopted Turkish as their primary language. It is derived from the 13th century Beylik of Karaman. They were the first Turkish kingdom to adopt Turkish as its official language and originally the term would only describe the inhabitants of the town of Karaman or from the region of Karaman. Since there is no significant presence of established Christians in the area, the title is now most often used as a label for the local Muslim inhabitants.
Historically, the Karamanlides adopted and spoke a dialect of the Turkish language. Its vocabulary drew overwhelmingly from Turkic words with only minimal Greek loan words. The language should not be confused with Cappadocian Greek, which was spoken in the same region during the same timeframe, but is derived from the Greek language. It should be noted while their spoken language was Turkish, they employed the Greek alphabet to write it.
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Karađorđe
Đorđe Petrović OSA (Serbian Cyrillic: Ђорђе Петровић, Serbian pronunciation: [dʑôːrdʑe pětroʋitɕ], Anglicized: George Petrovich), known as Karađorđe (Карађорђе, [kâradʑoːrdʑe], Black George; 3 November 1752 – 24 July 1817), was the founder of modern Serbia, as the elected leader of the First Serbian Uprising (part of the Serbian Revolution) that aimed at liberating Serbia from the Ottoman Empire (1804–1813); he personally led armies against the Ottomans in several battles, which resulted in a short-lived state which he would administrate as Grand Leader (Veliki Vožd) from 14 February 1804 to 21 September 1813, alongside the newly found Narodna Skupština (People's Assembly) and Praviteljstvujušči Sovjet (Governing Council), simulating a wholly functional state government in war-time.
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Karelians
The Karelians (also Karels, Russian Karelians and East Karelians) are a Baltic-Finnic ethnic group living mostly in the Republic of Karelia and in other north-western parts of the Russian Federation. The historic homeland of Karelians includes also parts of present-day Eastern Finland (North Karelia) and the formerly Finnish territory of Ladoga Karelia. In a process starting during the 17th century and culminating after the Second World War, the ethnic Karelians in Finland have been linguistically and ethnically assimilated with the closely related Finnish people and are included in the wider group of Finnish Karelians, who are considered to form a sub-group of the ethnic Finns.
The separation between the Finnish Karelians and the Russian or East Karelians has been created and maintained by different religions, dialects and historical experiences. The Karelians in Russia have lived for centuries under the Slavic cultural influence, adopted the Russian Orthodox religion and have been to some extent assimilated by Russians.
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Kashubians
Kashubians/Kaszubians (Kashubian: Kaszëbi, Polish: Kaszubi/ Kaszuby, German: Kaschuben), also called Kashubs, Kashubes, Kaszubians, Kassubians or Cassubians, are a West Slavic ethnic group in Pomerelia, north-central Poland. Their settlement area is referred to as Kashubia (Kashubian: Kaszëbë, Polish: Kaszuby, German: Kaschubei, Kaschubien).
They speak Kashubian, classified either as a language or a Polish dialect. In analogy to the linguistic classification, Kashubians are considered either an ethnic or a linguistic group.
Slovincians are grouped with the Kashubians as Pomeranians. Similarly the Slovincian and Kashubian languages are grouped as the Pomeranian language, with Slovincian being either a closely related language or a Kashubian dialect.
Among larger cities, Gdynia (Gdiniô) contains the largest proportion of people declaring Kashubian origin. However, the biggest city of the Kashubia region is Gdańsk (Gduńsk), the capital of the Pomeranian Voivodeship and the traditional capital of Kashubia. Between 80.3% and 93.9% people of the people in Linia, Sierakowice, Szemud, Kartuzy, Chmielno, Żukowo, etc. are of Kashubian descent.
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Khakas people
The Khakas, or Khakass (Khakas: Тадарлар), are a Turkic-speaking people, who live in Russia, in the republic of Khakassia in southern Siberia. They speak the Khakas language.
The origin of the Khakas people is disputed. Some scholars see them as descendants of the Yenisei Kirghiz, while others believe that, at the behest of the medieval Mongol Khans, the Yenisei Kirghiz migrated to Central Asia.
In the 17th century, the Khakas formed Khakassia in the middle of the lands of Yenisei Kirghiz, who at the time were vassals of a Mongolian ruler. The Russians arrived shortly after the Kirghiz left, and an inflow of Russian agragian settlers began. In the 1820s, gold mines started to be developed around Minusinsk, which became a regional industrial center.
During the 19th century, many Khakas accepted the Russian ways of life, and most were converted en masse to Russian Orthodox Christianity under threat of death by Russian soldiers. Shamanism with Buddhist influences, however, is still common, and many Christians practice Shamanism with Christianity. In Imperial Russia, the Khakas used to be known under other names, used mostly in historic contexts: Minusinsk Tatars (Russian: минуси́нские тата́ры), Abakan Tatars (абака́нские тата́ры), and Yenisei Turks.
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Khanty people
Khanty / Hanti (obsolete: Ostyaks) are an indigenous people calling themselves Khanti, Khande, Kantek (Khanty), living in Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug, a region historically known as "Yugra" in Russia, together with the Mansi. In the autonomous okrug, the Khanty and Mansi languages are given co-official status with Russian. In the 2002 Census, 28,678 persons identified themselves as Khanty. Of those, 26,694 were resident in Tyumen Oblast, of which 17,128 were living in Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug and 8,760—in Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug. 873 were residents of neighbouring Tomsk Oblast, and 88 lived in the Komi Republic.
Khanty appear most likely in Russian records under the name Yugra (ca. 11th century), when they had contact with Russian hunters and merchants. The name comes from Komi-Zyrian language jögra (Khanty). It is also possible that they were first recorded by the English King Alfred the Great (ca. 9th century), who located Fenland (wetland) to the east of the White Sea in Western Siberia.
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Komi peoples
The Komi people is an ethnic group whose homeland is in the north-east of European Russia around the basins of the Vychegda, Pechora and Kama rivers. They mostly live in the Komi Republic, Perm Krai, Murmansk Oblast, Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug, and Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug in the Russian Federation. They belong to the Permian branch of the Finno-Ugric peoples. The Komis are divided into eight sub-groups. Their northernmost sub-group is also known as the Komi-Izhemtsy (from the name of the river Izhma) or Iz'vataz. This group numbers 15,607. This group is distinct for its more traditional, strongly subsistence based economy which includes reindeer husbandry. Komi-Permyaks (125,235 people ) live in Perm Krai (Komi-Yazvas group) and Kirov Oblast (Upper-Kama Komi group) of Russia.[citation needed]
The name "Komi" may come from the Udmurt word "kam" (meaning "large river", particularly the River Kama) or the Udmurt "kum" (meaning "kinfolk"). The scholar Paula Kokkonen favours the derivation "people of the Kama".
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Koryaks
Koryaks (or Koriak) are an indigenous people of Kamchatka Krai in the Russian Far East, who inhabit the coastlands of the Bering Sea to the south of the Anadyr basin and the country to the immediate north of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the southernmost limit of their range being Tigilsk. They are akin to the Chukchis, whom they closely resemble in physique and manner of life. Also, they are distantly related to the Kamchadal (Itelmens) on the Kamchatka Peninsula.
The Koryaks' neighbors are the Evens to the west of Koryak lands, the Alutor to the south on the isthmus of Kamchatka Peninsula, the Kerek to the east, and the Chukchi to the northeast.
The Koryak are typically split into two groups: the coastal people Nemelan (or Nymylan) meaning 'village dwellers' due to their sedentary fishing habits; and the inland Koryaks, reindeer herders called Chaucu (or Chauchuven) meaning 'rich in reindeer' who are more nomadic.
The Koryak language and its relative, Alutor, are linguistically very close to Chukchi. They are members of the Chukotko-Kamchatkan language family.
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Lazar of Serbia
Prince Lazar Hrebeljanović (Serbian Cyrillic: Лазар Хребељановић; ca. 1329 – 15 June 1389) was a medieval Serbian ruler, who created the largest and most powerful state on the territory of the disintegrated Serbian Empire. Lazar's state, known in historiography as Moravian Serbia, comprised the basins of the Great Morava, West Morava, and South Morava Rivers. Lazar ruled it from 1373 until his death in 1389. Lazar's political programme was the reunification of the disintegrated Serbian state under him as the direct successor of the Nemanjić dynasty, which ended in 1371 after two centuries of rule over Serbia. Lazar had a full support from the Serbian Church for this programme, but powerful Serbian nobles did not recognize him as their supreme ruler. In the Battle of Kosovo fought on 15 June 1389, Lazar led the army which confronted a massive invading army of the Ottoman Empire commanded by Sultan Murad I. Both Prince Lazar and Sultan Murad lost their lives in the battle. Although the battle was tactically inconclusive, the mutual heavy losses were devastating only for the Serbs. Lazar's widow, Milica, who ruled as regent for her minor son Stefan Lazarević, Lazar's successor, accepted Ottoman suzerainty in the summer of 1390.
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Lebanese people
The Lebanese people (Arabic: الشعب اللبناني el shaab el libnene, Lebanese Arabic pronunciation: [eʃˈʃaʕb ellɪbˈneːne]) are a nation and ethnic group of Levantine people originating in what is today the country of Lebanon, including those who had inhabited Mount Lebanon prior to the creation of the modern Lebanese state.
The cultural and linguistic heritage of the Lebanese people is a rich blend of both indigenous elements and the foreign cultures that have come to rule the land and its people over the course of thousands of years.
Lebanon does not collect official census data on ethnic background and therefore is difficult to have an exact demographic analysis of Lebanese society, with the last census conducted by the French Mandate government in 1932. The largest concentration or people of Lebanese ancestry is in Brazil having an estimated population of 6 to 7 million. As with their predecessors, the Lebanese have always travelled the world, many of them settling permanently, most notably in the last two centuries.
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List of Serbs
This is a list of historical and living Serbs (of Serbia or the Serbian diaspora) who are famous or notable. The persons have their citizenship and ancestries credited (*).
Category:Serbian scientists
See: List of Serbian monarchs
See: Serbian nobility
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Ljudevit Posavski
Ljudevit Posavski (Trans-Savian) was a Croatian[dubious – discuss][citation needed]Duke of Pannonian Croatia from 810 to 823. The capital of his realm was in Sisak. As the ruler of the Pannonian Slavs, he led an unsuccessful resistance to Frankish domination. He held close ties with the Carantanian and Carniolan tribes and with the Bulgarian tribe of Timočani, named after the Timok river. He is often regarded as a national hero in Croatian and Slovenian history.
In 818 Ljudevit sent his emissaries to Emperor Louis in Heristal. They described the horrors conducted by Cadolah and his men in Pannonia, but the King of Franks refused to make peace.
Ljudevit raised a rebellion against his Frankish rulers in 819 after he was seriously accused by the Frankish court. The Emperor Louis the Pious (814-840) sent Margrave Cadolah of Friuli (800-819) to quell the rebellion. The Frankish Frontier forces led by Cadolah have raided the land and tortured the population, most notably the children.
As the Pannonian Slavs were amassing forces, so did the Franks led by Cadolah return in 819. But the Frankish forces were soon defeated; and Cadolah himself had to retreat back to his home Friuli, where soon he died of disease.
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Mansi people
Mansi (obsolete: Voguls) are an endangered indigenous people living in Khanty–Mansia, an autonomous okrug within Tyumen Oblast in Russia. In Khanty–Mansia, the Khanty and Mansi languages have co-official status with Russian.
The Mansi have been in contact with the Russian state at least since the 16th century when most of western Siberia was brought under Russian control by Ermak. Due to their higher exposure to Russian and Soviet control, they are generally more assimilated than their northern neighbours, the Khanty.
In the 1960s, exploitation of the rich oil deposits of Khanty–Mansi Autonomous Okrug began, causing the Soviet Union's largest internal migration wave since the Second World War. This led to a dramatic marginalisation of the Mansi and Khanty who today constitute slightly more than one percent of the district's population.
As for most other Northern indigenous peoples of Russia, the Soviet state ordered the creation of a "national literature" for the Mansi people which consisted mostly of works hailing the enlightenment and progress brought to the Mansi by Lenin's revolution. The most prominent Mansi representative of this genre was the writer Yuvan Shestalov, who after the breakup of the Soviet Union converted to shamanism. Since then he claims that the Mansi are in fact the descendants of the ancient Sumerians, an assertion shared by few.
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Mari people
The Mari (Russian: черемисы (old name), марийцы (modern name)), are a Volga-Finnic people who have traditionally lived along the Volga and Kama rivers in Russia. The majority of Maris today live in the Mari El Republic, with significant populations in the Tatarstan and Bashkortostan republics. In the past, the Mari have also been known as the Cheremis in Russian and the Çirmeş in Tatar.
The Mari people consists of three different groups: the Meadow Mari, who live along the left bank of the Volga, the Mountain Mari, who live along the right bank of the Volga, and Eastern Mari, who live in the Bashkortostan republic. In the 2002 Russian census, 604,298 people identified themselves as "Mari," with 18,515 of those specifying that they were Mountain Mari and 56,119 as Eastern Mari. Almost 60% of Mari lived in rural areas.
The Mari have their own language, also called Mari, which is a member of the Uralic language family. It is written with a modified version of the Cyrillic alphabet. Linguists today distinguish four different dialects, which are not all mutually intelligible: Hill Mari (мары йӹлмӹ), concentrated mainly along the right Volga bank; Meadow Mari (марий йылме), spoken in the lowland regions of the Kokshaga and Volga rivers, which includes the city of Yoshkar-Ola; Eastern Mari, spoken east of the Vyatka River; and North-Western Mari.
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Maria Theresa
Maria Theresa Walburga Amalia Christina (German: Maria Theresia Walburga Amalia Christina) (13 May 1717 – 29 November 1780) was the only female ruler of the Habsburg dominions and the last of the House of Habsburg. She was the sovereign of Austria, Hungary, Croatia, Bohemia, Mantua, Milan, Lodomeria and Galicia, the Austrian Netherlands and Parma. By marriage, she was Duchess of Lorraine, Grand Duchess of Tuscany and Holy Roman Empress.
She started her 40-year reign when her father, Emperor Charles VI, died in October 1740. Charles VI paved the way for her accession with the Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 and spent his entire reign securing it. Upon the death of her father, Saxony, Prussia, Bavaria and France repudiated the sanction they had recognised during his lifetime. Prussia proceeded to invade the affluent Habsburg province of Silesia, sparking a nine-year conflict known as the War of the Austrian Succession. Maria Theresa would later unsuccessfully try to reconquer Silesia during the Seven Years' War.
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Mingrelians
The Mingrelians (Mingrelian: მარგალი, margali; Georgian: მეგრელები: megrelebi) are a subethnic group of Georgians[not in citation given][citation needed][citation needed][citation needed] that mostly live in Samegrelo (Mingrelia) region of Georgia. They also live in considerable numbers in Abkhazia and Tbilisi. In the pre-1930 Soviet census, the Mingrelians were afforded their own ethnic group (natsional'nost) category.
The Mingrelians speak the Mingrelian, and are mostly bilingual also in Georgian. Both these languages belong to the Kartvelian (South Caucasian) language family.
The Mingrelians are descendants of several Colchian tribes (Such as: Manraloi, Heniochi, Machelones, Macrones, Mossynoeci, Drilae, Zydretae) and constitute one of the building blocks of the unified Georgian nation that emerged after the kingdoms of the west (Colchis) and east (Iberia) were united under Christianity in the middle of the first millennium AD.[citation needed] Early in the Middle Ages, Mingrelian aristocracy and clergy, later followed by laymen, adopted the national Georgian tongue as a language of literacy and culture.[citation needed] After the fragmentation of the Kingdom of Georgia in the 15th century, Mingrelia was an autonomous principality until being annexed by the Russian Empire in the 19th century.
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Mokshas
The Mokshas (also Mokshans, Moksha people, in Moksha: Мокшет/Mokshat) are an ethnic group belonging to Volgaic branch of Finnic peoples who live mostly on the west side and to the south of the great bend of the Volga river, and along a tributary of the Oka, the Moksha river in Russian Federation.
Their native language is Moksha (Mokshan), one of the three surviving Finno-Volgaic branch members of the Finno-Ugric language family. According to the Russian census conducted in 1994, 49% of autochthonal Finnic population in Mordovia identified themselves as Mokshas (more than 180,000). Most Mokshas belong to Russian Orthodox Church, there are also Lutherans and Paganists.
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Moldovans
Moldovans or Moldavians (in Moldovan/Romanian moldoveni pronounced [moldoˈvenʲ]; also written молдовень in the Moldovan Cyrillic script currently used only in Transnistria) are the current inhabitants of the territory of historical Principality of Moldova. The territory is currently divided among Romania (42%), Ukraine (24%, including Northern Bukovina, Hertsa, Northern Bessarabia and Budjak) and the Republic of Moldova (34%).
This article refers primarily to the Romance-speakers of the Republic of Moldova, the historical Bessarabia and diaspora originating from these regions. There is an ongoing controversy whether Moldovans are a fully fledged ethnic group or a subgroup of the Romanian ethnic group.
A poll conducted in the Republic of Moldova by IMAS-Inc Chisinau in October 2009 presented a detailed picture. The respondents were asked to rate the relationship between the identity of Moldovans and that of Romanians on a scale between 1 (entirely the same) to 5 (completely different). The poll showed that 26% of the entire sample, which included all ethnic groups, claimed the two identities were the same or very similar, whereas 47% claimed they were different or entirely different. The results varied significantly among different categories of subjects. For instance, while 33% of the young respondents (ages 18–29) chose the same or very similar and 44% different or very different, among the senior respondents (aged over 60) the corresponding figures were 18.5% and 53%. The proportion of those who chose the same or very similar identity was higher than the average among the native speakers of Romanian/Moldovan (30%), among the urban dwellers (30%), among those with higher education (36%), and among the residents of the capital city (42%).
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Mordvins
The Mordvins also Mordva, Mordvinians, Mordovians (Erzya self name Erzya: эрзят/Erzyat, Moksha self name Moksha: мокшет/Mokshet, Tatar: мухшилар/Muhshilar, Russian name for Moksha and Erzya Russian: мордва/Mordva, for Qaratai Russian: каратаи/Karatayi) are the members of a people speaking a Mordvinic languages of the Uralic language family and living mainly in Mordοvia republic and other parts of the middle Volga River region of Russia One of larger indigenous peoples of Russia. The Mordvins identify themselves as separate ethnic groups: the Erzya and Moksha, besides the smaller subgroups of the Qaratay, Teryukhan and Tengushev (or Shoksha) Mordvins who have become fully Russified or Turkified during the 19th to 20th centuries.
Less than one third of Mordvins live in the autonomous republic of Mordovia, Russian Federation, in the basin of the Volga River. The rest are scattered over the Russian oblasts of Samara, Penza, Orenburg and Nizhny Novgorod, as well as Tatarstan, Chuvashia, Bashkortostan, Central Asia, Siberia, Far East, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Armenia and the USA.
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Mutimir of Serbia
Mutimir of Serbia (Serbian: Мутимир, Greek: Μουντιμῆρος) was Prince of the Serbs from ca. 850 until 891. He defeated the Bulgar Army, allied himself with the Byzantine Emperor and ruled the First Serbian Principality when the Christianization of the Serbs took place and the Eparchy of Ras was established.
He was the eldest son of Knez Vlastimir, great-great-grandson of the Unknown Archont, who managed to unite the Serb tribes into a state. He initially ruled together with his two younger brothers, but they revolted against him and he exiled them to Bulgaria, as guarantors of peace.
It is thought that the rapid extension of Bulgars over Slavs to the south prompted the Serbs to unite into a state. It is known that the Serbs and Bulgars lived in peace until the invasion in 839 (the last years of Theophilos). Vlastimir united several Serbian tribes, Emperor Theophilos (r. 829–842) probably granted the Serbs independence, and they acknowledged nominal overlordship of the Emperor. The annexation of western Macedonia by the Bulgars changed the political situation, Malamir or Presian may have seen a threat in the Serb consolidation, and opted to subjugate them in midst the conquest of Slav lands.
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Nadežda Petrović
Nadežda Petrović (Serbian Cyrillic: Надежда Петровић) (Čačak, Principality of Serbia, 1873 — Valjevo, Kingdom of Serbia, 1915) is considered the most important Serbian female painter from the late 19th and early 20th century. She was also known as Serbia's most famous Fauvist.
In 1884 her family moved from Čačak to Belgrade, where Nadežda finishes the Women's school of higher education in 1891. From 1892 to 1897 she studied drawing, and in 1898 she started studying art in Münich, Germany in the private school of Anton Ažbe. Her first individual exhibit took place in 1900 in Belgrade. Her contributions were essential in organizing the First Yugoslav Art Exhibit, and the First Yugoslav Art Colony. Between 1901 and 1912 she exhibited her work in Ljubljana, Paris, Zagreb, and Rome. In 1912 she opened her own teaching studio and participated in the Fourth Yugoslav Art Exhibit. The studio was sadly short-lived, as Nadežda volunteered in 1914 as a nurse in World War I. She died with many other soldiers in 1915, of typhoid fever.
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Nation
A nation may refer to a community of people who share a common language, culture, ethnicity, descent, or history. In this definition, a nation has no physical borders. However, it can also refer to people who share a common territory and government (for example the inhabitants of a sovereign state) irrespective of their ethnic make-up. In international relations, nation can refer to a country or sovereign state. The word nation can more specifically refer to people of North American Indians, such as the Cherokee Nation that prefer this term over the contested term tribe.
According to Joseph Stalin writing in 1913 in Marxism and the National Question: "a nation is not a racial or tribal, but a historically constituted community of people;" "a nation is not a casual or ephemeral conglomeration, but a stable community of people;" "a common language is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "a nation is formed only as a result of lengthy and systematic intercourse, as a result of people living together generation after generation;" "a common territory is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "a common economic life, economic cohesion, is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "a common psychological make-up, which manifests itself in a common culture, is one of the characteristic features of a nation;" "A nation is a historically constituted, stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, economic life, and psychological make-up manifested in a common culture." According to Stalin, this would exclude Jews as they have no common territory.
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Nemanja Vidić
Nemanja Vidić (Serbian Cyrillic: Немања Видић, Serbian pronunciation: [ně̞maɲa v̞ǐːditɕ]) (born 21 October 1981) is a Serbian footballer who captains English Premier League club Manchester United. He was part of the Serbia national football team from 2002 to 2011.
After establishing himself at Red Star Belgrade during the early 2000s, Vidić moved to Spartak Moscow in the summer of 2004. He further increased his reputation when he was part of the "Famous Four" Serbian national team defence that conceded just one goal during the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualification campaign. He would later sign for Man United for around £7m in January 2006 before establishing a prominent defensive partnership with Rio Ferdinand the following season and earning a reputation for his no-nonsense defending.
He has collected a host of honours in his United career including 3 consecutive Premier League titles (4 titles in total), the UEFA Champions League, the FIFA World Club Cup, three League Cup medals, as well as being included in three consecutive (4 in total including 2010–11 season) PFA Team of the Year sides from 2007 to 2009. In the 2008–09 season, he helped United to a record-breaking run of 14 consecutive clean sheets and was awarded the Barclays Player of the Season. He also collected both the club's Fans' and Players' Player of the Year awards. At the start of the 2010–11 season Vidić was selected as the new team captain of Manchester United. He collected his second Barclays Player of the Season in 2010-11.
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Nenets people
The Nenets (Nenets: ненэцяˮ, Russian: ненцы), also known as Samoyeds, are an indigenous people in northern arctic Russia. According to the latest census in 2002, there are 41,302 Nenets in the Russian Federation, most of them living in the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug and Nenets Autonomous Okrug. They speak either the Tundra or Forest varieties of Nenets.
Due to a false etymology, the name Samoyed entered the Russian language as a corruption of the self-reference Saamod, Saamid (the Samoyedic suffix "-d" denotes plurality). It is the same as Saami (formerly Lapps or Lapons) in Finland, and Suomi, the Finnish name of Finland. In Russian ethnographic literature of the 19th century, they were also called "Самоядь", "Самодь", (samoyad', samod', samodijtsy, samodijskie narody) which was often transliterated into English as Samodi.
The literal morphs samo and yed in Russian convey the meaning "self-eater", which appears as derogatory. Therefore the name Samoyed quickly went out of usage in the 20th century, and the people bear the name of Nenets, which means "man".
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Nikola Tesla
Nikola Tesla (Serbian Cyrillic: Никола Тесла; 10 July 1856 – 7 January 1943) was a Serbian-American inventor, physicist, mechanical engineer, electrical engineer, and futurist. He was an important contributor to the use of commercial electricity, and is best known for developing the modern alternating current (AC) electrical supply system. His many revolutionary developments in the field of electromagnetism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were based on the theories of electromagnetic technology discovered by Michael Faraday. Tesla's patents and theoretical work also formed the basis of wireless communication and the radio.
Born in the village of Smiljan (now part of Gospić, present day Croatia), Tesla was a subject of the Austrian Empire by birth and later became an American citizen. Because of his 1894 demonstration of short range wireless communication through radio and as the eventual victor in the "War of Currents", he was widely respected as one of the greatest electrical engineers who worked in America. He pioneered modern electrical engineering and many of his discoveries were of groundbreaking importance. In the United States during this time, Tesla's fame rivaled that of any other inventor or scientist in history or popular culture. Tesla demonstrated wireless energy transfer to power electronic devices in 1891, and aspired to intercontinental wireless transmission of industrial power in his unfinished Wardenclyffe Tower project.
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Novak Djokovic
Novak Djokovic (Serbian: Новак Ђоковић or Novak Đoković; pronounced [nɔ̂ʋaːk dʑɔ̂ːkɔʋitɕ] ( listen); born 22 May 1987) is a Serbian professional tennis player who has been ranked World No. 1 by the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) since 4 July 2011. He has won five Grand Slam singles titles: the 2008, 2011 and 2012 Australian Open, the 2011 Wimbledon Championships, and the 2011 US Open. By winning three Majors in 2011, Djokovic became the sixth male player in the open era to win three Majors in a calendar year.
