- published: 22 Jan 2009
- views: 5323
- author: AntarcticTreaty
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![International Antarctic Treaty Expedition [full - part 1 of 2]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121213033202im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/sfn4kND8AwI/default.jpg "Full film of the International Antarctic Treaty Expedition, November 16-30, 2009. Filmed, edited, and produced by Kyle O'Donoghue. www.2041.com")
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- 60th parallel south
- 90th meridian west
- Adolphus Greely
- Adrien de Gerlache
- Adélie Land
- Aeneas Mackintosh
- Airship Italia
- Albert P. Crary
- Aleksei Chirikov
- Alexander Kolchak
- Alexander Konrad
- Alexander Kuchin
- Alexey Tryoshnikov
- Alfred Ritscher
- Alistair Mackay
- Allen Young
- Anatoly Sagalevich
- Andrey Kapitsa
- Antarctic
- Antarctic (ship)
- Antarctic ecozone
- Antarctic Peninsula
- Antarctica
- Anthony de la Roché
- Arctic
- Arctic Council
- Arctic exploration
- Arctic Ocean
- Argentina
- Argentine Antarctica
- Arktika (icebreaker)
- Arktika 2007
- Arms control
- Artur Chilingarov
- Arved Fuchs
- Australia
- Avgust Tsivolko
- Aviaarktika
- Barneo
- Belgium
- Benjamin Morrell
- Bernt Balchen
- Boris Vilkitsky
- Brazilian Antarctica
- Brendan
- Brusilov Expedition
- Buenos Aires
- Cadwalader Ringgold
- Cape Town
- Carl Anton Larsen
- Carsten Borchgrevink
- Carsten Richardson
- Charles Clerke
- Charles Francis Hall
- Charles R. Burton
- Charles Wilkes
- Chile
- Christchurch
- Cold War
- Czechoslovakia
- David Legge Brainard
- David Scott Cowper
- Discovery Expedition
- Discovery Hut
- Dmitry Laptev
- Dmitry Ovtsyn
- Douglas Mawson
- East Antarctica
- East Germany
- Edgar Evans
- Edgeworth David
- Edith Ronne
- Edmund Hillary
- Eduard Toll
- Edward Adrian Wilson
- Edward Belcher
- Edward Bransfield
- Elisha Kane
- Emil Racoviţă
- Eric Marshall
- Erich von Drygalski
- Erik the Red
- Ernest Shackleton
- Ernst Krenkel
- Far Eastern Party
- Farthest North
- Farthest South
- Finn Ronne
- Flag of Antarctica
- Fox (ship)
- Fram
- Framheim
- France
- Francis Crozier
- Frank Wild
- Frederick Cook
- Fridtjof Nansen
- Fyodor Litke
- Fyodor Matisen
- Fyodor Matyushkin
- Fyodor Minin
- Gardar Svavarsson
- Gaspar Corte-Real
- Gauss (ship)
- Gauss expedition
- George Back
- George Francis Lyon
- George J. Dufek
- George Nares
- George W. DeLong
- Georgy Baydukov
- Georgy Brusilov
- Georgy Sedov
- Georgy Ushakov
- Gerald Ketchum
- Gjøa
- Godske Lindenov
- Greenland
- Gunnbjörn Ulfsson
- Hans Egede
- Helmer Hanssen
- Henry Hudson
- Henry Kellett
- Henryk Arctowski
- Hjalmar Johansen
- HMS Adventure (1771)
- HMS Alert (1856)
- HMS Blossom (1806)
- HMS Discovery (1774)
- HMS Discovery (1874)
- HMS Erebus (1826)
- HMS Fury (1814)
- HMS Griper (1813)
- HMS Hecla (1815)
- HMS Resolute (1850)
- HMS Terror (1813)
- Hubert Wilkins
- Hugh Willoughby
- Humphrey Gilbert
- Ice shelf
- Icebreaker Sadko
- Icebreaker Sedov
- Icebreaker Taymyr
- Icebreaker Vaygach
- Icebreaker Yermak
- Iceland
- Ilya Perfilyev
- Ingólfr Arnarson
- International waters
- Isaac Israel Hayes
- Isaac Schlossbach
- Ivan Lyakhov
- Ivan Papanin
- James Booth Lockwood
- James Clark Ross
- James Cook
- James Weddell
- Jameson Adams
- Jan Nagórski
- Japan
- Jason (ship)
- Jens Munk
- Jervis Bay Territory
- John Cabot
- John Davis (sealer)
- John Franklin
- John Rae (explorer)
- John Riddoch Rymill
- Jonas Poole
- Joris Carolus
- Joseph Billings
- Joseph René Bellot
- Julius von Payer
- Karl Weyprecht
- Khariton Laptev
- Knud Rasmussen
- Koch (boat)
- Konstantin Badygin
- Kurbat Ivanov
- Lake Vostok
- Land claim
- Lawrence Oates
- Lincoln Ellsworth
- Louis Palander
- Mangazeya
- Maria Klenova
- Maria Pronchishcheva
- Mark Shevelev
- Martin Frobisher
- Matvei Gedenschtrom
- Maud (ship)
- McMurdo Sound
- McMurdo Station
- Mercator Cooper
- Merkury Vagin
- Methanol
- Michael Barne
- Miguel Corte-Real
- Mikhail Gvozdev
- Mikhail Lavrov
- Mikhail Lazarev
- Mikhail Somov
- Mikhail Stadukhin
- MIR (submersible)
- Mirny (sloop-of-war)
- Mirny Station
- Moon Treaty
- Multilateral treaty
- Naddodd
- Nathaniel Palmer
- New Swabia
- New Zealand
- New Zealand Police
- Nikifor Begichev
- Nikolai Kolomeitsev
- Nikolay Urvantsev
- Nimrod (ship)
- Nimrod Expedition
- Norge (airship)
- North Magnetic Pole
- North Pole
- North Pole-1
- North Pole-36
- North Pole-37
- Northern Canada
- Northern Sea Route
- Northwest Passage
- Norway
- Olav Bjaaland
- Operation Highjump
- Operation Tabarin
- Operation Windmill
- Orcadas Base
- Oscar Wisting
- Otto Nordenskiöld
- Otto Schmidt
- Otto Sverdrup
- Otto von Kotzebue
- Outer Space Treaty
- Papar
- Peter I Island
- Peter Warren Dease
- Polaris expedition
- Pole of Cold
- Polheim
- Pomors
- Portal Antarctica
- Pourquoi-Pas (1908)
- Pyotr Anjou
- Pyotr Pakhtusov
- Pyotr Shirshov
- Pytheas
- Queen Maud Land
- Quest (ship)
- Ralph Plaisted
- Ranulph Fiennes
- Raytheon
- Reinhold Messner
- Richard Chancellor
- Richard Collinson
- Richard E. Byrd
- Richard Evelyn Byrd
- Roald Amundsen
- Robert Bylot
- Robert Falcon Scott
- Robert McClure
- Robert Peary
- Ross Dependency
- Ross Sea
- Ross Sea party
- RRS Discovery
- Rudolf Samoylovich
- RV Belgica (1884)
- San Telmo (ship)
- Semion Chelyuskin
- Semyon Dezhnyov
- Shirase Nobu
- Siberian Cossacks
- Snæbjörn Galti
- South Africa
- South Magnetic Pole
- South Pole
- Southern Ocean
- Soviet Union
- SS Chelyuskin
- SS Vega (1872)
- St. Roch (ship)
- Statute
- Stepan Makarov
- Stepan Malygin
- Sverre Hassel
- Svyataya Anna
- SY Aurora
- Terra Nova (ship)
- Thomas Marmaduke
- Tobias Furneaux
- Tom Crean (explorer)
- Treaty
- Tupolev ANT-25
- Umberto Nobile
- United Kingdom
- United Nations
- United States
- USS Advance (1847)
- USS Jeannette (1878)
- USS O-12 (SS-73)
- USS Porpoise (1836)
- USS Skate (SSN-578)
- USS Vincennes (1826)
- Valerian Albanov
- Valery Chkalov
- Vasili Pronchishchev
- Vasily Chichagov
- Viking expansion
- Vitus Bering
- Vivian Fuchs
- Vladimir Rusanov
- Vladimir Wiese
- Vostok Station
- Voyage of the Karluk
- Wally Herbert
- Weddell Sea
- West Antarctica
- Wikisource
- Wilhelm Filchner
- Willem Barentsz
- William Baffin
- William Edward Parry
- William Lashly
- William Scoresby
- William Speirs Bruce
- Yakov Gakkel
- Yakov Permyakov
- Yakov Sannikov
- Yevgeny Fyodorov
- Yevgeny Tolstikov
- Zarya (polar ship)
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Adélie Land
Adélie Land is a claimed territory in the continent of Antarctica. It stretches from a coastline area along the Great Southern Ocean back to the South Pole. The territory is claimed by France as one of five districts of the French Southern and Antarctic Lands, although not all nations have given it diplomatic recognition.
Adélie Land lies between 136° E (near Pourquoi Pas Point at 66°12′S 136°11′E / 66.2°S 136.183°E / -66.2; 136.183) and 142° E (near Point Alden at 66°48′S 142°02′E / 66.8°S 142.033°E / -66.8; 142.033), with a shore length of 350 kilometres (220 mi) and with its hinterland extending as a sector about 2,600 kilometres (1,600 mi) toward the South Pole. It borders on the Australian Antarctic Territory both West and East, namely on Clarie Land (part of Wilkes Land) in the West, and George V Land in the East. The total land area, mostly ice covered, is estimated at 432,000 square kilometres (167,000 sq mi).
The coast was discovered in 1840 by French explorer Jules Dumont d'Urville (1790–1842) who named it after his wife, Adélie.
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Antarctica
Antarctica
This map uses an orthographic projection, near-polar aspect. The South Pole is near the center, where longitudinal lines converge.
Antarctica (
i/æntˈɑrtɨkə/ or /ænˈtɑːktɨkə/) is Earth's southernmost continent, containing the geographic South Pole. It is situated in the Antarctic region of the Southern Hemisphere, almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle, and is surrounded by the Southern Ocean. At 14.0 million km2 (5.4 million sq mi), it is the fifth-largest continent in area after Asia, Africa, North America, and South America. For comparison, Antarctica is nearly twice the size of Australia. About 98% of Antarctica is covered by ice that averages at least 1 mile (1.6 km) in thickness.
Antarctica, on average, is the coldest, driest, and windiest continent, and has the highest average elevation of all the continents. Antarctica is considered a desert, with annual precipitation of only 200 mm (8 inches) along the coast and far less inland. The temperature in Antarctica has reached −89 °C (−129 °F). There are no permanent human residents, but anywhere from 1,000 to 5,000 people reside throughout the year at the research stations scattered across the continent. Only cold-adapted organisms survive there, including many types of algae, animals (for example mites, nematodes, penguins, seals and tardigrades), bacteria, fungi, plants, and protista. Vegetation where it occurs is tundra.
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Arctic Ocean
The Arctic Ocean, located in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Arctic north polar region, is the smallest and shallowest of the world's five major oceanic divisions. The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) recognizes it as an ocean, although some oceanographers call it the Arctic Mediterranean Sea or simply the Arctic Sea, classifying it as one of the mediterranean seas of the Atlantic Ocean. Alternatively, the Arctic Ocean can be seen as the northernmost part of the all-encompassing World Ocean.
Almost completely surrounded by Eurasia and North America, the Arctic Ocean is partly covered by sea ice throughout the year (and almost completely in winter). The Arctic Ocean's temperature and salinity vary seasonally as the ice cover melts and freezes; its salinity is the lowest on average of the five major oceans, due to low evaporation, heavy freshwater inflow from rivers and streams, and limited connection and outflow to surrounding oceanic waters with higher salinities. The summer shrinking of the ice has been quoted at 50%. The US National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC) uses satellite data to provide a daily record of Arctic sea ice cover and the rate of melting compared to an average period and specific past years.
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Argentina
Argentina
i/ˌɑrdʒənˈtiːnə/, officially the Argentine Republic (Spanish: República Argentina [reˈpuβlika aɾxenˈtina]), is a country in South America, the continent's second largest by land area, after Brazil. It is constituted as a federation of 23 provinces and an autonomous city, Buenos Aires. It is the eighth-largest country in the world by land area and the largest among Spanish-speaking nations.
Argentina's continental area is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the Atlantic Ocean in the east. It borders Paraguay and Bolivia to the north, Brazil and Uruguay to the northeast, and Chile to the west and south. Argentine claims over Antarctica, as well as overlapping claims made by Chile and the United Kingdom, are suspended by the Antarctic Treaty of 1961. Argentina also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: Islas Malvinas) and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, which are administered by the United Kingdom as British Overseas Territories.
A recognised middle power, Argentina is Latin America's third-largest economy, with a "very high" rating on the Human development index. Within Latin America, Argentina has the fifth highest nominal GDP per capita and the highest in purchasing power terms. Analysts have argued that the country has a "foundation for future growth due to its market size, levels of foreign direct investment, and percentage of high-tech exports as share of total manufactured goods", and it is classed by investors as middle emerging economy. Argentina is a founding member of the United Nations, Mercosur, the Union of South American Nations, the Organization of Ibero-American States, the World Bank Group and the World Trade Organization, and is one of the G-15 and G-20 major economies.
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Arktika (icebreaker)
NS Arktika is a nuclear powered icebreaker of the Soviet (now Russian) Arktika class. In service since 1975, she was the first surface ship to reach the North Pole, on August 17, 1977.
Arktika was retired for several years, but was repaired in the late 1990s.
On April 9, 2007 a fire broke out on the Arktika. The fire caused minor damage to three cabins and knocked out an electricity-distribution panel. The nuclear reactor was not damaged. There were no injuries. The icebreaker was in the Kara Sea when the blaze erupted, and was sent to Murmansk. The ship was officially taken out of service in October 2008.
Coordinates: 75°30′N 35°00′E / 75.5°N 35°E / 75.5; 35
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Australia
Australia (
/əˈstreɪljə/), officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country in the Southern Hemisphere comprising the mainland of the Australian continent as well as the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the world's sixth-largest country by total area. Neighbouring countries include Indonesia, East Timor and Papua New Guinea to the north; the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and New Caledonia to the north-east; and New Zealand to the south-east.
For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of roughly 250 language groups. After discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by Great Britain in 1770 and settled through penal transportation to the colony of New South Wales from 26 January 1788. The population grew steadily in subsequent decades; the continent was explored and an additional five self-governing Crown Colonies were established.
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Belgium
Belgium (i/ˈbɛldʒəm/ BEL-jəm), officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a federal state in Western Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts the EU's headquarters, and those of several other major international organisations such as NATO. Belgium covers an area of 30,528 square kilometres (11,787 sq mi), and it has a population of about 11 million people. Straddling the cultural boundary between Germanic and Latin Europe, Belgium is home to two main linguistic groups, the Dutch-speakers, mostly Flemish (about 60%), and the French-speakers, mostly Walloons (about 40%), plus a small group of German-speakers. Belgium's two largest regions are the Dutch-speaking region of Flanders in the north and the French-speaking southern region of Wallonia. The Brussels-Capital Region, officially bilingual, is a mostly French-speaking enclave within the Flemish Region. A German-speaking Community exists in eastern Wallonia. Belgium's linguistic diversity and related political conflicts are reflected in the political history and a complex system of government.
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Brazilian Antarctica
Brazilian Antarctica (Portuguese: Antártida Brasileira or Antártica Brasileira) is the name of the Antarctic territory south of 60°S, and from 28°W to 53°W, proposed as 'Zone of Interest' by geopolitical scholar Therezinha de Castro. While the substance of that designation has never been precisely defined, it does not formally contradict the Argentine and British claims geographically overlapping with that zone. The country formally expressed its reservations with respect to its territorial rights in Antarctica when it acceded to the Antarctic Treaty on 16 May 1975, making the first official mention of the Frontage Theory. The Frontage Theory (Teoria da Defrontação) was proposed by Brazilian geopolitical scholar Therezinha de Castro and published in her book Antártica: Teoria da Defrontação.
Outside the zone of interest, Brazil maintains a permanent staffed research facility, the Comandante Ferraz Brazilian Antarctic Base (UN/LOCODE: AQ-CFZ), located in Admiralty Bay, King George Island, near the tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, at 62°08′S 58°40′W / 62.133°S 58.667°W / -62.133; -58.667.
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Brusilov Expedition
The Brusilov Expedition (Russian: Экспедиция Брусилова, Ekspeditsiya Brusilova) was a Russian maritime expedition to the Arctic led by Captain Georgy Brusilov, which set out in 1912 to explore and map a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific via a northeast passage known as the Northern Sea Route. The expedition was ill-planned and ill-executed by Brusilov, and disappeared without trace. Earlier searches were unsuccessful, and its fate was not known until 2010.
The expedition set out from Alexandrovsk on August 28, 1912, so late in the summer that in October the Saint Anna became locked in the polar ice of the Kara Sea off the Yamal Peninsula. Supplies were abundant, and officers and crew prepared themselves for wintering over, hoping to be freed in the following year's thaw.
However, during 1913 the sea remained completely frozen. By early 1914 the Svyataya Anna had drifted far north in lazy zigzags with the Arctic ice. In the summer that year she reached 83° of latitude, NW of Franz Josef Land, and had no chance to be freed in 1914 either. To make matters worse, captain and crew had succumbed to scurvy. Navigator and second-in-command Valerian Albanov, believing that their position was hopeless, requested permission from Captain Brusilov to be relieved from his duties as second-in-command in order to leave the ship and attempt to return to civilization on foot. Albanov hoped to reach Eva Island in Hvidtenland, the northeastermost island of Franz Josef Land. He used Fridtjof Nansen's inaccurate map, full of dotted lines where the archipelago was still unexplored. After a gruesome ordeal, Albanov and Alexander Konrad, one of the crewmen of the Svyataya Anna, finally made it back to Russia. They were the only two survivors. One of the members of the expedition was the second Russian woman to go to the Arctic, Yerminia Zhdanko, a 22-year-old nurse and daughter of a general who was a hero in the Russo-Japanese War.
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Buenos Aires
Buenos Aires ( /ˈbweɪnəs ˈɛəriːz/ or /ˈaɪrɪs/,Spanish: [ˈbwenos ˈaiɾes]) is the capital and largest city of Argentina, and the second-largest metropolitan area in South America, after Greater Sao Paulo. It is located on the western shore of the estuary of the Río de la Plata, on the southeastern coast of the South American continent. Greater Buenos Aires conurbation, which also includes several Buenos Aires Province districts, constitutes the third-largest conurbation in Latin America, with a population of around thirteen million.
The city of Buenos Aires is not a part of Buenos Aires Province, nor is it the Province's capital, but an autonomous district. In 1880, after decades of political infighting, Buenos Aires was federalised and removed from Buenos Aires Province. The city limits were enlarged to include the towns of Belgrano and Flores (both are currently neighborhoods of the city). The 1994 constitutional amendment granted the city autonomy, hence its formal name: Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires (Autonomous City of Buenos Aires). Its citizens first elected a Chief of Government (i.e. Mayor) in 1996; before, the Mayor was directly appointed by the President of the Republic.
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Cape Town
Cape Town (Afrikaans: Kaapstad; Xhosa: iKapa) is the second-most populous city in South Africa, and the provincial capital and primate city of the Western Cape. As the seat of the National Parliament, it is also the legislative capital of the country. It forms part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality. The city is famous for its harbour as well as its natural setting in the Cape floral kingdom, including such well-known landmarks as Table Mountain and Cape Point. Cape Town is also Africa's most popular tourist destination.
Located on the shore of Table Bay, Cape Town was originally developed by the Dutch East India Company as a victualling (supply) station for Dutch ships sailing to Eastern Africa, India, and the Far East. Jan van Riebeeck's arrival on 6 April 1652 established the first permanent European settlement in South Africa. Cape Town quickly outgrew its original purpose as the first European outpost at the Castle of Good Hope, becoming the economic and cultural hub of the Cape Colony. Until the Witwatersrand Gold Rush and the development of Johannesburg, Cape Town was the largest city in South Africa.
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Chile
Chile (i/ˈtʃɪliː/ or /ˈtʃɪleɪ/), officially the Republic of Chile (Spanish: República de Chile [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈtʃile] (
listen)), is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow strip of land between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage in the far south. Along with Ecuador, it is one of two countries in South America that do not border Brazil. Chilean territory includes the Pacific islands of Juan Fernández, Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas and Easter Island. Chile also claims about 1,250,000 square kilometres (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica, although all claims are suspended under the Antarctic Treaty.
Chile's distinctive shape—4,300 kilometres (2,700 mi) long and on average 175 kilometres (109 mi) wide—makes it the longest country in the world, north to south, with the fifth lengthiest coastline at over 78 thousand kilometers. The diverse climate of Chile ranges from the world's driest desert in the north—the Atacama—through a Mediterranean climate in the centre, humid subtropical in Easter Island, to an Oceanic climate, including alpine tundra and glaciers in the east and south. The northern desert contains great mineral wealth, principally copper. The relatively small central area dominates in terms of population and agricultural resources, and is the cultural and political center from which Chile expanded in the late 19th century when it incorporated its northern and southern regions. Southern Chile is rich in forests and grazing lands, and features a string of volcanoes and lakes. The southern coast is a labyrinth of fjords, inlets, canals, twisting peninsulas, and islands.
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Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia or Czecho-Slovakia (Czech and Slovak: Československo, Česko-Slovensko) was a sovereign state in Central Europe which existed from October 1918, when it declared its independence from the Austro-Hungarian Empire, until 1992. From 1939 to 1945, the state did not de facto exist because of its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany, but the Czechoslovak government-in-exile nevertheless continued to exist during this period. In 1945, the eastern part of Carpathian Ruthenia was taken over by the Soviet Union. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Form of state:
Neighbours:
Topography:
The country was of generally irregular terrain. The western area was part of north-central European uplands. The eastern region was composed of northern reaches of Carpathian Mountains and Danube River basin lands.
Climate:
The weather was predominantly continental, but varied from the moderate temperature of Western Europe in the west, to more severe weather of Eastern Europe and the western Soviet Union in the east.
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Discovery Hut
Discovery Hut was built by Robert Falcon Scott during the Discovery Expedition of 1901–1904 in 1902 and is located at Hut Point on Ross Island by McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Visitors to Antarctica, arriving at either the US Base at McMurdo or New Zealand's Scott Base are likely to encounter Discovery Hut as all three are located on Hut Point. Discovery Hut is just 300m from McMurdo Base.
Some confusion arises because Discovery Hut can correctly be referred to as Scott's Hut, in that his expedition built it, and it was his base 'ashore' during the 1901–1904 expedition. But the title 'Scott's Hut' correctly belongs to the building erected in 1911 at Cape Evans.
Discovery Hut was designed by Professor Gregory, (appointed as leader of the scientific staff, he resigned before the Discovery headed south) and prefabricated by James Moore of Sydney (cost: £360.14.5d) before being brought south by ship. It is essentially square, with verandas on three sides. The pyramidal roof is supported by a central post. Insulation was provided by felt placed between the inner and outer wood plank walls. This was found to be insufficient, and the hut was difficult to keep warm.
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East Antarctica
East Antarctica, also called Greater Antarctica, constitutes the majority (two-thirds) of the Antarctic continent, lying on the Indian Ocean side of the Transantarctic Mountains. It is the coldest, windiest, driest and most isolated land mass on Earth, and includes a number of high mountains.
Almost completely covered in thick, permanent ice, East Antarctica comprises Coats Land, Queen Maud Land, Enderby Land, Kemp Land, Mac. Robertson Land, Princess Elizabeth Land, Wilhelm II Land, Queen Mary Land, Wilkes Land, Adélie Land, George V Land, Oates Land and Victoria Land. All but a small portion of this region lies within the Eastern Hemisphere, a fact that has suggested the name. The name has been in existence more than 90 years (Balch, 1902; Nordenskjöld, 1904), but its greatest use followed the International Geophysical Year (1957–58) and explorations disclosing that the Transantarctic Mountains provide a useful regional separation of East Antarctica and West Antarctica. The name was approved in the United States by the Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) in 1962. East Antarctica is generally higher than West Antarctica, and is considered the coldest place on Earth.
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East Germany
The German Democratic Republic (GDR; German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik [ˈdɔʏtʃə demoˈkʀaːtɪʃə ʀepuˈbliːk] or DDR), informally known as East Germany (German: Ostdeutschland), was a socialist state established by the USSR in 1949 in the Soviet zone of occupied Germany, including East Berlin of the Allied-occupied capital city. The GDR had an area of 107,771 km2 (41,610 mi2), bordering Czechoslovakia to the south, West Germany to the south and west, Poland to the east, and the Baltic Sea to the north. East Germany was dissolved upon joining the institutions of West Germany in the German reunification, on 3 October 1990.
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Fram
Fram ("Forward") is a ship that was used in expeditions of the Arctic and Antarctic regions by the Norwegian explorers Fridtjof Nansen, Otto Sverdrup, Oscar Wisting, and Roald Amundsen between 1893 and 1912. It was designed and built by the Norwegian shipwright Colin Archer for Fridtjof Nansen's 1893 Arctic expedition in which Fram was supposed to freeze into the Arctic ice sheet and float with it over the North Pole.
Fram is said to have sailed farther north (85°57'N) and farther south (78°41'S) than any other wooden ship. Fram is preserved at the Fram Museum in Oslo, Norway.
Nansen's ambition was to explore the Arctic farther north than anyone else. To do that, he would have to deal with a problem that many sailing on the polar ocean had encountered before him: the freezing ice could crush a ship. Nansen's idea was to build a ship that could survive the pressure, not by pure strength, but because it would be of a shape designed to let the ice push the ship up, so it would "float" on top of the ice.
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Framheim
Framheim was the name of explorer Roald Amundsen's base at the Bay of Whales on the Ross Ice Shelf in Antarctica during his quest for the South Pole. It was used between January 1911 and February 1912.
The hut was constructed in sections by a master carpenter, Jørgen Stubberud and erected at Amundsen's home in Norway, then dismantled for shipment to Antarctica on the Fram. The term literally means "home of the Fram". During its construction in Norway, Amundsen maintained that the hut was for "observation", which would fit in nicely with his supposed intent to head to the North Pole. To the more than casual student of exploration, it was obvious that the hut was intended as living quarters. Amundsen was, in fact, headed to the South Pole.
The cabin was an early example of a pre-fabricated structure, and employed a custom dining table which could retract to the ceiling for cleaning beneath. It measured five by four meters, and the walls were made up of four layers of three inch wooden boards with cardboard between for insulation.
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France
France (Englishi/ˈfræns/ FRANSS or /ˈfrɑːns/ FRAHNSS; French: [fʁɑ̃s] ( listen)), officially the French Republic (French: République française [ʁepyblik fʁɑ̃sɛz]), is a unitary semi-presidential republic in Western Europe with several overseas territories and islands located on other continents and in the Indian, Pacific, and Atlantic oceans. Metropolitan France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is often referred to as l’Hexagone ("The Hexagon") because of the geometric shape of its territory. It is the largest western European country and it possesses the second-largest exclusive economic zone in the world, covering 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,000 sq mi), just behind that of the United States (11,351,000 km2 / 4,383,000 sq mi).
Over the past 500 years, France has been a major power with strong cultural, economic, military and political influence in Europe and around the world. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonised great parts of North America and Southeast Asia; during the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built the second largest colonial empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Caribbean and Pacific Islands.
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Frederick Cook
Frederick Albert Cook (June 10, 1865 – August 5, 1940) was an American explorer and physician, noted for his claim of having reached the North Pole on April 21, 1908. This would have been a year before April 6, 1909, the date claimed by Robert Peary.
Cook was born in Brooklyn, in Sullivan County, New York. His parents were Dr. Theodore A. Koch and Magdalena Long, recent German immigrants to the United States.
Cook attended Columbia University, receiving his M.D. in 1890. In 1889 he married Libby Forbes, who died in 1890. On his 37th birthday he married Marie Fidele Hunt; they had one daughter, Helene. In 1923 they were divorced, possibly for financial reasons related to an upcoming fraud trial.
Cook was the surgeon on Robert Peary's 1891–1892 Arctic expedition, and on the Belgian Antarctic Expedition of 1897–1899 led by Adrien de Gerlache. He contributed greatly to saving the lives of the crew when their ship (the Belgica) was ice-bound during the winter. A fellow crew-member was Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen, with whom he established a friendship and life-long relationship of mutual respect. In 1898, during this expedition, Cook visited Tierra del Fuego, where he met Thomas Bridges shortly before his death. As a result of that meeting, Cook brought back the manuscript of Bridges' Yamana dictionary, and several years later acquiesced in the attempted publication of the dictionary as his own work.
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Gjøa
Gjøa was the first vessel to transit the Northwest Passage. With a crew of six, Roald Amundsen traversed the passage in a three year journey, finishing in 1906.
The 70 by 20 ft (21 by 6.1 m) square-sterned sloop of 45 net register tonnage (4,500 cu ft, 130 m3) was built by Kurt Johannesson Skaale in Rosendal, Norway in 1872, the same year Amundsen was born. She was named Gjøa after her then owner's wife. (Gjøa is a modern form of the Norse name Gyða - this again is a compressed form of Guðfríðr, a compound of guð 'god' and fríðr 'beautiful'.) For the next 28 years the vessel served as a herring fishing boat.
In 1900, Amundsen bought her from Asbjørn Sexe of Ullensvang, Norway, for his forthcoming expedition to the Arctic Ocean. Gjøa was much smaller than vessels used by other Arctic expeditions, but Amundsen intended to live off the limited resources of the land and sea through which he was to travel, and reasoned that the land could sustain only a tiny crew (this had been the cause of the catastrophic failure of John Franklin's expedition fifty years previously). Her shallow draught would help her traverse the shoals of the Arctic straits. Perhaps most importantly, the aging ship was all that Amundsen (who was financing his expedition largely by spending his inheritance) could afford.[citation needed]
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Greenland
Greenland (Kalaallisut: Kalaallit Nunaat, "Land of the Kalaallit";Danish: Grønland) is an autonomous country within the Kingdom of Denmark, located between the Arctic and Atlantic Oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe (specifically Norway and later Denmark) for more than a millennium. Greenland is, by area, the world's largest island. With a population of 56,615 (January 2011 estimate) it is the least densely populated dependency or country in the world.
Greenland has been inhabited, though not continuously, by Arctic peoples via Canada for 4500–5000 years. In the 10th century, Norsemen settled on the uninhabited southern part of Greenland. In the 13th century, the Inuit arrived, and in the late 15th century the Norse colonies were abandoned. In the early 18th century, contact between Scandinavia and Greenland was re-established and Denmark established rule over Greenland.
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Iceland
Icelandi/ˈaɪslənd/ (Icelandic: Ísland, IPA: [ˈislant]) is a Nordic European island country in the North Atlantic Ocean, on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The country has a population of about 320,000 and a total area of 103,000 km2 (40,000 sq mi). The capital and largest city is Reykjavík, with the surrounding areas in the southwestern region of the country being home to two-thirds of the country's population. Iceland is volcanically and geologically active. The interior mainly consists of a plateau characterised by sand fields, mountains and glaciers, while many glacial rivers flow to the sea through the lowlands. Iceland is warmed by the Gulf Stream and has a temperate climate despite a high latitude just outside the Arctic Circle.
According to Landnámabók, the settlement of Iceland began in AD 874 when the chieftain Ingólfur Arnarson became the first permanent Norse settler on the island. Others had visited the island earlier and stayed over winter. Over the following centuries, Norsemen settled Iceland, bringing with them thralls (slaves) of Gaelic origin. From 1262 to 1918 Iceland was part of the Norwegian and later the Danish monarchies. Until the 20th century, the Icelandic population relied largely on fisheries and agriculture, and the country was one of the poorest and least developed in the world. Industrialisation of the fisheries and aid from the Marshall Plan brought prosperity in the years after World War II, and by the 1990s it was one of the world's wealthiest countries. In 1994, Iceland became party to the European Economic Area, which made it possible for the economy to diversify into economic and financial services.
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Japan
Japani/dʒəˈpæn/ (Japanese: 日本 Nihon or Nippon; formally 日本国 
Nippon-koku or Nihon-koku, literally the State of Japan) is an island nation in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean, it lies to the east of the Sea of Japan, China, North Korea, South Korea and Russia, stretching from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea and Taiwan in the south. The characters that make up Japan's name mean "sun-origin", which is why Japan is sometimes referred to as the "Land of the Rising Sun".
Japan is an archipelago of 6,852 islands. The four largest islands are Honshū, Hokkaidō, Kyūshū and Shikoku, together accounting for ninety-seven percent of Japan's land area. Japan has the world's tenth-largest population, with over 127 million people. The Greater Tokyo Area, which includes the de facto capital city of Tokyo and several surrounding prefectures, is the largest metropolitan area in the world, with over 30 million residents.
Archaeological research indicates that people lived in Japan as early as the Upper Paleolithic period. The first written mention of Japan is in Chinese history texts from the 1st century AD. Influence from other nations followed by long periods of isolation has characterized Japan's history. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, victory in the First Sino-Japanese War, the Russo-Japanese War and World War I allowed Japan to expand its empire during a period of increasing militarism. The Second Sino-Japanese War of 1937 expanded into part of World War II in 1941, which came to an end in 1945 following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Since adopting its revised constitution in 1947, Japan has maintained a unitary constitutional monarchy with an emperor and an elected parliament called the Diet.
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Mangazeya
Coordinates: 66°41′38″N 82°15′17″E / 66.6938292°N 82.2546387°E / 66.6938292; 82.2546387
Mangazeya was a Northwest Siberian trans-Ural trade colony and later city in the 16-17th centuries. Founded in 1600, it was situated on the Taz River, between the lower courses of the Ob and Yenisei Rivers flowing into the Arctic Ocean.
Russian settlers of the White Sea coasts of Russia (pomors) founded a route along the Arctic coast to Arkhangelsk to trade with Norwegian, English and Dutch merchants. Mangazeya accumulated furs and ivory (walrus tusks) around the year to be shipped out during the short Northern summer. Trade also occurred along the Siberian River Routes' Northern Route.
The Northern Sea Route was forbidden in 1619 under the penalty of death, for two reasons: the state was unable to collect on it, and there was a fear of English trading penetration into Siberia. The city strived to exist for some 50 years more, but eventually Mangazeya was abandoned. Following the catastrophic fire of 1662, the remaining population was evacuated to Turukhansk at the junction of the Yenisei with the Lower Tunguska, which was known as New Mangazeya until the 1780s.
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Maud (ship)
The Maud, named for Queen Maud of Norway, was a ship built for Roald Amundsen for his second expedition to the Arctic. Designed for his intended voyage through the Northeast Passage, the vessel was specially built at a shipyard in Asker, Norway on the Oslofjord.
The Maud was launched in June 1916 and christened by Roald Amundsen by crushing a chunk of ice against her bow:
She lived up to her christening, for she lies still in the ice. Whereas other vessels used in Amundsen's polar explorations,Gjøa and Fram, have been preserved at the maritime museum at Bygdøy, Maud had a more rugged fate.
After sailing through the Northeast Passage, which did not go as planned and took six years between 1918 and 1924, she ended up in Nome, Alaska and in August 1925 was sold on behalf of Amundsen's creditors in Seattle, Washington.
The buyer was the Hudson's Bay Company which renamed her Baymaud. She was to be used as a supply vessel for Company outposts in Canada's western Arctic. However, in the winter of 1926 she was frozen in the ice at Cambridge Bay, where she sank in 1930.
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McMurdo Sound
The ice-clogged waters of Antarctica's McMurdo Sound extend about 55 km (35 mi) long and wide. The sound opens into the Ross Sea to the north. The Royal Society Range rises from sea level to 13,205 feet (4,205 m) on the western shoreline. The nearby McMurdo Ice Shelf scribes McMurdo Sound's southern boundary. Ross Island, an historic jumping-off point for polar explorers, designates the eastern boundary. The active volcano Mt Erebus at 12,448 feet (3,794 m) dominates Ross Island. Antarctica's largest science base, the United States' McMurdo Station, as well as New Zealand’s Scott Base are located on the island’s south shore. Less than 10 percent of McMurdo Sound's shoreline is ice-free.
Captain James Clark Ross discovered the sound, which is about 800 miles (1,300 km) from the South Pole, in February 1841 and named it after Lt. Archibald McMurdo of HMS Terror. The sound today serves as a re-supply route for cargo vessels and for aircraft that land upon floating ice airstrips near McMurdo Station. However, McMurdo Station’s continuous occupation by scientists and support staff since 1957-58 has turned Winter Quarters Bay into a markedly polluted harbor.
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McMurdo Station
McMurdo Station is a U.S. Antarctic research center located on the southern tip of Ross Island, which is in the New Zealand-claimed Ross Dependency on the shore of McMurdo Sound in Antarctica. It is operated by the United States through the United States Antarctic Program, a branch of the National Science Foundation. The station is the largest community in Antarctica, capable of supporting up to 1,258 residents, and serves as the United States Antarctic science facility. All personnel and cargo going to or coming from Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station first passes through McMurdo.
The station owes its designation to nearby McMurdo Sound, named after Lieutenant Archibald McMurdo of H.M.S. Terror, which first charted the area in 1841 under the command of British explorer James Clark Ross. British explorer Robert Falcon Scott first established a base close to this spot in 1902 and built Discovery Hut, still standing adjacent to the harbour at Hut Point. The volcanic rock of the site is the southernmost bare ground accessible by ship in the Antarctic. The United States officially opened its first station at McMurdo on Feb. 16, 1956. Founders initially called the station Naval Air Facility McMurdo. On Nov. 28, 1957, Admiral George J. Dufek was present with a U.S. congressional delegation during a change of command ceremony.
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Mirny Station
Mirny (Russian: Мирный, literally Peaceful) is a Russian (formerly Soviet) science station in Antarctica, located on the Antarctic coast of the Davis Sea in the Australian Antarctic Territory. Named after support vessel Mirny captained by Mikhail Lazarev during the First Russian Antarctic Expedition (led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen on Vostok).
The station was opened on February 13, 1956 by the 1st Soviet Antarctic Expedition. It was originally used as main base for the Vostok Station located 1,400 km from the coast, this function is now served by Progress Station. In summer, it hosts up to 169 people in 30 buildings, in winter about 60 scientists and technicians. The average temperature at the location is –11°C, and on more than 200 days per year the wind is stronger than 15 m/s, with occasional cyclones.
Main areas of research are glaciology, seismology, meteorology, observation of polar lights, cosmic radiation, and marine biology.
Coordinates: 66°33′9.66″S 93°0′34.05″E / 66.5526833°S 93.0094583°E / -66.5526833; 93.0094583
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New Swabia
New Swabia (German: Neuschwabenland) is a cartographic name sometimes given to an area of Antarctica between 20°E and 10°W in Queen Maud Land, which within Norway is administered as a Norwegian dependent territory under the Antarctic Treaty System. New Swabia was explored by Germany in early 1939 and named after that expedition's ship, the Schwabenland, itself named after the German region of Swabia.
Like many other countries, Germany sent expeditions to the Antarctic region in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, most of which were scientific. The late 19th century expeditions to the Southern Ocean, South Georgia, the Kerguelen Islands, and the Crozet Islands were astronomical, meteorological, and hydrological, mostly in close collaboration with scientific teams from other countries. As the 19th century ended Germany began to focus on Antarctica.