He is the first male player representing Serbia to win a Major singles title and the youngest player in the open era to have reached the semifinals of all four Grand Slam events, separately and consecutively. Amongst other titles, he won the Tennis Masters Cup in 2008 and was on the team which won the 2010 Davis Cup. He also won the bronze medal in singles at the Beijing Olympics in 2008. He has won 11 Masters 1000 series titles placing him joint fourth on the all time list. Djokovic has quickly moved up in the rankings of history. Tennis Channel ranked him number 40 , and former player Pat Cash said he is one of the greatest ever.
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Oromo people
The Oromo (Oromo: Oromoo, "The Powerful"; Ge'ez: ኦሮሞ, ’Oromo) are an ethnic group found in Ethiopia, northern Kenya, and parts of Somalia. With 30 million members, they constitute the single largest ethnicity in Ethiopia and approximately 34.49% of the population according to the 2007 census. Their native language is Oromo (also called Afaan Oromoo and Oromiffa), which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family.
Oromos are the largest Cushitic-speaking group of people living in Northeast and East Africa. Available information suggests that they have existed as a community in the Horn of Africa for several millenia (Prouty et al., 1981). Bates (1979) contends that the Oromo "were a very ancient race, the indigenous stock, perhaps, on which most other peoples in this part of eastern Africa have been grafted".
While further research is needed to precisely comprehend their origins, the Oromo are believed to have originally adhered to a pastoralist/nomadic and/or semi-agriculturalist lifestyle. Many historians agree that some Oromo clans (Bale) have lived in the southern tip of present-day Ethiopia for over a millennium. They suggest that a great Oromo migration brought most Oromos to present-day central and western Ethiopia in the 16th and 17th centuries. Historical maps of the ancient Aksum/Abyssinia empire and Adal/Somali empires indicate that Oromo people are newcomers to most of modern-day central Ethiopia.
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Ossetians
The Ossetians (Ossetic: ирæттæ, irættæ) are an Iranic ethnic group of the Caucasus Mountains, indigenous to the region known as Ossetia. They speak Ossetic, an Iranian language of the Eastern branch of the Indo-European languages family, with most also fluent in Russian as a second language. The Ossetians are mostly Eastern Orthodox Christian, with a Muslim minority.
The Ossetians mostly populate Ossetia, which is politically divided between North Ossetia–Alania in Russia, and South Ossetia, which since the 2008 South Ossetia war has been de-facto independent from Georgia.
The Russian geographic name "Ossetia" and the corresponding ethnic designation "Ossetians" comes from a Georgian root.
The Russians originally called the Ossetians Yas (ясы, connected with Iazyges).
In Late Antiquity, records became much more diffuse and the Iazyges generally ceased to be mentioned as a tribe. In the Middle Ages an East Iranian people appeared in Eastern-Europe, the Jazones. The Jazones, or Jász, an Ossetic people who migrated to Hungary, are first mentioned in Hungarian records in the year 1318, and their name, spelled in Greek means "Jasons" (Ιάσωνες). The Jász in Hungary maintained their language until the 18th century. While they have become linguistically Hungarian, descendants in the Jász area of Hungary still maintain some original culture and have folk consciousness of their origins.
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Pannonian Rusyns
Rusyns in Pannonia, or simply Rusyns or Ruthenians (Rusyn: Руснаци or Русини, Serbian and Croatian: Rusini (Русини in Serbian Cyrillic)), are a Slavic minority in Serbia and Croatia. They are officially considered a separate nationality in Serbia and Croatia, but are also considered to be a part of the northern Rusyns (Ruthenians) who live mostly in Ukraine, but also in Slovakia, Poland, Romania, Czech Republic, and Hungary.
The main difference between Rusyns in Pannonia and northern Rusyns is language: the language of the Rusyns in Pannonia has more Western Slavic features than the language of the northern Rusyns.
Rusyns in Pannonia mostly live in the autonomous province of Vojvodina in Serbia. There are 15,626 declared ethnic Rusyns in Vojvodina (2002 census) and their language is one of the six official languages of Vojvodina province. The village of Ruski Krstur in the Kula municipality is the cultural centre of the Pannonian Rusyns. There is also a considerable concentration of Rysyns in Novi Sad, where in 1820 the construction of St. Peter and Paul Greek Catholic parish church started, and was subsequently completed in 1834/1837. Other villages with a Rusyn majority include Kucura in the Vrbas municipality, and Bikić Do in the Šid municipality. There are also Pannonian Rusyn communities in Slavonia (Croatia), forming a majority in the village of Petrovci, Bogdanovci municipality, in Vukovar-Srijem county.
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Pliny the Elder
Gaius Plinius Secundus (23 AD – August 25, 79 AD), better known as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman author, naturalist, and natural philosopher, as well as naval and army commander of the early Roman Empire, and personal friend of the emperor Vespasian. Spending most of his spare time studying, writing or investigating natural and geographic phenomena in the field, he wrote an encyclopedic work, Naturalis Historia, which became a model for all such works written subsequently. Pliny the Younger, his nephew, wrote of him in a letter to the historian Tacitus:
Pliny is referring to the fact that Tacitus relied on his uncle's now missing work on the History of the German Wars. Pliny the Elder died on August 25, 79 AD, while attempting the rescue by ship of a friend and his family from the eruption of Mount Vesuvius that had just destroyed the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The prevailing wind would not allow his ship to leave the shore. His companions attributed his collapse and death to toxic fumes; but they were unaffected by the fumes, suggesting natural causes.
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Poles
The Polish people, or Poles (Polish: Polacy [pɔˈlat͡sɨ]; singular: Polak), are a nation indigenous to Poland. They speak the Polish language, which belongs to the historical Lechitic subgroup of West Slavic languages of Central Europe. The Polish word for a Polish person is "Polak" (masculine) and "Polka" (feminine).
The preamble to the Constitution of the Republic of Poland defines the Polish nation as comprising all the citizens of Poland. Poland's inhabitants live in the following historic regions of the country: Wielkopolska, Małopolska, Mazovia, Pomerania, Warmia, Mazury, Podlasie, Kujawy and Silesia. A wide-ranging Polish diaspora exists throughout Europe (Germany, France, the United Kingdom, Belarus, Lithuania and Ukraine), the Americas (the United States, Brazil and Argentina) and Australia. Chicago, in the United States, has the world's largest urban Polish population after Warsaw.
Over a thousand years ago, the Polans of Giecz, Gniezno and Poznań — an influential tribe in Wielkopolska — succeeded in uniting Lechitic tribes under what became the Piast dynasty, thus giving rise to the Polish state.
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Procopius
Procopius of Caesarea (Latin: Procopius Caesarensis, Ancient Greek: Προκόπιος ὁ Καισαρεύς; c. AD 500 – c. AD 565) was a prominent Byzantine scholar from Palestine. Accompanying the general Belisarius in the wars of the Emperor Justinian I, he became the principal historian of the 6th century, writing the Wars of Justinian, the Buildings of Justinian and the celebrated Secret History. He is commonly held to be the last major historian of the ancient world.
Apart from his own writings, the main source for Procopius' life is an entry in the Suda, a 10th century Byzantine encyclopedia that tells nothing about his early life. He was a native of Caesarea in Palaestina Prima (modern Israel). He would have received a conventional élite education in the Greek classics and then rhetoric, perhaps at the famous School of Gaza, may have attended law school, possibly at Berytus (modern Beirut) or Constantinople, and became a rhetor (barrister or advocate). He evidently knew Latin, as was natural for a man with legal training. In 527, the first year of Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I's reign, he became the adsessor (legal adviser) for Belisarius, Justinian's chief military commander who was then beginning a brilliant career.
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Ptolemy
Claudius Ptolemy ( /ˈtɒləmi/; Greek: Κλαύδιος Πτολεμαῖος, Klaudios Ptolemaios; Latin: Claudius Ptolemaeus; c. AD 90 – c. AD 168), was a Greek-Roman citizen of Egypt who wrote in Greek. He was a mathematician, astronomer, geographer, astrologer, and poet of a single epigram in the Greek Anthology. He lived in Egypt under Roman rule, and is believed to have been born in the town of Ptolemais Hermiou in the Thebaid. This theory, proposed by Theodore Meliteniotes, could be correct, but it is late (ca. 1360) and unsupported. There is no reason to suppose that he ever lived anywhere else than Alexandria, where he died around AD 168.
Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, at least three of which were of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science. The first is the astronomical treatise now known as the Almagest (in Greek, Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις, "The Great Treatise", originally Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις, "Mathematical Treatise"). The second is the Geography, which is a thorough discussion of the geographic knowledge of the Greco-Roman world. The third is the astrological treatise known sometimes in Greek as the Apotelesmatika (Ἀποτελεσματικά), more commonly in Greek as the Tetrabiblos (Τετράβιβλος "Four books"), and in Latin as the Quadripartitum (or four books) in which he attempted to adapt horoscopic astrology to the Aristotelian natural philosophy of his day.
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Radoslav Čelnik
Radoslav Čelnik (Serbian Cyrillic: Радослав Челник) was a duke (Voivode) of Srem in the 16th century. At first, Radoslav Čelnik was a general commander of Emperor Jovan Nenad's army. In 1527, when Emperor Jovan Nenad was murdered and his army was dispersed, Radoslav Čelnik, together with part of the former emperor's army moved from Bačka to Srem and acceded into the Ottoman service. Radoslav Čelnik then ruled over Srem as an Ottoman vassal and took for himself the title of the duke of Srem, while his residence was in Slankamen.
Being an Ottoman vassal, Radoslav Čelnik also secretly kept the connection with Habsburgs. When the Ottoman army passed through Srem, Radoslav Čelnik moved to Habsburg territory, but when the Ottomans returned from their foray, Radoslav Čelnik also returned to Srem. However, after this return, he did no longer ruled over entire Srem, and his residence was no more in Slankamen, but in the town named Nebojc, on the river Vuka near Vukovar. In 1530, he made agreement with the Habsburgs, and moved from Srem to Habsburg territory, publicly concluded his alliance with Ottomans, and acceded into Habsburg service.
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Romanians
The Romanians (dated: Rumanians or Roumanians; in Romanian: români pronounced [roˈmɨnʲ] or — historically, but now a seldom-used regionalism — rumâni; dated exonym: Vlachs) are an ethnic group native to Romania, who speak Romanian; they are the majority inhabitants of Romania.
The Romanian people are a nation in the meaning of ethnos (Romanian: etnie), defined by the sense of sharing a common Romanian culture, descent, and having Romanian as mother tongue, as well as by citizenship or by being subjects to the same country. The Romanian citizenship law legislated in March 1991 establishes the rights of second and third generation descendants of Romanian citizens to obtain a Romanian citizenship, if they speak fluent Romanian and are able to demonstrate sufficient knowledge in Romanian history and culture. 89.4 percent of Romania's people declared themselves as Romanians at the 2002 Romanian Census.
In one interpretation of the census results in Moldova, Moldovans are counted as Romanians, which would mean that the latter form part of the majority in that country as well. Romanians are also an ethnic minority in several nearby countries.
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Romanians of Serbia
Romanians (Romanian: "Românii din Serbia" or "Rumânii din Sârbie", Serbian: Rumuni or Румуни) are a recognised national minority in Serbia. The total number of declared Romanians in the 2002 Serbian census was 34,576, while 40,054 people declared themselves Vlachs; there are differing views among some of the Vlachs over they should be regarded as Romanians or as members of a distinctive nationality. In a Romanian-Yugoslav agreement of November 4, 2002, the Yugoslav authorities agreed to recognize the Romanian identity of the Vlach population in Central Serbia, but the agreement was not implemented. In April 2005, many deputies from the Council of Europe protested against the position of this population in Serbian society. In August 2007, they were officially recognized as a national minority, and their language was recognized as Romanian. Declared Romanians are mostly concentrated in the autonomous province of Vojvodina, while declared Vlachs are mostly concentrated in north-eastern parts of Central Serbia.
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Russians
The Russian people (Russian: русские, russkiye) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Russia, speaking the Russian language and primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries.
The English term Russians is also used to refer to the citizens of Russia, regardless of their ethnicity; the demonym Russian is translated into Russian as rossiyanin (россиянин, plural rossiyane), while the ethnic Russians are referred to as russkiye (sg. русский, russkiy).
According to the 2010 census, ethnic Russians make up about 81% of the population of Russia.
The modern Russian is formed from two groups, Northern and Southern, which were made up of Kriviches, Ilmen Slavs, Radimichs, Vyatiches and Severians East Slavic tribes. Genetic studies show that modern Russians do not differ significantly from Poles or Slovenians or Ukrainians. Some ethnographers, like Zelenin, affirm that Russians are more similar to Belarusians and Ukrainians than southern Russians to northern Russians. Russians in northern European Russia share moderate genetic similarities with Uralic peoples, who lived in modern north central European Russia and were partly assimilated by the Slavs as the Slavs migrated northeastwards. Among those peoples were Merya and Muromian.
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Rusyns
Carpatho-Rusyns or Ruthenes (Rusyn: Русины, Rusyns, also sometimes referred to as Carpatho-Russians or Rusnaks) are a primarily diasporic ethnic group who speak an Eastern Slavic language, known as Rusyn. Carpatho-Rusyns descend from a minority of Ruthenians who did not adopt the use of the ethnonym "Ukrainian" in the early twentieth century. The use of the term Rusyn was prohibited by some governments, as seen after 1945 in Soviet Transcarpathia, Poland, and Czechoslovakia.
Today, Slovakia, Poland, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Serbia and Croatia officially recognize contemporary Rusyns (or Ruthenes) as an ethnic minority. In 2007, Carpatho-Rusyns were recognized as a separate ethnicity in Ukraine by the Zakarpattia Regional Council. Rusyns within Ukraine have Ukrainian citizenship, and most have adopted a Ukrainian ethnic identity. Most contemporary self-identified ethnic Rusyns live outside of Ukraine.
Of the estimated 1.2 million people of Rusyn origin, only 55,000 have officially identified themselves politically or ethnically as such, according to contemporary censuses.[who?] The ethnic classification of Rusyns as a separate East Slavic ethnicity distinct from Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians is, however, controversial. The majority of Ukrainian scholars, as well as some Rusyns when considering their self-identification, consider Rusyns to be an ethnic subgroup of the Ukrainian people. This is disputed by some Lemko scholars.
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Saint Sava
Saint Sava (Serbian: Свети Сава, Sveti Sava, pronounced [sʋɛ̂ːtiː sǎːʋa], also Saint Sabbas; 1174 – 14 January 1236) was a Serbian Prince and Orthodox monk, the first Archbishop of the autocephalous Serbian Church, the founder of Serbian law and literature, and a diplomat. Sava was born Rastko Nemanjić (Растко Немањић, pronounced [râstkɔ nɛ̌maɲitɕ]), the youngest son of Serbian Grand Prince Stefan Nemanja (founder of the Nemanjić dynasty), and ruled the appanage of Hum briefly in 1190–1192. He became a monk in his youth, receiving the monastic name Sava (Sabbas), subsequently founding the monasteries of Hilandar on Mount Athos, and Žiča. In 1219 he was recognized as the first Archbishop of Serbs, by the Patriarch of Constantinople, and in the same year he authored the oldest known constitution of Serbia, Zakonopravilo, thus securing full independence; both religious and political. Sava heavily influenced and prospered Serbian medieval literature.
He is widely considered as one of the most important figures of Serbian history, and is canonized and venerated by the Serbian Orthodox Church, as its founder, on January 27 [O.S. January 14]. His life and personal devotion to his people has been interpreted in many artistic works from the Middle Ages to modern times. He is the patron saint of Serbian schools and schoolchildren.
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Saint Spyridon
Saint Spyridon, Bishop of Trimythous also sometimes written Saint Spiridon (Greek: Ἅγιος Σπυρίδων ca. 270 – 348) is a saint honoured in both the Eastern and Western Christian traditions.
Spyridon was born in Askia, in Cyprus. He worked as a shepherd and was known for his great piety. He married and had one daughter, Irene. Upon the death of his wife, Spyridon entered a monastery, and their daughter, a convent.
Spyridon eventually became Bishop of Trimythous, or Tremithous (today called Tremetousia), in the district of Larnaca. He took part in the First Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (325), where he was instrumental in countering the theological arguments of Arius and his followers.
He reportedly converted a pagan philosopher to Christianity by using a potsherd to illustrate how one single entity (a piece of pottery) could be composed of three unique entities (fire, water and clay); a metaphor for the Christian doctrine of the Trinity.
As soon as Spyridon finished speaking, the shard is said to have miraculously burst into flame, water dripped on the ground, and only dust remained in his hand (other accounts of this event say that it was a brick he held in his hand).
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Sarmatians
The Iron Age Sarmatians (Latin Sarmatæ or Sauromatæ, Sanskrit Sakas Greek Σαρμάται, Σαυρομάται) were an Iranian people in Classical Antiquity, flourishing from about the 5th century BC to the 4th century AD.
Their territory was known as Sarmatia to Greco-Roman ethnographers, corresponding to the western part of greater Scythia (modern Southern Russia, Ukraine, and the eastern Balkans). At their greatest reported extent, around 100 BC, these tribes ranged from the Vistula River to the mouth of the Danube and eastward to the Volga, bordering the shores of the Black and Caspian seas as well as the Caucasus to the south.
The Sarmatians declined in the 4th century with the incursions connected to the Migration period (Huns, Goths). The descendants of the Sarmatians became known as the Alans during the Early Middle Ages, and ultimately gave rise to the modern Ossetic ethnic group.
Sarmatae is in origin probably just one of several tribal names of the Sarmatians which came to be applied to the entire group as an exonym in Greco-Roman ethnography. Strabo in the 1st century names as the main tribes of the Sarmatians the Iazyges, the Roxolani, the Aorsi and the Siraces.
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Scordisci
The Scordisci (Greek: Σκορδίσκοι, Serbian: Skordisci / Скордисци) were an Iron Age tribe centered in the territory of present-day Serbia, at the confluence of the Savus (Sava), Dravus (Drava) and Danube rivers. They were historically notable from the beginning of the third century BC until the turn of the common era. At their zenith, their influence stretched over regions comprising parts of the present-day Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, Slovenia, Slovakia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their tribal name may be connected to the name of the Scordus mountain (Šar mountain) which was located between the regions of Illyria and Paionia. In the last centuries of the old era the land of the Scordisci was constituted as the tribal state of the Scordisci. After Roman conquest in the 1st century AD, Scordisci territories were included into the Roman Provinces of Pannonia, Moesia and Dacia.
The ethnic affiliation of the Scordisci has been debated by historians. Some refer to them as Celtic, Thracian or Illyrian or a Celtic mix of the above. The Scordisci were found during different timelines in Illyria, Thrace and Dacia sometimes splitting into more than one group like the Scordisci Major and the Scordisci Minor.
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Serb clans
Serb clans (Serbian: Српска племена, Serb tribes) is a general term referring to what are known as plemena (племена, tribes) and bratstva (братства, clan/brotherhood), traditional geo-political units of the Western Balkans (Montenegro and Herzegovina) that now richly attest social anthropology and family history (geneaology). The descendants of the clans are divided by regional and lately, national affiliation. It has traditionally been viewed as an ethnic Serb tradition.
The founders of the different clans have origin from the migrations following the fall of the Serbian Empire (e.g. Battle of Kosovo), when Serbs took refuge in the mountains and continued the feudal organization.
The English translations of 'Pleme' and 'Bratstvo' are very inconsistent, varying from source to source; therefore references to clans and tribes should be treated as only approximate.
Tribe (плeme, pleme plural: плeмeна, plemena) is a traditional territorial and political unit in Montenegro. The tribes are not necessarily kin as they only serve as a geopolitical unit.
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Serbian American
Serbian Americans are citizens of the United States who are of Serbian ancestry. For the 2000 US Census, 1.023.993 Americans indicated Serbian as their first ancestry, while 900.800 persons declared to have Serbian ancestry. Those can include Serbian Americans living in the United States for one or several generations, dual Serbian American citizens, or any other Serbian Americans who consider themselves to be affiliated to both cultures or countries. Some Serbian Americans might be born in Serbia, the United States or other countries with an ethnic Serbian population. Because some Serbs are not American citizens, others are dual citizens, and still others' ancestors have come to the US several generations ago, some of these people consider themselves to be simply Americans, Serbs, Serbs living in the United States or American Serbs.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau in 2005, 1.055.993 Americans declared Serbian descent. The metropolitan area around Chicago, Illinois, is of particular note for its large Serbian community. This can be seen in a number of architecturally notable church complexes such as St. Simeon Mirotochivi in the East Side neighborhood and New Gračanica monastery in Third Lake. Other substantial Serbian-American communities are Atlanta, Georgia; Buffalo, New York; Cleveland, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; New York, New York; and Wheeling, West Virginia.
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Serbian Australian
Serbian Australians are citizens of Australia who are of Serbian ancestry. According to the 2006 census, there are 95,364 people in Australia who are of Serbian ancestry. Serbs have migrated to Australia in various waves during the 20th century. The top 3 cities with the largest Serbian-Australian populations in 2001 are:
In the 1901 census, four men were registered as immigrants in Victoria from Serbia.
A wave of immigrants came during and after the World War II, fleeing the Axis and Ustasha occupation. Serbs were a large part of the immigrant community between 1948–55 and most of them opposed the communist regime then in place (Josip Broz Tito). In 1954 there were 6,118 Yugoslav immigrants in Victoria. Worsening economy in Yugoslavia in the 60s and 70s prompted another wave. Many of those who settled in Victoria had worked in Western Europe (i.e. Germany) prior to coming. The 1961-1971 numbers increase to 49,755 people. After the Yugoslav Wars that broke the federal state of Yugoslavia, Serbia and Montenegro (Federal Republic of Yugoslavia) succeeded as a federal union. In 1996 the Serbian and Montenegrin immigrants are counted separately and Serbs numbered 4,133 living in Victoria. The 2001 census recorded 19,643 people born in Serbia and Montenegro.
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Serbian Canadians
Serbian Canadians are Canadians with Serbian descent. Serbs have migrated to Canada in various waves during the 20th century. The 2006 census recorded over 99 690 Canadians of Serbian descent.
The first Serbs to arrive in Canada came to British Columbia between 1850 and 1870. Many were employed in mining or forestry near such towns as Phoenix, Golden, Prince Rupert and Kamloops.
By 1900, Serbs began to arrive in Alberta. Many of these early settlers had migrated north from the north-west region of the United States. Coal mining attracted them to Lethbridge, while road construction was a source of employment for those in Macleod and Cadomin. Many Serbs worked on the construction of railway lines that now extend from Edmonton to the Pacific coast.
The period between the two World Wars witnessed a major increase in Serbian immigration to Canada. As with other periods of immigration, however, the exact number arriving at this time is not known.
Over 30,000 Yugoslavs came to Canada between 1919 and 1939, this included an estimated 10,000 Serbs. Many of these immigrants were single, working men who had left families in their home country to seek work in Canada. The vast majority of Serbs arriving between the wars settled in Ontario or British Columbia.
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Serbian culture
Serbian culture refers to the culture of Serbia and of ethnic Serbs.
Serbian culture starts with that of the South Slavic peoples that lived in the Balkans. Early on, Serbs may have been influenced by the Paleo-Balkan peoples. The Byzantine Empire had a great influence on the culture; Serbs were initially governing the Byzantine frontiers in the name of the emperor and were later through their sworn alliance given independence, baptized by Greek missionaries and adopted the Cyrillic script. The Serbian Orthodox Church gained autocephaly from Constantinople in 1219. The Republic of Venice influenced the maritime regions in the Middle Ages. The Ottoman Empire conquered Serbia in 1459 and placed the country under a state of occupation which lasted for four centuries, the consequences of which suppressed Serbian culture but also greatly influenced Serbian Art. Serbian culture flourished from 1718 in regions that were under the control of the Habsburg Monarchy.
Following Serbia's autonomy after the Serbian revolution and eventual independence, the culture of Serbia was restrengthened within its people.
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Serbian diaspora
There are currently more than 3.5 million Serbs in diaspora throughout the world (those that are not constitutional peoples; like in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina in this case). The Serbian diaspora was the consequence of either voluntary departure, coercion and/or forced migrations or expulsions that occurred in six large waves:
The existence of the centuries-old Serbian populations in countries such as Austria, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Romania, Russia, Poland, Slovakia, Turkey and Ukraine, is the result of historical circumstances – the migrations to the North and the East, due to the Turkish conquests of the Balkans and as a result of politics, especially when the Communist Party came into power, but even more when the communist state of Yugoslavia collapsed into inter-ethnic conflict, resulting in mass expulsions of people from certain regions as refugees of war. Although some members of the Serbian diaspora do not speak Serbian or practice religion, they are still traditionally regarded as Serbs or Serbians rather than Yugoslavs.
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Serbian folklore
Serbian folklore is the folk traditions among ethnic Serbs. The earliest examples of Serbian folklore are seen in the pre-Christian Slavic customs transformed into Christianity.
The Apostles of the Slavs, Cyril and Methodius, have been venerated by Serbian Orthodox Christians since their Christianization in 867, they have been considered Serbs by historians.
In Krajište and Vlasina there are epic stories of the extermination of Roman males in a battle, and of the settling of Russians (Antes)
Serbian epic poetry (Српске епске народне песме) is a form of epic poetry written by Serbs originating in today's Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Montenegro. The main cycles were composed by unknown Serb authors between the 14th and 19th centuries. They are largely concerned with historical events and personages.
The corpus of Serbian epic poetry is divided into cycles:
Serbian folk dance group
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Serbs
The Serbs (Serbian: Срби, Srbi, pronounced [sr̩̂bi]) are a nation and South Slavic ethnic group of the Balkans and southern Central Europe. Serbs live mainly in Serbia and the disputed territory of Kosovo, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and form significant minorities in Croatia, the Republic of Macedonia and Slovenia. Likewise, Serbs are an officially recognized minority in Romania, Hungary, Albania, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. There is also a large Serbian diaspora in Western Europe, particularly in Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, France, Italy and the United Kingdom. More than a million people of Serbian origin live in German-speaking countries, including Luxembourg (1%), Austria (1.8%), Switzerland (1%), and Germany (~1%). Outside Europe, there are significant Serbian communities in the United States (198,000 Serbian plus additional 326,000 "Yugoslav" nationals),Canada (72,690 in 2006) and Australia (95,000 in 2006).