The first German expedition to Antarctica was the Gauss expedition from 1901 to 1903. Led by Arctic veteran and geology professor Erich von Drygalski, this was the first expedition to use a hot-air balloon in Antarctica. It also found and named Kaiser Wilhelm II Land. The second German Antarctic expedition (1911–1912) was led by Wilhelm Filchner with a goal of crossing Antarctica to learn if it was one piece of land. As happened with other such early attempts, the crossing failed before it even began. The expedition discovered and named the Luitpold Coast and the Filchner Ice Shelf. A German whaling fleet was put to sea in 1937 and, upon its successful return in early 1938, plans for a third German Antarctic expedition were drawn up.
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New Zealand
New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa) is an island country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses ‒ that of the North and South Islands ‒ as well as numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans.
During its long isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of both animal and plant life. Most notable are the large number of unique bird species, many of which became extinct after the arrival of humans and introduced mammals. With a mild maritime climate, the land was mostly covered in forest. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions caused by the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates clashing beneath the earth's surface.
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North Pole
Coordinates: 90°N 0°W / 90°N 0°W / 90; -0
The North Pole, also known as the Geographic North Pole or Terrestrial North Pole, is, subject to the caveats explained below, defined as the point in the Northern Hemisphere where the Earth's axis of rotation meets its surface. It should not be confused with the North Magnetic Pole.
The North Pole is the northernmost point on Earth, lying diametrically opposite the South Pole. It defines geodetic latitude 90° North, as well as the direction of true north. At the North Pole all directions point south; all lines of longitude converge there, so its longitude can be defined as any degree value.
While the South Pole lies on a continental land mass, the North Pole is located in the middle of the Arctic Ocean amid waters that are almost permanently covered with constantly shifting sea ice. This makes it impractical to construct a permanent station at the North Pole (unlike the South Pole). However, the Soviet Union, and later Russia, have constructed a number of manned drifting stations on a generally annual basis since 1937, some of which have passed over or very close to the Pole. In recent years, a number of studies have predicted that the North Pole may become seasonally ice-free due to Arctic shrinkage, with timescales varying from next year to fifty years or more.
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North Pole-36
North Pole-36 (Russian: Северный полюс-36, СП-36) was the 36th Russian manned drifting station, primarily used for arctic research from September 2008 until August 2009.
The station was opened on September 7, 2008. The primary objective of the station was to improve the quality of weather forecasts and to study global processes of climate change. Work was carried out on environment monitoring, and research in the fields of meteorology, oceanology, glaciology, and aerology was carried out.
The expedition consisted of 18 polar explorers, several dogs, and more than 150 tons of cargo. The station-master was Jury Katraev. NP-36 station settled down on a piece of sea ice that was approximately 6 square kilometres (2.3 sq mi) across. At the moment of disembarkation the station was in so-called to "the Hollow of submariners" between Wrangel island and the North Pole. The vessel Akademik Fyodorov carried out the delivery of the expedition to the ice.
The station was removed with the nuclear icebreaker NS Yamal in the Arctic ocean at the end of August 2009. The evacuation of the station from the drifting ice floe took three days of continuous work. The chief of high-latitude arctic expeditions Vladimir Sokolov supervised the work.
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Northern Canada
Northern Canada, colloquially the North, is the vast northernmost region of Canada variously defined by geography and politics. Politically, the term refers to the three territories of Canada: Yukon, Northwest Territories, and Nunavut. Similarly, the Far North (when contrasted to the North) may refer to the Canadian Arctic: the portion of Canada north of the Arctic Circle.
These reckonings somewhat depend on the concept of nordicity, a measure of northernness that other Arctic territories share. Canada, a country in northern North America whose population is concentrated along its southern frontier with the United States, is frequently reckoned to not have a 'south.' As such, the 'South' is only perceived as a region when it is contrasted to or viewed from those in the North.
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Norway
Norwayi/ˈnɔrweɪ/ (Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and the subantarctic Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of about 5 million. It is the second least densely populated country in Europe. The majority of the country shares a border to the east with Sweden; its northernmost region is bordered by Finland to the south and Russia to the east; in its south Norway borders the Skagerrak Strait across from Denmark. The capital city of Norway is Oslo. Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords.
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Operation Tabarin
Operation Tabarin was a World War II military undertaking by the Admiralty and the Colonial Office in 1943 to establish a permanent British presence in Antarctic.
There have been several reasons cited for Tabarin. Prior to the start of the war, German aircraft had dropped markers with swastikas across Queen Maud Land in an attempt to create a territorial claim, see New Swabia. In 1943, British personnel from HMS Carnarvon Castle removed Argentine flags from Deception Island. There were also concerns within the Foreign Office about the direction of United States' post-war activity in the region. So the chief reason was to establish solid British claims to various uninhabited islands and parts of Antarctica, reinforced by Argentine sympathies toward Germany.
A suitable cover story was the need to deny use of the area to the enemy. The Kriegsmarine was known to use remote islands as rendezvous points and as shelters for commerce raiders, U-boats and supply ships. Also, in 1941, there existed a fear that Japan might attempt to seize the Falkland Islands, either as a base or to hand them over to Argentina, thus gaining political advantage for the Axis and denying their use to Britain. Deception Island, in the British South Shetland Islands, possessed a sheltered anchorage with an old Norwegian whaling station. In 1941, the British (aboard HMS Queen of Bermuda) had taken the precaution of destroying coal dumps and oil tanks there, to prevent their possible use by the Germans.
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Queen Maud Land
Queen Maud Land (Norwegian: Dronning Maud Land) is a c. 2.7 million-square-kilometre (1 million sq mi) region of Antarctica claimed as a dependent territory by Norway. The territory lies between 20° west and 45° east, between the British Antarctic Territory to the west and the Australian Antarctic Territory to the east. The latitudinal limits of the territory are not officially defined. Positioned in East Antarctica, the territory comprises one-sixth of the total area of Antarctica. The claim is named for Maud (1869–1938), queen consort of King Haakon VII of Norway.
Norwegian Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen was the first person to set foot in the territory in 1930. On 14 January 1939, the territory was claimed by Norway. From 1939 until 1945, Germany claimed New Swabia, which consisted of part of Queen Maud Land. On 23 June 1961, Queen Maud Land became part of the Antarctic Treaty System, making it a demilitarised zone. It is one of two Antarctic claims made by Norway, the other being Peter I Island. They are administrated by the Polar Affairs Department of the Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police in Oslo.
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RRS Discovery
The RRS Discovery was the last traditional wooden three-masted ship to be built in Britain. Designed for Antarctic research, she was launched in 1901. Her first mission was the British National Antarctic Expedition, carrying Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton on their first, successful journey to the Antarctic, known as the Discovery Expedition. She is now the centrepiece of visitor attraction in her home, Dundee.
On 16 March 1900, in the context of significant donations to the approaching expedition by patrons Llewellyn W. Longstaff and the British Government, construction on the Discovery began in Dundee, Scotland, by the Dundee Shipbuilders Company. She was launched into the Firth of Tay on 21 March 1901 by Lady Markham, the wife of Sir Clements Markham, President of the Royal Geographical Society.
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San Telmo (ship)
San Telmo ("Saint Peter Gonzalez" or "Saint Erasmus of Formiae") was a Spanish 74-gun ship of the line, launched in 1788.
In 1819 the San Telmo commanded by Captain Rosendo Porlier was the flagship of a Spanish naval squadron bound for Callao (Peru) to reinforce colonial forces there fighting the independence movements in Spanish America. Damaged by severe weather in the Drake Passage, south of Cape Horn, it sank in September 1819.
The 644 officers, soldiers and seamen lost on board the San Telmo were the first people to die in Antarctica, as parts of her wreckage were found months later by the first sealers who reached Livingston Island. Indeed, if somebody of the San Telmo survived to set foot there he would have been the first man in history to reach Antarctica.
Coordinates: 62°20′S 60°30′W / 62.333°S 60.5°W / -62.333; -60.5
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South Africa
Coordinates: 30°S 25°E / 30°S 25°E / -30; 25
South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa, is a country located at the southern tip of Africa. It is divided into nine provinces and has 2,798 kilometres (1,739 mi) of coastline. To the north of the country lie the neighbouring territories of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while Lesotho is an enclave surrounded by South African territory.
South Africa is multi-ethnic and has diverse cultures and languages. Eleven official languages are recognised in the constitution. Two of these languages are of European origin: South African English and Afrikaans, a language which originated mainly from Dutch that is spoken by the majority of white and Coloured South Africans. Though English is commonly used in public and commercial life, it is only the fifth most-spoken home language. All ethnic and language groups have political representation in the country's constitutional democracy comprising a parliamentary republic; unlike most parliamentary republics, the positions of head of state and head of government are merged in a parliament-dependent President.
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Svyataya Anna
The ship Svyataya Anna (Russian: Святая Анна), named after Saint Anne, was the Philomel-class gunvessel HMS Newport launched in England in 1867. She was sold in 1881 and renamed Pandora II. She was purchased again in about 1890 and renamed Blencathra, taking part in expeditions to the north coast of Russia. She was bought in 1912 by Georgy Brusilov for use in his ill-fated 1912 Arctic expedition to explore the Northern Sea Route. The ship became firmly trapped in ice; only two members of the expedition, Valerian Albanov and Alexander Konrad, survived. The ship has never been found.
The Philomel-class gunvessels were an enlargement of the earlier Algerine-class gunboat of 1856. The first six of the class were ordered by the Admiralty from the naval dockyards between April 1857 and April 1859. Another twelve were ordered on 14 June 1859 to be constructed by contract in private yards, receiving their names on 24 September the same year; these were then fitted out at naval dockyards. The last eight of the class, of which Newport was the first, were ordered on 5 March 1860 for construction in naval dockyards, although six of them were later cancelled.
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United Kingdom
The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK, or Britain) is a sovereign state located off the north-western coast of continental Europe. The country includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland and many smaller islands. Northern Ireland is the only part of the UK that shares a land border with another sovereign state—the Republic of Ireland. Apart from this land border the UK is surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel and the Irish Sea.
The United Kingdom is a unitary state governed under a constitutional monarchy and a parliamentary system, with its seat of government in the capital city of London. It is a country in its own right and consists of four countries: England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. There are three devolved administrations, each with varying powers, based in Belfast, Edinburgh and Cardiff, the capitals of Northern Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. Associated with the UK, but not constitutionally part of it, are three Crown Dependencies. The United Kingdom has fourteen overseas territories. These are remnants of the British Empire which, at its height in 1922, encompassed almost a quarter of the world's land surface and was the largest empire in history. British influence can still be observed in the language, culture and legal systems of many of its former territories.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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Weddell Sea
The Weddell Sea is part of the Southern Ocean and contains the Weddell Gyre. Its land boundaries are defined by the bay formed from the coasts of Coats Land and the Antarctic Peninsula. The easternmost point is Cape Norvegia at Princess Martha Coast, Queen Maud Land. To the east of Cape Norvegia is the King Haakon VII Sea. Much of the southern part of the sea, up to Elephant Island, is permanent ice, the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf. The sea is contained within the two overlapping Antarctic territorial claims of Argentina, (Argentine Antarctica) and Britain (British Antarctic Territory), and also resides partially within the territorial claim of Chile (Antarctic Chilean Territory). At its widest the sea is around 2,000 km across, in area it is around 2.8 million km².
In his 1950 book The White Continent, historian Thomas R. Henry writes, "The Weddell Sea is, according to the testimony of all who have sailed through its berg-filled waters, the most treacherous and dismal region on earth. The Ross Sea is the relatively peaceful, predictable, and safe." He continues on for an entire chapter, relating myths of the green-haired merman sighted in the sea's icy waters, the inability of crews to navigate a path to the coast until 1949, and treacherous "flash freezes" that left ships, such as Ernest Shackleton's Endurance, at the mercy of the ice floes.
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West Antarctica
West Antarctica, or Lesser Antarctica, one of the two major regions of Antarctica, is the part of the continent that lies within the Western Hemisphere including the Antarctic Peninsula.
Lying on the Pacific Ocean side of the Transantarctic Mountains, West Antarctica comprises the Antarctic Peninsula (with Graham Land and Palmer Land) and Ellsworth Land, Marie Byrd Land and King Edward VII Land and offshore islands such as Adelaide Island, the Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf on the Weddell Sea, and the Ross Ice Shelf on the Ross Sea. West Antarctica is separated from the main land mass of the continent by the icy waters of the Ross Sea and Weddell Sea, and resembles a giant peninsula that stretches roughly from the South Pole towards the southern tip of South America.
The name has existed for more than 100 years (Balch, 1902; Nordenskiöld, 1905), but its greatest use followed the International Geophysical Year (1957-58) and explorations disclosing that the Transantarctic Mountains provide a useful regional separation of West Antarctica and East Antarctica. The name was approved by Advisory Committee on Antarctic Names (US-ACAN) in 1962.
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Adolphus Greely
Adolphus Washington Greely (March 27, 1844 – October 20, 1935), was an American Polar explorer, a United States Army officer and a recipient of the Medal of Honor.
Greely was born March 27, 1844 in Newburyport, Massachusetts. He entered the United States Army at the age of 17, after having been rejected twice before. He had achieved the rank of brevet Major by the end of the Civil War. Greely joined the regular Army in 1866 as a Second Lieutenant of Infantry; in 1873, Greely was promoted to First Lieutenant.
In 1881, First Lieutenant Greely was given command of the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition on the ship Proteus. Promoted by Henry W. Howgate, its purpose was to establish one of a chain of meteorological-observation stations as part of the First International Polar Year. The expedition also was commissioned by the US government to collect astronomical and polar magnetic data, which was carried out by the astronomer Edward Israel, who was part of Greely's crew. Another goal of the expedition was to search for any clues of the USS Jeannette, lost north of Ellesmere Island.
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Adrien de Gerlache
Baron Adrien Victor Joseph de Gerlache de Gomery (2 August 1866 – 4 December 1934) was an officer in the Belgian Royal Navy who led the Belgian Antarctic Expedition of 1897 to 1899.
Born in Hasselt, Belgium, de Gerlache was educated in Brussels. He studied Engineering at the Free University of Brussels (now split into the Université Libre de Bruxelles and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel), and spent his holidays as a cabin boy on board transatlantic ocean liners. After graduating in 1885, he joined the Belgian Navy on 19 January 1886.
After graduating from the nautical college of Ostend as first lieutenant, he was assigned to the Belgica, a hydrography ship. It was while serving there that he came up with his plan to explore Antarctica.
In 1896, de Gerlache purchased the Norwegian-built whaling ship Patria, which, following an extensive refit, he renamed as the Belgica. With a multinational crew, which included Roald Amundsen, Frederick Cook, Antoni Bolesław Dobrowolski, Henryk Arctowski and Emil Racoviţă, he set sail from Antwerp on 16 August 1897.
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Aeneas Mackintosh
Aeneas Lionel Acton Mackintosh (1 July 1879 – 8 May 1916) was a British Merchant Navy officer and Antarctic explorer, who commanded the Ross Sea party as part of Sir Ernest Shackleton's Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1914–17. The Ross Sea party's mission was to support Shackleton's proposed transcontinental march by laying supply depots along the latter stages of the march's intended route. In the face of persistent setbacks and practical difficulties, Mackintosh's party fulfilled its task, although Mackintosh and two others died in the course of their duties.
Mackintosh's first Antarctic experience was as second officer on Shackleton's Nimrod Expedition, 1907–09. Shortly after his arrival in the Antarctic a shipboard accident destroyed his right eye, and he was sent back to New Zealand. He returned in 1909 to participate in the later stages of the expedition; his will and determination in adversity impressed Shackleton, and led to his Ross Sea party appointment in 1914.
Mackintosh's operational orders were confused through communication failures, and he was uncertain of the timing of Shackleton's proposed march. His difficulties were compounded when the party's ship, SY Aurora, was swept from its winter moorings during a gale and was unable to return. Despite this loss of equipment, supplies and personnel, Mackintosh and his stranded shore party managed to carry out its depot-laying task to the full. Mackintosh himself barely survived the ordeal, owing his life to the actions of his comrades. He and one companion then attempted to cross the 13 nautical miles (24 km; 15 mi) of sea ice separating the party from its base, but the pair disappeared during a blizzard and are presumed to have fallen through the ice. Their bodies were never recovered.
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Albert P. Crary
Albert Paddock Crary (1911–1987), was a pioneer polar geophysicist and glaciologist. He made it to the North (on May 3, 1952, with Joseph O. Fletcher and William P. Benedict) and then to the South Pole on February 12, 1961 as the leader of a team of eight. The south pole expedition had set out from McMurdo Station on December 10, 1960, using three Snowcats with trailers. Crary was the seventh expedition leader to arrive at the South Pole by surface transportation (the six others before him were—in sequence— Amundsen, Scott, Hillary, Fuchs, a Russian expedition in 1959/60 from Vostok base, and Havola). He was widely admired for his intellect, wit, skills and as a great administrator for polar research expeditions.
Born into a farming family in northern New York state, he was the second oldest in a family of 7 children. He was a Physics major and Geology student at St. Lawrence University in Canton, NY. He graduated in 1931 Phi Beta Kappa from St. Lawrence University and then went on to Lehigh University for a masters degree in physics. After spending years completing and facilitating research at both poles, Crary eventually settled in the Washington, D.C. area with his wife and their son.
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Aleksei Chirikov
Aleksei Ilyich Chirikov (Russian: Алексей Ильич Чириков) (1703 – November 1748) was a Russian navigator and captain who along with Bering was the first Russian to reach North-West coast of North America. He discovered and charted some of the Aleutian Islands while he was deputy to Vitus Bering during the Great Northern Expedition.
In 1721, Chirikov graduated from the Naval Academy. In 1725–1730 and 1733–1743, he was Vitus Bering's deputy during the First and the Second Kamchatka expeditions.
In May 1741 Chirikov in the St Paul and Vitus Bering in the St Peter left Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky and headed east. Some time after 20 June they were separated by a storm and never saw each other again. On 15 July 1741 Chirikov saw land at Baker Island off Prince of Wales Island at the south end of the Alaska Panhandle. This is about 450 miles southeast of Bering's landfall near Mount St. Elias at the north end of the panhandle. Unable to find a harbor he sailed north along Baranov Island past the later Russian base at Sitka. He sent out a longboat to find an anchorage. When it did not return after a week he sent out his second longboat which also failed to return. Now without any small boats Chirikov had no way of searching for the two longboats or landing on the coast to explore or replenish his supply of fresh water. After waiting as long as possible, he abandoned the longboats to their fate and on 27 July sailed west. He sighted the Kenai Peninsula, Kodiak Island and Adak Island near the western end of the Aleutians. With water critically low he reached Petropavlovsk on 12 October 1741.
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Alexander Konrad
Alexander Eduardovich Konrad (Russian: Алекса́ндр Эдуа́рдович Ко́нрад) (1890 in St. Petersburg - 1940 in Leningrad) was a Russian sailor. Along with Valerian Albanov, he was one of the only two survivors, and the only surviving sailor of the ill-fated Brusilov expedition.
There are no data about Alexander Konrad's birth and childhood.
Alexander Konrad was a member of the crew on the Svyataya Anna, the ship of Georgy Brusilov's 1912 Arctic expedition. The expedition was ill-planned by Captain Brusilov, and the Saint Anna became locked in the polar ice of the Kara Sea in October 1912. Supplies were abundant, so officers and crew prepared themselves for wintering, hoping to be freed in the following year's thaw.
However, during 1913 the sea remained completely frozen. By early 1914 the ship had drifted with the ice NW of Franz Josef Land and did not seem likely to be freed that year either. Albanov, believing that their position was hopeless, requested permission from Captain Brusilov to be relieved from his duties as second-in-command in order to leave the ship with some crewmen and attempt to return to civilization on foot.
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Alexander Kuchin
Alexander Stepanovich Kuchin (Russian: Александр Степанович Кучин) (1888 in Onega – 1913? in an unknown place in the Kara Sea) was a young Russian oceanographer and Arctic explorer.
Hailing from a humble background, Alexander Kuchin became a seaman in a Norwegian ship already when he was seventeen. The young man loved the Norwegian language, which he mastered in one year.
In 1907 Alexander Kuchin worked in Bergen, at a Norwegian Biological Station, becoming a student of oceanography expert Professor Bjorn Helland-Hansen. Meanwhile his enthusiasm for the Norwegian language was such that he wrote a “Small Russian-Norwegian dictionary” («Малый русско-норвежский словарь») in order to share his knowledge with his compatriots.
In 1910–1911 Alexander Kuchin was the only foreigner on Amundsen’s expedition to the South Pole on the Fram. He made numerous observations in the Southern Atlantic as an oceanographer and navigator. After his return to Norway, in December 1911, Alexander Kuchin married 18-year-old girl Aslaug Poulson, the daughter of a prominent Norwegian journalist.
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Alexey Tryoshnikov
Alexey Fyodorovich Tryoshnikov (Russian: Алексе́й Фёдорович Трёшников) (April 14, 1914 in the village of Pavlovka, now in Baryshsky District, Ulyanovsk Oblast – November 18, 1991 at Saint Petersburg) was a Soviet polar explorer and leader of the 2nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition and the 13th Soviet Antarctic Expedition.
He was involved in defending the Northern Sea Route during World War II and participated in the 1948 Soviet expedition to the North Pole. Between 1954 and 1955, he was the leader of the North Pole-3 ice station in the Arctic Ocean.
He was also the president of the Geographical Society of the USSR since 1977 and the director of the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI) of the Soviet Union from 1960 to 1981. In 1982 he was elected Academician of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.
A minor planet 3339 Treshnikov discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos in 1978 is named after him.
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Alfred Ritscher
Alfred Ritscher (23 May 1879 in Bad Lauterberg - 30 March 1963 in Hamburg) was a German polar explorer. A captain in the German Navy, he led the third German Antarctic Expedition in 1938-39, which mapped the New Swabia (German: Neuschwabenland) area of Queen Maud Land. Ritscher Peak and Ritscher Upland there are named for him.
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Alistair Mackay
Alistair Mackay was a Scottish doctor and polar explorer. He was one the trio of explorers, along with Douglas Mawson and Professor Edgeworth David, who became the first humans to reach the Magnetic South Pole.
In 1907, Mackay joined the British Antarctic Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton as an expedition doctor. They arrived on the ship Nimrod at Cape Royds in Antarctica in February 1908 and set up camp in a small expedition hut that would house the 15-man party through the winter. In March 1908 along with Mawson and David, Mackay made up the party who undertook the first ascent of Mount Erebus.
The following spring when Shackelton set off to attempt to reach the South Pole, he despatched Mackay, Mawson and Edgeworth David northward to reach the South Magnetic Pole which lay approximately 650 km north-north-west of Ross Island. The trek commenced on October 5, 1908 with the men hauling their own sleds and relaying the loads which meant that every kilometre gained by the sledges involved them travelling three kilometres by foot.
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Allen Young
Sir Allen Young (1827–1915) was an English master mariner and explorer, best remembered for his role in Arctic exploration including the search for Sir John Franklin.
Allen Young was born at Twickenham on 12 December 1827, and went to sea as a midshipman in the merchant marine in 1842. By 1853 he was master of the Blackwall Frigate Marlborough and made two round voyages between England and Australia. During the Crimean War he was master of the 3000-ton troop ship Adelaide.
In 1857 Allen Young offered himself as sailing master of the auxiliary steamship Fox under the overall command of Francis Leopold McClintock, that was to search the Franklin expedition, missing since 1845. He also donated 500 pounds to the expedition, and Lady Franklin gratefully accepted his services. The expedition went on to find the only written record of the missing expedition's fate, and Young himself undertook several lengthy overland sled journeys in the search.
In 1874 Allen Young purchased the superseded British Royal Navy gunboat Pandora in order to make a final search for the missing written records of the Franklin expedition, with additional funding from Lady Franklin. The expedition sailed from Southampton late in June 1875, but heavy ice prevented the vessel from reaching the search area, and the expedition returned unsuccessful. By this time Lady Franklin had died. In 1876 Allen Young took the Pandora on a second voyage to the Arctic with stores to relieve the British Arctic Expedition. Young was knighted in recognition of his services.
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Anatoly Sagalevich
Anatoly Mikhailovich Sagalevich (Russian: Анатолий Михайлович Сагалевич) (born September 5, 1938) is a Russian explorer, who works at the Shirshov Institute of Oceanology of the Russian Academy of Sciences (USSR Academy of Sciences until 1991) since 1965.
Since 1979 he has been the director of the Russian (former Soviet) Deepwater Submersibles Laboratory. He received Doctor of Sciences degree in 1985. Sagalevich took part in the construction of Pisces VIII, Pisces IX and MIR Deep Submergence Vehicles (DSV) and completed more than 300 submersions as the chief pilot of DSVs. Between 1989 and 2005 he led 28 expeditions on MIR DSV. He was the pilot of MIR during expeditions to RMS Titanic, Bismarck, Soviet submarine K-278 Komsomolets, I-52,Russian submarine K-141 Kursk.
Sagalevich holds the world record for the deepest fresh water dive, at 1,637 meters (5,371 ft) (in Lake Baikal aboard a Pisces in 1990).
On August 2, 2007 Sagalevich was the pilot of MIR-1 DSV, that reached the seabed at the North Pole during Arktika 2007 expedition.
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Anthony de la Roché
Anthony de la Roché, born sometime in the 17th century, (spelled also Antoine de la Roché, Antonio de la Roché or Antonio de la Roca in some sources) was an English merchant born in London to a French Huguenot father and an English mother. During a commercial voyage between Europe and South America he was blown off course, and visited the Antarctic island of South Georgia, making the first ever discovery of land south of the Antarctic Convergence.
Having acquired a 350-ton ship in Hamburg and obtained permission by the Spanish authorities to trade in Spanish America, la Roché called at the Canary Islands in May 1674 and in October that year arrived in the port of Callao in the Viceroyalty of Peru by way of Le Maire Strait and Cape Horn. On his return voyage, sailing from Chiloé Island (Chile) to Bahia de Todos os Santos (Salvador, Brazil), in April 1675 la Roché rounded Cape Horn and was overwhelmed by tempestuous conditions in the tricky waters off Staten Island (Isla de los Estados). His ship failed to make Le Maire Strait as desired, nor round the east extremity of Staten Island (i.e. make the mythical ‘Brouwer's Strait’ present on the old maps since the 1643 Dutch expedition of Admiral Hendrik Brouwer), and was carried far away to the east instead. Eventually they found refuge in one of South Georgia’s southern bays — possibly Drygalski Fjord according to some experts — where the battered ship anchored for a fortnight.
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Artur Chilingarov
Artur Nikolayevich Chilingarov (Russian: Артур Николаевич Чилингаров; born 25 September 1939) is a Russian polar explorer. He is a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of Sciences, he was awarded the title of Hero of the Soviet Union in 1986 and the title of Hero of the Russian Federation in 2008. Chilingarov is also a member of the State Duma from Nenets Autonomous Okrug (since 1993). Member of the United Russia party.
He was born in Leningrad. In 1963 he graduated from the Arctic faculty of the Leningrad Maritime Institute named after admiral S.O. Makarov. As an engineer-oceanographer he was directed to the Tiksi observatory of the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute. In 1965 he was elected first secretary of the Bulun Komsomol district committee. In 1969 he was appointed head of the drift ice station “North Pole-19” and in 1971 Chilingarov headed the Bellingshausen Station of the 17th Soviet Antarctic Expedition.
Between 1974 and 1979 he worked in the Western sector of the Arctic as head of the Amderma Administration of hydrometeorology and environmental control. Under his direction, new forms of Arctic operative navigation support were implemented; for the first time, experimental work on cargo transfers to fast ice during wintertime were carried out in Yamal Peninsula. Chilingarov summarized his experience in navigation support on the Northern Sea Route in his dissertation for the scientific degree of a kandidat of geographical sciences.
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Arved Fuchs
Arved Fuchs (born 26 April 1953) is a German explorer. On December 30, 1989, he and the famous mountain climber Reinhold Messner were the first to reach the South Pole without animal or motorised help, on skis and with wind-assistance (parasail). Many of his expeditions have been placed on water, such as his failed attempt to sail around North Pole on a traditional sailing boat (1991-1994). This boat, named Dagmar Aaen, is still used by Fuchs on his current expeditions.
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Avgust Tsivolko
Avgust Karlovich Tsivolko, also spelled as Tsivolka (Polish: August Cywolka, Russian: Август Карлович Циволько) (1810 – March 28 (O.S. March 16), 1839) was a Russian navigator and Arctic explorer.
In 1834-1835, Avgust Tsivolko took part in the Pakhtusov expedition towards Novaya Zemlya. In 1837, Tsivolko commanded a schooner named Krotov during the Baer expedition towards Novaya Zemlya. He was the one to map the Matochkin Strait in the course of this expedition. In 1838 Tsivolko was put in charge of the mapping expedition and sent towards the northern and northeastern shores of Novaya Zemlya.
Avgust Tsivolko died of scurvy during this expedition.
A gulf in the Kara Sea and a group of islands in the Nordenskiöld Archipelago are named after Avgust Tsivolko.
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Bernt Balchen
Bernt Balchen, (23 October 1899 – 17 October 1973), a recipient of the Distinguished Flying Cross was a Norwegian native, and later U.S. citizen, known as a pioneer polar aviator, navigator, aircraft mechanical engineer and military leader. His service in the U.S. Army Air Forces during World War II made use of his Arctic exploration expertise to help the Allies over Scandinavia and Northern Europe. After the war, Balchen continued to be an influential leader with the U.S. Air Force, as well as a highly-regarded private consultant in projects involving the Arctic and aviation.
The son of a country doctor, Balchen was born at the farm Myren in Tveit, just outside of Kristiansand, Norway. Gaining a degree in forestry engineering at the Forestry School, Moseby, Norway in 1916, he enrolled in the French Foreign Legion then transferred to the Norwegian Army where he was sent to an artillery school but he graduated too late to see action in World War I. Under an assumed name, Balchen fought as a cavalryman in the Finnish Army against the Russians in the civil war that followed the end of major hostilities. During a cavalry charge, his horse was shot from under him and he was left for dead on the battlefield. Receiving serious wounds that necessitated a lengthy convalescence, Balchen turned to an early interest in athletics and trained strenuously as a boxer to represent Norway in the 1920 Olympics. Besides being a championship boxer, he was also an expert marksman and an accomplished skier. Balchen was very knowledgeable about wilderness and northern survival, skills that he would later exploit. While waiting for his acceptance as an Olympian, Balchen received word that he also qualified for flight training, resulting in his decision to become a pilot in the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service in 1921.
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Boris Vilkitsky
Boris Andreyevich Vilkitsky (Russian: Борис Андреевич Вилькицкий)(22 March (3 April N.S.) 1885 — 6 March 1961) was a Russian hydrographer and surveyor. He was the son of Andrey Ippolitovich Vilkitsky.
Vilkitsky graduated from the Naval Academy in Saint Petersburg in 1908. He participated in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-1905. In 1913—1915 he led the Arctic hydrographic expedition on the ships "Taimyr" and "Vaigach" with the purpose of further exploration of the Northern Sea Route.
In 1913, Vilkitsky's expedition discovered Severnaya Zemlya, perhaps one of the most important Russian discoveries in the Arctic at the time. Other discoveries were an island that now bears his name (Vilkitsky Island), as well as the islands of Maly Taymyr and neighboring Starokadomsky. In 1914—1915, Vilkitsky's expedition made the first through voyage from Vladivostok to Arkhangelsk, discovered Novopashenniy Island (now Zhokhova Island), and described the southern coastline of Severnaya Zemlya.
In 1918, Vilkitsky was appointed head of the first Soviet hydrographic expedition, which never took place due to its seizure by the interventionists in Arkhangelsk. In 1920, Vilkitsky emigrated to Britain. In 1923 and 1924, Vilkitsky led commercial expeditions in the Kara Sea at the invitation of the Soviet foreign trade organizations.
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Brendan
Saint Brendan of Clonfert or Bréanainn of Clonfert (c. 484 – c. 577) (Irish: Naomh Breandán; Icelandic: Brandanus) called "the Navigator", "the Voyager", or "the Bold" is one of the early Irish monastic saints. He is chiefly renowned for his legendary quest to the "Isle of the Blessed," also called St Brendan's Island. The Voyage of St Brendan could be called an immram (Irish navigational story). He was one of the Twelve Apostles of Ireland.
Saint Brendan's feast day is celebrated on 16 May by Catholics, Anglicans, and Eastern Orthodox Christians.
In 484 Saint Brendan was born in Ciarraighe Luachra near the port of Tralee, in County Kerry, in the province of Munster, in the south-west of Ireland. He was baptised at Tubrid, near Ardfert, by Saint Erc. For five years he was educated under Saint Ita, "the Brigid of Munster", and he completed his studies under Saint Erc, who ordained him priest in 512. Between the years 512 and 530 St Brendan built monastic cells at Ardfert, and, at the foot of Mount Brandon, Shanakeel— Seana Cill, usually translated as "the old church"— also called Baalynevinoorach.
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Cadwalader Ringgold
Cadwalader Ringgold (1802–1867) was an officer in the United States Navy who served in the United States Exploring Expedition, later headed an expedition to the Northwest and, after initially retiring, returned to service during the Civil War.
Cadwalader Ringgold was born August 20, 1802 in Washington County, Maryland, at "Fountain Rock", the 18,000-acre (7,300 ha) family estate. His mother was Maria Cadwalader (1776–1811), daughter of John Cadwalader (1742–1786), who was a general during the American Revolutionary War. Some sources spell his first name with two "l"s. His father was Samuel Ringgold, a Maryland politician who later served in the U.S. House of Representatives. He had an older brother, Samuel Ringgold, an army officer called "the father of modern artillery" and who died in the Battle of Palo Alto. Cadwalader was the sixth of 11 children, the youngest child of his mother, who then died. His father remarried and went on to have five more children by his second wife.
Cadwalader Ringgold entered the U.S. Navy in 1819 and commanded the schooner Weazel in action against West Indies pirates during the late 1820s. He became a lieutenant on May 17, 1828 and that year served on Vandalia in the Pacific Ocean. He went on to serve on the Adams in the Mediterranean.
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Carl Anton Larsen
Carl Anton Larsen (August 7, 1860 – December 8, 1924) was a Norwegian Antarctic Explorer, who made important contributions to the exploration of Antarctica, the most significant being the first discovery of fossils, for which he received the Back Grant from the Royal Geographical Society. In December 1893 he became the first person to ski in Antarctica on the Larsen Ice Shelf which was subsequently named after him. Larsen is considered the founder of the Antarctic whaling industry and the settlement at Grytviken on the British-administered island of South Georgia. In 1910, after some years' residence on South Georgia, he took British citizenship.
Carl Anton Larsen was born in Østre Halsen, Tjolling, the son of a Norwegian Sea Captain Ole Christian Larsen and his wife Ellen Andrea Larsen (née Thorsen). His family subsequently relocated to nearby Sandefjord, the home of the Norwegian whaling industry, where, at the young age of 9 he went to sea in a small barque with his father chasing seals and trading across the North Atlantic with Britain, only returning to go to school during the fall and winter. He would continue this for a number of years, until his curiosity for the sea was so strong he enrolled himself in navigation school where he passed the exam for foreign-going mate at the age of 18. Having been to Britain a few times in the previous years he realized the importance of having a second language and soon taught himself English and Spanish.
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Carsten Borchgrevink
Carsten Egeberg Borchgrevink (1 December 1864 – 21 April 1934) was an Anglo-Norwegian polar explorer and a pioneer of modern Antarctic travel. He was the precursor of Robert Falcon Scott, Ernest Shackleton, Roald Amundsen and other more famous names associated with the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. He began his exploring career in 1894 by joining a Norwegian whaling expedition, from which he brought back a collection of the first specimens of vegetable life within the Antarctic Circle.
In 1898–1900 Borchgrevink led the British-financed Southern Cross Expedition, which in 1899 became the first to overwinter on the Antarctic mainland and the first to visit the Great Ice Barrier since the expedition of Sir James Ross nearly sixty years previously. Borchgrevink landed on the Barrier with two companions and made the first sledge journey on its surface, setting a new Farthest South record at 78°50'S. On its return to England, notwithstanding its array of "firsts", the expedition was received with only moderate interest by the public and by the British geographical establishment, whose attention was fixed on Scott's upcoming National Antarctic Expedition. Borchgrevink's colleagues were critical of his leadership, and his own accounts of the expedition were regarded as journalistic and unreliable.
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Carsten Richardson
Carsten Richardson was an early 17th century Holsteinian-Danish naval officer and Arctic explorer. He is most noted for his role in King Christian IV's Expeditions to Greenland.
Carsten Richardson was in command of one of five ships in the 1606 expedition to Greenland led by Godske Lindenov and sent by Christian IV of Denmark to locate the lost Eastern Norse Settlement and to assert Danish sovereignty. In the following year, Richardson was made leader of a failed expedition with the same purpose, equipped with two ships – the flagship Trost ("Consolation") and Grønlandske Bark ("Greenland Bark") – and 44 men. Dense sea ice prevented them from landing on the Greenland coast, which was in sight.
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Charles Clerke
Captain Charles Clerke RN (22 August 1741 – 22 August 1779) was an officer in the Royal Navy who sailed on four voyages of exploration with Captain James Cook. When Cook was killed during his 3rd expedition to the Pacific, Clerke took command but died later in the voyage from tuberculosis.
Clerke started studying at the Royal Naval Academy in Portsmouth when he was 13. During the Seven Years' War he served aboard HMS Dorsetshire and HMS Bellona. He was in the mizzen-top of HMS Bellona when the mast was shot away in 1761 and he became the only survivor of those who consequently fell overboard.
In June 1764 he joined Captain John Byron, aboard HMS Dolphin, on Byron's expedition to explore the Pacific. The Dolphin returned in May 1766. Its circumnavigation of 22 months was the shortest up to that point. Upon his return Clerke published an account of encountering Patagonian giants, was probably a hoax which the Dictionary of Canadian Biography attributed to his high spirits.
Clerke's last three voyages were all under the command of Captain James Cook. He started the first voyage aboard HM Bark Endeavour (1768–1771) as a master's mate. Cook promoted him to acting lieutenant in 1771. He was HMS Resolution's second lieutenant on Cook's second voyage (1772–1775).
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Charles Francis Hall
Charles Francis Hall (1821 – November 8, 1871) was an American Arctic explorer. Little is known of Hall's early life. He was born in the state of Vermont, but while he was still a child his family moved to Rochester, New Hampshire, where, as a boy, he was apprenticed to a blacksmith. In the 1840s he married and drifted westward, arriving in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1849. There he went into business making seals and engraving plates, and later began to publish a two small newspapers, The Cincinnati Occasional and The Daily Press.
Around 1857, Hall became interested in the Arctic and spent the next few years studying the reports of previous explorers and trying to raise money for an expedition, primarily intended to learn the fate of Sir John Franklin's lost expedition.
In 1860, Hall began his first expedition (1860–63), gaining passage out of New Bedford on the whaler George Henry under Captain Sidney O. Budington, whose uncle James Budington had salvaged Edward Belcher's exploration ship HMS Resolute, also on the "George Henry". He got as far as Baffin Island, where the George Henry was forced to winter over. The Inuit told Hall of surviving relics from Martin Frobisher's mining venture at Frobisher Bay on Baffin Island. Hall soon travelled there to see them first-hand, drawing upon the inestimable assistance of his newly-found Inuit guides Ebierbing ("Joe") and Tookoolito ("Hannah").
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Charles R. Burton
Charles Robert Burton (13 December 1942 — 15 July 2002) was a British explorer. He took part in the Transglobe Expedition, the first expedition to circumnavigate the globe from pole to pole.