The Serbs are a Slavic people, specifically of the South Slavic subgroup, which has its origins in the 6th and 7th century communities developed in Southeastern Europe (see Great Migration). Slav raids on Eastern Roman territory are mentioned in 518, and by the 580s they had conquered large areas referred to as Sclavinia (transl. Slavdom, from Sklavenoi – Σκλαυηνοι, the early South Slavic tribe which is eponymous to the current ethnic and linguistic Indo-European people). In 649, Constantine III relocates conquered Slavs "from the Vardar" to Gordoservon (Serb habitat). Among communities part in the Serb ethnogenesis are the Romanized Paleo-Balkan tribes of Illyrians, Thracians and Dacians, Celts, Greek colonies and Romans.
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Serbs in Austria
The Serbs in Austria are the third largest ethnic group of Austria. According to the 2001 census, there were 135 376 Serbs with Austrian citizenship, with 2,2% of the total population speaking Serbian as mother tongue. The majority of Serbs in Austria have lived here since the 60s and 70s, while some have immigrated during the Yugoslav Wars (1991-1996) and Kosovo War (1999).
The real number of ethnic Serbs in Austria is thought to be much higher, e.g. the number of members of the ethnic Serbian associations (Savez Srba u Austriji) exceeds 250,000 people.
The Serbs have lived on Austrian territory for several centuries.
2,2% of the population has Serbian as primary language.
According to the Naturalisation Act 1998, Austrian citizenship is based on the principle of jus sanguinis and a regular waiting period of ten years for naturalisation. The new law shifted the burden of proof to the individual immigrant, who now has to show that they are sufficiently integrated into Austrian society. Most importantly, the migrant has to prove that they are economically self-sufficient, that is, not in need of social assistance, and sufficiently capable in speaking German. Minor criminal offences can also constitute reasons for denial of citizenship.
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Serbs in France
French Serbs number between 70,000 and 100,000 in the territory of France. They are located mostly in the regions of Paris, Lyon, Grenoble, Belfort, Mulhouse, Montbéliard and Strasbourg.
A wave of Serbs (Yugoslavs) came with the influx of other Southern Europeans (Greeks, Italians, Spaniards and Portuguese) in the 1920's.
Most Serbs moved to France during the 1960's and 1970's, some also came as refugees during the Yugoslav wars of the 1990s. In the late 2000's, Serbian's began to emigrate once again to France. A minority are (descendants of) people of Serbian origin who were established in France in the aftermath of the First World War (e.g. Michel Auclair).
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Serbs in Germany
Serbs (Serbs in Germany, Srbi u Nemačkoj) are the seventh largest group of foreigners in Germany.
There were 424,037 people with Serbian citizenship living in Germany in 2008. They are located mostly in the regions of Berlin, Bremen, Munich and Stuttgart.
Most Serbs living in Germany, moved during the 1960s and 1970s as Gastarbeiter or "Guest workers" when Serbia was part of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. A small percentage of Serbs migrated to Germany as refugees during the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s.
The majority (64%) of the Serbian population is concentrated in three federal states: North Rhine-Westphalia, Baden-Württemberg and Bavaria. Within the three states the Serbs are numerous in Düsseldorf, Stuttgart and Munich.
In 2010, the Federal Statistical Office, the number of 179,048 Serb nationals in Germany has issued. Another 93,013 people living in Germany with the citizenship of the former Serbia and Montenegro have not yet decided on one of the possible new citizenships.
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Serbs in Greece
Serbs in Greece (Greek: Σέρβοι) are people of Serbian ancestry living in Greece (Greeks of Serbian descent, ethnic Serbs in Greece). They number more than 10,000 people, with 5,200 born in Serbia and having Greek citizenship, according to a 2001 census.
An estimated 350,000 Serbian citizens visited Greece in 2008. 432,000 Serbians visited in 2009. Many Serbs visit Greece because of the important Serbian heritage found in the country. Some of the cultural and religious sites especially important to Serbs include Hilandar Monastery in Mount Athos, Zeytinlik Cemetery in Thessaloniki, and the island of Corfu.
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Serbs in Italy
Italian Serbs (Serbs of Italy, Italian: Serbi in Italia) number around 53,000 in the territory of Italy.
40,000 Serbs live in northern Italy. In Arzignano there are non-autochtonous thousands of Serbians living with Serbs from all over former Yugoslavia.
In Trieste, about 5,700 Serbs live in the city. In 1782 the first Serbian school opened, and in the 19th century the Serbian Orthodox "Saint Spyridon church" was built near the Ponte Rosso square.
When the Serbs claimed protection by Emperor Heraclius (r. 610-640), they were exposed to the Christian faith immediately by "Roman elders".
After an Arab (Saracen) raid and subsequent sieges along the coast of Dalmatia in the late 860s, Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886), who had put the Slavs of Dalmatia under his suzerainty, sent the Serbs along other tribes into Lombardy, where the Slavs would besiege Saracen Bari in 871.
According to Graziadio Isaia Ascoli, the first Serbs who settled in Molise were brought by Skanderbeg during his Italian expedition in 1460—1462, together with Albanians.
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Serbs in Romania
The Romanian Serbs (Sârbii) are an ethnic minority in Romania. According to the 2002 census, there were 22,518 Serbs in Romania or 0.1% of the population (the 1992 census recorded 29,408 Serbs, or 0.1% of the population). Serbs mostly live in western Romania, in the Romanian part of the Banat region, where they constitute absolute majority in two communes and relative majority in one other.
In the Caraş-Severin County, the Serbs constitute absolute majority in the commune of Pojejena (52.09%) [3] and a plurality in the commune of Socol (49.54%) [4]. Serbs also constitute absolute majority in the municipality of Sviniţa (87.27%) [5], in the Mehedinţi County. The region where these three municipalities are located is known as Clisura Dunării in Romanian or Banatska Klisura (Банатска Клисура) in Serbian.
Timis:
Serb population in Romania was larger in the past. Although most of the Serbs lived in Banat, there was also a Serb population living in what is now Arad County of Romania (an area known as Pomorišje in Serbian), and in the former Principality of Transylvania, where they served as soldiers of Transylvanian rulers.
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Serbs in Slovenia
The Serbs in Slovenia are an ethnic group living in Slovenia. In the 2002 census, 38,964 people of Slovenia declared themselves of Serb ethnicity, which corresponds to 1.98% of the total population of Slovenia, making them the second largest ethnic group in the country, after the Slovenes.
Most of Serbs in Slovenia live in Central Slovenia (42.4% of the Serb population in the country), followed by Upper Carniola (14.6%), and the Savinja region (11.0%). Around 8.1% of Slovenia's Serbs live in the Littoral-Karst region, where they represent 3.4% of the overall population region. Elsewhere, the Serbian community is largely confined to the urban areas of Nova Gorica, Ajdovščina, Maribor and Novo Mesto while in the regions of Mura Valley and Slovenian Carinthia, the number of Serbs is negligible.
Most of the Serbs in Slovenia are first or second generation settlers from other republics of former Yugoslavia, mostly from Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia (including Kosovo), but also from Croatia and Montenegro. After World War II, many Serbs employed in the Yugoslav People's Army were stationed in the Socialist Republic of Slovenia with their families. In the period of 1971-1981, many ethnic Serbs migrated from Bosnia and Herzegovina to pursue better careers and economical benefits in Slovenia. Before 1991, many Serbs registered as Yugoslavs, and many still prefer referring to their mother tongue as Serbo-Croatian rather than Serbian. In the last years, many Serbs from Montenegro started referring to themselves as Montenegrians, while some Serbs from Bosnia and Herzegovina have registered as Bosnians. It also has to be noted that in the last census in 2002, more than 10% of all Slovenian population decided not to answer the question regarding their ethnic affiliation. All these elements make the estimate of the overall number of Serbs in Slovenia difficult.
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Serbs in Switzerland
There was substantial immigration to Switzerland from Former Yugoslavia during the 1990s and 2000s. While moderate numbers of Yugoslav citizens had residence in Switzerland during the 1980s, the bulk of immigration took place as a consequence of the Yugoslav War and the later Kosovo War, as well as by means of family reunion of those who had immigrated during this period.
About half a million immigrants from Former Yugoslavia lived in Switzerland as of 2009, corresponding to roughly 6.5% of total Swiss population. About half of this number are Albanians (mostly Kosovar Albanians and to a lesser extent Albanians from Macedonia), the other half consists of South Slavic groups (Serbs and Croats; smaller numbers of Macedonians and Slovenians).
Taken as a single group, people from Former Yugoslavia are the largest immigrant group in Switzerland, followed by the Italians at about 300,000. Considered as separate ethnicities, the Albanians form the third largest immigrant group, after the Italians and the Germans.
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Serbs in Vojvodina
The Serbs are the largest ethnic group in the Vojvodina province of Serbia. For centuries, they lived under foreign rule, but despite many attempts that aimed to assimilate them, Vojvodinian Serbs preserved their national consciousness, language, religion, culture as well as the rich folklore, national costumes and music. According to the 2002 census, there were 1,321,807 Serbs in Vojvodina or 65.05% of the population of the province. There is a small part of the historical territory of Vojvodinian Serbs that lies outside the autonomous province of Vojvodina, including Belgrade's municipalities of Zemun, Novi Beograd and Surčin, the tiny geographical area of Pančevački Rit of Belgrade's Palilula municipality, and the village of Ostrovo, which is located in the urban municipality of Kostolac of Požarevac city.
Before the Roman conquest in the 1st century BC, Illyrian, Thracian and Celtic tribes inhabited the territory of present day Vojvodina region. During the Roman rule, original inhabitants were heavily Romanized, and latter they are known under name of Vlachs. It is thought that this original population had not entirely disappeared, leaving certain genetic traces among the modern Serb population of the region.
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Serbs of Kosovo
Kosovo Serbs (Serbian: Косовци, Kosovci, meaning "people of Kosovo", sing; m Kosovac, f Kosovka) are the second largest ethnic group in Kosovo. By the 12th century, the cultural, diplomatic and religious core of the Serbian Kingdom was located in Kosovo. This became essential to the Serbian Empire of the 14th century.
During the 20th century Serbian population constantly decreased. Their share in the overall population of the region is estimated at 7% by the CIA. Serbs mostly populate the enclaves across Kosovo, North Kosovo being the largest one.
Large-scale emigration of ethnic Serbs, especially since 1999 onwards, makes them the only major ethnic group in Kosovo to have a negative natural growth rate with deaths exceeding births. BBC reports that fewer than 100,000, 5% Serbs remained in Kosovo following a post-war exodus of non-Albanians. The Serbian minority live in separate areas watched over by NATO peacekeepers. International diplomats have voiced concern over slow progress on their rights.[citation needed] Human Rights Watch pointed out discrimination against Serbs and Roma in Kosovo immediately after the War in Kosovo.
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Serbs of Montenegro
Montenegrin Serbs (Serbian: Црногорcки Cрби) compose the second largest ethnic group in Montenegro (28.73% in 2011), after the Montenegrins. The presence of Serbs in Montenegro is first attested in the Middle Ages; since the 1910 census, when ethnicity was recorded, they formed the absolute majority of the country until the 1948 census, in which the option of the identification as a Montenegrin was allowed (see Demographic history of Montenegro).
Slav raids on Eastern Roman territory are mentioned in 518, and by the 580s they had conquered large areas referred to as Sclavinia (transl. Slavdom, from Sklavenoi). According to Byzantine sources, Serbs held the region during Heraclius (r. 610-641); the South Slavic areas were organized into župa (administrative division, ruled by the župan, similarly to the strategos). The Serbs were in charge in Pagania, Zachumlia, Travunia (with Konavle), Doclea, Rascia (with Bosnia). Doclea, Travunia and Rascia held the territory corresponding to present-day Montenegro, while the most important towns included Medun, Bar. The hinterlands were part of Zagorje, the maritime Pomorje.
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Serbs of Toronto
The Serbs of Toronto (Serbian language: Срби у Торонту, Srbi u Torontu) are a minority. Abroad, Toronto is said to be[who?] home to the 3rd largest Serb diaspora population after Vienna and Chicago.
The 2006 census showed that the total of single and multiple ethnic origin responses for Serbian was 25,160. Single ethnic origin responses was 17,265 while multiple ethnic origin responses was 7,890.[1] The total of single and multiple ethnic origin responses for Yugoslav was 12,685. Single ethnic origin responses was 4,950 while multiple ethnic origin responses was 7,725.
Toronto Population by Language in 2001 showed 13,635 Serbians.[2]
One of the first Serbian immigrants in Toronto was Sremac Herceg. He arrived in August 1903.[3] A great number of Serbian settlers that came in 1912 were from Niš region. In between Balkan Wars and World War I, more than two hundred Serbs lived in Toronto.[4]
In 1954 the Serb Youth Club in Toronto was formed, and its folk-dance group Stražilovo became one of the first highly successful dance groups in Canada.
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Serbs of Zagreb
The Serbs of Zagreb (Serbian:Srbi u Zagrebu Croatian:Srbi u Zagrebu Serbian Cyrillic: Срби у Загребу) are traditional minority group lives in the Croatian capital Zagreb.
Serbs have become equal citizens of Zagreb in 1781 after Emperor Francis II released edict named Patent of Toleration.
In Zagreb is the seat of Metropolitanate of Zagreb, Ljubljana and all Italy. In addition to this there is also Monastery of Saint Parascheva of the Balkans
There's more prominent Serbs who participated in the social life of city and among them may be enumerated following. In 1834 Hristifor Stanković ,president of the Zagreb Orthodox Church municipality, built the first theater in Gradec. Poet Petar Preradović was a prominent participant of Illyrian movement by whom today one of the city squares is named. Banker Atanas Popović was one of the founders of First Croatian Savings Bank whose successor today is Privredna banka Zagreb. Father of Dejan Medaković, Bogdan Medaković was president of Parliament of Croatia from 1913 till 1918.
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Shopi
Shopi (scientific transliteration of Bulgarian, Macedonian, Serbian Cyrillic: Шопи; Serbian Latin Šopi ; singular шоп, shop) is a regional term referring to people that speak a transitional dialect group of South Slavic, self-identifying as Bulgarians, Macedonians and Serbs. The areas traditionally inhabited by the Shopi is called Shopluk (Шоплук, Shopluk/srb. Šopluk), roughly where Bulgaria, Serbia and Macedonia meet.
The Shopluk is a so called meso region, but has nevertheless been given an ethnographic character by Serbian and Bulgarian writers.
According to Institute for Balkan Studies, the Shopluk was the mountainous area on the borders of Serbia, Bulgaria and Macedonia, of which boundaries are quite vague, in Serbia the term Shop has always denoted highlanders.Shopluk was used by Bulgarians to refer to the borderlands of Bulgaria, the inhabitants were called Shopi. In Bulgaria, the Shopi designation is currently attributed to villagers around Sofia.
The noting of Shopi as a "group" began in the 19th-century migrational waves of poor workers from the so-called Shopluk, poor areas (villages) beyond Sofia.
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Silesians
Silesians (Silesian: Ślůnzoki; Silesian German: Schläsinger; Polish: Ślązacy; Czech: Slezané; German: Schlesier), are the inhabitants of Silesia in Poland, Germany and the Czech Republic. A small diaspora community also exists in Karnes County, Texas in the USA and in Ostojićevo in Serbia.
There has been some debate over whether or not a group of Silesians (historically Upper Silesians) constitute a distinct nation. In modern history, they have been often pressured to declare themselves to be either German or Polish or Czech and embrace the language of the current governing nation. Nevertheless, 809,000 people declared Silesian nationality in the Polish national census in 2011, making them the largest minority group in Poland alongside the German minority (93% of Germans in Poland live in the Polish part of Silesia), while 12,231 people declared Silesian nationality in the Czech national census in 2011 (44,446 in 1991) and 6,361 people declared Silesian and Moravian nationality in the Slovak national census.
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Slovaks
The Slovaks, Slovak people, (Slovak Slováci, singular Slovák, feminine Slovenka, plural Slovenky) are a West Slavic people that primarily inhabit Slovakia and speak the Slovak language, which is closely related to the Czech language.
Most Slovaks today live within the borders of the independent Slovakia (circa 5,050,000). There are Slovak minorities in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Serbia and sizeable populations of immigrants and their descendants in the U.S. and in Canada.
The first known Slavic states on the territory of present-day Slovakia were the Empire of Samo and the Principality of Nitra, founded sometime in the 8th century.
Great Moravia (833 - ?907) was a Slavic state in the 9th and early 10th centuries, whose creators were the ancestors of the Czechs and Slovaks. Its formation and rich cultural heritage have attracted somewhat more interest since 19th century. Important developments took place at this time, including the mission of Greek monks Cyril and Methodius, the development of the Glagolitic alphabet (an early form of the Cyrillic script), and the use of Old Church Slavonic as the official and literary language.
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Slovaks in Vojvodina
Slovaks are the third largest ethnic group in the Vojvodina province of Serbia. According to the 2002 census, there are 56,637 ethnic Slovaks in Vojvodina, constituting 2.79% in the population of the province. The number of ethnic Slovaks in the whole of Serbia is 59,021, forming 0.79% of the country's total population.
Like the rest of the ethnic Slovaks, they speak the Slovak language, but most of them are Protestant (Evangelic) by faith and not Roman Catholic like the most of the Slovaks in Slovakia. Slovak is one of the six official languages of Vojvodina.
Most Slovak live in Kovačica (8.497 Slovaks) and Bački Petrovac (5.773 Slovaks).There are two municipalities in Vojvodina with absolute or relative Slovak majority: Bački Petrovac (with 66.41% Slovaks) and Kovačica (with 41.07% Slovaks). The towns of Kovačica and Bački Petrovac are the cultural centre of the Slovaks in Vojvodina.
The settlements in Vojvodina with absolute or relative Slovak majority are:
In the 9th century, the northern parts of present-day Vojvodina were part of Great Moravia. During that time, the ethnic border between Slovak and Serb settlements was also somewhere in the northern part of present-day Vojvodina.
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Slovenes
The Slovenes, Slovene people, Slovenians, or Slovenian people (Slovene Slovenci, dual Slovenca, singular Slovenec, feminine Slovenke, dual Slovenki, singular Slovenka), living primarily in Slovenia in South-Central Europe, are the northernmost South Slavic people. The language the Slovenes speak is Slovene, a South Slavic language with significant similarities to the West Slavic languages. Recognised Slovene minorities are present in Italy, Austria, Hungary, and Croatia, and there are significant Slovene expatriate communities in the United States and Canada, the European countries, Argentina, and Australia.
Most Slovenes today live within the borders of the independent Slovenia (2,007,711 est. 2008). There are autochthonous Slovene minorities in northeastern parts of Italy (estimated at 83,000 – 100,000), southern Austria (24,855), Croatia (13,200) and Hungary (3,180). Slovenes are recognized as national minorities in all four countries with which Slovenia shares a land border (Austria, Croatia, Hungary and Italy).
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Sorbs
Sorbs (Upper Sorbian: Serbja; Lower Sorbian: Serby also known as Wends, Lusatian Sorbs or Lusatian Serbs) are a Western Slavic people of Central Europe living predominantly in Lusatia, a region on the territory of Germany and Poland. In Germany they live in the states of Brandenburg and Saxony. They speak the Sorbian languages (Wendish, Lusatian) - closely related to Polish and Czech - officially recognized and protected as a minority language of Germany. They are predominantly Roman Catholics and Lutheran Protestants.
Sorbs are divided into two geographical groups:
The dialects spoken vary in intelligibility in different areas.
Lusatian tribes are noted in the work of the Bavarian Geographer. The document contains a list of the tribes in Central-Eastern Europe east of the Elbe and north of the Danube to the Volga rivers to the Black and Caspian Sea most of them of Slavic origin. Having settled by the Elbe, Spree and Neisse in the 6th century, Sorbian tribes divided into two main groups, which have taken their names from the characteristics of the area where they had settled. Sorbs living on the swampy broads of the Lower Spree have taken their name from the word marsh. The Milceni (ancestors of Upper Sorbs) settled on fertile soil around Upper Spree, the name derives from the word měl’ (loess soil). Both groups were separated from each other by a wide and uninhabited forest range. The rest of the tribes settled themselves between the Elbe and Saale. Among many Slavic tribes Bavarian Geographer noted also few lusatian tribes:
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Starina Novak
Starina Novak (Serbian: Старинa Новак, Romanian: Baba Novac, English: Old Novak) was a Serbian hajduk (brigand and revolutionary) who distinguished himself in many battles against the Ottoman Empire. He is considered a Serbian national hero and is highly respected in neighboring Romania as a national hero as well.
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Starčevo culture
The Starčevo culture, sometimes included within a larger grouping known as the Starčevo–Kőrös–Criş culture, is an archaeological culture of Southeastern Europe, dating to the Neolithic period between c. 5500 and 4500 BCE (according to other source, between 6200 and 5200 BCE).
Starčevo, the type site, is located on the north bank of the Danube in Serbia (Vojvodina province), opposite Belgrade. It represents the earliest settled farming society in the area, although hunting and gathering still provided a significant portion of the inhabitants' diet.
The pottery is usually coarse but finer fluted and painted vessels later emerged. A type of bone spatula, perhaps for scooping flour, is a distinctive artifact. The Kőrös is a similar culture in Hungary named after the River Kőrös with a closely related culture which also used footed vessels but fewer painted ones. Both have given their names to the wider culture of the region in that period.
Parallel and closely related cultures also include the Karanovo culture in Bulgaria, Criş in Romania and the pre-Sesklo in Greece.
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Stefan Lazarević
Stefan Lazarević (Serbian: Стефан Лазаревић) known also as Stevan the Tall (Стеван Високи, l. 1374 – 19 July 1427) was a Serbian Despot, ruler of the Serbian Despotate between 1389 and 1427. He was the son and heir to Prince Lazar, who died at the Battle of Kosovo against the Turks in 1389, and Princess Milica from the subordinate branch of the Nemanjić dynasty. His sister, Princess Olivera Despina, married the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I, his brother-in-law, with whom he sided in a number of battles. Despot Stefan was a poet and a moderniser. His reign and his personal literary works are sometimes associated with early signs of the Renaissance in Serbian lands. He introduced knightly tournaments, modern battle tactics, and firearms to Serbia.
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Stefan Nemanja
Stefan Nemanja (Old Church Slavonic: Стѣфань, Serbian: Стефан Немања, pronounced [stefan nemaɲa] ; ca 1113 – 13 February 1199) was the Grand Prince (Veliki Župan) of the Serbian Grand Principality (Rascia) from 1166 to 1196, an heir of the Vukanović dynasty that marked the beginning of a greater Serbian realm (he is the founding father of the Nemanjić dynasty).
He is remembered for his contributions to Serbian culture and history, being the founder of the powerful Serbian state that would evolve into the Serbian Empire, and the national church. He was the father of Stefan Nemanjić, the first King of Serbia, and of Saint Sava, the first archbishop of the Serbian Orthodox Church. In 1196, he abdicated in favour of his son Stefan, and went to Mount Athos, where he became a monk and took the name of Simeon. Together with his son Sava, Simeon built the Hilandar Monastery in 1198-1199, which became the cradle of the Serbian Church.
After his death, Stefan Nemanja was canonized by the Serbian Orthodox Church under the name Saint Simeon the Myrrh-streaming (Свети Симеон Мироточиви) after numerous alleged miracles following his death. He is regarded the most remarkable Serb for his literary contributions and altruistic attributes, according to the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts.
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Tacitus
Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (AD 56 – AD 117) was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving portions of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—examine the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero and those who reigned in the Year of the Four Emperors. These two works span the history of the Roman Empire from the death of Augustus in AD 14 to (presumably) the death of emperor Domitian in AD 96. There are substantial lacunae in the surviving texts, including one four books long in the Annals.
Other writings by him discuss oratory (in dialogue format, see Dialogus de oratoribus), Germania (in De origine et situ Germanorum), and the life of his father-in-law Agricola, mainly focusing on his campaign in Britannia (see De vita et moribus Iulii Agricolae).
Tacitus is considered to be one of the greatest Roman historians. He lived in what has been called the Silver Age of Latin literature, and as well as the brevity and compactness of his Latin prose, he is known for his penetrating insights into the psychology of power politics.
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Teodor of Vršac
Teodor (Serbian Cyrillic: Теодор; fl. 1594) was the Serbian Orthodox Bishop of Vršac (епископ вршачки), who in 1594 was the leader of the Banat Uprising against Ottoman occupation amidst the Long War (1593-1606). After talks with Sigismund Báthory, Teodor organizes the revolt with Sava Ban and voivode Velja Mironić. The revolt saw the liberation of the villages of Banat, with Vršac. The Serb rebels used icon depictions of Saint Sava as war flags, as it would strengthen them in battle. The pasha of Temeşvar Eyalet captured Teodor, and had him burned to death, alive. The same year, as a response to the uprising, Saint Sava's remains are burnt at the Vračar hill on the order of Sinan Pasha, who fought the rebels. He was proclaimed a saint (as "Свети свештеномученик Теодор, епископ вршачки", Saint Hieromartyr Theodore, Bishop of Vršac) of the Serbian Orthodox Church, canonized on May 29, 1994, with his feast on May 16 (Julian), or May 29 (Gregorian).
wn.com/Teodor_of_Vršac -
Turks in Kosovo
The Turks in Kosovo, also known as Kosovo Turks, Kosovan Turks and Kosovar Turks (Turkish: Kosova Türkleri) are the ethnic Turks who constitute a minority group in Kosovo.