Burton was born in Cape Town, South Africa. He attended Millfield school in Somerset and then joined the British Army, serving with the elite Special Air Service and then with various private security firms. He and Sir Ranulph Fiennes spent some four years organizing the Transglobe Expedition and raising money. After the expedition, Burton returned to the security business. He never went on another expedition. He died at his family home in the village of Framfield in Sussex.
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Charles Wilkes
Charles Wilkes (April 3, 1798 – February 8, 1877) was an American naval officer and explorer. He led the United States Exploring Expedition, 1838-1842 and commanded the ship in the Trent Affair during the American Civil War (1861–1865). Although credited with several "firsts", his behavior led to two convictions at court-martial.
Wilkes was born in New York City, on April 3, 1798, as the great nephew of the former Lord Mayor of London John Wilkes. His mother was Mary Seton, who died in 1802 when Charles was just three years old. As a result, Charles was raised by his aunt, Elizabeth Ann Seton, a convert to Roman Catholicism who was the first American-born woman to be canonized a saint by the Catholic Church. When Elizabeth was left widowed with five children, Charles was sent to a boarding school, and later attended Columbia College, which is the present-day Columbia University. He entered the United States Navy as a midshipman in 1818, and became a lieutenant in 1826.
In 1833, for his survey of Narragansett Bay, he was placed in charge of the Navy's Department of Charts and Instruments, out of which developed the Naval Observatory and Hydrographic Office. Wilkes' interdisciplinary expedition (1838–1842) set a physical oceanography benchmark for the office's first superintendent Matthew Fontaine Maury.
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David Legge Brainard
Brigadier-General David Legge Brainard (December 21, 1856−March 22, 1946) was an American arctic explorer and soldier.
Brainard was born in Norway, New York, the fifth son to Alanson Brainard and Maria C. Legge.
Brainard enlisted in the US Army in 1876, and served in the Sioux, Bannock and Nez Perce campaigns in 1877 and 1878 under General Nelson Appleton Miles, where he was wounded on his face and right hand.
In 1880, he volunteered and was selected for the Howgate Expedition, which was canceled. However, the next year he was detailed as first sergeant for the ill-fated Lady Franklin Bay Expedition under Adolphus Greely. Over the three years of this expedition he continuously kept a journal. Among the men to die on this expedition was James Booth Lockwood, second-in-command of the expedition and Brainard's companion on many excursions, including their record breaking push north to 83°23'30". Brainard wrote of his passing on April 9, 1884:
Shortly before rescue, in the spring of 1884, freezing, starving and suffering from scurvy, he wrote:
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David Scott Cowper
David Scott Cowper is a British yachtsman, and was the first man to sail solo round the world in both directions and was also the first to successfully sail around the world via the Northwest Passage single-handed.
Born in 1942, David Cowper was educated at Stowe School and lives and works in Newcastle upon Tyne. Although he is a Chartered Surveyor and a Fellow of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors, sailing was his passion from an early age.
In 1974, Cowper participated and successfully completed The Observer Around Britain Race in his Wanderer-class sailboat, Airedale, designed by John Laurent Giles. In 1976, he successfully completed The Observer Single-Handed Trans-Atlantic Race, again in his boat Airedale.
In 1980, Cowper completed the fastest solo circumnavigation of the globe solo via Cape Horn, Cape of Good Hope and Cape Leeuwin in Ocean Bound, a Sparkman & Stevens 41' sloop, beating Francis Chichester's record of 226 days by one day.
Two years later, he repeated the feat, sailing against the prevailing westerly winds and rounding all five capes in 237 days, beating Chay Blyth's record by 71 days and becoming the first person to circumnavigate the world in both directions single-handed.
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Dmitry Laptev
Dmitry Yakovlevich Laptev (Russian: Дмитрий Яковлевич Лаптев) (1701 - January 31 [O.S. January 20] 1771) was a Russian Arctic explorer and Vice Admiral (1762).
Dmitry Laptev was born in the village of Bolotovo, near Velikie Luki, in 1701. Bolotovo was the estate of his father, Yakov Laptev. Yakov's brother, Prokofiy Laptev, owned a nearby estate called Pokarevo, where in 1700 Dmitry's cousin, Khariton Laptev, was born.
Dmitry Laptev started his career in the navy as a cadet in 1718. In 1736, he was appointed leader of one of the parties of the Second Kamchatka expedition. As a result of his voyages by land and sea in 1739—1742, Laptev described the sea coastline from the mouth of the Lena River to the Cape Bolshoy Baranov (east of the mouth of the Kolyma River), basin and mouth of the Anadyr River, and land route from the Anadyr fortress to the Penzhinskaya Bay. In 1741—1742, Laptev surveyed the rivers of Bolshoy Anyuy and Anadyr. After the expedition, he continued his military service in the Baltic Fleet. Laptev was promoted to Vice Admiral rank in 1762, and retired same year.
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Dmitry Ovtsyn
Dmitry Leontiyevich Ovtsyn (Russian: Дмитрий Леонтьевич Овцын) (unknown - after 1757) was a Russian hydrographer and Arctic explorer.
In 1734-1738, Ovtsyn led one of the units of the Second Kamchatka expedition that charted the coastline of the Kara Sea east of the river Ob. In summer of 1737, his unit made its way from Ob to Yenisei and made the first hydrographic description of this part of the Siberian coastline. In 1741, Ovtsyn took part in Vitus Bering's voyage to the shores of America.
A cape on the Taimyr Peninsula and a strait between the islands Oleniy and Sibiryakov bear his name.
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Douglas Mawson
Sir Douglas Mawson, OBE, FRS, FAA (5 May 1882 – 14 October 1958) was an Australian geologist, Antarctic explorer and Academic. Along with Roald Amundsen, Robert Falcon Scott, and Ernest Shackleton, Mawson was a key expedition leader during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration.
He was appointed geologist to an expedition to the New Hebrides (now Vanuatu) in 1903; his report The geology of the New Hebrides, was one of the first major geological works of Melanesia. Also that year he published a geological paper on Mittagong, New South Wales. His major influences in his geological career were Professor Edgeworth David and Professor Archibald Liversidge. He then became a lecturer in petrology and mineralogy at the University of Adelaide in 1905. He identified and first described the mineral Davidite, named for Edgeworth David.
Douglas turned down an invitation to join Robert Falcon Scott's Terra Nova Expedition in 1910; Australian geologist Griffith Taylor went with Scott instead. Mawson chose to lead his own expedition, the Australasian Antarctic Expedition, to King George V Land and Adelie Land, the sector of the Antarctic continent immediately south of Australia, which at the time was almost entirely unexplored. The objectives were to carry out geographical exploration and scientific studies, including a visit to the South Magnetic Pole.
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Edgar Evans
Petty Officer Edgar Evans (7 March 1876 – 17 February 1912) was a member of the Polar Party on Robert Falcon Scott's companions on his ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition to the South Pole in 1911–1912. This final group of five men, personally selected for the final expedition push, attained the Pole on 17 January 1912; but all of them, including Evans, perished as they attempted to return to their base camp.
Evans was born in Middleton, Rhossili,Wales, the son of a seaman. He attended St. Helen's Boys School from the age of six until he was thirteen, then enlisted in the Royal Navy in 1891, and in 1899 began service on HMS Majestic, where Scott was serving as a torpedo lieutenant.
Edgar Evans then joined Scott's first Antarctic expedition in Discovery in 1901–1904. Along with William Lashly, he accompanied Scott on his "Furthest West" sledge journey to the interior of Victoria Land in 1903.
Scott's biographer Roland Huntford described Evans as "a huge, bull-necked beefy figure" and a "beery womanizer" who was "running a bit to fat" by the time of Scott's second expedition in Terra Nova. Evans was nearly left behind in New Zealand when he drunkenly fell into the water while boarding the ship. However, held in high regard by Scott for "his resourcefulness, his strength and fund of anecdotes," Scott decided to overlook the incident.
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Edgeworth David
Sir Tannatt William Edgeworth David (commonly known as Edgeworth David) KBE, DSO, FRS, (28 January 1858 – 28 August 1934) was a Welsh Australian geologist and Antarctic explorer. A household name in his lifetime, David's most significant achievements were discovering the major Hunter Valley coalfield in New South Wales and leading the first expedition to reach the South Magnetic Pole. He also served with distinction in World War I.
David was born in St. Fagans near Cardiff, Wales, the eldest son of the Rev. William David, a fellow of Jesus College, Oxford, a classical scholar and naturalist and his wife Margaret Harriette (née Thomson). His mother's cousin, William A. E. Ussher of the Geological Survey, first interested David in what was to be his life work.
At the age of 12, David went to Magdalen College School, Oxford in 1870. In 1876 he gained a classical scholarship to New College, Oxford. While there he was lectured by the famous John Ruskin and William Spooner. In 1878 he suffered a health breakdown and travelled to Canada and Australia to recuperate. Returning to Oxford, he attended lectures on geology by Sir Joseph Prestwich which stimulated his interest in the subject. After graduating as a Bachelor of Arts without honours in 1880, he spent the following two years in field study of the geology of Wales. In November 1881 he read his first paper, Evidences of Glacial Action in the Neighbourhood of Cardiff before the Cardiff Naturalists' Society. In the following year he briefly studied at the Royal School of Mines, London, under Professor J.W. Judd before accepting the position of Assistant Geological Surveyor to the Government of New South Wales, Australia.
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Edmund Hillary
Sir Edmund Percival Hillary KG ONZ KBE (20 July 1919 – 11 January 2008) was a New Zealand mountaineer, explorer and philanthropist. On 29 May 1953, Hillary and Nepalese Sherpa mountaineer Tenzing Norgay became the first climbers confirmed as having reached the summit of Mount Everest – see Timeline of climbing Mount Everest. They were part of the ninth British expedition to Everest, led by John Hunt. He was named by Time magazine as one of the 100 most influential people of the 20th century.
Hillary became interested in mountaineering while in secondary school, making his first major climb in 1939, reaching the summit of Mount Ollivier. He served in the Royal New Zealand Air Force as a navigator during World War II. Prior to the 1953 Everest expedition, he had been part of the British reconnaissance expedition to the mountain in 1951, as well as an unsuccessful attempt to climb Cho Oyu in 1952. As part of the Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition he reached the South Pole overland in 1958. Subsequently, he also travelled to the North Pole.
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Eduard Toll
Eduard Gustav von Toll was a Baltic German geologist and Arctic explorer in Russian service. Often referred to as Baron von Toll or as Eduard v. Toll, in Russia he is known as Eduard Vasiliyevich Toll (Russian: Эдуард Васильевич Толль). Eduard Toll was born on (March 14 [O.S. March 2] 1858, in Reval (now Tallinn, Estonia) and he died in 1902 in an unknown location in the Arctic Ocean). He belonged to a noble family of Baltic German origin and was married to Baroness Emmy von Toll.
Eduard Toll graduated from the University of Dorpat (Tartu) as a zoologist in 1882. Already while he was a student he traveled to the Mediterranean and researched the fauna, flora and geology of Algeria and the Balearic Islands.
In 1885-1886, Toll took part in an expedition to the New Siberian Islands, organized by the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences and led by Alexander Bunge. Eduard Toll explored the Great Lyakhovsky Island, Bunge Land, Faddeyevsky Island, Kotelny Island, as well as the western shores of the New Siberia Island. In 1886 Toll thought that he had seen an unknown land north of Kotelny. He guessed that this was the so-called "Zemlya Sannikova" (Sannikov Land), a land that Yakov Sannikov and Matvei Gedenschtrom claimed to have seen during their 1808-1810 expedition, but whose existence had never been proved. The results of this expedition were appreciated by the Academy as "a true geographical deed".
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Edward Adrian Wilson
Edward Adrian Wilson FZS ("Uncle Bill") (23 July 1872 – 29 March 1912) was a notable English polar explorer, physician, naturalist, painter and ornithologist.
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Edward Belcher
Admiral Sir Edward Belcher, KCB (27 February 1799 – 18 March 1877), was a British naval officer and explorer. He was the great-grandson of Governor Jonathan Belcher. His wife, Diana Jolliffe, was the stepdaughter of Captain Peter Heywood.
Belcher was born in Halifax, Nova Scotia, the second son of Andrew Belcher and entered the Royal Navy in 1812.
In 1825, he accompanied Frederick William Beechey's expedition to the Pacific and Bering Strait, as a surveyor. He subsequently commanded a surveying ship on the north and west coasts of Africa and in the British seas. Belcher married Diana Jolliffe in 1833 and three years thereafter took up the work which Beechey had left unfinished on the Pacific coast of South America. He was on board the bomb vessel HMS Sulphur, which was ordered to return to England in 1839 by the Trans-Pacific route. Belcher made various observations at a number of islands which he visited, was delayed by being despatched to take part in the war in China in 1840.
In 1841, the then Commander Belcher landed on Possession Point at the north shore Hong Kong Island and made the first British survey of Hong Kong harbour. After the war's end in 1842 he reached home and for his services was made a Knight Bachelor in the following year. He was then engaged in HMS Samarang, in surveying work in the East Indies, the Philippines, Geomun-do (Port Hamilton) and other places, until 1847.
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Emil Racoviţă
Emil Racoviţă (Romanian pronunciation: [eˈmil ˈrakovit͡sə]; also spelled Racovitza; 15 November 1868 – 17 November 1947) was a Romanian biologist, zoologist, speleologist and explorer of Antarctica.
Together with Grigore Antipa, he was one of the most noted promoters of natural sciences in Romania. Racoviţă was the first Romanian to have gone on a scientific research expedition to the Antarctic, more than 100 years ago, as well as an influential professor, scholar and researcher.
Emil Racoviţă was born in Iaşi to the Racoviţă family of Moldavian boyars, whose ancestors had ascended the throne of the country during the 18th century.
Racoviţă spent his childhood on the family estate, in Sorăneşti, Vaslui County. He started his education in Iaşi, where he had Ion Creangă as a teacher, and continued his secondary education at the "Institutele Unite" high school, taking his baccalauréat in 1886. He then studied law at the University of Paris, obtaining a law degree in 1889. But he did not pursue a law career, instead turning to the natural sciences. His mentor was zoologist and biologist Henri de Lacaze-Duthiers, a professor at the Sorbonne and at the Muséum national d'histoire naturelle. Racoviţă earned a B.S. degree in 1891, and a Ph.D. degree in 1896, for a thesis on Le lobe cephalique et l’encéphale des Annélides Polychète ("The cephalous lobe and the encephalon of polychaetous annelids").
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Eric Marshall
Eric Marshall (1879–1963) was an Antarctica explorer with the Nimrod Expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1907-09, and was one of the party of four who reached Furthest South at 88°23′S 162°00′E / 88.383°S 162°E / -88.383; 162 on 9 January 1909.
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Erich von Drygalski
Erich Dagobert von Drygalski (February 9, 1865 – January 10, 1949) was a German geographer, geophysicist and polar scientist, born in Königsberg, Province of Prussia.
Between 1882 and 1887, Drygalski studied mathematics and natural science at the University of Königsberg, Bonn, Berlin and Leipzig. He graduated with a doctorate thesis about ice shields in Nordic areas. Between 1888 and 1891, he was an assistant at the Geodetic Institute and the Central Office of International Geodetics in Berlin.
Drygalski led two expeditions between 1891 and 1893, which were supplied by the Society for Geoscience of Berlin. One expedition wintered during the winter between 1892 and 1893 in Western Greenland. He habilitated 1889 for geography and geophysics with the collected scientific evidence. In 1898, Drygalski became associate professor and 1899 extraordinary professor for geography and geophysics in Berlin.
Drygalski led the first German South Polar expedition with the ship Gauss to explore the unknown area of Antarctica lying south of the Kerguelen Islands. The expedition started from Kiel in the summer of 1901. A small party of the expedition was also stationed on the Kerguelen Islands, while the main party proceeded further south. Drygalski also paid a brief call to Heard Island and provided the first comprehensive scientific information on the island's geology, flora and fauna. Despite being trapped by ice for nearly fourteen months until February 1903, the expedition discovered new territory in Antarctica, the Kaiser Wilhelm II Land with the Gaussberg. The expedition arrived back in Kiel in November 1903. Subsequently, Drygalski wrote the narrative of the expedition and edited the voluminous scientific data. Between 1905 and 1931, he published twenty volumes and two atlases documenting the expedition.
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Erik the Red
Erik Thorvaldsson (Old Norse: Eirīkr Þōrvaldsson; 950 – c. 1003), known as Erik the Red (Old Norse: Eirīkr hinn rauði), is remembered in medieval and Icelandic saga sources as having founded the first Norse settlement in Greenland. The Icelandic tradition indicates that he was born in the Jæren district of Rogaland, Norway, as the son of Thorvald Asvaldsson, he therefore also appears, patronymically, as Erik Thorvaldsson (Eiríkr Þorvaldsson). The appellation "the Red" most likely refers to his hair color.Leif Ericson, the famous Icelandic explorer, was Erik's son.
Erik the Red's father was exiled from Norway for the crime of manslaughter. He sailed West from Norway with his family and settled in Hornstrandir in northwestern Iceland. The Icelanders later sentenced Erik to exile for three years due to "some killings" he committed around the year 982.[citation needed]
After marrying Thjodhild (Þjóðhildr), he moved to Haukadal (Hawksdale) where he built a farm. The initial confrontation happened when his thralls started a landslide on the neighboring farm belonging to Valthjof (Valþjófr). Valthjof's friend, Eyiolf the Foul (Eyjólfr saurr), killed the thralls. In return, Erik killed Eyjiolf and Holmgang-Hrafn (Hólmgöngu-Hrafn). Eyiolf's kinsmen demanded his banishment from Haukadal.
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Ernest Shackleton
Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton, CVO, OBE, FRGS (15 February 1874 – 5 January 1922) was an Anglo-Irish polar explorer, one of the principal figures of the period known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration. His first experience of the polar regions was as third officer on Captain Robert Falcon Scott's Discovery Expedition, 1901–04, from which he was sent home early on health grounds. Determined to make amends for this perceived personal failure, he returned to Antarctica in 1907 as leader of the Nimrod Expedition. In January 1909 he and three companions made a southern march which established a record Farthest South latitude at 88° 23′ S, 97 geographical miles (112 statute miles, 190 km) from the South Pole, by far the closest convergence in exploration history up to that time. For this achievement, Shackleton was knighted by King Edward VII on his return home.
After the race to the South Pole ended in 1912 with Roald Amundsen's conquest, Shackleton turned his attention to what he said was the one remaining great object of Antarctic journeying—the crossing of the continent from sea to sea, via the pole. To this end he made preparations for what became the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1914–17. Disaster struck this expedition when its ship, Endurance, became trapped in pack ice and was slowly crushed before the shore parties could be landed. There followed a sequence of exploits, and an ultimate escape with no lives lost, that would eventually assure Shackleton's heroic status, although this was not immediately evident. In 1921 he went back to the Antarctic with the Shackleton-Rowett Expedition, intending to carry out a programme of scientific and survey activities. Before the expedition could begin this work Shackleton died of a heart attack while his ship, Quest, was moored in South Georgia. At his wife's request he was buried there.
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Ernst Krenkel
Ernst Teodorovich Krenkel (Russian: Эрнст Теодо́рович Кре́нкель) (December 24 (O.S. December 11), 1903, Tartu – December 8, 1971, Moscow) was a Soviet Arctic explorer, doctor of geographical sciences (1938), and Hero of the Soviet Union (1938).
In 1924–25 and 1927–38, Ernst Krenkel was a radioman on polar stations Matochkin Shar (1924–25, 1927–28), Tikhaya Bay (1929–1930), Cape Olovyanniy (1935–36), and Domashniy Island (1936). He took part in Arctic expeditions on the Graf Zeppelin airship (1931), icebreaker Sibiryakov, steamship SS Chelyuskin (1933–1934). He was also a radioman on the first drifting ice station North Pole-1 (1937-1938). He is known to have set a world record by establishing a long-distance radio communication between Franz Josef Land and Antarctica.
In 1938, Krenkel went on to work for Glavsevmorput. Later in his life he was employed in the radio industry. In 1951, he was hired by the scientific research institute of hydrometeorological instrument-making, becoming its director in 1969.