Turkish settlement into Kosovo began in the early fourteenth century after the medieval Serbian state lost the Battle of Kosovo and the territory came under Ottoman rule. Substantial waves of Turkish colonisers began from 1389-1455 when, during the Ottoman conquest, soldiers, officials, and merchants began to make their appearance in the major towns of Kosovo. However, the Ottoman Turks lost control over Kosovo in 1912, and Kosovo came under the de facto authority of the Kingdom of Serbia. Following the Austrian and Bulgarian occupation during World War I, Kosovo became part of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1918. When the Axis powers occupied Yugoslavia in 1941, Kosovo became part of Albania, which was itself controlled by Italy. With the defeat of the Axis powers, Yugoslavia, then ruled by Communists led by Josip Broz Tito, regained control over Kosovo. Meanwhile, the Turks became an officially recognised minority by Yugoslavia; as a result, the number of registered Turks in Kosovo jumped from a mere 1,313 (or 0.2% of the population) in 1948 to 34,343 (4.3% of Kosovo's population) in the 1953 census. However, many Turkish inhabitants began to emigrate to Turkey until 1958 on the basis of a bilingual contract between Yugoslavia and Turkey.
wn.com/Turks_in_Kosovo -
Ukrainians
Ukrainians (Ukrainian: Українці, Ukrayintsi, [ukrɑˈjinʲtsʲi]) are an East Slavic ethnic group native to Ukraine, which is the sixth-largest nation in Europe. The Constitution of Ukraine applies the term 'Ukrainians' to all its citizens. According to some dictionary definitions, a descriptive name for the "inhabitants of Ukraine" is Ukrainian or Ukrainian people.Russians and Belarusians are considered the closest relatives of Ukrainians, while Rusyns are either considered another closely related group, or an ethnic subgroup of Ukrainians.
Ethnonym Ukrainians became widely accepted only in the 20th century, so modern Ukrainians identify their ancestry with differently named historical Slavic groups, who are often called Ukrainians too, in retrospect. The oldest recorded ethnonyms used for Ukrainian ancestors are Rusy, Rusyny, and Rusychi (from term Rus'). From the 9th to 12th centuries those names applied to the population of Kievan Rus', as the united state of Rusy is restrospectively called. Similar names were adopted by the proto-Russian and proto-Belarusian inhabitants of the northern principalities of Rus', reflecting the common origin of all those East Slavic peoples.
wn.com/Ukrainians -
Unknown Archont
The Unknown Archon is a conventional name given by historians to the Serbian leader who led the White Serbs from their homeland to settle in the Balkans after 610, during the reign of Byzantine Emperor Heraclius (610–641).
The main record of this person is in the De Administrando Imperio, a book written in the 950s by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitos. He is described as being a successor alongside an unnamed brother to a Serb king and having led part of the Serbs from White Serbia during the reign of Emperor Heraclius. On their way south they vanquished the Avars, before eventually settling in Servia (The place still bears its name), the hinterlands of Thessaloniki, a province which Heraclius granted them with the task to protect Byzantium from future threats, such as Avars.
The Serbs left the province and moved northwards, until they came to Belgrade where the strategos of the theme gave them the areas of Rascia, Bosnia, Trebounia), Zachlumi, Pagania, Neretvia and Duklja (Byzantine Sclaviniae) after they swore allegiance to the Emperor. The date of his death is unknown, however it is attested before the arrival of the Bulgars in the Balkans (681).
wn.com/Unknown_Archont -
Višeslav of Serbia
Višeslav (Serbian: Вишеслав, Greek: Βοίσέσθλαβοζ) was Prince of the Serbs fl. 768–814. He united various Serb tribes into a unified state.
Višeslav was the great-grandson of the Unknown Archont, the leader of the White Serbs that settled the Balkans after an agreement with the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius (610–641).
He ruled the Županias of Neretva, Tara, Piva, Lim, his ancestral lands.
Višeslav united various Serbian provinces (kneževine) and tribes of the Byzantine Sclaviniae in the 8th century into the Principality of Serbia (known anachronistically in western sources as Raška). In 785, Constantine VI conquers the Sclaviniae of Macedonia ('Sclavenias penes Macedoniam'), situated to the south.
He ruled Serbia as Prince (Knez, Archont, ἄρχοντες) fl. 768–814 (During the rule of Charlemagne).
He was succeeded by his son Radoslav, who was the ruler of Serbia during the uprisings (819–822) of Ljudevit Posavski against the Franks. According to the Royal Frankish Annals, in 822, Ljudevit went from his seat in Sisak to the Serbs somewhere in western Bosnia who controlled a great part of Dalmatia ("Sorabos, quae natio magnam Dalmatiae partem obtinere dicitur").
wn.com/Višeslav_of_Serbia -
Vlachs
Vlach ( /ˈvlɑːk/ or /ˈvlæk/) is a blanket term covering several modern Latin peoples descending from the Latinised population in Central, Eastern and Southeastern Europe. English variations on the name include: Wallachians, Walla, Wlachs, Wallachs, Vlahs, Olahs or Ulahs. Groups that have historically been called Vlachs include: modern-day Romanians or Daco-Romanians, Aromanians or Macedo-Romanians, Morlachs, Megleno-Romanians and Istro-Romanians. Since the creation of the Romanian state, the term in English has mostly been used for those living outside Romania.
The Vlachs, which would develop into the modern Romanian ethnicity, do not become tangible before the High Middle Ages in Kedrenos (11th century), and their prehistory during the Migration period is a matter of scholarly speculation but according to the linguists and to many scholars, the existence of the present Eastern Romance languages prove the survival of the Thraco-Romans in the low-Danube basin during the Migration period and the Vlachs are all being well considered descendants of Romanised peoples of the area (incl. Thracians, Dacians and Illyrians).
wn.com/Vlachs -
Vlachs of Serbia
The Vlachs of Serbia (endonym: Rumâni, Serbian: Власи or Vlasi) are an ethnic minority of Serbia, culturally and linguistically related to Romanians. Vlachs mostly live in eastern Serbia, mainly in Timočka Krajina region (roughly corresponding to Bor and Zaječar District districts), but also in Braničevo and Pomoravlje districts. Also a small Vlach population exists in Smederevo and Velika Plana (Podunavlje District), and in the municipalities of Aleksinac and Kruševac (Rasina District), as well as in the South Banat District in Voivodina.
The name they identify with Rumâni din Sârbie in fact means Romanians from Serbia. Although they are ethnographically and linguistically related to the Romanians, within the Vlach community there are divergences on whether they belong or not to the Romanian nation and whether their minority should be amalgamated with the Romanian minority in Vojvodina.
In a Romanian-Yugoslav agreement from the November 4, 2002, the Yugoslav authorities agreed to recognize the Romanian identity of the Vlach population in Central Serbia,[dubious – discuss] but the agreement wasn't applied. In April 2005, 23 deputies from the Council of Europe, representatives from Hungary, Georgia, Lithuania, Romania, Moldova, Estonia, Armenia, Azerbaïdjan, Denmark and Bulgaria protested against Serbia's treatment of this population.
wn.com/Vlachs_of_Serbia -
Vlade Divac
Vlade Divac (Serbian: Владе Дивац, pronounced [ʋlǎːde dǐːʋats]) (born February 3, 1968 in Prijepolje, Serbia, Yugoslavia) is a retired Yugoslav and Serbian professional basketball player who spent most of his career in the NBA. At 7 ft 1 in, he played center and was known for his passing skills. Divac was among the first group of European basketball players to transfer to the NBA in the late 1980s and was named as one of the 50 Greatest Euroleague Contributors. Divac is one of six players in NBA history to record 13,000 points, 9,000 rebounds, 3,000 assists and 1,500 blocked shots, along with Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Tim Duncan, Shaquille O'Neal, Kevin Garnett and Hakeem Olajuwon. (The NBA hasn't always kept track of blocked shots, so some other players, such as Bill Russell, probably also had similar career achievements.) Divac is also the only NBA player born and trained outside of the United States to play in over 1,000 games in the NBA. On August 20, 2010, Divac was inducted into the FIBA Hall of Fame in recognition of his play in international competition.
wn.com/Vlade_Divac -
Vladimir Ćorović
Vladimir Ćorović (Serbian: Владимир Ћоровић ; October 27, 1885, Mostar - April 12, 1941, Greece) was a 20th-century Serbian historian, member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts (SANU). He is best known for his many acclaimed works on the history of Serbs and Yugoslavia.
Vladimir Ćorović was born in Mostar in Herzegovina, then under Ottoman sovereignty but under Austro-Hungarian administration, to an Orthodox, Serb family involved in business.
Having finished primary school and the Gymnasium in Mostar, in which he was one of many future intellectuals, among whom were also his brother, Svetozar Ćorović. He continued his studies at the University of Vienna in 1904, studying Slavic Archaeology, History and Philology. He was active in the Serbian academic group „Zora“. He gained a Ph.D. in 1908 with a thesis on Lukijan Mušicki. His professors at Vienna were Vatroslav Jagić, Konstantin Jireček, and Milan Rešetar. In 1908 he went to Munich for specialized studies with Karl Krumbacher.
He spent some time in Bologna and Paris, exploring Old Slavic manuscripts. He moved to Sarajevo in September, 1909, and worked as a custos and later administrator at the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina, this period started his intensive years of working. He was a contributor to many known Serbian papers, such as „Bosanska vila“, „Srpski književni glasnik“ and „Letopis Matice srpske“. He was also a secretary of the Serbian cultural society „Prosvjeta“ and organizer of its calendar of 1911.
wn.com/Vladimir_Ćorović -
Yakuts
Yakuts (Yakut language: Саха, Saxa) are a Turkic people associated with the Sakha (Yakutia) Republic.
The Yakut or Sakha language belongs to the Northern branch of the Turkic family of languages. There are about 444,000 ethnic Yakuts (Russian census, 2002) mainly in the Republic of Sakha (Yakutia) in the Russian Federation, with some extending to the Amur, Magadan, Sakhalin regions, and the Taymyr and Evenki Autonomous Districts. Their share of the population of Yakutia lowered during Soviet rule due to forced immigration, and other relocation policies, but has slightly increased since.
The Yakuts are divided into two basic groups based on geography and economics. Yakuts in the north are historically semi-nomadic hunters, fishermen, reindeer breeders, while southern Yakuts engage in animal husbandry focusing on horses and cattle.
Yakuts originally lived around Olkhon and the region of Lake Baikal. But beginning in the 13th century they migrated to the basins of the Middle Lena, the Aldan and Vilyuy rivers under the pressure of the rising Mongols, where they mixed with other northern indigenous peoples of Russia such as the Evens and Evenks.
wn.com/Yakuts -
Yugoslavs
Yugoslavs (Serbo-Croatian: Jugoslaveni, Jugosloveni; Cyrillic script: Југословени; Slovene: Jugoslovani; Macedonian: Југословени; Bulgarian: югославяните) is a designation that was originally designed to refer to a united South Slav people. It has been used in two connotations, the first in an ethnic or supra-ethnic connotation, and the second as a term for citizens of the former Yugoslavia. Cultural and political advocates of Yugoslav identity have historically ascribed the identity to be applicable to all people of South Slav heritage, including those of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Montenegro, Serbia and the presently disputed region of Kosovo, Slovenia, and the Republic of Macedonia.
Ethnic Yugoslavs referred to those who exclusively viewed themselves as Yugoslavs with no other ethnic self-identification. Yugoslavs has also historically been used referred to a Yugoslav supra-ethnic nation that has "tribal" ethnicities, such as Croats, Serbs, and others within it.
In the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the official designation for those who declared themselves Yugoslav was with quotation marks, "Yugoslavs" (introduced in census 1971). Quotation marks were meant to distinguish Yugoslav ethnicity from Yugoslav citizenship – which was written without quotation marks. Shortly before the dissolution of Yugoslavia many of those who had identified themselves as ethnic "Yugoslavs" reverted to or adopted traditional nationalities such as Serbs, Croats, Bosniaks, Macedonians, Montenegrins, Muslims by nationality, Slovenes—and other small Yugoslav groups in Yugoslavia not officially represented by the state, including Bulgarians, Janjevci, Bunjevci, and Šokci. Some also decided to turn to sub-national regional identifications, especially in multi-ethnic historical regions like Istria, Vojvodina, or Bosnia. The Yugoslav designation however continues to be used by some.
wn.com/Yugoslavs -
Šokci
Šokci (Croatian: Šokci, Hungarian: Sokácok) are an ethnographic group of South Slavs who mainly identify as Croats. They are not considered a separate ethnicity in Croatia and elsewhere, while in Serbia they are. They have a distinct culture and tradition, differentiating them from other Croats. They live in various settlements along the Danube and Sava rivers in the historic regions of Slavonia, Baranja, Srem and western Bačka. These regions today span eastern Croatia, northern Serbia (the Vojvodina province), and southeastern Hungary.
Šokci are considered to be a native population of Slavonia and Syrmia in Croatia.
The origin of the first Šokci people is not completely clear. In the Early Middle Ages there was a toponym called Succi or Succus which had in ancient times divided the Illyrians from the Thracians in Pannonia.[citation needed]Matija Petar Katančić thought the Šokci to be descendants of the original Thracian tribes, but the prevalent opinion of modern scholars, based on etymology, is that they were Catholics who moved from the south, across the Sava from Bosnia, by the end of the Ottoman wars in Europe, as the Turks were retreating. The Šokci in Baranja are considered to be descendents of settlers from a mass migration of Croats from an area near Srebrenica, Bosnia into the region after the Ottoman retreat in the 18th century. Regardless of when exactly they settled there, Šokci are considered to be an indigenous Croatian population of Slavonia and Vojvodina, which distinguishes them from the majority of the present-day population of these regions who are descendants of latter settlers. The feeling of being indigenous rather than a settler is an important characteristic of the population.
wn.com/Šokci
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We Are THE SERBS!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:41
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
GET ON YOUR KNEES BEFORE THE SERBS Soundtrack: A Serbian film Theme
http://wn.com/We_Are_THE_SERBS!
GET ON YOUR KNEES BEFORE THE SERBS Soundtrack: A Serbian film Theme
Shit Serbian Parents Say
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:27
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
Well a bunch of you requested this so here it is! A video of different things that our fob Serbian parents say every day! www.theangryserbian.com SHARE // SUBSCRIBE Featuring: Cousin Zoran
http://wn.com/Shit_Serbian_Parents_Say
Well a bunch of you requested this so here it is! A video of different things that our fob Serbian parents say every day! www.theangryserbian.com SHARE // SUBSCRIBE Featuring: Cousin Zoran
- published: 12 Feb 2012
- views: 83559
- author: itsabrainhumor
Serbian Music 2012 Mix Part 43
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 12:11
- Updated: 04 Jan 2013
Serbian Music 2012 Mix Part 43 Official Website of SerbiaNK: www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Serbian_Music_2012_Mix_Part_43
Serbian Music 2012 Mix Part 43 Official Website of SerbiaNK: www.facebook.com
- published: 30 Dec 2012
- views: 677
- author: SerbiaNK
HOW TO SAY A FEW IMPORTANT WORDS IN SERBIAN
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:07
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
I am sorry for my horrible accent.. I should have prepared more.. I didn't want to preapre too much because I wanted to see what I remembered... :)
http://wn.com/HOW_TO_SAY_A_FEW_IMPORTANT_WORDS_IN_SERBIAN
I am sorry for my horrible accent.. I should have prepared more.. I didn't want to preapre too much because I wanted to see what I remembered... :)
- published: 05 Jan 2013
- views: 202
- author: Charles Cather
SHIT SERBIAN SAY
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:05
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
SERBIAN LESSONS GUY DOES A SHIT SERBS SAY
http://wn.com/SHIT_SERBIAN_SAY
My Opinion of Nis, Serbia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 11:00
- Updated: 04 Jan 2013
I never dreamed that I would find a town in Serbia that i would enjoy more than Novi Sad but Nis is AMAZING!!!! Its got the small town feel but soooo much history and many great people!!!!
http://wn.com/My_Opinion_of_Nis,_Serbia
I never dreamed that I would find a town in Serbia that i would enjoy more than Novi Sad but Nis is AMAZING!!!! Its got the small town feel but soooo much history and many great people!!!!
- published: 04 May 2012
- views: 5735
- author: Charles Cather
Angry Serbian - I'M A SERB (Official Music Video!)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:00
- Updated: 06 Jan 2013
I'M A SERB Official Music Video Subscribe!!! and Share! www.theangryserbian.com www,facebook.com/theangryserbian www.twitter.com/theangryserbian www.twitter.com/ms_japanese
http://wn.com/Angry_Serbian_I'M_A_SERB_Official_Music_Video!
I'M A SERB Official Music Video Subscribe!!! and Share! www.theangryserbian.com www,facebook.com/theangryserbian www.twitter.com/theangryserbian www.twitter.com/ms_japanese
- published: 12 Aug 2012
- views: 14214
- author: itsabrainhumor
SoulFood Serbia
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:14
- Updated: 03 Jan 2013
SoulFood Serbia National Tourism Organisation of Serbia Serbia travel * Visit Serbia * Welcome to Serbia Soulfood Serbia is a short promotional video of the National Tourism Organisation of Serbia representing autochthonous food and beverages. Gastronomic products featured in the video are an essential part of the country's tourism offer. Serbia has always straddled East and West, not only in a geographical sense, but also politically and culturally. At first, Serbia found itself between the Byzantine and Roman empires, then it became a frontier between the Ottoman Empire and the Christian West. This centuries-long position in the path of conquering armies from both sides has led to constant migrations and the mixing of populations. The result is a multiethnic, multicultural and multiconfessional society in Serbia. And even during communism the inhabitants of this region were somewhere between the Warsaw Pact and NATO. In contrast to other post-communist countries in the region, the people of Serbia have a more comprehensive education, a more contemporary approach to life, better knowledge of foreign languages and more readily accept new technologies and behaviours. Republic of Serbia , Republika Srbija, Europe, tourism presentation * Its capital city Belgrade * My Beautiful Serbia - Srbija * Hrana sa dušom * Turizam Srbije - prirodu i zdravu ishranu * TOS - Turisticka organizacija Srbije
http://wn.com/SoulFood_Serbia
SoulFood Serbia National Tourism Organisation of Serbia Serbia travel * Visit Serbia * Welcome to Serbia Soulfood Serbia is a short promotional video of the National Tourism Organisation of Serbia representing autochthonous food and beverages. Gastronomic products featured in the video are an essential part of the country's tourism offer. Serbia has always straddled East and West, not only in a geographical sense, but also politically and culturally. At first, Serbia found itself between the Byzantine and Roman empires, then it became a frontier between the Ottoman Empire and the Christian West. This centuries-long position in the path of conquering armies from both sides has led to constant migrations and the mixing of populations. The result is a multiethnic, multicultural and multiconfessional society in Serbia. And even during communism the inhabitants of this region were somewhere between the Warsaw Pact and NATO. In contrast to other post-communist countries in the region, the people of Serbia have a more comprehensive education, a more contemporary approach to life, better knowledge of foreign languages and more readily accept new technologies and behaviours. Republic of Serbia , Republika Srbija, Europe, tourism presentation * Its capital city Belgrade * My Beautiful Serbia - Srbija * Hrana sa dušom * Turizam Srbije - prirodu i zdravu ishranu * TOS - Turisticka organizacija Srbije
- published: 12 Nov 2011
- views: 84988
- author: jelmarsrbija
Resident Evil 6 - Republic of Edonia - Codename: Serbia [Audio]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:09
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
serbia serbians resident evil 6 balkan balkans war wars srbija srbi yugoslavia
http://wn.com/Resident_Evil_6_Republic_of_Edonia_Codename_Serbia_Audio_
serbia serbians resident evil 6 balkan balkans war wars srbija srbi yugoslavia
- published: 19 Sep 2012
- views: 6564
- author: CrazyBalkanPeople
Partizan and Red Star ...Avoid in Serbia!!!!!!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:54
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
I have told these two stories in another video, but my friends wanted to hear it again. Telling a story about being chased by some hooligans in Novi Sad, Serbia...talking about Partizan vs Red Star football matches in Serbia....
http://wn.com/Partizan_and_Red_Star_Avoid_in_Serbia!!!!!!
I have told these two stories in another video, but my friends wanted to hear it again. Telling a story about being chased by some hooligans in Novi Sad, Serbia...talking about Partizan vs Red Star football matches in Serbia....
- published: 04 Jan 2013
- views: 659
- author: Charles Cather
My Opinion of Serbia #7
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:25
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
info on my bicycle trip from Subotica to Kosovo, Kickstarter update and singing Tamo Daleko... CHECK IT OUT.. ;)
http://wn.com/My_Opinion_of_Serbia_7
info on my bicycle trip from Subotica to Kosovo, Kickstarter update and singing Tamo Daleko... CHECK IT OUT.. ;)
- published: 16 Mar 2012
- views: 5754
- author: Charles Cather
Serbia Strong translation (God is a Serb)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:47
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
Translated version of Serbia strong. Translation not by me, it's from the captions on the normal video. I hard encoded the subtitles into the footage and timed them better. Translation credit goes to the original video.
http://wn.com/Serbia_Strong_translation_God_is_a_Serb
Translated version of Serbia strong. Translation not by me, it's from the captions on the normal video. I hard encoded the subtitles into the footage and timed them better. Translation credit goes to the original video.
- published: 18 Dec 2011
- views: 84033
- author: TheIronTyrant
Serbia Stories .... Kiss From a Serbian Grandma
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:39
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
nothing better than getting a kiss from a Serbian lady... but an 80+ year old ????? o O! telling the story from the frozen center of Illinois.. :)
http://wn.com/Serbia_Stories_Kiss_From_a_Serbian_Grandma
nothing better than getting a kiss from a Serbian lady... but an 80+ year old ????? o O! telling the story from the frozen center of Illinois.. :)
- published: 04 Jan 2013
- views: 502
- author: Charles Cather
Angry Serbian-SERB DAY 2012 Rant!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:28
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
The Angry Serbian rants about Serb Day 2012 and all the things that pissed him off. ROTW Episode 4. www.theangryserbian.com
http://wn.com/Angry_Serbian-SERB_DAY_2012_Rant!
The Angry Serbian rants about Serb Day 2012 and all the things that pissed him off. ROTW Episode 4. www.theangryserbian.com
- published: 10 Jul 2012
- views: 5497
- author: itsabrainhumor
NATO Bombing of Serbia 1999 - German excuse (Zeitreise, Deutche TV NDR - Henning Hensch)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:59
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
Truth about reasons of NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999. and media manipulations of German Minister of Defense at the time, Rudolf Scharping, which were made in order to deceive German public and gain support for military intervention in Serbia. In this video, you'll see a testimony of Mr. Henning Hensch, an OSCE observer at Kosovo at the time when the incident, used as a motive for bombing, happened at the place of Rugovo. Mr. Hensch personally attended the investigation after the incident, which was actually an armed conflict between Serbian police units and Albanian KLA rebels. German Minister of Defense Rudolf Scharping exploited the whole situation and presented KLA rebels as innocent civilian victims, which justified a military intervention in Serbia.
http://wn.com/NATO_Bombing_of_Serbia_1999_German_excuse_Zeitreise,_Deutche_TV_NDR_Henning_Hensch
Truth about reasons of NATO bombing of Serbia in 1999. and media manipulations of German Minister of Defense at the time, Rudolf Scharping, which were made in order to deceive German public and gain support for military intervention in Serbia. In this video, you'll see a testimony of Mr. Henning Hensch, an OSCE observer at Kosovo at the time when the incident, used as a motive for bombing, happened at the place of Rugovo. Mr. Hensch personally attended the investigation after the incident, which was actually an armed conflict between Serbian police units and Albanian KLA rebels. German Minister of Defense Rudolf Scharping exploited the whole situation and presented KLA rebels as innocent civilian victims, which justified a military intervention in Serbia.
- published: 19 Feb 2012
- views: 35496
- author: MrOakridge43
How the Serbs mix it up!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:44
- Updated: 31 Dec 2012
In this clip from Underground, our Serbian partisan heros beat the hell out of some war profiteers, and have fun while doing it. The good old days of a united socialist Yugoslavia.
http://wn.com/How_the_Serbs_mix_it_up!
In this clip from Underground, our Serbian partisan heros beat the hell out of some war profiteers, and have fun while doing it. The good old days of a united socialist Yugoslavia.
- published: 20 May 2008
- views: 266110
- author: carverbrian
Serbz In Paris -- Angry Serbian ft. Cousin Zoran
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:53
- Updated: 02 Jan 2013
The fob remix of N*ggas in Paris!!! Subscribe! www.theangryserbian.com Lyrics Angry Serbian We`re going to drink to one song and one song only Hahahaha My Balls so hard stupid haters wanna find me but these LG's don't mind me Whats 50 dinars to a an immigrant like me Can you please remind me? Balls so hard this shit crazy Angelina Jolie shit don't phase me The bitch can go make a movie too and I look at you like does she hate me!? Serbz so hard, this shit real We aint even s'pose to be here (Canada!) Serbz so hard, don't drink beer its only Rakija put it in the air Psycho, fobbed out tho, like yo take your pick, Djokovic, Vidic, Jovanovic, Game 6 Serbz so hard, got a broke clock, no really look It's a broke clock! Seselj hes doing time, locked up behind them big bars Serbz so hard, I'm proud too, I say fuck no to the EU If your englishes was this bad You'd be in ESL learning too Serbz so hard, lets eat burek, slava last for like 6 days, broke bottles, baba's bottles, smoki bags so just fuck Lays Serbz so hard, mala behave, just met this LG at some big rave Chitown, TO, Vancity girls, we're their fave Serbz so hard, that shit serb (x3) Aint it Ivan? Serbz so hard, that shit serb Cousin Zoran She said Zo can we get married at the church? I said hell nah cuz you aint a serb But come and meet me at my kitcheeen And show me you ready to make palacinke Serb so hard That shit serb, Aint it ivan? Serb so hard What she order, 30 cevaps? Serb so hard My car nice, three air ...
http://wn.com/Serbz_In_Paris_-_Angry_Serbian_ft_Cousin_Zoran
The fob remix of N*ggas in Paris!!! Subscribe! www.theangryserbian.com Lyrics Angry Serbian We`re going to drink to one song and one song only Hahahaha My Balls so hard stupid haters wanna find me but these LG's don't mind me Whats 50 dinars to a an immigrant like me Can you please remind me? Balls so hard this shit crazy Angelina Jolie shit don't phase me The bitch can go make a movie too and I look at you like does she hate me!? Serbz so hard, this shit real We aint even s'pose to be here (Canada!) Serbz so hard, don't drink beer its only Rakija put it in the air Psycho, fobbed out tho, like yo take your pick, Djokovic, Vidic, Jovanovic, Game 6 Serbz so hard, got a broke clock, no really look It's a broke clock! Seselj hes doing time, locked up behind them big bars Serbz so hard, I'm proud too, I say fuck no to the EU If your englishes was this bad You'd be in ESL learning too Serbz so hard, lets eat burek, slava last for like 6 days, broke bottles, baba's bottles, smoki bags so just fuck Lays Serbz so hard, mala behave, just met this LG at some big rave Chitown, TO, Vancity girls, we're their fave Serbz so hard, that shit serb (x3) Aint it Ivan? Serbz so hard, that shit serb Cousin Zoran She said Zo can we get married at the church? I said hell nah cuz you aint a serb But come and meet me at my kitcheeen And show me you ready to make palacinke Serb so hard That shit serb, Aint it ivan? Serb so hard What she order, 30 cevaps? Serb so hard My car nice, three air ...
- published: 03 Jun 2012
- views: 16986
- author: itsabrainhumor
We owe the Serbs some gratitude!! Interview with WW2 veteran hero, Art Jibilian
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 32:04
- Updated: 04 Jan 2013
I DO NOT OWN THIS VIDEO SEE THE LINKS!!! THANKS FOR WATCHING vimeo.com serbiathroughamericaneyes.wordpress.com http Interview with WW2 veteran hero, Art Jibilian, We owe the Serbs some gratitude!! Who knew about this?? Did our country or the rest of the world broadcast this?? No!!! The Serb citizens and Serb guerilla fighters in Nazi controlled Yugoslavia hid, clothed, fed and risked their own lives protecting over 500 American troops that had been shot down over Yugoslavia. General Draza Mihailovich of the Serbian opposition fighters worked with US military leadership to organize this huge, ultra- secret mission that ultimately allowed for the safe return home of 500 US service men. This was the largest rescue mission in the history US military warfare but we only hear about the "Great Escape" that saved 200 US prisoners of war!! 300 more US troops were saved in this operation but we don't hear about it!!! VERY SAD!!!! Google "Halyard Mission" for more information on this exciting mission! General Draza Mihailovich was eventually captured but the government refused to allow our service men to testify on his behalf and he was hung for treason. The troops told of the hospitality and kindness of the poor Serbians who kept them out of harms way! One troop talked about how little the Serbs had to offer but were more than willing to share!! This is the same experience I have had in Serbia!!! Everyone stand and give the Serbs a round of applause and the thanks deserve!!! Why ...
http://wn.com/We_owe_the_Serbs_some_gratitude!!_Interview_with_WW2_veteran_hero,_Art_Jibilian
I DO NOT OWN THIS VIDEO SEE THE LINKS!!! THANKS FOR WATCHING vimeo.com serbiathroughamericaneyes.wordpress.com http Interview with WW2 veteran hero, Art Jibilian, We owe the Serbs some gratitude!! Who knew about this?? Did our country or the rest of the world broadcast this?? No!!! The Serb citizens and Serb guerilla fighters in Nazi controlled Yugoslavia hid, clothed, fed and risked their own lives protecting over 500 American troops that had been shot down over Yugoslavia. General Draza Mihailovich of the Serbian opposition fighters worked with US military leadership to organize this huge, ultra- secret mission that ultimately allowed for the safe return home of 500 US service men. This was the largest rescue mission in the history US military warfare but we only hear about the "Great Escape" that saved 200 US prisoners of war!! 300 more US troops were saved in this operation but we don't hear about it!!! VERY SAD!!!! Google "Halyard Mission" for more information on this exciting mission! General Draza Mihailovich was eventually captured but the government refused to allow our service men to testify on his behalf and he was hung for treason. The troops told of the hospitality and kindness of the poor Serbians who kept them out of harms way! One troop talked about how little the Serbs had to offer but were more than willing to share!! This is the same experience I have had in Serbia!!! Everyone stand and give the Serbs a round of applause and the thanks deserve!!! Why ...
- published: 09 Jan 2012
- views: 11297
- author: zhilenius
Madeleine Albright in Prague: "Disgusting Serbs!"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:35
- Updated: 04 Jan 2013
УКЉУЧИ ТИТЛОВЕ TURN ON SUBTITLES Madeleine Albright in Prague: "Disgusting Serbs!" (1:02) On October 23rd, in Prague, Czech Republic there was a book-signing event for former US secretary of state Madeleine Albright's new book "Prague Winter" in the Luxor bookshop. Several activists from the organization "Friends of Serbs in Kosovo" led by film director Vaclav Dvorak (the author of the documentary "Stolen Kosovo"), presented five posters with photographs of victims from NATO's "humanitarian bombing" campaign and politely asked Albright to sign them. Ms. Albright was caught off guard, which was followed by the aggressive interference of the bookstore security. The inability to face critique adequately and with dignity. This might be the right description of Albright's reaction, which followed, after the members of "Friends of Serbs in Kosovo" presented her the posters with pictures of the Kosovo telecommunications, first children's victim of the so called "humanitarian bombing" 3 years old Milica Rakić, Serbian refugees from the Croatia's Krajina and militant Muslim volunteers in the Bosnian army. "This is your work as well, madam" the activists said while asking her to sign the posters. Madeleine Albright was noticeably disconcerted, agitated, and upset, refused to sign the posters and started yelling: "Get out", "Disgusting Serbs" and "You are war criminals" and ordered the activists to leave the Luxor bookstore. "Madeleine Albright pushed through the bombing of the ...
http://wn.com/Madeleine_Albright_in_Prague_Disgusting_Serbs!
УКЉУЧИ ТИТЛОВЕ TURN ON SUBTITLES Madeleine Albright in Prague: "Disgusting Serbs!" (1:02) On October 23rd, in Prague, Czech Republic there was a book-signing event for former US secretary of state Madeleine Albright's new book "Prague Winter" in the Luxor bookshop. Several activists from the organization "Friends of Serbs in Kosovo" led by film director Vaclav Dvorak (the author of the documentary "Stolen Kosovo"), presented five posters with photographs of victims from NATO's "humanitarian bombing" campaign and politely asked Albright to sign them. Ms. Albright was caught off guard, which was followed by the aggressive interference of the bookstore security. The inability to face critique adequately and with dignity. This might be the right description of Albright's reaction, which followed, after the members of "Friends of Serbs in Kosovo" presented her the posters with pictures of the Kosovo telecommunications, first children's victim of the so called "humanitarian bombing" 3 years old Milica Rakić, Serbian refugees from the Croatia's Krajina and militant Muslim volunteers in the Bosnian army. "This is your work as well, madam" the activists said while asking her to sign the posters. Madeleine Albright was noticeably disconcerted, agitated, and upset, refused to sign the posters and started yelling: "Get out", "Disgusting Serbs" and "You are war criminals" and ordered the activists to leave the Luxor bookstore. "Madeleine Albright pushed through the bombing of the ...
- published: 25 Oct 2012
- views: 382077
- author: pratelesrbunakosovu
ULTRA STYLE SERBIA
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:54
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
http://wn.com/ULTRA_STYLE_SERBIA
Experiencing Serbian Food # 3 Pljeskavice
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:08
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
My # 1 favorite Serbian food.... These are hamburgers in English but they are massive, spicy and the taste of the meat is TERRIFIC!!! I eat 4 a week!!! hahaha
http://wn.com/Experiencing_Serbian_Food_3_Pljeskavice
My # 1 favorite Serbian food.... These are hamburgers in English but they are massive, spicy and the taste of the meat is TERRIFIC!!! I eat 4 a week!!! hahaha
- published: 04 Apr 2012
- views: 6603
- author: Charles Cather
How to be Serbian
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:48
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
http://wn.com/How_to_be_Serbian
My Opinion of Serbia # 6
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:33
- Updated: 03 Jan 2013
Kickstarter approved my documentary I will be making about Serbia!!!!! Watch!
http://wn.com/My_Opinion_of_Serbia_6
Kickstarter approved my documentary I will be making about Serbia!!!!! Watch!
- published: 03 Feb 2012
- views: 8656
- author: Charles Cather
photo: AP / Juan Karita
04 Jan 2013
Argentine President Cristina Fernandez de Kirchner has released a public letter urging the United Kingdom to relinquish its control over the disputed Falkland Islands. ... The veterans delivered a letter addressed to the British Ambassador in Argentina, John Freeman, criticising the British government for refusing to discuss the sovereignty of the islands with the Argentine government ... 508 Source.. Al Jazeera and agencies. Share....(size: 19.6Kb)
photo: AP / SANA
05 Jan 2013
Syrian government forces have bombarded several rebel strongholds in the suburbs of Damascus to quell the fighters battling the regime of President Bashar al-Assad from reaching the capital. Activists on Saturday said troops leveled their bombardment campaign on the districts of Hajar al-Aswad and Qaboun in southern Damascus while they continued to shell the suburbs of Daraya, Beit Hahm, Zibdeen, Maadamiya and Jisteen ... 445 Source. ... ....(size: 19.0Kb)
photo: WN / Bhaskar Mallick
05 Jan 2013
Tweet. New Delhi, Jan 5 (ANI). The male friend of the 23-year-old medical student, who was gang-raped and left unclothed and bleeding in the street and later died in hospital two weeks after she was attacked on December 16 on a private bus in New Delhi, has said that things would have gone differently if someone had stopped to help ... "It would have been a very different scenario today, had even one person come to our help that day ... (ANI)....(size: 3.8Kb)
photo: AP / Yadana Htun
04 Jan 2013
LAIZA, Myanmar (AP) — Ethnic Kachins living in makeshift camps in Myanmar described their terror at the army's use of air power during fighting with Kachin rebels seeking more autonomy as the government said Friday that it has exercised maximum restraint. Connect With Us on Twitter. Follow @nytimesworld for international breaking news and headlines. Twitter List. Reporters and Editors ... Are We Becoming Cyborgs?. IHT Magazine ... ... ....(size: 10.1Kb)
photo: UN / Evan Schneider
06 Jan 2013
LONDON -- They have barely 3,000 inhabitants and far more sheep than people. They are more than 8,700 miles from London. For much of the year, they are bitterly cold and wind-swept, with only open sea and ice between them and Antarctica ... But the Falkland Islands, the focus of a short war between Britain and Argentina in 1982, have been in the headlines again recently ... Their arguments suggest what has long been evident ... Ms ... Mr ... Cameron said....(size: 5.1Kb)
noodls
06 Jan 2013
The Serb targeted Verdasco's forehand early on and it paid off when he got an early break in the fourth game of the match ... Djokovic's serve was proving important, with the Serb producing big serves on key points to hold for 3-3 ... Though Ivanovic had a few small chances to claw her way back into the set, Medina Garrigues held on to win 6-2, breaking the Serb in the final game to secure a famous victory....(size: 6.2Kb)
Deccan Chronicle
06 Jan 2013
Chennai. Janko Tipsarevic halted Aljaz Bedene’s dream run in the semi-finals of the 18th Chennai Open tennis tournament here on Saturday. The World No ... But a tough line-call went against him and the Serb showed no interest in asking for a Hawkeye referral despite having three challenges to his credit ... The way the World No ... First, the Serb served an ace to steer clear and then Bedene fluffed an easy overhead smash. ....(size: 2.6Kb)
Canberra Times
06 Jan 2013
World No.9 Janko Tipsarevic of Serbia and unseeded Roberto Bautista Agut of Spain set up a title clash in the ATP Chennai Open with hard-earned wins on Saturday ... The tall Serb appeared shaken when Bedene, ranked 86th, secured a break in the ninth game of the first set with two superb passing shots ... "I will be the favourite tomorrow, but I know my opponent will be motivated to win his first final, so I cannot afford to be complacent." ... ....(size: 2.3Kb)
noodls
06 Jan 2013
(Source. ATP Tour Inc). MEDIA NOTES 2013. byGreg Sharko . . 06.01.2013 ... The last unseeded champion in the tournament was Michael Llodra in 2008 ... Dolgopolov) ... W(3) ... The 28-year-old Serb is looking to win his fourth career ATP World Tour title ... 2 Serb (behind Djokovic) compiled a career-best 57-28 match record and reached three finals (1-2).One of two players (Ferrer) to win at least 20 matches on clay (21-7) and hard courts (31-18)....(size: 24.3Kb)
Reuters
05 Jan 2013
Serbian President Tomislav Nikolic had asked to attend an Orthodox Christmas mass on Monday at Gracanica monastery in a Serb enclave just a few kilometers from the capital Pristina ... Serbia and its former Kosovo province fought a war in 1998-99, which ended when NATO intervened with 78 days of air strikes to drive out Serb forces....(size: 1.7Kb)
Al Jazeera
05 Jan 2013
When in the 1990s Bosnian Serbs and Croats took up arms against Muslims to prevent Bosnia breaking away from Yugoslavia, the international community hesitated as tens of thousands of civilians were killed ... Muslims and Croats formed the Federation; Bosnian Serbs formed Republika Srpska or RS ... That regularly upsets Bosnian Serb leaders who never wanted to share a state with Muslims in the first place....(size: 7.6Kb)
Newstrack India
05 Jan 2013
Tweet ... However, Tipsarevic was in full flow thereafter as he broke Bedene in the second and eighth game to take the second set in which the Serb showcased his wide range of shots that had the Slovenian scurrying from corner to corner ... Then came the decisive moment when Bedene blew two break points in the seventh game to let the Serb off the hook ... The Serb took the next two points to go 5-2 up before breaking Bedene to close the match ... ....(size: 4.9Kb)
Sydney Morning Herald
05 Jan 2013
... match last year and took the opening set off current world No.9 Janko Tipsarevic in their second round clash, before going down to the Serb in four sets....(size: 0.8Kb)
Deccan Herald
05 Jan 2013
Meanwhile, Bedene rattled Tipsarevic with excellent court coverage and made some unbelievable returns ... The Serb then galloped to a 3-0 lead in the decider before sealing victory as Bedene wilted under pressure. ....(size: 1.2Kb)
Goal
05 Jan 2013
By Miles Chambers. More On . Hamburg, Hannover 96, Gojko Kacar. Comments. AFP. EXCLUSIVE. By Daniel Jovanov ... Don't Miss ... However, the Serb’s salary is believed to have scared off Hannover and ended talks abruptly, with the club instead pursuing Duisburg’s Andre Hoffman, whom they signed on Wednesday ... ....(size: 2.1Kb)
Goal
05 Jan 2013
By Miles Chambers. More On . Hamburg, Hannover 96, Gojko Kacar. Comments. AFP. EXCLUSIVE. By Daniel Jovanov ... Don't Miss ... However, the Serb’s salary is believed to have scared off Hannover and ended talks abruptly, with the club instead pursuing Duisburg’s Andre Hoffman, whom they signed on Wednesday ... ....(size: 2.1Kb)
Deutsche Welle
05 Jan 2013
Pristina has denied entry to Serbian President Tomislav Nikolic in response to Belgrade refusing entry to Kosovar officials. The leader has wanted to visit a monastery for an Orthodox Christmas celebration ... Serbs celebrate Christmas on January 7 in accordance with the Serbian Orthodox Church which adheres to the Julian calendar instead of the modern, more widely-used Gregorian ... ....(size: 1.8Kb)
Sydney Morning Herald
05 Jan 2013
AUSTRALIA. Tennis Australia has awarded the final discretionary Australian Open wildcard entries to James Duckworth, John-Patrick Smith, Sacha Jones and Jarmila Gajdosova ... He won his opening match last year and took the opening set off current world No.9 Janko Tipsarevic in their second-round clash, before going down to the Serb in four sets ... Agnieszka on target ... Advertisement ....(size: 1.6Kb)
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 Serbia 6,212,838b [1] Bosnia and Herzegovina 1,484,530 - 1,711,577 [2][3] |
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Predominantly Serbian Orthodox |
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Other South Slavic peoples[29] |
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| A Higher estimations exist. B excluding Kosovo. C Besides Serbia, at least 2,120,000 Serbs live in other Balkan countries according to the Diaspora ministry.[30] D An estimated 315,000 can claim Serbian descent.[31] E 328,547 declared as Yugoslavs.[32] |
The Serbs (Serbian: Срби, Srbi, pronounced [sr̩̂bi]) are a nation and South Slavic ethnic group of the Balkans and southern Central Europe. Serbs live mainly in Serbia and the disputed territory of Kosovo, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and form significant minorities in Croatia, the Republic of Macedonia and Slovenia. Likewise, Serbs are an officially recognized minority in Romania, Hungary, Albania, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.[33] There is also a large Serbian diaspora in Western Europe, particularly in Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, France, Italy and the United Kingdom. More than a million people of Serbian origin live in German-speaking countries,[34] including Luxembourg (1%),[35] Austria (1.8%),[12] Switzerland (1%), and Germany (~1%).[36] Outside Europe, there are significant Serbian communities in the United States (198,000 Serbian plus additional 326,000 "Yugoslav" nationals),[37][38] Canada (72,690 in 2006)[39] and Australia (95,000 in 2006).[40]
Contents |
Ethnology[link]
The Serbs are a Slavic people, specifically of the South Slavic subgroup, which has its origins in the 6th and 7th century communities developed in Southeastern Europe (see Great Migration). Slav raids on Eastern Roman territory are mentioned in 518, and by the 580s they had conquered large areas referred to as Sclavinia (transl. Slavdom, from Sklavenoi – Σκλαυηνοι, the early South Slavic tribe which is eponymous to the current ethnic and linguistic Indo-European people).[41] In 649, Constantine III relocates conquered Slavs "from the Vardar" to Gordoservon (Serb habitat). Among communities part in the Serb ethnogenesis are the Romanized Paleo-Balkan tribes of Illyrians, Thracians and Dacians, Celts, Greek colonies and Romans.
In 822, the Serbs are mentioned as "inhabiting the larger part of Dalmatia" (Serbian lands), and Emperor Constantine VII (r. 913–959) writes in his work "De Administrando Imperio"[42] about the Serbs, mentioning the White Serbs that "migrated from Βοϊκι" and formed a principality, as well as an early chronological list of Serbian monarchs starting from the 7th century. The Serbs subsequently developed a Byzantine-Slavic culture, like the neighbouring Bulgarians (who derive their ethnonym from the Turkic Bulgars, founders of their nation). The establishment of Christianity as state-religion took place around 869 AD, during the rule of Emperor Basil I (r. 867–886). The Serbian Orthodox Church was established in 1219. By the time of the Serbian Empire, the Serbo-Byzantine cultural sphere had besides the initial territories in Central Balkans, much of the Macedonia region and Epirus.
The loss at Battle of Kosovo in 1389 (see Ottoman wars in Europe and Serbian–Ottoman wars) marks the beginning of the fall of the Serbian monarchies, and prompts the migration of Serbs from their lands in the south towards the Christian lands i.e. north of the Ottoman borders, crossing rivers Danube and Sava settling in Central Europe (today's Vojvodina, Slavonia, Transylvania and Hungary proper). The Great Serbian Migrations refers to the relocation of peoples in two waves in the 17th century of tens of thousands Serbian families. Apart from the Habsburg Empire, thousands were attracted to Imperial Russia (Nova Serbia and Slavo-Serbia).
Exiled Serb military became mercenaries in European armies; Hussars (light cavalry in Hungary and Poland), Seimeni (infantry in Moldavia and Wallachia). Serbs organized several revolts and guerilla units, planned both inside and outside the Ottoman borders. The Hajduks and Uskoks were groups of freedom fighters, the Serbian Militia was a branch of the Austrian army under Leopold I. The Serbian revolution began in 1804.
Related[link]
Although the Serbs and Bulgarians share Slavic kinship, Orthodox Christianity and cultural traits, the two peoples have been relatively hostile against each other in history and were early on understood as distinct ethnic groups. The two are divided by the Southeastern versus Southwestern dialectal groups, although a large transitional dialectal area covers Southeastern Serbia, Western Bulgaria and Macedonia.
The Croats, who are mentioned in De Administrando as living adjacent to the Serbs, have a distinction of predominant sphere of influence; Croats are Roman Catholic, and are historically linked with the Holy Roman Empire from the early stage (Western Roman Empire); Italy, Austria and Hungary. A majority of the two ethnic groups have co-existed in the Habsburg Empire and Venetian territories throughout centuries, so links between the two nations have been maintained in that respect through common history.
The Bosniaks, whose ethnonym initially referred to Slavic Christians (Orthodox, Catholic and Bogomils) which co-existed in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages, are today exclusively Muslims, since the Ottoman occupation.
The dialects of Serbia, Bosnia & Herzegovina, Croatia and Montenegro are virtually the same language (see Serbo-Croatian).
Genetics[link]
Main article: Genetic studies on Serbs
Y-chromosomal haplogroups identified among the Serbs from Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina are the following:
- I2a-P37.2, with frequencies of 29.20% and 30.90%, respectively. The frequency of this haplogroup peaks in Herzegovina (64%), and its variance peaks over a large geographic area covering B-H, Serbia, Hungaria, Czech Republic, and Slovakia. It is the second most predominant Y-chromosomal haplogroup in the overall Slavic gene pool.[43]
- E1b1b1a2-V13, 20.35% and 19.80%. The frequency of this haplogroup peaks in Albania (24%), and is also high among Greeks, Romanians, Macedonian Slavs, Bulgarians, and southern Italians.[43][44]
- R1a1-M17, 15.93% and 13.60%. The frequency of this haplogroup peaks in Poland (56.4%) and Ukraine (54.0%), and its variance peaks in northern Bosnia. It is the most predominant Y-chromosomal haplogroup in the overall Slavic gene pool.[43][45]
- R1b1b2-M269, 10.62 and 6.20%. Its frequency peaks in Western Europe (90% in Wales).[43]
- K*-M9, 7.08% and 7.40%
- J2b-M102, 4.40% and 6.20%
- I1-M253, 5.31% and 2.5%
- F*-M89, 4.9%, only in B-H
- J2a1b1-M92, 2.70%, only in Serbia
There are also several other uncommon haplogroups with lesser frequencies.[43][44][45]
Name and etymologies[link]
Main article: Names of the Serbs
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The ethnonym Serbs is thought to be first mentioned by Tacitus in 50 AD, Pliny the Elder in 77 AD (Naturalis Historia) and Ptolemy in his Geography 2nd century AD, who mention the Sarmatian tribe of Serboi of the North Caucasus and Lower Volga.[46] Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus (325–391) referred to the Carpathians as "Montes Serrorum" in his works, according to some, connected to the Serbs.[47] The works of Vibius Sequester also mention the Serbs.[48] Procopius uses the name Sporoi as an umbrella term for the Slavic tribes of Antes and Sclaveni, it is however not known whether the Slavs used this designation for themselves or he himself coined the term, it has been theorized however that the name is corruption of the ethnonym Serbs.[48][49]
The Serb ethnonym is written as Σερβοι (Servoi), Sorabos, Surbi, Sorabi in early medieval sources.[50] De Administrando Imperio mentions the realm of the Unknown Archont and his descendants (Vlastimirović dynasty) as Servlia.[42][46] A mythological homeland was written as White Serbia or Boiki (derived from Proto-Slavic *bojь. = battle, war, fight), also, the town of Servia received its name from its temporary inhabitants – the Serbs.[42][46] According to the Tale of Bygone Years, the first Russian chronicle, Serbs are among the first five Slav peoples who were enumerated by their names.[51]
(< *serb-) is in the root of the Slavic word for "same" (modern исто - isto) in following languages: сербать - in Russian, Ukrainian, сербаць - in Belarussian, srbati - in Slovak, сърбам - in Bulgarian. серебати in Old Russian.[52] Scholars have suggested that the Indo-European root *ser- 'to watch over, protect', akin to Latin servare 'to keep, guard, protect, preserve, observe',[53] Old English searu 'weapons, armor, skill', Lithuanian sárgas 'watchman', are connected with the ethnonym.
Among other autonyms are Slavs, or the common historical demonyms Rascians (from Rascia[54]) or Docleans (from Doclea).[55] Historical exonyms include: Triballians and Dalmatians[56] used by medieval Byzantine writers, and Illyrians[57] in the Austrian Empire (term for South Slavs). Among deemed derogatory terms are Vlachs, referring to the Orthodox Serbs in Habsburg and Austro-Hungarian proximity.
History[link]
Main articles: History of Serbia and History of Serbs
Origin[link]
Main article: Origin of the Serbs
The Slavs invaded Balkans during Justinian I rule (527–565), when eventually up to 100,000 Slavs raided Thessalonica. The Western Balkans was settled with "Sclaveni", the east with Antes.[58] Archaeological evidence in Serbia and Macedonia conclude that the White Serbs may have reached the Balkans earlier, between 550–600, as much findings; fibulae and pottery found at Roman forts, point at Serb characteristics.[59] The "White Serbs" mentioned by Porphyrogenitus could thus have been a fraction of these early Slavs.
According to Byzantine tradition, the Serbs (Σερβlοι) are recorded in the Empire with the arrival of the "Unknown Archont" and his White Serbs, who most likely hailed from Poland. The archon had led half of his people after the death of his father, a King, to the Balkans and asked Emperor Heraclius (r. 610–641) of protection. The Serbs lived briefly in the West Macedonian town of Servia (which has retained its name from the Serbs), then in Belgrade they requested a portion of land and were given the desolate lands of Western Balkans. The mentioned horions of the Serbs were: Rascia, Travunia, Zachlumia, Bosnia, Pagania and Doclea.[42]
The Slavs of the Empire lived in so-called Sklavinia, i.e. Slav lands. The Serbian Sklavinia is known to have stretched over modern south Serbia, Montenegro, Bosnia, Herzegovina and a large part of Dalmatia. The Slavs were administered into župe, a confederation of village communities headed by the local župan, a magistrate or governor. The power of the župan would subsequently emerge, and inherit an office similar to that of the strategoi.