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Francis Crozier
Francis Rawdon Moira Crozier (16 August 1796–after 1848?) was born in Ireland at Banbridge, County Down and was a British naval officer who participated in six exploratory expeditions to the Arctic and Antarctic. He was named after Francis Rawdon, the 2nd Earl of Moira, who was a friend of his father.
Francis Crozier was born at Avonmore House which still stands today opposite his large memorial in Church Square Banbridge, County Down, Ireland. He was the eleventh of thirteen children, and the fifth son, of attorney-at-law George Crozier, Esq. Francis attended school locally in Banbridge, with his brothers William and Thomas and lived with his family in Avonmore House in the centre of Banbridge which his father had built in 1792.
His ancestors were of Norman descent and first emerged when they joined the armies of William the Conqueror to invade England in 1066. A certain man called William was in the service of the Church also was the carrier of Bishop Odo's Crozier (half brother of William the Conqueror) and hence took the surname Crozier. Before this date surnames did not exist. He was the founder of the family. He was well known at that time and after Bishop Odo's departure to France, he continued to live in Canterbury and is buried there.
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Frank Wild
Commander John Robert Francis Wild CBE, RNVR, FRGS (born 10 April 1873 in Skelton-in-Cleveland, North Yorkshire, died 19 August 1939 in Klerksdorp, South Africa), known as Frank Wild, was an explorer. He went on five expeditions to Antarctica for which he was awarded the Polar Medal with four bars, one of only two men to be so honoured, the other being Ernest Joyce.
Frank Wild was the eldest of eight sons and three daughters born to school teacher Benjamin Wild and his seamstress wife Mary (née Cook). The family came from Skelton, North Yorkshire, close to Marton, birthplace of Captain James Cook, to whom the family claimed ancestry through Mrs Wild. Her father was Robert Cook, who claimed to be a grandson of the great explorer. By 1875 the Wild family had moved from Skelton to Stickford in Lincolnshire, and in late 1880 moved again to Wheldrake near York.
Wild’s family next moved to the village of Eversholt in Bedfordshire. Here his father was appointed clerk of the Eversholt Parochial Charity at Woburn. Frank Wild was educated at Bedford. He joined the Merchant Navy in 1889 at the age of 16, receiving his early training in sail in the clipper ship Sobraon. In the Merchant Navy he rose to the rank of Second Officer. In 1900, aged 26, he joined the Royal Navy. The 1901 census shows that at that time he was serving as an Able Seaman aged 27 on HMS Edinburgh, anchored in Sheerness Harbour.
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Frederick Cook
Frederick Albert Cook (June 10, 1865 – August 5, 1940) was an American explorer and physician, noted for his claim of having reached the North Pole on April 21, 1908. This would have been a year before April 6, 1909, the date claimed by Robert Peary.
Cook was born in Brooklyn, in Sullivan County, New York. His parents were Dr. Theodore A. Koch and Magdalena Long, recent German immigrants to the United States.
Cook attended Columbia University, receiving his M.D. in 1890. In 1889 he married Libby Forbes, who died in 1890. On his 37th birthday he married Marie Fidele Hunt; they had one daughter, Helene. In 1923 they were divorced, possibly for financial reasons related to an upcoming fraud trial.
Cook was the surgeon on Robert Peary's 1891–1892 Arctic expedition, and on the Belgian Antarctic Expedition of 1897–1899 led by Adrien de Gerlache. He contributed greatly to saving the lives of the crew when their ship (the Belgica) was ice-bound during the winter. A fellow crew-member was Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen, with whom he established a friendship and life-long relationship of mutual respect. In 1898, during this expedition, Cook visited Tierra del Fuego, where he met Thomas Bridges shortly before his death. As a result of that meeting, Cook brought back the manuscript of Bridges' Yamana dictionary, and several years later acquiesced in the attempted publication of the dictionary as his own work.
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Fridtjof Nansen
Fridtjof Wedel-Jarlsberg Nansen ( /ˈfrɪd.tʃɒf ˈnænsən/ FRID-choff NAN-sən; 10 October 1861 – 13 May 1930) was a Norwegian explorer, scientist, diplomat, humanitarian and Nobel Peace Prize laureate. In his youth a champion skier and ice skater, he led the team that made the first crossing of the Greenland interior in 1888, and won international fame after reaching a record northern latitude of 86°14′ during his North Pole expedition of 1893–96. Although he retired from exploration after his return to Norway, his techniques of polar travel and his innovations in equipment and clothing influenced a generation of subsequent Arctic and Antarctic expeditions.
Nansen studied zoology at the Royal Frederick University, and later worked as a curator at the Bergen Museum where his research on the central nervous system of lower marine creatures earned him a doctorate and helped establish modern theories of neurology. After 1896 his main scientific interest switched to oceanography; in the course of his research he made many scientific cruises, mainly in the North Atlantic, and contributed to the development of modern oceanographic equipment. As one of his country's leading citizens, in 1905 Nansen spoke out for the ending of Norway's union with Sweden, and was instrumental in persuading Prince Charles of Denmark to accept the throne of the newly independent Norway. Between 1906 and 1908 he served as the Norwegian representative in London, where he helped negotiate the Integrity Treaty that guaranteed Norway's independent status.
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Fyodor Litke
Count Fyodor Petrovich Litke (Russian: Граф Фёдор Петро́вич Ли́тке), born Friedrich Benjamin Lütke, (28 September [O.S. 17 September] 1797 – 28 August [O.S. 17 August] 1882) was a Russian navigator, geographer, and Arctic explorer. He became a count in 1866, and an admiral in 1855. He was a Corresponding Member (1829), Honorable Member (1855), and President (1864) of the Russian Academy of Science in St.Petersburg. He was also an Honorable Member of many other Russian and foreign scientific establishments, and a Corresponding Member of the French Academy of Science in Paris.
Count Fyodor (or Fedor) P. Litke came from a family of Russianized Germans. Count Litke’s grandfather was Johann F. Lütke, a German Lutheran preacher and writer on physical science and theology. In 1745, Johann Lütke went from Germany to Moscow as pastor of a Lutheran parish in order to spread Protestantism to Russia. As a youth, Fyodor attended a Lutheran school and learned German, the language of his ancestors. He remained a practicing Lutheran.
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Fyodor Matisen
Fyodor Andreyevich Matisen (Russian: Фёдор Андреевич Матисен) (June 1 (O.S. May 20), 1872, Saint Petersburg — December 19, 1921, Irkutsk) was a lieutenant of the Russian Imperial Navy, hydrographer, and explorer.
He became the captain of Polar ship Zarya during the last part of Baron Eduard Toll's expedition on behalf of the Russian Academy of Sciences, the Russian Polar Expedition (1900–1903). The expedition began with Lieutenant Nikolai Kolomeitsev as commander of the ship. Fyodor Andreyevich Matisen was senior officer and second-in-command. Matisen already had experience in Arctic exploration, for he had previously taken part in an expedition to Svalbard. Alexander Kolchak accompanied the expedition as third naval officer and hydrographer. All these officers were from military background.
During the first wintering of Zarya close to Taymyr Island, the disagreements between Toll and Kolomeitsev became unsurmountable. Finally Eduard Toll sent Kolomeitsev away on a long sledge trip overland with the mission of organizing coal depots for the ship. When the former captain was gone Matisen was appointed by Toll as Zarya's commander.
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Fyodor Matyushkin
Fyodor Fyodorovich Matyushkin (Матюшкин, Федор Федорович in Russian) (7.10(21).1799 — 9.16(28).1872) was a Russian navigator, Admiral (1867), and a close friend of Aleksandr Pushkin.
Matyushkin graduated from Tsarskoselskiy College in 1817. After having volunteered for the navy, he participated in Vassili Golovnin's world cruise on the ship Kamchatka in 1817—1819.
In 1820—1824, Matyushkin took part in Ferdinand Wrangel's Arctic expedition to the East Siberian Sea and the Chukchi Sea. They explored and mapped Chetyrekhstolbovoy Island, the southernmost of the Medvyezhi Islands, then an almost unknown island group. Following this survey Matyushkin explored on his own a vast tundra area east of the Kolyma river and collected valuable ethnographic data.
In 1825—1827, he joined Ferdinand von Wrangel in his world cruise on the ship Krotky. In 1828—1829, Matyushkin took part in the Russo-Turkish war, commanding different military vessels. In 1835, he served in the Black Sea Fleet, in 1850—1851 — in the Baltic Fleet. Starting from 1852, Matyushkin worked in the Department of the Navy as an admiral. In 1858, he was appointed Chairman of the Naval Scientific Committee. In 1861, Matyushkin became a senator.
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Gardar Svavarsson
Garðarr Svavarsson (modern Icelandic: Garðar Svavarsson, sometimes anglicized as Gardar/Garthar Svavarsson) was a Swedish man who is considered by many to be the first Scandinavian to live in Iceland, although only for one winter.
According to Haukr Erlendsson's edition of Landnámabók, he owned land in Zealand (Denmark) and was married to a woman from the Hebrides. During a voyage to these isles (in the 860s) in order to claim his inheritance from his father-in-law, he sailed into a storm at Pentland Firth. This storm pushed his ship far to the north until he reached the eastern coast of Iceland. He circumnavigated the island, becoming the first known person to do so and thus establishing that the landmass was an island, and went ashore at Skjálfandi. He built himself a house and stayed for the winter. Since then, the place has been called Húsavík.
Having returned, he praised the new land and called it after his own name Garðarshólmi (see names of Iceland). Nothing is known of his fate thereafter, but his son, Uni danski (Uni the Dane), emigrated to Iceland and made a feeble attempt to win it for the Norwegian king but be earl over himself and he had consulted this with the king but when the farmers knew his intent they would help him in no way and soon he was killed. He did though manage to have a son before dying, Hróar who is named as the goði at Tunga. Hroar quarreled with other men and was twice challenged to a hillbattle and won both times and killed his opponents but was eventually murdered but then avenged by his son. Hroar's wife was Arngunnur sister of Gunnar Hámundarson, who is one of the main characters Njáls saga, the longest and generally considered the greatest of the Icelandic Sagas.
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George Francis Lyon
George Francis Lyon (1795–1832) was a rare combination of Arctic and African explorer. By all accounts a fun loving extrovert, he also managed to be a competent British Naval Officer, Commander, explorer, artist and socialite. While not having a particularly distinguished career, he is remembered for the entertaining journals he kept and for the watercolour paintings he completed in the Arctic.
He was, in 1818, sent with Joseph Ritchie by Sir John Barrow to find the course of the Niger River and the location of Timbuktu. The expedition was underfunded, lacked support and because the ideas of John Barrow departed from Tripoli and thus had to cross the Sahara as part of their journey[clarification needed]. A year later, due to much officialdom they had only got as far as Murzuk where they both fell ill. Ritchie never recovered and died there, but Lyon survived and travelled a little further around the region. Exactly a year to the day he left, he arrived back in Tripoli, the expedition being a complete failure.
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George J. Dufek
George John Dufek (10 February 1903, Rockford, Illinois - 10 February 1977, Bethesda, Maryland) was an American naval officer, naval aviator, and polar expert. He served in World War II and the Korean War and in the 1940s and 1950s spent much of his career in the Antarctic, first with Admiral Byrd and later as supervisor of U.S. programs in the South Polar regions. Rear Admiral Dufek was the director of the Mariners' Museum in Newport News, Virginia after his retirement from the Navy in 1959.
Born in Rockford, Illinois, he joined the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) at his local high school and was appointed to the U.S. Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland in 1921. Upon graduation in 1925 he received his ensign's commission and commenced his career aboard the battleship USS Maryland. In 1932 he entered flight training school at the Naval Air Station Pensacola, Florida; after graduating as a naval aviator in 1933 he served as navigator and executive officer on three different ships.
During World War II Dufek commanded a flight training squadron, served as senior naval aviator in Algeria during the invasion of North Africa, assisted in the planning for the invasion of Sicily and Salerno and, after his promotion to captain and subsequent reassignment, the invasion of southern France. In September 1944 he assumed command of the escort carrier USS Bogue, which sank the final German submarine lost in World War II.
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George Nares
Vice-Admiral Sir George Strong Nares KCB FRS (24 April 1831–15 January 1915) was a British naval officer and Arctic explorer. He commanded both the Challenger Expedition and the British Arctic Expedition, and was highly thought of a leader and a scientific explorer. In later life he worked for the Board of Trade and as Acting Conservator of the River Mersey, and died in 1915 aged 83.
He was born on 24 April 1831, the third son and sixth child of Commander William Henry Nares, a British naval officer, and Elizabeth Rebecca Gould, at Llansenseld, near Abergavenny in Monmouthshire. He was baptised at the church of St Bridget, Llansanffraid on 22 May. He married Mary Grant, the eldest daughter of a Portsmouth banker, on 22 June 1858. They had four sons and six daughters. His two youngest sons, George Edward Nares (lieutenant, d. 1905) and John Dodd Nares (vice-admiral, d. 1957) entered the Royal Navy.
He was educated at the Royal Naval School in New Cross, and in 1845 joined the Royal Navy aboard Canopus, an old battleship captured from the French. Following a posting to Havannah on the Australian station in 1848 during which he served as both midshipman and mate, he returned in 1851 and passed his lieutenant's exam in 1852.
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George W. DeLong
George Washington DeLong (August 22, 1844 – October 31, 1881) was a United States Navy officer and explorer.
Born in New York City, he was educated at the United States Naval Academy in Newport, Rhode Island. In 1879, backed by James Gordon Bennett, Jr., owner of the New York Herald newspaper, and under the auspices of the US Navy, Lieutenant Commander DeLong sailed from San Francisco, California on the ship USS Jeannette with a plan to find a quick way to the North Pole via the Bering Strait.
As well as collecting scientific data and animal specimens, DeLong discovered and claimed three islands (De Long Islands) for the United States in the summer of 1881.
The ship became trapped in the ice and eventually was crushed and sank. DeLong and his crew abandoned ship and set out for Siberia in three small boats. After reaching open water, they became separated and one boat, commanded by Executive Officer Charles W. Chipp, was lost; no trace of it was ever found. DeLong's own boat reached land, but only two men sent ahead for aid survived. The third boat, under the command of Chief Engineer George W. Melville, reached the Lena delta and was rescued.
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Georgy Baydukov
Georgy Filippovich Baydukov (Russian: Гео́ргий Фили́ппович Байдуко́в; May 13 1907 [O.S. May 26] — December 28, 1994) was a Soviet aircraft test pilot, a Hero of the Soviet Union (1936) and a writer.
Georgy Baydukov had been born in Taryshta railway station (Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia) to a railway worker. He became an orphan in the age of 9 and had been homeless for some time. Baidukov had been taken to orphanage and worked at railway construction for some time.
Georgy Baydukov enlisted into the Red Army in 1926. He graduated Air Force Technical School and Kacha school for the military pilots in 1928 and served as a fighter pilot in 1928-1931.
Georgy Baydukov had been transferred to an Air Force's Testing institute and became an aircraft test pilot in 1931. He tested number of fighter planes in 1931-1934 and had been instrumental in developing instrument flight rules for the USSR's Air Force.
Georgy Baydukov became a student of Air Force Academy in 1934. During that time he became involved with number of ultralong flights conducted by the Soviet Union. He tried to reach North America flying from Russia through the North Pole in August 1935 as a member of Levanevsky's crew, flying the ANT-25. The flight had been terminated because of technical problems. Baydukov continued to participate in ANT-25's testing in 1935-1936.
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Georgy Brusilov
Georgy Lvovich Brusilov (Russian: Георгий Львович Брусилов;Ukrainian: Георгій Львович Брусилів) or Hryhoriy Brusylov (1884 in Mykolaiv, Russian Empire, (today Mykolaiv, Ukraine) – 1914?) was a Ukrainian Russian naval officer of the Imperial Russian Navy and an Arctic explorer. His father, Lev Brusilov, was also a naval officer.
In 1912 Brusilov led a maritime expedition which aimed to explore and map a route from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific via a northeast passage, also called the Northern Sea Route. His expedition disappeared almost without a trace, and despite searches its ultimate fate was unknown until 2010.
In 1910–1911, Georgy Brusilov participated in a hydrographic expedition on icebreakers Taymyr and Vaygach, visiting the Chukchi Sea and East Siberian Sea.
In 1912, Brusilov led the Brusilov Expedition on the brig St. Anna, which aimed to travel from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific by the Northern Sea Route. One of the members of the expedition was a 22-year-old nurse, Yerminia Zhdanko, daughter of a general who had been a hero in the Russo-Japanese War. She was the second Russian woman to go to the Arctic.
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Georgy Sedov
Georgy Yakovlevich Sedov (Russian: Георгий Яковлевич Седов) (5 May [O.S. 23 April] 1877 — 5 March [O.S. 20 February ] 1914) was a Russian Arctic explorer.
Born in the village of Krivaya Kosa of Taganrog district (now Novoazovskyi Raion) in a fisherman's family. In 1898, Sedov finished navigation courses in Rostov-on-Don and acquired the rank of long voyage navigator. In 1901, he took an external degree in Naval College, passed all the exams and was promoted to the rank of lieutenant.
In 1902—1903, Sedov participated in a hydrographic expedition in the Arctic Ocean. During the Russo-Japanese War he was in charge of a torpedo boat (1905). In 1909, he led the expedition that would later describe the mouth of the Kolyma river. A year later Sedov explored the Krestovaya Bay on Novaya Zemlya.
In 1912, he suggested a sleigh expedition for reaching the North Pole. The Tsarist government refused to finance this project, and the expedition was organized with the help from independent sources. On August 14(27), 1912, Sedov's ship "Svyatoy Muchenik Foka" (Saint Martyr Foka) left Arkhangelsk and had to stay for the winter near Novaya Zemlya because of impassable ice. The expedition reached Franz Josef Land only in August 1913; however, it had to stay for the second winter in the Tikhaya Bay due to lack of coal.
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Georgy Ushakov
Georgy Alexeyevich Ushakov (Russian: Георгий Алексеевич Ушаков) (January 17(30), 1901 - December 3, 1963) was a Soviet explorer of the Arctic, Doctor of Geographic Sciences (1950).
In 1926, Ushakov founded the first Soviet settlement on the Wrangel Island (today called Ushakovsky) and was its head for three years. In 1930-1932, Ushakov headed the Severnaya Zemlya expedition and established a polar station called Остров Домашний (Domashniy Island).
He and geologist Nikolay Urvantsev were the first ones to explore Severnaya Zemlya and established that it was an archipelago. In 1932-1936, Georgy Ushakov was employed at the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route (Главное Управление Северного Морского Пути).
In 1929 and 1930 the icebreaker Sedov carried groups of scientists to Franz Josef Land and also to Severnaya Zemlya, the last major piece of unsurveyed territory in the Soviet Arctic. This archipelago was completely mapped under Ushakov between 1930 and 1932. This voyage allowed to obliterate enormous "white spaces" on the Arctic map.
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Gerald Ketchum
Commander Gerald L. Ketchum (5 December 1908 – 22 August 1992) of the United States Navy commanded the icebreaker USS Burton Island (AG-88) in Task Group 68.2 during Operation Highjump, The United States Navy Antarctic Developments Program 1946–1947; also known as the Fourth Byrd Anatarctic Expedition.
He was also Commander of "Task Force 39" consisting of 500 men for Operation Windmill, an Antarctic expedition in 1947–1948.
He was born in Bellingham, Washington and died in Plano, Texas.
Ketchum Ridge in Antarctica is named after him.
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Gunnbjörn Ulfsson
Gunnbjørn Ulfsson (Norwegian, lived circa 10th century), name also given as Gunnbjørn Ulf-Krakuson, was the first European to sight North America.
Gunnbjørn was blown off course while sailing from Norway to Iceland. He and his crew sighted islands (Gunnbjörn's skerries) lying close off the coast of Greenland, and reported this find. Gunnbjørn did not land.
Greenland is physically and culturally part of North America; it is separated from Ellesmere Island by only a narrow strait, so this constitutes the first definitively established European contact with North America.
The exact date of this event is not recorded in the sagas. Various sources cite dates ranging from 876 to 932, but these must remain little more than guesses; but the early 10th century is probably more likely than earlier.
The first purposeful visit to Gunnbjørn's islands was by Snæbjörn Galti around 978, followed soon after by Eric the Red who also explored the main island of Greenland, and soon established a settlement. But neither Snaebjørn nor Eric were sailing blind; they knew well of the location reported by Gunnbjørn Ulfsson.
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Hans Egede
Hans Poulsen Egede (January 31, 1686 – November 5, 1758) was a Norwegian-Danish Lutheran missionary who launched mission efforts to Greenland, which led him to be styled the Apostle of Greenland. He established a successful mission among the Inuit and is credited with revitalizing Dano-Norwegian interest in the island after contact had been broken for hundreds of years. He founded Greenland's capital Godthåb, now known as Nuuk.
Hans Egede was born into the home of a civil servant on Hinnøya, in Harstad, Norway, several hundreds of miles north of the Arctic Circle. His paternal grandfather had been a vicar priest in Vester Egede on southern Zealand, Denmark. Hans was schooled by an uncle, a clergyman in a local Lutheran Church. In 1704 he traveled to Copenhagen to enter the University of Copenhagen, where he earned a Bachelor's degree in Theology. He returned to Hinnøya after graduation, and in April 1707 he was ordained and assigned to a parish on the equally remote archipelago of Lofoten. Also in 1707 he married Gertrud Rasch (or Rask), who was 13 years his senior. Four children were born to the marriage - two boys and two girls.
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Helmer Hanssen
Helmer Julius Hanssen (24 September 1870 – 2 August 1956) was a Norwegian polar explorer, and one of the first five to reach the South Pole on the expedition of Roald Amundsen.
Helmer Hanssen was born in Bjørnskinn, on the island of Andøya in the northern part of Norway. He was an experienced ice pilot, a skill he had learned while hunting seals around Spitsbergen.
From 1903 to 1905 Helmer Hanssen participated in Roald Amundsen's successful search for the Northwest Passage, as second mate on board the ship Gjøa. On the expedition he learned from the Inuit how to drive sled dogs. In 1910 he headed south with Amundsen to conquer the South Pole. This time as an expert dog driver. He was also in charge of navigation, carrying the master compass on his sledge.
He was one of the first five people to reach the South Pole on 14 December 1911, along with Roald Amundsen, Olav Bjaaland, Oscar Wisting, and Sverre Hassel. During their stay at the South Pole, it is believed that Hanssen passed within 200 yards (180 meters) of the mathematical South Pole point. This was during one of his ski runs which Amundsen had ordered be performed to completely encircle or "box" the pole to ensure that there was no doubt that the expedition had attained the pole. For his participation in the expedition, he was awarded the Medal of the South Pole (Sydpolsmedaljen), the Royal Norwegian award instituted by King Haakon V in 1912 to reward participants in Roald Amundsen's South Pole expedition.
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Henry Hudson
Henry Hudson (c. 1560s/70s – 1611) was an English sea explorer and navigator in the early 17th century.
Hudson made two attempts on behalf of English merchants to find a prospective Northwest Passage to Cathay (today's China) via a route above the Arctic Circle. Hudson explored the region around modern New York metropolitan area while looking for a western route to Asia under the auspices of the Dutch East India Company. He explored the river which eventually was named for him, and laid thereby the foundation for Dutch colonization of the region.
Hudson discovered a strait and immense bay on his final expedition while searching for the Northwest Passage. In 1611, after wintering on the shore of James Bay, Hudson wanted to press on to the west, but most of his crew mutinied. The mutineers cast Hudson, his son and 7 others adrift; the Hudsons, and those cast off at their side, were never seen again.
Details of Hudson’s birth and early life are mostly unknown. Some sources have identified Hudson as having been born in about 1565, but others date his birth to around 1570. Other historians assert even less certainty; Mancall, for instance, states that '[Hudson] was probably born in the 1560s,” while Pennington gives no date at all. Hudson is thought[by whom?] to have spent many years at sea, beginning as a cabin boy and gradually working his way up to ship's captain.
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Henry Kellett
Vice Admiral Sir Henry Kellett KCB (2 November 1806 – 1 March 1875) was a British naval officer and explorer.
Kellett joined the Royal Navy in 1822. He spent three years in the West Indies and then served on survey vessels under William Fitzwilliam Owen in Africa, and as second in command on HMS Sulphur under Edward Belcher in the East Indies and in the First Opium War with China.
In 1845 he was appointed captain of the survey ship HMS Herald, being reassigned in 1848 to join the search for Sir John Franklin. During this voyage he sailed through the Bering Strait across the Chukchi Sea and discovered Herald Island. Kellett landed on Herald Island and named it after his ship. He also sighted Wrangel Island in the western horizon. In 1852, he commanded HMS Resolute and went to the aid of Robert McClure, whose vessel, Investigator, was trapped in the Arctic. His men constructed a storehouse on Dealy Island off the south coast of Melville Island.
He became Senior Officer in the West Indies in 1855 and Commander-in-Chief, China Station in 1869. He retired in 1871.
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Henryk Arctowski
Henryk Arctowski (1871–1958; Polish pronunciation: [ˈxɛnrɨk art͡sˈtɔfskʲi]) was a Polish scientist, oceanographer and Antarctica's explorer.
Henryk Arctowski, PhD, was born in Warsaw on 15 July 1871, and educated in Paris, Liege, Zurich and Lemberg. He was in charge of physical observations on the Belgian Antarctic Expedition (the Belgica Expedition) of 1897–1899. This was the first expedition to spend the winter in the Antarctic. Shipmates included Roald Amundsen and Frederick A. Cook. Arctowski joined The Explorers Club in New York in 1920.
His name has been given to a phenomenon in which a halo resembling a rainbow, with two other partial arcs symmetrical to the main one, forms around the sun as light is refracted through ice crystals in the atmosphere.
In recognition of his work and his contribution to science, his name has been given to a number of geographical features:
In Antarctica:
In Spitsbergen:
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Hjalmar Johansen
Fredrik Hjalmar Johansen (May 15, 1867 – January 3, 1913) was a polar explorer from Norway. He shipped out with Fridtjof Nansen's Fram expedition in 1893–1896, and accompanied Nansen to notch a new Farthest North record near the North Pole on what was then the frozen Arctic Ocean. Johansen also participated in the expedition of Roald Amundsen to the South Pole in 1910–1912.
Born in Skien, in Telemark county, Norway. He was the second eldest son in a Christian family of five children. His father was a farmer and was also keen for Johansen to attend a military academy, although Johansen had ambitions to become a lawyer and attended Royal Frederik’s University, to study law in Christiania (now Oslo). However, he performed poorly at law school, due to a low attendance of lectures. At the age of 21, Johansen's father died, prompting him to leave law school. After dropping out of school, Hjalmar briefly worked in an office job, however, by that time he had already made his mark as an athlete; he was an excellent skier and gymnast. In gymnastics he became Norwegian champion in 1885 in Fredrikshald and world champion in 1889 in Paris.
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Hubert Wilkins
Sir (George) Hubert Wilkins MC & Bar (31 October 1888 – 30 November 1958) was an Australian polar explorer, ornithologist, pilot, soldier, geographer and photographer.
Hubert Wilkins was a native of Hallett, South Australia, the last of 13 children in a family of pioneer settlers and sheep farmers. His birthplace at Netfield, 13 km west of Hallett (150 km North of Adelaide) is today an historic site. The original homestead has been restored by generous donation. He studied at the Adelaide School of Mines. As a teenager, he moved to Adelaide where he found work with a traveling cinema, to Sydney as a cinematographer, and thence to England where he became a pioneering aerial photographer whilst working for Gaumont Studios. His photographic skill earned him a place on various Arctic expeditions, including the controversial 1913 Vilhjalmur Stefansson-led Cana
In 1917, Wilkins returned to his native Australia, joining the Australian Flying Corps in the rank of Second Lieutenant. Wilkins later transferred to the general list and in 1918 was appointed as an official war photographer. In June 1918 Wilkins was awarded the Military Cross for his efforts to rescue wounded soldiers during the Third Battle of Ypres. The following month Wilkins was promoted to Captain and became officer commanding No.3 (Photographic) Sub-section of the Australian war records unit. His work frequently led him into the thick of the fighting and during the Battle of the Hindenburg Line he assumed command of a group of American soldiers who had lost their officers in an earlier attack, directing them until support arrived. Wilkins was subsequently awarded a bar to his Military Cross.
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Hugh Willoughby
Sir Hugh Willoughby of Risley, Derbyshire (died 1554) was an early English Arctic voyager. He was sent out on 10 May 1553, as captain of the Bona Esperanza with two other vessels under his command and with chief pilot Richard Chancellor, by a company of London merchants known as the Company of Merchant Adventurers to New Lands, which later became the Muscovy Company.
The vessels were separated by "terrible whirlwinds" in the Norwegian Sea. On 14 September 1553 Willoughby sailed into a bay near the present border between Finland and Russia. The ships with the frozen crews, including Captain Willoughby and his journal, were found by Russian fishermen a year later. It has also been suggested that Sir Hugh Willoughby and his crew were killed by carbon monoxide poisoning, following their decision to insulate their ship from the bitter Arctic cold.
Richard Chancellor was able to drop anchor in the White Sea and trudge his way overland to Moscow and Ivan the Terrible's Court, opening trade with Russia.
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Humphrey Gilbert
Sir Humphrey Gilbert (c. 1539 – 9 September 1583) of Devon in England was a half-brother (through his mother) of Sir Walter Raleigh.Adventurer, explorer, member of parliament, and soldier, he served during the reign of Queen Elizabeth and was a pioneer of English colonization in North America and the Plantations of Ireland.
Gilbert was the fifth son born to Otho Gilbert of Compton and Greenway, Galmpton, Devon, by his marriage to Katherine Champernowne. His brothers Sir John Gilbert and Adrian Gilbert, and his half brothers Carew Raleigh and Sir Walter Raleigh, were also prominent during the reigns of Queen Elizabeth I and King James. Katherine was a niece of Kat Ashley, Elizabeth's governess, who introduced her young kinsmen to the court. Gilbert's uncle, Sir Arthur Champernowne, involved him in efforts to establish plantations in Ireland between 1566 and 1572.
Sir Henry Sidney became Gilbert's mentor, and he was educated at Eton and the University of Oxford, where he learned to speak French and Spanish and studied the arts of war and navigation. He went on to reside at the Inns of Chancery in London in about 1560–1561.
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Ilya Perfilyev
Ilya Perfilyev (Perfiryev) (Russian: Илья Перфильев (Перфирьев)), was a Russian explorer, polar seafarer and a founder of Verkhoyansk. In the summer of 1633 he headed a group, consisted of merchant-and-industrial people and Yenisey and Tobolsk Cossacks. In 1634 he discovered the Yana River and the Yana-Indigirka lowland.
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Ingólfr Arnarson
Ingólfr Arnarson (Icelandic pronunciation: [ˈiŋkoul̥fʏr̥ ˈar̥tn̥ar̥sɔn]) is recognized as the first permanent Nordic settler of Iceland. According to Landnáma he built his homestead in (and gave name to) Reykjavík in 874. Although recent archaeological finds in Iceland suggest settlement may have started a little earlier, the date is probably not too far off.
The medieval chronicler Ari Thorgilsson said Ingólfr was the first Nordic settler in Iceland, but mentioned that "Papar" – i.e. Irish monks and hermits – had been in the country before the Norsemen. He wrote that they left because they did not want to live amongst the newly arrived pagans.
Landnáma (written two to three centuries after the settlement) contains a long story about Ingólf's settlement. The book claims he left Norway after becoming involved in a blood feud. He had heard about a new island which Garðarr Svavarsson, Flóki Vilgerðarson and others had found in the Atlantic Ocean. With his close friend Hjörleifr Hróðmarsson, he sailed for Iceland. When land was in sight, he threw his high seat pillars (a sign of his being a chieftain) overboard and promised to settle where the gods decided to bring them ashore. Two of his slaves then searched the coasts for three years before finding the pillars in the small bay which eventually became Reykjavík.
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Isaac Schlossbach
Ike Schlossbach was a celebrated American polar explorer, submariner and aviation pioneer.
He was born in Bradley Beach, New Jersey and raised in Neptune Township, New Jersey where he attended Neptune High School.
In 1911 Schlossbach became the first Jewish midshipman at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland, winning letters in football and wrestling. He graduated from the Naval Academy in 1915 and volunteered to go to the first submarine school. During World War I he commanded subs in the Mediterranean. In 1921, after World War I, Ike joined the aviation branch of the United States Navy. Ike was first sent to lighter than air flying school (dirigibles). In 1922 he learned to fly fixed wing aircraft. By 1925, then Lieutenant Commander, Schlossbach was leading an aero squadron. First the squadron that flew the record South American flight, and then the first squadron to serve on the first aircraft carrier, the Langley.
Schlossbach had trouble with his left eye, and the Navy assigned him to the Naval Academy, teaching engineering, aviation and coaching the football team. In 1930 at the age of 38, Lieutenant Commander Schlossbach was forced to retire (medically discharged) from the Navy when he lost his eye.
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Ivan Lyakhov
Ivan Lyakhov (Russian: Иван Ляхов), died around 1800, was a Russian merchant who explored large sections of the New Siberian Islands in the 18th century.
Lyakhov began his explorations in the spring of 1770 on dogsleds in order to explore the islands off the northern Siberian coast reported by Yakov Permyakov and Merkury Vagin in 1710. In this journey he visited the southern section of the New Siberian Islands. Lyakhov's intentions were mainly commercial, for he hoped to find mammoth ivory. His theory was that both the islands he explored, and which were later named after him Lyakhov Islands, and those he sighted in the distance but was not able to explore, were mainly formed by a substratum of bones and tusks of mammoths.
Lyakhov went on another exploratory venture to the New Siberian Islands in 1773-1774. He visited again the Lyakhov Islands, crossed the Sannikov Strait and discovered Kotelny Island.
Lyakhov undertook his last expedition in 1775. This time there was a scientific background to his explorations, for he brought along with him a land surveyor. During this journey Great Lyakhovsky Island (Большой Ляховский) was thoroughly surveyed and described.
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Ivan Papanin
Ivan Dmitrievich Papanin (Russian: Иван Дмитриевич Папанин, 26 November [O.S. 14 November] 1894 - January 30, 1986) was a Russian Polar Explorer, Scientist, Counter Admiral, twice Hero of the Soviet Union awarded nine Orders of Lenin
Ivan was born in Sevastopol (currently Ukraine) into the family of a sailor. In 1914 he was conscripted into the Russian Navy. He took part in the Russian Civil War on the Soviet side, fighting in Ukraine. In 1920 he was sent to the Crimea to organize a guerilla movement against the forces of Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel.
In 1923-1932 he worked for Narkomat of Communications. In 1931 he took part in the expedition of the icebreaker Malygin to Franz Josef Land. In 1932-1933 he was the head of a polar expedition on Tikhaya Bay on Franz Josef Land. In 1934-1935 he was in command of a polar station on Cape Chelyuskin.
In 1937-1938 he was in charge of the famous expedition North Pole-1. Four researchers: Ivan Papanin, Ernst Krenkel, Evgeny Fedorov and Petr Shirshov landed on the drifting ice-floes in an airplane flown by Mikhail Vodopyanov. For 234 days, Papanin's team carried out a wide range of scientific observations in the near-polar zone, until taken back by the two icebreakers "Murman" and "Taimyr". It was the first expedition of its kind in the world. All members of the expedition received the title of Hero of the Soviet Union, which was extremely rare before World War II.
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James Booth Lockwood
James Booth Lockwood (October 9, 1852 − April 9, 1884), was an American arctic explorer. He died on the ill-fated Lady Franklin Bay Expedition.
Lockwood was born in Annapolis, Maryland to General Henry Hayes Lockwood and his wife Anna. He was commissioned second lieutenant in the US Army in 1873. In 1881, Lockwood signed up for the Lady Franklin Bay Expedition under Adolphus W. Greely, and was accepted as second-in-command.
During this three-year expedition, Lockwood led a sledging party, with David Legge Brainard, to Mary Murray Island, off northern Greenland, at a latitude of 83°24'30", thus breaking the record of the time for the most northerly point reached. In 1883, he crossed Grant Land, reaching the western shore of Ellesmere Island. He died at Cape Sabine, Canada, in April 1884, along with several other members of the party, before rescue arrived on June 22 that year.
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James Clark Ross
Sir James Clark Ross (15 April 1800 – 3 April 1862), was a British naval officer and explorer. He explored the Arctic with his uncle Sir John Ross and Sir William Parry, and later led his own expedition to Antarctica.
Ross was born in London, the nephew of Sir John Ross, under whom he entered the navy in 1812, accompanying him on Sir John's first Arctic voyage in search of a Northwest Passage in 1818. Between 1819 and 1827, Ross took part in four Arctic expeditions under Sir William Parry, and in 1829 to 1833, again served under his uncle on Sir John's second Arctic voyage. It was during this trip that they located the position of the North Magnetic Pole on 1 June 1831 on the Boothia Peninsula in the far north of Canada. It was on this trip, too, that Ross charted the Beaufort Islands, later renamed Clarence Islands by his uncle.
In 1834, Ross was promoted to Captain. In December 1835 he offered his services to the Admiralty to resupply 11 whaling ships which had become trapped in Baffin Bay. They accepted his offer and he set sail in the HMS Cove in January 1836. The crossing was difficult, and by the time he had reached the last known position of the whalers in June, all but one had managed to return home. Ross found no trace of this last vessel, the William Torr, which was probably crushed in the ice in December 1835. He returned to Hull in September 1836 with all his crew in good health.
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James Cook
Captain James Cook, FRS, RN (7 November 1728 – 14 February 1779) was a British explorer, navigator and cartographer who ultimately rose to the rank of captain in the Royal Navy. Cook made detailed maps of Newfoundland prior to making three voyages to the Pacific Ocean, during which he achieved the first European contact with the eastern coastline of Australia and the Hawaiian Islands, as well as the first recorded circumnavigation of New Zealand.
Cook joined the British merchant navy as a teenager and joined the Royal Navy in 1755. He saw action in the Seven Years' War, and subsequently surveyed and mapped much of the entrance to the Saint Lawrence River during the siege of Quebec. This helped bring Cook to the attention of the Admiralty and Royal Society. This notice came at a crucial moment in both Cook's career and the direction of British overseas exploration, and led to his commission in 1766 as commander of HM Bark Endeavour for the first of three Pacific voyages.
In three voyages Cook sailed thousands of miles across largely uncharted areas of the globe. He mapped lands from New Zealand to Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean in greater detail and on a scale not previously achieved. As he progressed on his voyages of discovery he surveyed and named features, and recorded islands and coastlines on European maps for the first time. He displayed a combination of seamanship, superior surveying and cartographic skills, physical courage and an ability to lead men in adverse conditions.
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Jameson Adams
Sir Jameson Adams (1880–1962) was an Antarctic explorer with the Nimrod Expedition, the first expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in an unsuccessful attempt to reach the South Pole. Nevertheless, he was one of the party of four who reached the Polar Plateau for the first time ever, thus showing the way to the Pole. On 9 January 1909 they attained a Furthest South of 88°23′S 162°00′E / 88.383°S 162°E / -88.383; 162, just 97 miles (156 km) from the South Pole, when they were forced by impending starvation to turn back.
Born in Rippingdale, Lincolnshire, the son of a doctor and the grandson of a captain in the Indian Navy, he ran away from school to enter the merchant navy at the age of 13. In 1902 he became a sub-lieutenant in the Royal Naval Reserve, and on reaching the rank of Lieutenant he was one of the last to gain a Master Mariner's certificate under sail. But he gave up a promising career to join Ernest Shackleton as the second-in-command of the Nimrod Expedition.