The cultural ties with the Byzantine Empire contributed greatly to the Serbian ethnogenesis.
Middle Ages[link]
Main article: Medieval Serbia
"...Sorabos, quae natio magnam Dalmatiae partem obtinere dicitur..."
transl. "Serbs, who inhabit the greater part of Dalmatia"
The first Serbian ruler, the same archon, died long before the Bulgar invasion (680). In 649 or 667, Emperor Constans II relocated Serbs from "around river Vardar" to Asia Minor (see Asia Minor Slavs). Some 30,000 soldiers in the city of Gordoservon (City of the Serbs), were to fight the Umayyad Caliphate, however they deserted the battlefield in 692 due to harsh treatment.[62] There is a gap in rulers until the coming of the first Serbian Prince known by name, Višeslav, who was a contemporary with Charlemagne (768–814). Višeslav's son, or grandson, ruled during the uprisings of Ljudevit Posavski against the Franks in 819–822. According to the Royal Frankish Annals, in 822, Ljudevit went from his seat in Sisak to the Serbs somewhere in western Bosnia – the Serbs are mentioned as controlling the greater part of Dalmatia ("Sorabos, quae natio magnam Dalmatiae partem obtinere dicitur").[60][61]
The Serbs and neighbouring Bulgars are known to have co-existed peacefully until the Bulgaro-Serbian Wars 839–842. The Bulgars had earlier conquered Timok, Braničevo and parts of Macedonia, and this prompted Prince Vlastimir to unite several tribes, which may have in turn prompted the Bulgars to invade. The invasion led to a three-year-war in which Serbia decisively won, the war ended with the death of the Emperor, which released Serbia from its obligations to the Empire.[63] Vlastimir was succeeded by his son, Mutimir, of which reign is characterized by yet another victory against the Bulgars, and most importantly – the Christianization of Serbs.[64][65] The Serbian fleet aided Basil I in his operation against the Saracens who sacked Ragusa in 869.[66] Mutimir had feuded with his two brothers, and the many succession wars of the throne were to be crucial in Serbia's fate as either a Byzantine or Bulgarian vassal.
In the 960s, Serbia was conquered by the Byzantines, the Catepanate of Serbia was established, ruled by John, protospatharios and katepano of Ras. In 1018, the Theme of Sirmium was established, at the same time, Serbian statehood was continued in Duklja.
In the time of the Comnenos, 1081–1180, Serbs served in the Byzantine Army.[67]
Serbia reached its golden age under the House of Nemanjić, with the Serbian state reaching its apogee of power in the reign of Tsar Stefan Uroš Dušan. The Serbian Empire lost its powers following Stefan's death and the contemporary incursion of the Ottoman Empire into south-eastern Europe frightened the Balkans. With Ottoman expansion into Europe with the fall of Adrianople and Thrace, Serbs together with Hungarians, Bulgarians, Greeks and others, tried their best for the Balkans integrity. The Turks gained more power, and in 1389, the Serbs fought them in the historical Battle of Kosovo, which is regarded as the key event in the loss of Serbia to the Ottoman Empire. By 1459, Serbia was beaten by the Turks, the small Serbian territories of Bosnia and Montenegro were lost by 1496.
Ottoman and Habsburg administration[link]
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As Christians, the Serbs were regarded as a "protected people" under Ottoman law, but were however referred to as Giaour (Serbian: kaurin, infidel). Many converted to Islam in viyalets where Islam was more powerful, notably in the Sandzak and Bosnia region, other converted in order to be more successful in the Ottoman Empire society and many were forced as part of Turkification or Islamisation and avoided persecution. The janissaries were infantry units that served directly under the Sultan in the households and bodyguarding the higher people within the Ottoman Turkish government, they were composed of Islamicized Christian boys taken from the conquered countries through the Devşirme (Blood tribute) system, trained and schooled to serve the Ottoman Empire. Serbs, together with Greeks and Bulgarians were favored by the Sultans.
The Serbs opposed the Ottoman rule, which resulted in several major battles and rebellions against the Turks and de-population of Serbian lands through mass migrations ("Great Serb Migrations"). Serbs in the south migrated to the north and sought refuge in Croatia and Hungary. The Serbs in the Austro-Hungarian areas came under the direct rule of the Emperor, and were allowed to elect their own leaders, in exchange for military service. Some Serbian commanders even retained brief independence in the Austro-Hungarian areas, such as Jovan Nenad, who proclaimed himself Emperor of Serbia after defeating several Hungarian armies. The Serbs of Montenegro retained independence in the mountains under the Orthodox metropolitans, and the clans would constantly battle the Ottomans, also in Venetian and Russian assistance. The Austro-Hungarian Empire held control in the north, which also threatened the dreams of a free state of the Serbs. Notable early revolutionaries include Starina Novak, who fought the Ottomans in the 16th century in Eastern Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria, and Teodor of Vršac, who led an uprising in Banat.
Serbian Revolution and First World War[link]
The Serbs and Croats rebelled in Dalmatia and Slavonia in guerilla formations of Uskoks and Hajduks during the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries (prior to Independence). The Serbian revolution took place 1804–1835. The first part of the period, from 1804 to 1815, was marked by a violent struggle for independence from the Ottoman Empire, with two armed uprisings taking place. The later period (1815–1835) witnessed a peaceful consolidation of political power of the newly autonomous Serbia, culminating in the recognition of the right to hereditary rule by Serbian princes in 1830 and 1833 and the adoption of the first written constitution in 1835. These events marked the foundation of Modern Serbia. In 1852, the Principality of Montenegro was proclaimed, a nation-state of the Serbs.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the First Serbian Uprising succeeded in liberating at least some Serbs for a limited time. The Second Serbian Uprising was much more successful, resulting in Ottoman recognition of Serbia as autonomous principality within the Empire. Serbia acquired international recognition as an independent kingdom at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. However, many Serbs remained under foreign rule– that of the Ottomans in the south, and of the Habsburgs in the north and west. The southern Serbs were liberated in the First Balkan War of 1912, while the question of the Habsburg Serbs' independence was the spark that lit World War I two years later. During the war, the Serbian army fought fiercely, eventually retreating through Albania to regroup in Greece, and launched a counter-offensive through Macedonia. Though they were eventually victorious, the war devastated Serbia and killed a huge proportion of its population– by some estimates, over half of the male Serbian population died in the conflict, influencing the region's demographics to this day.
File:SrbiBalkan.gif
Serbs in 1910
Yugoslavia[link]
After the war, the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (later called Yugoslavia) was created. Almost all Serbs finally lived in one state, in majority. The Kingdom had its capital in Belgrade and was ruled by a Serbian king; it was, however, unstable and prone to ethnic tensions.
During the Second World War, the Axis Powers occupied Yugoslavia and the German puppet states of Nedić's Serbia and the Independent State of Croatia were established. Serbs and Jews were subjected to systematic genocide in the territory of the Independent State of Croatia with 307,000 Serb deaths and 35–36,000 deaths of Jews.[68] In addition, an estimated 120,000 Serbs were deported from the Independent State of Croatia into Nedić's Serbia while an estimated 300,000 fled in 1943.[69] In Kosovo, between 70,000 and 100,00 Serbs were sent to concentration camps in an effort to Albanize the area.[69] Serbs largely fought in the resistance movements of the royalist Chetnik movement and the communist Yugoslav Partisan movement. The Chetniks, which increasingly collaborated with the Germans and Italians throughout the war, carried out massacres against the Croat and Muslim population of Bosnia and Herzegovina and Sandžak.[70] The Yugoslav Partisans established a multi-ethnic army that managed to seize control of Yugoslavia and create the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In the entirety of the war the Partisans in Bosnia were 64.1 percent Serb.[71] Overall, from 1941 to 1945, the Partisans in Croatia were 28% Serb.[72] It is estimated that a total of between 487,000 and 530,000 Serbs were killed in the war.[73]
After the war, the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was formed. As with pre-war Yugoslavia, the country's capital was at Belgrade. Serbia was the largest republic and the Serbs were the largest ethnic group, existent in all republics. There were also two established autonomous provinces within Serbia – Kosovo (with an Albanian majority) and Vojvodina (with an Hungarian minority). Besides Serbia, the large Serb populations were concentrated in Bosnia and Herzegovina (where they were the largest ethnic group until 1971) and Croatia, as well as Montenegro (where they were majority until World War II).
Socialist Yugoslavia collapsed in the early 1990s, with four of its six republics becoming independent states. This led to several bloody civil wars, as the large Serbian communities in Croatia and Bosnia attempted to remain within Yugoslavia, then consisting of only Serbia and Montenegro. Serbs in Croatia formed the Republic of Serbian Krajina (RSK) in 1991, and Bosnian Serbs formed Republika Srpska in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, subsequently expelling and killing the Croats and Muslims who lived within the self-declared borders and destroying Catholic Churches and mosques.[74][75][76][77] In 1995 the wars ended, with the Croatian army successfully launched two offensives to retake parts of the RSK resulting in a mass exodus of an estimated 150,000–200,000 Serbs, and the Bosnian army working with NATO to capture territory in Republika Srpska, resulting in the Dayton Peace Accords.[78]
Another war broke out in Kosovo (see Kosovo War) after years of tensions between Serbs and Albanians. Up to 250,000 Serbs fled from Croatia during the "Operation Storm" in 1995, and 300,000 left until 1993, and another 200,000 were expelled from Kosovo after the Kosovo War, and settled mostly in Central Serbia and Vojvodina as refugees.
Culture[link]
Main article: Serbian culture
Serb culture has a wide spectra; besides the main [South] Slavic traits, the Byzantine (Eastern Roman) cultural heritage and Christianity (Serbian Orthodox Church) being prevalent. Western-Central European (Austro-Hungarian) cultural influence is higher in Vojvodina, Croatian Serbs and Bosnian Serbs, while the Serbs living in maritime regions (e.g. Bay of Kotor) have been influenced by Italian culture (Republic of Venice). The centuries under Ottoman rule have highly influenced with Oriental elements.
Following autonomy in 1817 and latter formal independence, there was a reawakening of Serbdom (Serbian identity/culture) followed by the emerging South-Slavic unity. Prior to that, Habsburg Vojvodina was the cultural bastion of the Serbian national identity. Socialist Realism was predominant in official art during the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia but recent decades have seen a growing influence from the West as well as traditional culture.
Language[link]
Main article: Serbian language
Serbs speak the Serbian language, a member of the South Slavic group of languages, specifically in the Southwestern Slavic group, with the Southeastern group containing Bulgarian and Macedonian. It is mutually intelligible with the standard Croatian and Bosnian languages (see Differences in standard Serbian, Croatian and Bosnian) and some linguists still consider it a sub-set of the Serbo-Croatian language, as they are all standardized on the Shtokavian dialect.
It is an official language in Serbia, Bosnia & Herzegovina (Republika Srpska), Montenegro and Romania, and a minority language in Croatia, Macedonia, Hungary and Slovakia.
Older forms of Serbian are Old Serbian, the redaction of Old Church Slavonic, and the Russo-Serbian variant, a version of the Church Slavonic language.
Serbian is the only European language with active digraphia, using both Cyrillic and Latin alphabets. Serbian Cyrillic was devised in 1814 by Vuk Karadžić, who created the alphabet on phonemic principles, the Cyrillic itself has its origins in Cyril and Methodius' transformation of the Greek script in the 9th century.
Loanwords in the Serbian language besides common internationalisms are mostly from Turkish, German and Italian, words of Hungarian origin are present mostly in the north and Greek words are predominant in the liturgy.
Two Serbian words that are used in many of the world's languages are "vampire" and "paprika". Common words of Serbian cuisine are "Slivovitz" and "ćevapčići". Paprika and Slivovitz are borrowed via German; paprika itself entered German via Hungarian. Vampire entered most West European languages through German-language texts in the early 18th century.
Naming system[link]
Main article: Serbian name
(Lazarević) – son of Lazar of Serbia.
Given names[link]
A child is given a first name chosen by their parents but approved by the godparents of the child (the godparents rarely object to the parents' choice). The given name comes first, the surname last, e.g. "Željko Popović", where "Željko" is a first name and "Popović" is a family name. Female names end with -a, e.g. Dragan -> Dragana.
Popular names are mostly of Serbian (Slavic), Christian (Biblical), Greek and Latin origin.
- Serbian: Nenad, Dragan, Zoran, Goran and Slobodan.
- Greek: Nikola, Dimitrije, Đorđe, Aleksandar and Filip.
- Biblical: Jovan, Danilo, Petar, Pavle, Mihailo and Gavrilo.
- Latin: Marko, Srđan, Antonije and Miljan.
Surnames[link]
Most Serbian surnames (like Bosniak, Croatian and Montenegrin) have the surname suffix -ić (pronounced [itɕ], Cyrillic: -ић). This is often transliterated as -ic or -ici. In English-speaking countries, Serbian names have often been transcribed with a phonetic ending, -ich or -itch. This form is often associated with Serbs from before the early 20th century: hence Milutin Milanković is usually referred to as Milutin Milankovitch.
The -ić suffix is a Slavic diminutive, originally functioning to create patronymics. Thus the surname Petrić signifies little Petar, similar to Mac ("son of") in Scottish & Irish, and O' (grandson of) in Irish names. It is estimated that some two thirds of all Serbian surnames end in -ić and some 80% of Serbs carry such a surname.
Other common surname suffixes are -ov or -in which is the Slavic possessive case suffix, thus Nikola's son becomes Nikolin, Petar's son Petrov, and Jovan's son Jovanov. Those are more typical for Serbs from Vojvodina. The two suffixes are often combined.
The most common surnames are Marković, Nikolić, Petrović, and Jovanović.
Religion[link]
Main article: Serbian Orthodox Church
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The Serbs are predominantly Orthodox Christian, and before Christianity, they adhered to Slavic paganism. The baptism of Serbs are said to have begun on the initiation of the Byzantine Empire, first during the reign of Emperor Heraclius (610–641), however the adoption of state-religion took place during the reign of Mutimir, who acknowledged suzerainty of Basil I in ca 869. After the Great Schism, which divided the Roman state church roughly in modern Bosnia, the greater parts of Serbian lands remained under Constantinople (East, i.e. Orthodox Church). In 1219, the Serbian Orthodox Church was established as the national church by Saint Sava. With the occupation of the Balkans by the Ottoman Empire, Islam was introduced, therefore there exist "Muslim Slavs"; Gorani, Bosniaks, Muslims by nationality etc., where Serbs traditionally live. Up until the 20th century, there were influential movements of Serb Catholics in Dubrovnik,[79] Muslim Serbs,[80] as well as Protestants in Vojvodina.
The Serbs have endured persecution at various times in history, mostly due to their religion. For example, the devshirme-system of the Ottoman Empire which saw Christian boys forcibly and permanently taken from their families to be trained and enrolled in Ottoman governmental work, becoming Turkified, Kara Khalil Chendereli, founder of the Janissaries, explained "The conquered are slaves of the conquerors, to whom their goods, their women, and their children belong as lawful possession..".[81] The Ottomans abolished the Serbian Church in 1766. During World War II, the Croatian nationalist movement known as Ustasha seized power in Croatia as an Axis power, Croatia had a notable Serb community which the Ustasha sought to eliminate: In their political programme it was explained that "⅓ of the Serbs were to be killed, ⅓ to be expelled and ⅓ forcibly converted to Catholicism" (see World War II persecution of Serbs). Estimates of civilian Serbs killed under the Ustasha regime exceed 500,000 (in the Jasenovac camp alone, at least 300,000).
Geographically, the Serbian Orthodox Church represents the westernmost bastion of Orthodox Christianity in Europe, which shaped its historical fate through contacts with Catholicism and Islam.
Symbols[link]
Main article: National symbols of Serbia
Further information: List of Serbian flags and Serb heraldry
- The red-blue-white tricolour (a Slavic tricolour), is used as the Civil Flag of Serbia, as well as the ethnic or national flag of the Serb people. The official state flag has the tricolour with the Coat of Arms; the Serb eagle, which in turn has the Serb cross in the shield.
- The Serb eagle, a white two-headed eagle, which represents dual power and sovereignty (monarch and church), was the coat of arms of the Nemanjić dynasty, adopted by the succeeding noble and royal families.
- The Serbian cross is a Greek cross with four firesteels. It is based on the Byzantine cross with four Greek letters beta (Β), the first letters of the Greek phrase meaning "King of Kings, ruling over Kings".[82] In the Serbian cross, the four betas have been turned into four Cyrillic letters С with little stylistic modification, for a new message: Само Слога Србина Спашава "Only Unity Saves the Serbs".
Both the eagle and the cross, besides being the basis for various Serbian coats of arms throughout history, are bases for the symbols of various Serbian organizations, political parties, institutions and companies.
Serb folk attire varies, mostly because of the very diverse geography and climate of the territory inhabited by the Serbs. Some parts of it are, however, common:
- The traditional hat Šajkača. It is easily recognizable by its top part that looks like the letter V or like the bottom of a boat (viewed from above), after which it got its name. It originated as military headgear in the 18th-century Serbian river flotilla. It gained wide popularity in the early 20th century as it was used by the Serbian Army in World War I. It is worn on everyday basis by some villagers even today, and it was a common item of headgear among Bosnian Serb military commanders during the Bosnian War in the 1990s. The "šajkača" is traditionally used in the region of Šumadija (central part of Serbia), while Serbs in other regions naturally have other traditional types of hats.
- The traditional shoes Opanci (sing. Opanak), are recognizable by the distinctive tips that spiral backward. The Opanci are part of the wider folk clothing of the Balkans.
Cuisine[link]
Main article: Serbian cuisine
The Serbian cuisine, just like Serbian culture, implies not only regional elements connected to Serbia, but other parts of former Yugoslavia as well. Great influences have been marked on the whole cooking process due to peasantry, which also influenced the folk craft, music and arts.
Traditional dishes made in Serbia today have common roots with the dishes prepared throughout the Balkans. The whole Serbian cuisine is derived from a mixture of influences coming from the Mediterranean (Greek and Italian), Central European (Hungarian and Austrian) and Turkish cuisines.
Serbs have great passion for food in general, especially barbecue, having a rich cuisine and a large diversity of alcohol beverages that accompany these fat-rich dishes. Slivovitz, the national drink, is a strong, alcoholic beverage primarily made from distilled fermented plum juice, tasting similar to brandy (plum brandy in English). Foods include a variety of grilled meats and bread. Desserts range from Turkish-style baklava to Viennese-style tortes. Local Serbian wine is highly regarded and popular in respective wine regions. Among most popular dishes are: Pljeskavica, Ćevapčići, Ajvar, Burek, Gibanica, Karađorđeva šnicla, Musaka, Sarma, Kajmak.
Traditions[link]
Main article: Serbian traditions
The traditional dance of Serbs is the kolo (in some regions oro), circle dance, of which dances are the same and similar to those of other Balkan peoples. It is a collective dance, where a group of people hold each other by the hands, forming a circle (kolo, hence the name), semicircle or spiral.
The Serbs are a highly family-oriented society. A peek into a Serbian dictionary and the richness of their terminology related to kinship speaks volumes.
As with many other peoples, there are popular stereotypes on the local level: in popular jokes and stories, inhabitants of Vojvodina (Lale) are perceived as phlegmatic, undisturbed and slow; Montenegrins are lazy and pushy; southern Serbians are misers; Bosnians are raw and stupid; people from Central Serbia are often portrayed as capricious and malicious, etc.
Another related feature, often lamented by Serbs themselves, is disunity and discord; as Slobodan Naumović puts it, "Disunity and discord have acquired in the Serbian popular imaginary a notorious, quasi-demiurgic status. They are often perceived as being the chief malefactors in Serbian history, causing political or military defeats, and threatening to tear Serbian society completely apart." That disunity is often quoted as the source of Serbian historic tragedies, from the Battle of Kosovo in 1389 to Yugoslav wars in 1990s.[83] Even the contemporary notion of "two Serbia's"—one supposedly national, liberal and Eurocentric, and the other conservative, nationalist and Euroskeptic—seems to be the extension of the said discord.[84] Popular proverbs "two Serbs, three political parties" and "God save us from Serbs that may unite!", and even the unofficial Serbian motto "only unity saves Serbs" (Samo sloga Srbina spasava) illustrate the national frustration with the inability to unite over important issues.
Christian customs[link]
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Badnjaks on sale at Kalenić Market, Belgrade.
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Of all Slavs and Orthodox Christians, only Serbs have the custom of slava. Slava is the celebration of a family's patron saint, a protector, which is inherited mostly, though not exclusively, paternally. The custom is believed to have its origin in pagan times, and is known to have been canonically introduced by Saint Sava, the first Serbian Archbishop (1217–1233). There are a total of 78 feast days, and each family has one patron saint only, which means that the occasion brings all of the family together.
Serbs have their own customs regarding Christmas. The Serbian Orthodox Church uses the Julian calendar, so Christmas currently falls on 7 January of the Gregorian calendar. Early in the morning of Christmas Eve, the head of the family would go to a forest in order to cut badnjak, a young oak, which is then brought into the church to be blessed by the priest. The tree is stripped of its branches and combined with wheat and other grain products to be burned in the fireplace. The burning of the badnjak is a ritual which is most certainly of pagan origin, and is considered a sacrifice to God so that the coming year may bring plenty of food, happiness, love, luck and riches. Nowadays, with most Serbs living in towns, most simply go to their church service to be given a small parcel of oak, wheat and other branches tied together to be taken home and set afire. The house floor and church is covered with hay, reminding worshippers of the stable in which Jesus was born.
Christmas Day itself is celebrated with a feast, necessarily featuring roasted piglet as the main meal. The most important Christmas meal is česnica, a special kind of bread. The bread contains a coin; during the lunch, the family breaks up the bread and the one who finds the coin is said to be assured of an especially happy year.
Christmas is not associated with presents like in the West, most Serbian families give presents on New Year's Day. Deda Mraz (literally Grandpa Frost, the Santa Claus) and the Christmas tree (but rather associated with New Year's Day) are also used in Serbia as a result of globalisation. Serbs also celebrate the Old New Year (currently on 14 January of the Gregorian Calendar).
Communities[link]
In Serbia (the nation-state), 6.2 million Serbs constitute about 62% of the population (83% excluding Kosovo, see Status of Kosovo). Another 1,6 million live in Bosnia and Herzegovina,[85] where they are a constituent nation, predominantly living in Republika Srpska. In Montenegro (former nation-state), the minority numbers 201,892. The minority in Croatia numbers some 200,000 people (580,000 prior to the war, when they were a constituent nation). In the 1991 census Serbs consisted 39% of the overall population of former Yugoslavia; there were around 8.5 million Serbs in the entire country. Much smaller Serb autochthonous minorities exist in the Republic of Macedonia (mainly in Kumanovo and Skopje), Slovenia (Bela Krajina), Romania (Banat), Hungary (Szentendre, Pécs, Szeged) and Italy (Trieste – home to about 6,000 Serbs).[86]
According to the 2002 census there were 1,417,187 ethnic Serbs are in the municipality of Belgrade, 191,405 in the city of Novi Sad, 162,380 in the city of Niš, 170,147 in the municipality of Kragujevac and 106,826 in the municipality of Banja Luka (in Bosnia and Herzegovina as of 1991 census). All the capitals of the former Yugoslavia contain a strong historical Serbian minority – 10,000 strong and over (taking up anywhere between 2%- 3% of the population – Zagreb, Skopje – through Ljubljana and Sarajevo, and finally, Podgorica – over 26%).
The subgroups of Serbs are commonly based on regional affiliation. Some of the major regional groups include: Šumadinci, Ere, Vojvođani, Crnogorci, Kosovci, Bačvani, Banaćani, Bokelji, Bosanci, Sremci, Semberci, Krajišnici, Hercegovci, Shopi, etc. (The demonyms are also used to refer to any native inhabitant, regardless of ethnicity, i.e. Vojvodinian Hungarians or Croat Herzegovinians). Serbs inhabiting Montenegro and Herzegovina are organized into clans.
Many Serbs also live in the diaspora, notably in Germany, Austria, the Netherlands, Switzerland, France, Sweden, Canada, the US and Australia. Abroad, Vienna is said to be home to the largest Serb population followed by Chicago (and its surrounding area) with Toronto and southern Ontario coming in third. Los Angeles and Indianapolis are known to have a sizable Serbian community, but so do Berlin, Paris, Moscow, Istanbul and Sydney. The number of Serbs in the diaspora is unknown but it is estimated to be up to 5.5 million.[87][88] Smaller numbers of Serbs live in New Zealand, and Serbian communities in South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil and Chile) are reported to grow and exist to this day.
According to official figures, 5000 Serbs live in Dubai but the unofficial figure is estimated to be around 15,000.[89] Serbian immigrants went to the Persian Gulf states to find employment opportunities in the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Qatar and Kuwait in the 1990s and 2000s.[citation needed]
A recent research of the Ministry of Diaspora showed that more than two thirds of Serbs abroad have plans of returning to Serbia, and almost one third is ready to return immediately should they be given a good employment offer.[90] The same research shows that more than 25% of the diaspora has some specialization, i.e. master or PhD titles, while 45% have university degrees.[90]
Autochthonous communities:
- Serbia is the nation-state of the Serbs.
- In Bosnia and Herzegovina, Serbs are one of the three constitutive ethnic groups, the entity of Republika Srpska is home to the supermajority of Bosnian Serbs.
- In Montenegro, 32% of the population is Serb according to the 2003 census, they are a national minority, however in the 19th century Montenegro was a nation-state of the Serbs and they were the majority (~90%) until World War II.[91]
Autochthonous communities with minority status:
- In Croatia, Serbs are the largest national minority, scattered across the country. According to the 2001 Census, there were 201,631 Serbs in Croatia, down from the pre-war figure of 581,663,[92] a result of the Operation Oluja; the Croatian War. They were stripped of their constitutional status in 1990.
- In Macedonia, Serbs are a minority present in 16 municipalities, the largest being the Čučer-Sandevo Municipality (close to 28%) and Staro Nagoričane Municipality. They are found in the cities of Kumanovo and Skopje.
Serbian minorities exist in the following regions:
- In Hungary, Serbs are an officially recognized ethnic minority, numbering 7,350 people or 0.1% of population.[93] They are scattered in the southern part of the country. There are also some Serbs who live in the central part of the country – in bigger towns like Budapest, Szentendre, etc. The only settlement with an ethnic Serb majority in Hungary is Lórév on Csepel Island.
- In Romania, Serbs are located mostly within the Caraş-Severin County, where they constitute absolute majority in the commune of Pojejena (52.09%)[94] and a plurality in the commune of Socol (49.54%)[95] Serbs also constitute an absolute majority in the municipality of Sviniţa (87.27%)[96] in the Mehedinţi County. The region where these three municipalities are located is known as Clisura Dunării in Romanian or Banatska Klisura (Банатска Клисура) in Serbian. Officially recognized minority in Romania numbers 22,518 or 0.1% of the population (Census 2002).[97]
- In Albania, Serbs are not officially recognized as a minority. According to the latest national minority census in Albania (2000), there were around 2000 Serbs and Montenegrins (they are listed together as one ethnic group) in the country.[98] Domestic Serb-Montenegrin community claims the figure is around 25,000, while independent sources placed the figure at 10,000 in 1994.[99] Serbian sources estimate up to 30,000.
- Serbian community in Italy's city of Trieste dates back to the 18th century.[100] Local Serbs have erected one of the most prominent monuments in central Trieste: the Serbian Orthodox Church of Saint Spyridon (1854).[101]
- There is a small number of Serbs in Slovakia, mostly located in the southern town of Komárno, where they have been living since the 17th century.[102] There has also been a historic minority in Bratislava (Požun), where many Habsburg Serbs studied in the university. Their present number today is unknown but they are nevertheless recognized as an official minority.[33]
Diaspora[link]
Main article: Serbian diaspora
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There are currently 3.5 million Serbs in diaspora throughout the world (those that are not constitutional peoples; like in Serbia, Montenegro and Bosnia and Herzegovina in this case)[citation needed]. The Serb diaspora was the consequence of either voluntary departure, coercion and/or forced migrations or expulsions that occurred in six big waves:
- To the west and north, caused mostly by the Ottoman Turks.[citation needed]
- To the east (Czechoslovakia, Russia, Ukraine and across the former USSR from World War I and World War II, to until the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe by the early 1990s).[citation needed]
- To the USA for economic reasons, but Serbians also migrated to Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South America.[citation needed]
- During wartime, particularly World War II and post-war political migration, predominantly into overseas countries (large waves of Serbians and other Yugoslavians into the USA, Great Britain, Canada, Australia and New Zealand).[citation needed]
- Going abroad for temporary work as "guest workers" and "resident aliens" who stayed in their new homelands during the turbulent 1960s and 1970s (to Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom), however some Serbians returned to Yugoslavia in the 1980s.[citation needed]
- Escaping from the uncertain situation (1991–1995) caused by the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the renewal of vicious ethnic conflicts and civil war, as well as by the disastrous economic crises, which largely affected the educated or skilled labor forces (i.e. "brain drain"), increasingly migrated to Western Europe, North America and Australia/New Zealand.[citation needed]
The existence of the centuries-old Serb or Serbian diaspora in countries such as Austria, Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Romania, Russia, Poland, Slovakia, Turkey and Ukraine, is the result of historical circumstances – the migrations to the North and the East, due to the Turkish conquests of the Balkans and as a result of politics, especially when the Communist Party came into power, but even more when the communist state of Yugoslavia collapsed into inter-ethnic conflict, resulting in mass expulsions of people from certain regions as refugees of war. Although some members of the Serbian diaspora do not speak the Serbian language nor observe Christianity (some Serbians are Jews, Slavic Muslims, Protestants, Roman Catholics, Eastern Rite Catholics, or atheists) or members of the overseas dioceses of the Serbian Orthodox Church, they are still traditionally regarded as Serbs or Serbians other than Yugoslavians or Yugoslavs.[citation needed]
Maps[link]
-
Share of Serbs in Bosnia and Herzegovina by settlements 1991.
-
Serbs of Croatia in 2001.
-
Share of Serbs in Montenegro by settlements 2003.
-
Share of Serbs on Kosovo and Metohija by settlements 1961.
See also[link]
- Serbia, nation-state of Serbs
- List of notable Serbs
- states, regions, territories of Serbs
- Serb clans, former feudal organizations of Montenegro and Herzegovina
- Yugoslavs, national demonym and umbrella term of the peoples of the Yugoslav federation
- Slavs; Medieval Slav tribes; South Slavs
Notes[link]
- ^ The Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia
- ^ "1996 population census in Bosnia and Herzegovina". http://www.servinghistory.com/topics/Demographic_history_of_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina::sub::Republic_Of_Bosnia_And_Herzegovina.
- ^ "CIA - The World Factbook - Bosnia and Herzegovina". https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bk.html.
- ^ see Demographics of Croatia
- ^ "Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in Montenegro 2011". July 12, 2011. http://www.monstat.org/userfiles/file/popis2011/saopstenje/saopstenje(1).pdf. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
- ^ "The Euromosaic study - Other languages in Slovenia". European Commission. http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/languages/langmin/euromosaic/slov4_de.html.
- ^ Државен завод за статистика: Попис на населението, домаќинствата и становите во Република Македонија, 2002: Дефинитивни податоци (PDF)
- ^ Agenţia Naţionala pentru Intreprinderi Mici si Mijlocii: Recensamânt România 2002
- ^ Greece national statistical service: Statistics of Greece 2002
- ^ Life of Serbs in Albania, 2008-10-03
- ^ The Germany-Serbia remittance corridor
- ^ a b Serben-Demo eskaliert in Wien
- ^ "Erstmals über eine Million EU- und EFTA Angehörige in der Schweiz". Neue Zürcher Zeitung. 14. Oktober 2008. http://www.nzz.ch/nachrichten/schweiz/erstmals_ueber_eine_million_eu-_und_efta-angehoerige_in_der_schweiz__1.1105409.html.
- ^ Nordstrom, p. 353. (Serbia and Iran as top two countries in terms of immigration beside "Other Nordic Countries," based on Nordic Council of Ministers Yearbook of Nordic Statistics, 1996, 46-47)
- ^ Présentation de la République de Serbie
- ^ The Serbian Council of Great Britain
- ^ Joshua Project: Ethnic groups in Denmark
- ^ Statistiche demografiche ISTAT
- ^ "Etrangers inscrits dans tous les registres (1,2,3,4 et 5) du registre national - Remarque : Une nationalité "d'origine" désigne un réfugié politique reconnu". Statistiques Population étrangère. date=2 January 2008. http://www.dofi.fgov.be/fr/statistieken/statistiques_etrangers/Stat_ETRANGERS.htm.
- ^ Anuario Estadístico de España 2008. Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Population figures include Montenegro-born migrants.
- ^ http://www.ssb.no/english/subjects/00/minifakta_en/en/
- ^ "Statistiques - 01.06.2008". Government of Luxembourg. http://www.ecp.public.lu/repertoire/stats/2008/06/index.html.
- ^ Hungarian Central Statistical Office: Population by languages spoken with family members or friends, affinity with nationalities' cultural values and sex
- ^ Joshua Project: Ethnic groups of Turkey
- ^ Федеральная служба государственной статистики: 4.1. Национальный состав населения
- ^ "Selected Population Profile: Serbian". US Census Bureau. 2007. http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/IPTable?_bm=y&-reg=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201:558;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR:558;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T:558;ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR:558&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201PR&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201T&-qr_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_S0201TPR&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-TABLE_NAMEX=&-ci_type=A&-redoLog=false&-charIterations=424&-geo_id=01000US&-geo_id=NBSP&-format=&-_lang=en. Retrieved 2009.
- ^ The Canadian Encyclopedia
- ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics
- ^ "Ethnologue - South Slavic languages". www.ethnologue.com. http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=373-16. Retrieved 2011-02-08.
- ^ "More than 2 million Serbs in region", B92, 11 February 2011
- ^ "Verovali ili ne: U Turskoj Živi 9 Miliona Srba!", Press Online Serbia
- ^ 2000 Census, US Census Bureau.
- ^ a b Blis.rs, Srbi u Slovackoj nacionalna manjina
- ^ Serbien-Montenegro.de | Serben in Deutschland
- ^ "Demographics of Luxembourg". Ithelp.us. http://ithelp.us/Luxembourg/?p=5. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ Serbien-Montenegro.de
- ^ "Selected Population Profile: Serbian". US Census Bureau. 2007. http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_1YR_S0201&prodType=table. Retrieved 2009.
- ^ "Selected Population Profile: Serbian and Yugoslav". US Census Bureau. 2007. http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_10_3YR_S0201&prodType=table. Retrieved 2011.
- ^ The Canadian Encyclopedia
- ^ Australian Bureau of Statistics
- ^ "Slavyane v rannem srednevekovie" Valentin V. Sedov (Russian language), Archaeological institute of Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 1995
- ^ a b c d De Administrando Imperio
- ^ a b c d e Peričić, Marijana, et al. (2005). "High-Resolution Phylogenetic Analysis of Southeastern Europe Traces Major Episodes of Paternal Gene Flow Among Slavic Populations". Molecular Biology and Evolution 22(10). doi:10.1093/molbev/msi185 PMID 15944443.
N.B. The haplogroups' names in the section "Genetics" are according to the nomenclature adopted in 2008, as represented in Vincenza Battaglia (2008) Figure 2, so they may differ from the corresponding names in Peričić (2005). - ^ a b Battaglia, Vincenza et al. (2008). "Y-chromosomal evidence of the cultural diffusion of agriculture in southeast Europe". European Journal of Human Genetics 17 (6): 6. DOI:10.1038/ejhg.2008.249. PMC 2947100. PMID 19107149. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=2947100.
- ^ a b Marjanovic, D., et al. (2005). "The Peopling of Modern Bosnia-Herzegovina: Y-chromosome Haplogroups in the Three Main Ethnic Groups". Annals of Human Genetics 69. doi:10.1111/j.1529-8817.2005.00190.x PMID 16266413.
- ^ a b c Ćirković, Sima M., and Vuk Tošić. The Serbs, p. 13. Vuk Tošić (ed. and trans.). Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley-Blackwell, 2004, p. xii. ISBN 978-0-631-20471-8.
- ^ Ivo Vukcevich, Rex germanorum, populos sclavorum, p. 73: "Zupanic believes that the montes Serrorum can be traced to early Serb settlements in Dacia: Since we have shown that Serri is the same as Serb, the montes Serrorum mentioned by Marcellinus confirms the presence of Serbs" Google Book
- ^ a b The Spread of the Slaves, by Henry Hoyle Howorth, Journal of the Anthropological Institute, 1878
- ^ Our forefathers, Google Book
- ^ Istorija Srba, ch. 5: "Slovenska plemena i njihova kultura"
- ^ Povest vremennih let (Moscow, Leningrad: Akademiya nauk SSSR, 1990), pp.11, 207.
- ^ "Projekat Rastko – Luzica / Project Rastko – Lusatia". Rastko.rs. http://www.rastko.rs/rastko-lu/jezik/hsuster-srbin.html. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ J.P. Mallory and D.Q. Adams, "Protect", The Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture (London: Fitzroy and Dearborn, 1997).
- ^ p. 97. Google Books. http://books.google.com/?id=dPBPHVf3kdoC&pg=PA97. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ The Serbs, p. 25
- ^ Anne Comnene, Alexiade (Regne de L'Empereur Alexis I Comnene 1081–1118) II, pp. l57:3-l6; 1.66: 25–169. Texte etabli er traduit par B. Leib t. I-III (Paris, 1937–1945).
- ^ Rescriptum Declaratorium Illyricae Nationis, 1779, by Maria Theresa, establishing rights and recognition of the Serbian Orthodox Church in the Empire
- ^ Hupchick, Dennis P. The Balkans: From Constantinople to Communism. Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. ISBN 1-4039-6417-3
- ^ "Пројекат Растко: Đorđe Janković : The Slavs in the 6th century North Illyricum". Rastko.rs. http://www.rastko.rs/arheologija/delo/13047. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ a b Serbian studies, Volumes 2–3, p. 29
- ^ a b Eginhartus de vita et gestis Caroli Magni, p. 192: footnote J10
- ^ Erdeljanovich.J. "O naseljavanju Slovena u Maloj Aziji i Siriji od VII do X veka" Glasnik geografskog drushtva vol. VI 1921 pp.189
- ^ Fine 1991, pp. 108–110
- ^ Fine 1991, pp. 141
- ^ The entry of the Slavs into Christendom, pp. 208–209
- ^ V. Corovic, Istorija Srba, 2:4, Rastko article
- ^ The development of the Komnenian army: 1081–1180. Books.google.se. http://books.google.se/books?id=p8OOoGWRC2EC. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006). The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2004. Indiana University Press. p. 119. ISBN 0-271-01629-9.
- ^ a b Ramet, Sabrina P. (2006). The Three Yugoslavias: State-Building and Legitimation, 1918–2004. Indiana University Press. p. 114. ISBN 0-271-01629-9.
- ^ Tomasevich, Jozo (1975). War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: The Chetniks. Stanford University Press. pp. 258–259. ISBN 0-8047-0857-6.
- ^ Hoare, Marko Attila (2006). Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks. Oxford University Press. pp. 143–147. ISBN 0-19-726380-1.
- ^ Cohen, Philip J.; Riesman, David (1996). Serbia's Secret War: Propaganda and the Deceit of History. Texas A&M University Press. p. 95. ISBN 0-89096-760-1.
- ^ Žerjavić, Vladimir. YUGOSLAVIA-MANIPULATIONS -WITH THE NUMBER OF SECOND WORLD WAR VICTIMS. Croatian Information Centre. ISBN 0-919817-32-7. http://www.hic.hr/books/manipulations/index.htm.
- ^ Bassiouni, Cherif (27 May 1994). "Final report of the United Nations Commission of Experts established pursuant to security council resolution 780". United Nations. http://www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/comexpert/ANX/VI-01.htm. Retrieved 10 May 2010.
- ^ ICTY evidence; Babic pleads guilty to crimes
- ^ Croatian refugees[dead link]
- ^ "Vukovar death toll". Iwpr.net. http://www.iwpr.net/?p=tri&s=f&o=325671&apc_state=henh. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Dayton Peace Accords on Bosnia". US Department of State. 30 March 1996. http://www.state.gov/www/regions/eur/bosnia/bosagree.html. Retrieved 19 March 2006.
- ^ Jstor Article
- ^ Milenko Vukic, Znameniti Srbi-muslimani
- ^ Lybyer, Albert Howe, The government of the Ottoman empire in the time of Suleiman the Magnificent, (Harvard University Press, 1913), 63–64.
- ^ "Byzantine Empire". Crwflags.com. http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/gr_byz.html. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ Slobodan Naumović (PDF). The social origins and political uses of popular narratives on Serbian disunity. Filozofija i društvo 2005 Issue 26, Pages: 65–104. http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0353-5738/2005/0353-57380526065N.pdf. Retrieved 22 June 2009.
- ^ Branko Radun (10 March 2007). "Dve zadušnice za "dve Srbije"". Nova srpska politička misao. http://www.nspm.org.yu/koment_2007/2007_radun2.htm. Retrieved 5 June 2007.
- ^ "CIA – The World Factbook". Cia.gov. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bk.html. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ The Independent, "Trieste: In the wake of James Joyce"
- ^ "The Serbian Pressure Groups On Global Scale". Rieas.gr. http://rieas.gr/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=763&Itemid=41. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ serbianna. "Ioannis Michaletos Column on Serbianna.com | Front Page". Serbianna.com. http://www.serbianna.com/columns/michaletos/038.shtml. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ Miloš Rajković (2007-04). "Maqamat of New Babylon". Jat Airways. http://www.jat.com/active/en/home/main_menu/travel_info/jat_review/april_2007/makame_iz_novog_vavilona.html. Retrieved 23 September 2007.
- ^ a b "Press Review". glassrbije.org. 29 December 2008. http://glassrbije.org/E/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=5690&Itemid=31. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Montenegro". State.gov. 26 August 2011. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/70949.htm. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Population of Croatia 1931–2001". Vojska.net. http://www.vojska.net/eng/armed-forces/croatia/about/population/. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ [1][dead link]
- ^ "Structura Etno-demografică a României". Edrc.ro. 26 October 2011. http://www.edrc.ro/recensamant.jsp?regiune_id=1832&judet_id=1909&localitate_id=1965. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Structura Etno-demografică a României". Edrc.ro. 26 October 2011. http://www.edrc.ro/recensamant.jsp?regiune_id=1832&judet_id=1909&localitate_id=1974. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Structura Etno-demografică a României". Edrc.ro. 26 October 2011. http://www.edrc.ro/recensamant.jsp?regiune_id=1407&judet_id=1579&localitate_id=1638. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Vinde mai mult! > Articole InfoAfaceri > Recensamant Romania 2002". ClubAfaceri.ro. http://www.clubafaceri.ro/info_articole/articol/1294. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ untitled[dead link]
- ^ "Serbs – Stateless Nations, national, cultural and linguistic minorities, native peoples, ethnic groups in Europe". Eurominority. http://www.eurominority.org/version/eng/minority-detail.asp?id_states=1&id_minorities=219. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Jason Cowley". Jason Cowley. 25 June 2000. http://www.jasoncowley.net/essays/E20000625_I.html. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "Listing of Serbian Orthodox Churches by Country". Serbian Orthodox Church. http://www.serbianorthodoxchurch.com/pages/listing/country/index.html. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
- ^ "The Pride of Komarno". Slovakheritage.org. http://slovakheritage.org/Townsvill/komarnopride.htm. Retrieved 5 November 2011.
References[link]
- Overall
- Ćorović, Vladimir, Istorija srpskog naroda, Book I, (In Serbian) Electric Book, Rastko Electronic Book, Antikvarneknjige (Cyrillic)
- The Serbs. Wiley-Blackwell, 2004, Google Books. ISBN 0-631-20471-7, ISBN 978-0-631-20471-8.
- Medieval history
- Constantine Porphyrogenitus, De Administrando Imperio, edited by Gy. Moravcsik and translated by R. J. H. Jenkins, Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies, Washington D. C., 1993
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1991). The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08149-7.
- Fine, John Van Antwerp (1994). The Late Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Late Twelfth Century to the Ottoman Conquest. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08260-4, 0472100793.
- Tibor Živković, Portreti srpskih vladara (IX—XII), Beograd, 2006 (ISBN 86-17-13754-1)
- Vlasto, A. P. (1970). The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07459-2, 9780521074599.
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| Madeleine Albright | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| 64th United States Secretary of State | |
| In office January 23, 1997 – January 20, 2001 |
|
| President | Bill Clinton |
| Preceded by | Warren Christopher |
| Succeeded by | Colin Powell |
| 20th United States Ambassador to the United Nations | |
| In office January 27, 1993 – January 21, 1997 |
|
| President | Bill Clinton |
| Secretary-General | Boutros Boutros-Ghali Kofi Annan |
| Preceded by | Edward J. Perkins |
| Succeeded by | Bill Richardson |
| Personal details | |
| Born | Marie Jana Korbelová (1937-05-15) May 15, 1937 (age 75) Prague, Czechoslovakia[1] |
| Nationality | Czech, American |
| Political party | Democratic |
| Spouse(s) | Joseph Medill Patterson Albright (1959–1982; divorced) |
| Children | 3 daughters – twins Anne and Alice, and Katherine (Katie) |
| Alma mater | Wellesley College (B.A.) Columbia University (M.A., Ph.D.) |
| Profession | Diplomat |
| Religion | Episcopalian Christian[2] |
| Signature |  |
Madeleine Korbelová Albright (born May 15, 1937) was the first woman to become the United States Secretary of State. She was appointed by US President Bill Clinton on December 5, 1996, and was unanimously confirmed by a U.S. Senate vote of 99–0. She was sworn in on January 23, 1997.
Albright currently serves as a Professor of International Relations at Georgetown University's Walsh School of Foreign Service. She holds a PhD from Columbia University. She holds honorary degrees from Brandeis University (1996); the University of Washington (2002); Smith College (2003); University of Winnipeg (2005); the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (2007), and Knox College (2008).[3] In May 2012, she was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by US President Barack Obama.[4] Secretary Albright also serves as a Director on the Board of the Council on Foreign Relations.[5]
Albright is fluent in English, French, Russian, and Czech; she speaks and reads Polish and Serbo-Croatian as well.[6]
Contents |
Personal[link]
Early life[link]
Albright was born Marie Jana Korbelová (Czech pronunciation: [ˈmarɪjɛ ˈjana ˈkorbɛlovaː]) in the Smíchov district of Prague, Czechoslovakia. At the time of her birth, Czechoslovakia had been independent for less than twenty years, having gained independence from Austria after World War I. Her father, Josef Korbel, was a Czech Jewish diplomat and supporter of the early Czech democrats, Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and Edvard Beneš.[7] She was his first child with his Jewish wife, Anna (née Spieglová), who later also had another daughter Katherine (a schoolteacher) and son John (an economist).
At the time of Albright’s birth, her father was serving as press-attaché at the Czechoslovak Embassy in Belgrade. However, the signing of the Munich Agreement in March 1938 and the disintegration of Czechoslovakia at the hands of Adolf Hitler forced the family into exile because of their links with Beneš.[8] Prior to their flight, Albright's parents had converted from Judaism to Roman Catholicism.[9] Albright spent the war years in England, while her father worked for Beneš’s Czechoslovak government-in-exile. They first lived on Kensington Park Road in Notting Hill, London, where they endured the worst of The Blitz, but later moved to Beaconsfield, then Walton-on-Thames, on the outskirts of London.[10] While in England, a young Albright appeared as a refugee child in a film designed to promote sympathy for all war refugees in London.[11]
Albright was raised Catholic, but converted to Episcopalianism at the time of her marriage in 1959. Albright did not learn until late in life that her parents were Jewish and that many of her Jewish relatives in Czechoslovakia had perished in The Holocaust, including three of her grandparents.[12][13]
After the defeat of the Nazis in the European Theatre of World War II and the collapse of Nazi Germany and the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, Albright and family moved back to Prague, where they were given a luxurious apartment in the Hradcany district (which later caused controversy, as it had belonged to an ethnic German Bohemian industrialist family forced out by the Beneš decrees – see "Controversies"). Korbel was named Czechoslovak Ambassador to communist Yugoslavia, and the family moved to Belgrade. Communists governed Yugoslavia, and Korbel was concerned his daughter would be indoctrinated with Marxist ideology in a Yugoslav school, so she was taught by a governess and later sent to the Prealpina Institut pour Jeunes Filles in Chexbres, on Lake Geneva in Switzerland.[14] Here, she learned French and went by Madeleine, the French version of Madlenka, her Czech nickname.[15]
However, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia took over the government in 1948, with support from the Soviet Union, and as an opponent of Communism, Korbel was forced to resign from his position.[16] He later obtained a position on a United Nations delegation to Kashmir, and sent his family to the United States, by way of London, to wait for him when he arrived to deliver his report to the U.N. Headquarters, then in Lake Success, New York.[16] The family arrived in New York City, New York, in November 1948, and initially settled in Great Neck, on Long Island, New York.[17] Korbel applied for political asylum, arguing that as an opponent of Communism, he was now under threat in Prague.[18] With the help of Philip Mosely, a professor of Russian at Columbia University in New York City, Korbel obtained a position on the staff of the political science department at the University of Denver in Denver, Colorado.[19] He became dean of the university’s Josef Korbel School of International Studies, and later taught future U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice.[7]
Life in the United States[link]
Albright spent her teen years in Denver, and graduated from the Kent Denver School in Cherry Hills Village, a suburb of Denver, in 1955, where she founded the school’s international relations club and was its first president.[20] She attended Wellesley College, in Wellesley, Massachusetts, on a full scholarship, majoring in political science and graduated in 1959.[21] Her senior thesis was written on Czech Communist Zdeněk Fierlinger.[22] She became a U.S. citizen in 1957, and joined the College Democrats of America.[23]
While home in Denver from Wellesley, Albright worked as an intern for The Denver Post, where she met Joseph Medill Patterson Albright, the nephew of Alicia Patterson, owner of Newsday and wife of philanthropist Harry Frank Guggenheim.[24] The couple were married in Wellesley in 1959, shortly after her graduation.[21] They lived first in Rolla, Missouri, while he served his military service at nearby Fort Leonard Wood.[25] During this time, she worked at the Rolla Daily News.[25]
In January 1960 the couple moved to his hometown of Chicago, Illinois, where he worked at the Chicago Sun-Times as a journalist, and Albright worked as a picture editor for Encyclopædia Britannica.[26] The following year, Joseph Albright began work at Newsday in New York City, and the couple moved to Garden City on Long Island.[27] That year, she gave birth to twin daughters, Alice Patterson Albright and Anne Korbel Albright. The twins were born six weeks premature, and required a long hospital stay, so as a distraction, Albright began Russian classes at Hofstra University in Village of Hempstead, New York.[27]
In 1962, the family moved to Georgetown in Washington, D.C., and Albright began studying international relations and continued studying Russian at the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies at Johns Hopkins University in Washington DC.[28] However, in 1963 Alicia Patterson died, and the family returned to Long Island with the notion of Joseph taking over the family business.[29] Albright gave birth to another daughter, Katherine Medill Albright, in 1967, and continued her studies at Columbia University's Department of Public Law and Government[30] (later renamed as the political science department, which is located within the School of International and Public Affairs). She earned a certificate in Russian, a Masters of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy, writing her Master's thesis on the Soviet diplomatic corps, and her doctoral dissertation on the role of journalists in the Prague Spring of 1968.[31] She also took a graduate course given by Zbigniew Brzezinski, who would later be her boss at the U.S. National Security Council.[32]
Career[link]
Early career[link]
Albright returned to Washington in 1968, and commuted to Columbia for her PhD, which she received in 1975.[33] She began fund-raising for her daughters' school, involvement which led to several positions on education boards.[34] She was eventually invited to organize a fund-raising dinner for the 1972 presidential campaign of U.S. Senator Ed Muskie of Maine.[35] This association with Muskie led to a position as his chief legislative assistant in 1976.[36] However, after the 1976 U.S. presidential election of Jimmy Carter, Albright's former professor Brzezinski was named National Security Advisor, and recruited Albright from Muskie in 1978 to work in the West Wing as the National Security Council’s congressional liaison.[36] Following Carter's loss in 1980 to Ronald Reagan, Albright moved on to the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., where she was given a grant for a research project.[37] She chose to write on the dissident journalists involved in Poland's Solidarity movement, then in its infancy but gaining international attention.[37] She traveled to Poland for her research, interviewing dissidents in Gdansk, Warsaw and Krakow.[38] Upon her return to Washington, her husband announced his intention to divorce her for another woman.[39]
Albright joined the academic staff at Georgetown University in Washington, D.C., in 1982, specializing in Eastern European studies.[40] She has also directed the University's program on women in global politics.[41] She has also served as a major Democratic Party foreign policy advisor, and briefed Vice-Presidential candidate Geraldine Ferraro in 1984 and Presidential candidate Michael Dukakis in 1988 (both campaigns ended in defeat).[42] In 1992, Bill Clinton returned the White House to the Democratic Party, and Albright was employed to handle the transition to a new administration at the National Security Council.[43] In January 1993, Clinton nominated her to be U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, her first diplomatic posting.[44]
U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations[link]
Albright was appointed Ambassador to the United Nations, her first diplomatic post, shortly after Clinton was inaugurated, presenting her credentials on February 9, 1993. During her tenure at the U.N., she had a rocky relationship with the U.N. Secretary-General, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, whom she criticized as "disengaged" and "neglect[ful]" of genocide in Rwanda.[45] Albright wrote:
My deepest regret from my years in public service is the failure of the United States and the international community to act sooner to halt these crimes.[46]
In Shake Hands with the Devil, Roméo Dallaire claims that in 1994, in Albright's role as the U.S. Permanent Representative to the U.N., she avoided describing the killings in Rwanda as "genocide" until overwhelmed by the evidence for it;[47] this is now how she describes these massacres in her memoirs.[45][48] She was instructed to support a reduction or withdrawal (something which never happened) of the U.N. Assistance Mission for Rwanda but was later given more flexibility.[48] Albright later remarked in PBS documentary Ghosts of Rwanda that
it was a very, very difficult time, and the situation was unclear. You know, in retrospect, it all looks very clear. But when you were [there] at the time, it was unclear about what was happening in Rwanda."[49]
Also in 1996, after Cuban military pilots shot down two small civilian aircraft flown by the Cuban-American exile group Brothers to the Rescue over international waters, she announced, "This is not cojones. This is cowardice."[50] The line endeared her to President Clinton, who said it was "probably the most effective one-liner in the whole administration's foreign policy."[51]
On May 12, 1996, Albright defended UN sanctions against Iraq on a 60 Minutes segment in which Lesley Stahl asked her "We have heard that half a million children have died. I mean, that's more children than died in Hiroshima. And, you know, is the price worth it?" and Albright replied "we think the price is worth it."[52] Albright later criticized Stahl's segment as "amount[ing] to Iraqi propaganda"; said that her question was a loaded question;[53][54] wrote "I had fallen into a trap and said something I did not mean";[55] and regretted coming "across as cold-blooded and cruel".[52] Sanctions critics took Albright's failure to reframe the question as confirmation of the statistic.[55][56][57] The segment won an Emmy Award.[58][59]
Secretary of State[link]
When Albright took office as the 64th U.S. Secretary of State on January 23, 1997, she became the first female U.S. Secretary of State and the highest-ranking woman in the history of the U.S. government.[60] Not being a natural-born citizen of the U.S., she was not eligible as a U.S. Presidential successor and was excluded from nuclear contingency plans. In her position as Secretary of State, Albright reinforced the U.S.'s alliances; advocated democracy and human rights; and promoted American trade and business, labor and environmental standards abroad.
During her tenure, Albright considerably influenced American policy in Bosnia and Herzegovina and the Middle East. She incurred the wrath of a number of Serbs in the former Yugoslavia for her role in participating in the formulation of US policy during the Kosovo War and Bosnian war as well as the rest of the Balkans. But, together with President Bill Clinton, she remains a largely popular figure in the rest of the region, especially Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo, and Croatia. According to Albright's memoirs, she once argued with Colin Powell for the use of military force by asking, "What’s the point of you saving this superb military for, Colin, if we can't use it?"[61]
As Secretary of State she represented the U.S. at the Transfer of sovereignty over Hong Kong on July 1, 1997. She boycotted the swearing-in ceremony of the China-appointed Hong Kong Legislative Council, which replaced the elected one, along with the British contingents.[62]
According to several accounts, U.S. Ambassador to Kenya Prudence Bushnell repeatedly asked Washington for additional security at the embassy in Nairobi, including in an April 1998 letter directly to Albright. Bushnell was ignored.[63] In "Against All Enemies," Richard Clarke writes about an exchange with Albright several months after the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania were bombed in August 1998. "What do you think will happen if you lose another embassy?" Clarke asked. "The Republicans in Congress will go after you." "First of all, I didn't lose these two embassies," Albright shot back. "I inherited them in the shape they were." Albright was booed in 1998 when the brief war threat with Iraq revealed that citizens were opposed to such an invasion, although this is often overlooked.
In 1998, at the NATO summit, Albright articulated what would become known as the "three Ds" of NATO, "which is no diminution of NATO, no discrimination and no duplication – because I think that we don't need any of those three "Ds" to happen."[64]
Both Bill Clinton and Albright insisted that an attack on Hussein could be stopped only if Hussein reversed his decision to halt arms inspections. "Iraq has a simple choice. Reverse course or face the consequences," Albright said.[65]
In 2000, Albright became one of the highest level Western diplomats ever to meet Kim Jong-il, the communist leader of North Korea, during an official state visit to that country.[66]
In one of her last acts as Secretary of State, Albright on January 8, 2001, paid a farewell call on Kofi Annan and said that the U.S. would continue to press Iraq to destroy all its weapons of mass destruction as a condition of lifting economic sanctions, even after the end of the Clinton administration on January 20, 2001.[67]
Post-2001 career[link]
Following Albright's term as Secretary of State, many speculated that she might pursue a career in Czech politics. Czech President Václav Havel talked openly about the possibility of Albright succeeding him after he retired in 2002. Albright was reportedly flattered by suggestions that she should run for office, but denied ever seriously considering it.[68] She was the second recipient of the Hanno R. Ellenbogen Citizenship Award presented by the Prague Society for International Cooperation.
In 2001, Albright was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.[69] The same year, she founded the Albright Group, an international strategy consulting firm based in Washington, D.C.[70] It has Coca-Cola, Merck, Dubai Ports World, and Marsh & McLennan Companies among its clients, who benefit from the access that Albright has through her global contacts.[71][72] Affiliated with the firm is Albright Capital Management, which was founded in 2005 to engage in private fund management related to emerging markets.[72]
Albright currently serves on the Council on Foreign Relations Board of directors and on the International Advisory Committee of the Brookings Doha Center.[73] She is also currently the Mortara Distinguished Professor of Diplomacy at the Georgetown University Walsh School of Foreign Service in Washington, D.C..
In 2003, she accepted a position on the Board of Directors of the New York Stock Exchange. In 2005, Albright declined to run for re-election to the board in the aftermath of the Richard Grasso compensation scandal, in which Grasso, the chairman of the NYSE Board of Directors, had been granted $187.5 million in compensation, with little governance by the board on which Albright sat. During the tenure of the interim chairman, John S. Reed, Albright served as chairwoman of the NYSE board's nominating and governance committee. Shortly after the appointment of the NYSE board's permanent chairman in 2005, Albright submitted her resignation.[74]
On October 25, 2005, Albright guest starred on the television drama Gilmore Girls as herself.[75]
On January 5, 2006, she participated in a meeting at the White House of former Secretaries of Defense and State to discuss U.S. foreign policy with George W. Bush administration officials. On May 5, 2006, she was again invited to the White House to meet with former Secretaries and Bush administration officials to discuss Iraq.
Albright currently[clarification needed] serves as chairperson of the National Democratic Institute for International Affairs and as president of the Truman Scholarship Foundation. She is also the co-chair of the Commission on Legal Empowerment of the Poor and held the Chair of the Council of Women World Leaders Women's Ministerial Initiative up until November 16, 2007, succeeded by Margot Wallström.
In an interview given to Newsweek International published July 24, 2006, Albright gave her opinion on current U.S. foreign policy. Albright said: "I hope I'm wrong, but I'm afraid that Iraq is going to turn out to be the greatest disaster in American foreign policy – worse than Vietnam."[76]
In September 2006, she received the Menschen in Europa Award, with Václav Havel, for furthering the cause of international understanding.[77]
Albright has mentioned her physical fitness and exercise regimen in several interviews. She has said she is capable of leg pressing 400 pounds.[78][79]
At the National Press Club in Washington on November 13, 2007, Albright declared that she with William Cohen would co-chair a new "Genocide Prevention Task Force"[80] created by the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, the American Academy of Diplomacy, and the United States Institute for Peace. Their appointment was criticized by Harut Sassounian[81] and the Armenian National Committee of America.[82]
On May 13, 2007, two days before her 70th birthday, Albright received an honorary doctor of laws degree from the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.[83]
Albright endorsed and supported Hillary Clinton in her 2008 campaign for U.S. President. Albright has been a close friend of Clinton and serves as her top informal advisor on foreign policy matters. She is currently[clarification needed] serving as a top advisor for U.S. President Barack Obama in a working group on national security. On December 1, 2008, then-President-elect Obama nominated then-Senator Clinton for Albright's former post of Secretary of State.
In September 2009, Albright opened an exhibition of her personal jewelry collection at the Museum of Art and Design in New York City, which ran until January 2010. The collection highlighted the many pins she wore while serving at the United Nations and State Department, including the famous pin showing a snake and apple she wore after the Iraqi press called her "an unparalleled serpent", and several jeweled insect bugs she wore to meet the Russian Foreign Minister Igor Ivanov after it was discovered the Russian secret service had attempted to bug the State Department.[84]
World Justice Project[link]
Madeleine Albright serves as an Honorary Chair for the World Justice Project.[85] The World Justice Project works to lead a global, multidisciplinary effort to strengthen the Rule of Law for the development of communities of opportunity and equity.[86]
The Hague Institute for Global Justice[link]
Madeleine Albright serves as Chair of the advisory council for The Hague Institute for Global Justice, which was founded in 2011 in The Hague.[87]
Controversies[link]
Art ownership controversy[link]
Following the Washington Post's profile of Albright by Michael Dobbs, an Austrian man, Philipp Harmer, launched legal action against Albright, claiming Josef Korbel had illegally taken possession of artwork which belonged to his great-grandfather, Karl Nebrich.[88] Nebrich, a German-speaking Prague industrialist, was forced to abandon some of his possessions when ethnic Germans were expelled from the country after WWII under the Beneš decrees. His apartment, at 11 Hradčanská Street in Prague, was subsequently given to Korbel and his family, which they occupied before also being forced to flee to America. Harmer felt Korbel stole his great-grandfather's artwork, which was left in the apartment. The matter was handled by Albright's brother, John Korbel.[88]
Radovan Karadžić[link]
During his first hearing in front of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, Radovan Karadžić stated that Albright[89] along with Richard Holbrooke offered him a deal which would allow him avoid prosecution for asserted war crimes if he left public life and politics. According to Karadžić, Albright offered him a chance to relocate to Russia, Greece, or Serbia and open a private clinic, or to go to Bijeljina.[90] Karadžić was quoted as saying that Holbrooke or Albright would like to see him disappear and expressed the fear for his life by saying "I do not know how long the arm of Mr Holbrooke or Mrs Albright is ... or whether that arm can reach me here".[91]
Books[link]
- Madam Secretary (2003) – Albright's memoir, published after her retirement
- The Mighty and the Almighty: Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs (2006)
- Memo to the President Elect: How We Can Restore America's Reputation and Leadership (2008)
- Read My Pins (2009)[92]
- Prague Winter: A Personal Story of Remembrance and War, 1937-1948 (2012)[93]
References[link]
- ^ "Biography at The Washington Post". Washingtonpost.com. 1999-12-15. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/govt/admin/albright.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
- ^ Albright was raised Catholic and is affiliated by choice with an Episcopal church.[1] But traditional Judaism, which considers neither conversion nor nonaffiliation as relevant to Jewish status, considers Albright Jewish based on her mother having been Jewish.[2] (See Judaism#What_makes_a_person_Jewish?)
- ^ "Knox Announces Honorary Degree Recipients". Knox.edu. http://www.knox.edu/x20470.xml. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
- ^ {{cite web url=http://www.cnn.com/2012/05/29/us/medal-of-freedom/index.html?hpt=hp_t1
- ^ "Board of Directors – Council on Foreign Relations". Cfr.org. 2006-05-14. Archived from the original on 2010-11-03. http://www.cfr.org/about/people/board_of_directors.html. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
- ^ http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/oct/30/usa.emmabrockes
- ^ a b Dobbs, Michael (December 28, 2000). "Josef Korbel's Enduring Foreign Policy Legacy". The Washington Post. p. A05. http://www.anti-communistanalyst.com/josef_korbel.html. Retrieved 2009-04-09.
- ^ Albright, 2003: pp. 8–9
- ^ Choosing to Remain a 'Forced Convert', Ari Beker, Haaretz, October 12, 2006
- ^ Albright, 2003, pp. 9–11.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 9.
- ^ Dobbs, Michael. "Albright's Family Tragedy Comes to Light", The Washington Post February 4, 1997, p. A01.
- ^ "Voices on Antisemtisim interview with Madeline K. Albright". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 2007-04-12. http://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/voices/transcript/index.php?content=20070412.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 15.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 4.
- ^ a b Albright, 2003, p. 17.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 18.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 19–20.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 20.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 24.
- ^ a b Albright, 2003, p. 47.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 43.
- ^ Albright, 2003, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 36.
- ^ a b Albright, 2003, p. 48.
- ^ Albright, 2003, pp. 49–50.
- ^ a b Albright, 2003, p. 52.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 54.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 55.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 56.
- ^ Albright, 2003, pp. 56, 59, 71.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 57.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 71.
- ^ Albright, 2003, pp. 63–66.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 65.
- ^ a b Scott, A.O. (April 25, 1999). "Madeleine Albright: The Diplomat Who Mistook Her Life for Statecraft". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/25857/. Retrieved 2009-04-09.
- ^ a b Albright, 2003, p. 91.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 92.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 94.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 99.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 100.
- ^ Albright, 2003, pp. 102–104.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 127.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 131.
- ^ a b Albright, 2003, p. 207.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 147.
- ^ Dallaire, Roméo. Shake Hands with the Devil. p. 374. http://books.google.com/books?id=oe9S6SgfeSsC&pg=PA374#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
- ^ a b Albright, 2003, pp. 150–151.
- ^ "Interview Madeleine Albright". Ghosts of Rwanda. PBS Frontline. April 1, 2004 (Interview conducted on February 25, 2004). http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/ghosts/interviews/albright.html. Retrieved 2007-02-14.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 205.
- ^ "Albright's Personal Odyssey Shaped Foreign Policy Beliefs". Washingtonpost.com. 1996-12-06. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/politics/govt/admin/stories/albright120696.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-16.
- ^ a b The mighty and the Almighty ... – Google Books. Books.google.com. http://books.google.com/books?id=9RnakB6HbUwC&pg=RA1-PA55&dq=%22the+price,+we+think,+the+price+is+worth+it%22. Retrieved 2010-09-09.
- ^ Rosen, Mike (2002-03-15). "U.S., U.N. not to blame for deaths of Iraqis". Rocky Mountain News. Archived from the original on 2002-04-14. http://web.archive.org/web/20020414184813/http://www.rockymountainnews.com/drmn/news_columnists/article/0,1299,DRMN_86_1028937,00.html.
- ^ "Albright's Blunder". Irvine Review. 2002. Archived from the original on 2003-06-03. http://web.archive.org/web/20030603215848/http://www.irvinereview.org/guest1.htm. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
- ^ a b Albright, Madeleine (2003). Madam Secretary: A Memoir. pp. 274, 275. http://books.google.com/books?id=6qV4AAAAMAAJ&q=%22Iraqi+propaganda%22.
- ^ "The Politics of Dead Children: Have Sanctions against Iraq Murdered Millions?". Reason magazine. March 2002. http://www.reason.com/news/show/28346.html. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
- ^ "Economics Sanctions and Iraq: 'The Non-Denial Heard 'Round the World'". How the World Works: A Brief Survey of International Relations. CourseSmart. ISBN 978-0-205-72905-0. http://www.coursesmart.com/9780205729050/193.
- ^ Spagat, Michael (2010 September). "Truth and death in Iraq under sanctions". Significance (journal). http://personal.rhul.ac.uk/uhte/014/Truth%20and%20Death.pdf.
- ^ "Lesley Stahl". CBS News. 1998. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/1998/07/09/60minutes/bios/main13546.shtml. Retrieved 2011-06-05.
- ^ "Biography: Madeleine Korbel Albright". Secretary.state.gov. http://secretary.state.gov/www/albright/albright.html. Retrieved 2010-07-09.
- ^ Albright, 2003, p. 182.
- ^ "U.S. to Boycott Seating of New Hong Kong Legislature – June 10, 1997". CNN. 1997-06-10. http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/9706/10/hong.kong.us/index.html. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
- ^ "Before Bombings, Omens and Fears". Partners.nytimes.com. http://partners.nytimes.com/library/world/africa/010999africa-bomb.html. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
- ^ "News from the USIA Washington File". Fas.org. http://www.fas.org/man/nato/news/1998/98120904_tlt.html. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
- ^ "Hussein seeks 'just' solution to standoff". CNN. November 13, 1998. Archived from the original on January 17, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070117152630/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/meast/9811/13/iraq.03/. Retrieved 2007-06-21.
- ^ "Frontline: Kim's Nuclear Gamble: Interviews: Madeleine Albright". PBS. 2003-03-27. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/kim/interviews/albright.html. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
- ^ "U.S. Will Maintain Pressure on Iraq, Albright Says". Usembassy.it. 2001-01-08. http://www.usembassy.it/file2001_01/alia/a1010801.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
- ^ "EUROPE | Albright Tipped for Czech Presidency". BBC News. 2000-02-28. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/659215.stm. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
- ^ "Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter A". American Academy of Arts and Sciences. http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterA.pdf. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
- ^ "The Albright Group LLC". BusinessWeek. 2008. http://investing.businessweek.com/businessweek/research/stocks/private/snapshot.asp?privcapId=5910760. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
- ^ Broder, John M. (December 11, 2008). "Title, but Unclear Power, for a New Climate Czar". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/12/us/politics/12climate.html.
- ^ a b Bilodeau, Otis (2007-01-18). "Madeleine Albright Raises $329 Million for New Fund". Bloomberg News. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601086&sid=aU1Dya07Rrr8&refer=news. Retrieved 2008-12-28.
- ^ "Board of Directors-Council on Foreign Relations". Archived from the original on 2010-11-03. http://www.cfr.org/about/people/board_of_directors.html. Retrieved 2007-12-06.
- ^ "Business: Interim NYSE chairman to stay another year". Sptimes.com. http://www.sptimes.com/2004/04/02/Business/Interim_NYSE_chairman.shtml. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
- ^ "Madeleine Albright on Gilmore girls". YouTube.com. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RvoEpp41gQs. Retrieved 2009-12-10.
- ^ "The Last Word: Madeleine Albright – Newsweek: International Editions". Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/2006/07/23/the-last-word-madeleine-albright.html. Retrieved 2011-06-22.
- ^ "Menschen in Europa". Menschen-in-europa.de. http://www.menschen-in-europa.de/en/rueckblick_jahr.php?jahr=2006. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
- ^ "Washington Whispers, May 5, 2006". U.S. News. http://www.usnews.com/usnews/politics/whispers/archive/may2006.htm. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
- ^ "Madeline Albright Reveals Exercise Regimen For "Kicking Ass"". NPR. 2001-12-19. http://www.npr.org/about/press/011219.malbright.html. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
- ^ "How to stop genocide | Preventing genocide | The Economist". The Economist. 2008-12-11. http://www.economist.com/world/unitedstates/displaystory.cfm?story_id=12773216. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
- ^ Madeleine Albright to Co-Chair Genocide Prevention Task Force, Huffington Post, November 20, 2007.
- ^ "Armenian Americans Criticize Hypocrisy of Genocide Prevention Task Force Co-Chairs | Asbarez". Asbarez. http://www.asbarez.com/2008/12/08/armenian-americans-criticize-hypocrisy-of-genocide-prevention-task-force-co-chairs/. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
- ^ "UNC News Release – Five to receive honorary degrees at Carolina's Spring Commencement". Unc.edu. 2007-05-03. http://www.unc.edu/news/archives/may07/honorarydegrees050307.html. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
- ^ Lamb, Christina (October 4, 2009). "Madeleine Albright reveals Brooch Diplomacy". London: Times (UK). http://women.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/women/fashion/article6860132.ece. Retrieved 2010-11-01.
- ^ "Honorary Chairs". World Justice Project. http://worldjusticeproject.com/honorary-chairs. Retrieved 2010-02-24.
- ^ "About the". World Justice Project. http://worldjusticeproject.com/about/. Retrieved 2010-02-24.
- ^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xxPjuObF-W8&feature=player_embedded
- ^ a b The Prague Post (2000-05-17). "Germans lost their art, too: Family says Albright's father took paintings". praguepost.cz. http://www.praguepost.cz/news051700f.html. Retrieved 2010-03-12.
- ^ "Karadzic demands Holbrooke, Albright appear in court | International | Reuters". Reuters. 2008-08-06. http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL648881420080806?sp=true. Retrieved 2009-06-01.
- ^ Simons, Marlise (2008-08-02). "Karadzic says 'witch hunt' has tainted trial". Boston.com. http://www.boston.com/news/world/europe/articles/2008/08/02/karadzic_says_witch_hunt_has_tainted_trial/. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
- ^ "US wants me dead: Karadzic". Afp.google.com. 2008-08-01. http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5hDjfrs7G6ubbn16kfGGmiJuCRu0Q. Retrieved 2009-06-22.
- ^ Albright, Madeleine (2009-09-29). "Read My Pins: Stories from a Diplomat's Jewel Box by Madeleine Albright". Harpercollins.com. http://www.harpercollins.com/books/9780060899189/Read_My_Pins/index.aspx. Retrieved 2009-10-16.
- ^ http://www.amazon.com/Prague-Winter-Personal-Remembrance-1937-1948/dp/0062030310
Bibliography[link]
Primary Sources[link]
- Albright, Madeleine (2003). Madam Secretary: A Memoir. Miramax; 1ST edition. pp. 576. ISBN 0-7868-6843-0.
External links[link]
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This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (January 2011) |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Madeleine Albright |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Madeleine Albright |
- Madam Secretary The Madeleine Albright Memoir
- Portrait of Madeleine Albright – Madeleine Albright interviewed by Ulysse Gosset on France 24 – The Talk of Paris Show
- Official biography at State Department site
- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Sample chapter and audio interview about The Mighty and the Almighty (Official publisher web page)
- 1997 commencement speech, Mount Holyoke College
- 2003 commencement speech, Smith College
- 2007 commencement speech, Wellesley College
- Address at DePauw University, September 19, 2008 (with video clips)
- Chapter excerpts and audio interview about foreign policy (Official publisher web page)
- Madeleine Albright Co-Chair Genocide Prevention Task Force
- Audio recording of Albright's talk, "The Mighty and the Almighty," as part of the University of Chicago World Beyond the Headlines series.
- Estimates of Iraqi deaths during sanctions
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Warren Christopher |
United States Secretary of State Served under: Bill Clinton 1997–2001 |
Succeeded by Colin Powell |
| Diplomatic posts | ||
| Preceded by Edward J. Perkins |
United States Ambassador to the United Nations 1993–1997 |
Succeeded by Bill Richardson |
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Albright, Madeleine |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | U.S. Secretary of State |
| Date of birth | 1937-05-15 |
| Place of birth | Prague, Czechoslovakia |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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The Serbs (Serbian: Срби, Srbi, pronounced [sr̩̂bi]) are a nation and South Slavic ethnic group of the Balkans and southern Central Europe. Serbs live mainly in Serbia and the disputed territory of Kosovo, Montenegro, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and form significant minorities in Croatia, the Republic of Macedonia and Slovenia. Likewise, Serbs are an officially recognized minority in Romania, Hungary, Albania, the Czech Republic and Slovakia. There is also a large Serbian diaspora in Western Europe, particularly in Germany, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, France, Italy and the United Kingdom. More than a million people of Serbian origin live in German-speaking countries, including Luxembourg (1%), Austria (1.8%), Switzerland (1%), and Germany (~1%). Outside Europe, there are significant Serbian communities in the United States (198,000 Serbian plus additional 326,000 "Yugoslav" nationals),Canada (72,690 in 2006) and Australia (95,000 in 2006).
The Serbs are a Slavic people, specifically of the South Slavic subgroup, which has its origins in the 6th and 7th century communities developed in Southeastern Europe (see Great Migration). Slav raids on Eastern Roman territory are mentioned in 518, and by the 580s they had conquered large areas referred to as Sclavinia (transl. Slavdom, from Sklavenoi – Σκλαυηνοι, the early South Slavic tribe which is eponymous to the current ethnic and linguistic Indo-European people). In 649, Constantine III relocates conquered Slavs "from the Vardar" to Gordoservon (Serb habitat). Among communities part in the Serb ethnogenesis are the Romanized Paleo-Balkan tribes of Illyrians, Thracians and Dacians, Celts, Greek colonies and Romans.