On his return from the Antarctic in 1909, he entered the Civil Service, where a year later he was appointed head of the North-Eastern Division of the Employment Exchanges. Recalled to the Navy on the outbreak of the First World War, he became Flag Lieutenant to Admiral Hood commanding the Dover Patrol. Then, after a period of special work at the Ministry of Munitions, he was posted to Flanders to command a battery of naval siege guns. A bad wound in the head necessitated his return in 1917, and he was awarded the DSO and the Croix de Guerre for his services.
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Jan Nagórski
Jan Nagórski (1888–1976), also known by his Russified name of Ivan Nagurski (Иван Нагурский) was a Polish engineer and pioneer of aviation, the first person to fly an airplane in the Arctic and the first aviator to perform a loop with a flying boat.
Jan Nagórski was born on January 27, 1888 in Włocławek, then part of the Imperial Russia. He completed a local trade school and in 1909 graduated from an infantry junker school in Odessa and the All-Russian Aeroclub in 1912. The following year he accomplished his training at the Naval Engineering School in Gatchina near St. Petersburg where he earned his wings. He was among the first pilots of the Imperial Russian Navy. In 1914 Nagórski was tasked with the difficult mission of locating the expedition of Georgy Sedov, Georgy Brusilov, and Vladimir Rusanov in the Russian Arctic. In a Maurice Farman MF11 plane, specially purchased for that purpose in France, Nagórski embarked on a ship in Arkhangelsk and arrived to Novaya Zemlya, whence he initiated a series of reconnaissance flights in difficult Arctic conditions. Between August 21 and September 13, 1914, he flew five missions, spending more than ten hours in the air and travelling more than a thousand kilometres over land and the Barents Sea. During the last flight he reached the 76th parallel north. Nagórski failed to find Sedov's expedition, but he gained valuable experience as the first polar aviator in history. His report to the Admiralty prepared after his return, as well as a report of Nagórski's achievements by Admiral Mikhail Zhdanko, included a number of suggestions that would prove invaluable to every polar aviator. Among them was the idea of painting red all the planes operating in the Arctic, to make them more visible. His achievements proved that the North Pole could be reached by airplane.
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Jens Munk
Jens Munk (3 June or July 1579 – 28 June 1628) was a Dano-Norwegian navigator and explorer who was born in Norway where his father, Erik Munk, had received several fiefs for his achievements in the Northern Seven Years' War. He returned to Denmark at the age of eight. He entered into the service of King Christian IV and is most noted for his attempts to find the Northwest Passage to India.
Jens Munk was born on his father's estate Barbu at Arendal in the county of Aust-Agder. The father had an infamous reputation for his brutal rule over his estates which led to several trials, and in 1585 he was deposed and imprisoned at Dragsholm Castle. After that, at the age of eight, Jens Munk travelled to Aalborg in Denmark with his mother who became a housekeeper in the home of her husband's sister who was married to the city's mayor.
In 1591, at the age of twelve, Munk went to Oporto in Portugal where he worked for the shipping magnat Duart Duez. The following year he sailed with a Dutch convoy to Bahia in Brazil. Off the Brazilian coast the convoy was attacked by French pirates. Munk was among the seven survivors. Munk lived in Bahia (today's Salvador) for six years, where he was in the service of Duart Duez' brother, Miguel. Under dramatic circumstances Munk returned to Europe and Copenhagen in 1599, where the Danish magnat and Lord Chancellor Henrik Ramel hired him as ship clerk.
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John Cabot
John Cabot (known in Italian as Giovanni Caboto; c. 1450 – c. 1499) was an Italian navigator and explorer whose 1497 discovery of parts of North America under the commission of Henry VII of England is commonly held to have been the first European encounter with the continent of North America since the Norse Vikings visits to Vinland in the eleventh century. The official position of the Canadian and United Kingdom governments is that he landed on the island of Newfoundland.
Cabot's birthplace is in Italy. In Italy he is known today as Giovanni Caboto, in England as John Cabot, in France as Jean Cabot, and in Spain as Juan Caboto. The non-Italian forms reflect references to him in the related 15th-century documents. Only one set of documents has been found bearing his signature. These are Venetian testamentary documents of 1484, on which he signed as "Zuan Chabotto", Zuan being a form of John typical to Venice. That he continued to use this form in England, at least among Italians, is supported by two letters referring to him that were written by others in London in 1497. One, from a London-based Venetian, gives Cabot's first name as Zuam. Another, from the Milanese Ambassador, spells his name Zoane. In a document identified in October 2010, he is described by his Italian banker in London as 'Giovanni Chabbote', this being the only known contemporary document to use this version of his first name.
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John Davis (sealer)
Captain John Davis (born in 1784 in Surrey, England) was a seal hunter from Connecticut, USA who captained men who may have been the first to have set foot on Antarctica on 7 February 1821 shortly after the first sightings of the new continent by Fabian von Bellingshausen, Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev, Edward Bransfield and Nathaniel Palmer.
Some of Davis' crew from the American sealing ship, Cecilia, may have landed at Hughes Bay (64°01'S) looking for seals for less than an hour. The ships logbook entry reads:
These men were the first recorded humans to have claimed to have set foot on the newly discovered continent of Antarctica.
The coastal strip where the men were alleged to have gone ashore is called Davis Coast.
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John Franklin
Rear-Admiral Sir John Franklin KCH FRGS RN (16 April 1786 – 11 June 1847) was a British Royal Navy officer and Arctic explorer. Franklin also served as governor of Tasmania for several years. In his last expedition, he disappeared while attempting to chart and navigate a section of the Northwest Passage in the Canadian Arctic. The entire crew perished from starvation, hypothermia, tuberculosis, lead poisoning and scurvy, and the expedition's icebound ships were abandoned in desperation.[citation needed]
Franklin was born in Spilsby, Lincolnshire, in 1786 and educated at King Edward VI Grammar School, Louth. John Franklin was the ninth of twelve children. One of his sisters was the mother of Emily Tennyson. Franklin's father initially opposed his son's interest in a career at sea. However, Franklin was determined and his father reluctantly allowed him to go on a trial voyage with a merchant ship. This hardened young Franklin's resolve, so at the age of 14 his father secured him a Royal Navy appointment on HMS Polyphemus. Franklin was later present at a number of historic voyages and naval battles. These included the Battle of Copenhagen in 1801, an expedition to explore the coast of Australia on HMS Investigator with his uncle, Captain Matthew Flinders, a return to the Napoleonic Wars, serving aboard HMS Bellerophon at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805, and he was at the Battle of New Orleans.
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John Rae (explorer)
John Rae (Inuktitut: Aglooka ᐊᒡᓘᑲ English: “He who takes long strides”; 30 September 1813 – 22 July 1893) was a Scottish doctor who explored Northern Canada, surveyed parts of the Northwest Passage and reported the fate of the Franklin Expedition.
Rae was born at the Hall of Clestrain in the parish of Orphir in Orkney. After studying medicine at Edinburgh he went to work for the Hudson's Bay Company as a doctor, accepting a post as surgeon at Moose Factory, Ontario, where he remained for ten years.
Whilst working for the company, treating both European and indigenous employees of the company, Rae became known for his prodigious stamina and skilled use of snow shoes. He learned to live off the land like the Inuit and working with the local craftsmen, designed his own snow shoes. This knowledge allowed him to travel great distances with little equipment and few followers, unlike many other explorers of the Victorian Age.
In 1844–45, wanting to learn how to survey, Rae walked 1200 miles over two months in the winter forest, a feat that earned him the Inuit nickname Aglooka, "he who takes long strides." In 1846 Rae went on his first expedition and in 1848 joined Sir John Richardson in searching for the Northwest Passage.
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John Riddoch Rymill
John Riddoch Rymill (13 March 1905- 7 September 1968) was an Australian polar explorer, who had the rare second clasp added to his Polar Medal.
Rymill was born the son of a farmer on 13 March 1905 at Penola, South Australia. He was educated at Melbourne Grammar School, where he first developed his love of polar literature, and at the Royal Geographical Society in London, where he studied surveying and navigation.
Rymill prepared himself for polar exploration with alpine experience in Europe, flying lessons at the de Havilland Aircraft Co. Ltd, Hendon and courses at the Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge, under Professor Frank Debenham. In 1931 he was appointed to the British Arctic Air Route Expedition to Greenland (1930–31) as surveyor and pilot. As a result of this, Rymill determined to mount an Antarctic expedition to South Graham Land and the Weddell Sea south of Cape Horn, South America. His British Graham Land Expedition (1934–37) discovered a southern, permanently frozen channel, later named George VI Sound, extending to the Bellingshausen Sea.
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Joris Carolus
Joris Carolus (ca. 1566, Enkhuizen - ca. 1636, Amsterdam? ) was a Dutch cartographer and explorer. He served for both the Noordsche Compagnie and the Vereenigde Oost-Indische Compagnie (Dutch East India Company).
Carolus apparently was a native of Enkhuizen. After he lost a leg at the Siege of Ostend (1601-04) he turned to the art of navigation and became a pilot (Stierman). In 1614 he was pilot of the Enkhuizen ship den Orangienboom (“Orange Tree”), under Jacob de Gouwenaer, one of the two ships sent by the whaling company Noordsche Compagnie on a voyage of discovery. Carolus claimed to have reached 83° N, but this would have been impossible given the ice conditions described by Robert Fotherby, who was also on a voyage of discovery in the ship Thomasine, sent by the rival Muscovy Company of England. According to Fotherby—who saw the Dutch ships riding off Amsterdam Island on July 6/16, "ready for the first opportunity to discover", and on August 9/19 "two ships of the Hollanders, that were appointed for northern discovery, were seene thwart of Faire Haven, sayling to the southwards"— the ice was packed along the northern coast of Spitsbergen. Even in shallops the English were only able to go as far north as Castlins Point (modern Gråhuken, at 79° 48’N).
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Joseph Billings
Joseph Billings (c. 1758 - 1806) was an English navigator and explorer who spent the most significant part of his life in Russian service.
In 1785, the Russian government of Catherine II commissioned a new expedition in search for the Northeast Passage, led by English officer Joseph Billings, who had previously sailed with Captain Cook, and the Russian officer Gavril Sarychev as his deputy. This enterprise operated till 1795.
Though considered a failure by some scholars because the expenditures outweighed the results, it nevertheless had a substantial record of achievement. Accurate maps were made of the Chukchi Peninsula in Eastern Siberia, the west coast of Alaska, and the Aleutian Islands. Members of the expedition landed on Kodiak Island and made an examination of the islands and mainlands of Prince William Sound. Additionally, the expedition compiled a census of the native population of the Aleutian Islands and reported to the crown stories of abuse by the Russian fur traders (promyshlenniki).
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Joseph René Bellot
Joseph René Bellot (March 18, 1826 – August 18, 1853) was a French Arctic explorer.
Bellot was born at Paris, the son of a farrier, but moved to Rochefort with his family in 1831. With the aid of the authorities of Rochefort he was enabled at the age of 15 to enter the Ecole Navale at Brest, in which he studied two years and earned a high reputation. He then took part in the Anglo-French expedition of 1845 to Madagascar, and received the cross of the Legion of Honour for distinguished conduct. He afterwards took part in another Anglo-French expedition, that of Parana to South America, which opened the Río de la Plata to commerce.
In 1851 he joined the Arctic expedition under the command of Captain William Kennedy in search of Sir John Franklin. (To harden himself for the Arctic winters, Bellot is said to have allowed himself only a thin mattress and one blanket on bare boards. When he met his first Eskimos he endeared himself to them by constructing an artificial leg for a man who was disabled).
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Julius von Payer
Julius Johannes Ludovicus Ritter von Payer (2 September 1841 – 19 August 1915) was an Austro-Hungarian arctic explorer and an Arctic landscape artist.
Born Julius Payer, his father Franz Anton Rudolf Payer was a retired officer who died when Julius was only fourteen. Payer attended k.k. cadet school in Łobzów near Kraków (now Poland). Between 1857 and 1859 he studied at the Theresian Military Academy in Wiener Neustadt (near Vienna). In 1859 he served as a sub-lieutenant with the 36th infantry regiment in Verona, Northern Italy. He participated in the 1859 Battle of Solferino. Between 1860 and 1863 he served at the garrison in Verona, Italy. In 1863 Payer was assigned as a history teacher to the cadet school in Eisenstadt, Austria. After promotion to the rank of lieutenant first class he was posted to the garrison of Venetia.
In 1862 he started exploratory tours of the Italian Alps and Hohe Tauern in his free time. From 1864-1868 he explored the Adamello-Presanella Group and the Ortler Alps. He was the first to climb Adamello (3554m). His tours resulted in creating a detailed topographical map at a scale 1:56,000. Due to his achievements, Payer was transferred to the Austrian Military Cartographical Institute in Vienna.
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Karl Weyprecht
Karl Weyprecht, also spelt Carl Weyprecht, (8 September 1838 – 2 March 1881) was an Austro-Hungarian explorer. He was an officer (k.u.k. Linienschiffsleutnant) in the Austro-Hungarian Navy. He is most famous as an Arctic explorer, and an advocate of international cooperation for scientific polar exploration. Although he did not live to see it occur, he is associated with the organisation of the first International Polar Year.
In 1856, he joined the Austro-Hungarian Navy (Kriegsmarine) as a provisional sea cadet. He served in the Austro-Sardinian War. From 1860 to 1862, he served on the frigate Radetzky under the command of Admiral Tegetthoff. From 1863 to 1865, he was instructional officer on the training ship Hussar.
On 23 July 1865, he became known to the German geographer August Petermann at a meeting of the "Geographic Society" in Frankfurt.
He served in the 20 July 1866 sea battle at Lissa aboard the battleship Drache.
He met Julius von Payer in 1870 and made a preliminary expedition with Payer to Novaya Zemlya in 1871.
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Khariton Laptev
Khariton Prokofievich Laptev (Russian: Харитон Прокофьевич Лаптев) (1700–1763) was a Russian naval officer and Arctic explorer.
Khariton Laptev was born in a gentry family in the village of Pokarevo near Velikiye Luki (in the southern part of today's Pskov Oblast), just a year before his cousin Dmitry Laptev was born in the nearby village of Bolotovo.
Khariton Laptev started his career in the Russian Navy as a cadet in 1718. By 1730, he was already in charge of a military ship, and in 1734 participated in the siege of Gdańsk.
In 1739–1742, Khariton Laptev led one of the parties of the Second Kamchatka expedition. Together with Semion Chelyuskin, N. Chekin, and G. Medvedev, Laptev described the Taimyr Peninsula from the mouth of the Khatanga River to the mouth of the Pyasina river and discovered a few of the islands in the area. After the expedition, he participated in the creation of the "General Map of the Siberian and Kamchatka Coast", and continued his military service in the Baltic Fleet. The sea coastline of the Taimyr Peninsula, a cape on the Chelyuskin Peninsula and other landmarks bear his name. The Laptev Sea was also named after him (and his cousin Dmitry Laptev).
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Knud Rasmussen
Knud Johan Victor Rasmussen (June 7, 1879 – December 21, 1933) was a Danish polar explorer and anthropologist. He has been called the "father of Eskimology" and was the first European to cross the Northwest Passage via dog sled. He remains well known in Greenland, Denmark and among Canadian Inuit.
Rasmussen was born in Ilulissat, Greenland, the son of a Danish missionary, the vicar Christian Rasmussen, and an Inuit- Danish mother, Lovise Rasmussen (née Fleischer). He had two siblings, including a brother, Peter Lim. Rasmussen spent his early years in Greenland among the Kalaallit (Inuit) where he learned from an early age to speak the language (Kalaallisut), hunt, drive dog sleds and live in harsh Arctic conditions. "My playmates were native Greenlanders; from the earliest boyhood I played and worked with the hunters, so even the hardships of the most strenuous sledge-trips became pleasant routine for me." He was later educated in Lynge, North Zealand, Denmark. Between 1898 and 1900 he pursued an unsuccessful career as an actor and opera singer.
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Kurbat Ivanov
Kurbat Afanasyevich Ivanov (Russian: Курбат Афанасьевич Иванов, (? – 1666) was among the greatest Cossack explorers of Siberia. He was the first Russian to discover Lake Baikal, and to create the first map of the Russian Far East. He also is credited with creation of the early map of Chukotka and Bering Strait, which was the first to show (very schematically) the yet undiscovered Wrangel Island, both Diomede Islands and Alaska.
Initially Kurbat Ivanov was a Yeniseyan Cossack. In 1642 he made the first map of the Russian Far East, based on the explorations of Ivan Moskvitin.
Ivanov came to the Verkholensky ostrog on Lena River, and taking 74 men with himself he sailed south up the river on 21 June 1643, having decided to find if the rumors of large body of water south of Lena were true. He took with himself a Tungus prince Mozheul to assist in finding the way. Through the upper Lena and its tributary Ilikta they reached Primorsky Ridge, crossed it by foot, and by river Sarma descended to Baikal near Olkhon Island. Having built new boats, Ivanov sailed to Olkhon.
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Lawrence Oates
Captain Lawrence Edward Grace ("Titus") Oates (17 March 1880 – 16 March 1912) was an English Antarctic explorer, known for the manner of his death, when he walked from a tent into a blizzard, with the words "I am just going outside and may be some time".
His death is seen as an act of self-sacrifice when, aware his ill health was compromising his three companions' chances of survival, he chose certain death.
Oates was born in Putney, London, England in 1880, the son of William and Caroline Oates. His family was wealthy and ancient, having had land at Gestingthorpe, Essex, for centuries. His father moved there when his children were small.. He had one sister, a year older than himself, named Lilian. His uncle was the naturalist and African explorer Frank Oates. Oates lived in Putney from 1885–91, from the ages of 5 to 11 at 263 Upper Richmond Road. He was one of the first pupils to attend the Willington Prep School around the corner in Colinette Road. He was further educated at Eton College which he left after less than two years owing to ill health.. He then attended an army "crammer" school, South Lynn School, Eastbourne. In 1898, Oates was commissioned into the 3rd (Militia) Battalion of the West Yorkshire Regiment. He saw military service during the Second Boer War as a junior officer in the 6th (Inniskilling) Dragoons, having been transferred to that regiment in 1900. He was promoted to Lieutenant in 1902, then to Captain in 1906. In March 1901, during the Boer War, he suffered a gunshot wound to his thigh which left it shattered and his left leg an inch shorter than his right leg when it eventually healed. In that skirmish he was twice called on to surrender, and replied "We came to fight, not to surrender.". He later served in Ireland, Egypt, and India. He was often referred to by the nickname "Titus Oates", after the historical figure.
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Lincoln Ellsworth
Lincoln Ellsworth (May 12, 1880 – May 26, 1951) was an polar explorer from the United States.
He was born on May 12, 1880 to James Ellsworth and Eva Frances Butler in Chicago, Illinois. He also lived in Hudson, Ohio as a child.
Lincoln Ellsworth's father, James, a wealthy coal man from the United States, spent US$100,000 to fund Roald Amundsen's 1925 attempt to fly from Svalbard to the North Pole. The craft were forced down onto the ice short of their goal, and the explorers spent 30 days trapped on the surface.
In 1926, Ellsworth accompanied Amundsen on his second effort to fly over the Pole in the airship Norge, designed and piloted by the Italian engineer Umberto Nobile, in a flight from Svalbard to Alaska. On May 12, the Geographic North Pole was sighted. This was the first undisputed sighting of the area.
Ellsworth made four expeditions to Antarctica between 1933 and 1939, using as his aircraft transporter and base a former Norwegian herring boat that he named Wyatt Earp after his hero.
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Louis Palander
Adolf Arnold Louis Palander af Vega (October 2, 1842 – August 7, 1920) was a Swedish naval officer, mostly remembered as the captain on Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld's Vega expedition, the first successful attempt to navigate the Northeast Passage.
Louis Palander was born in Karlskrona in October 1842. His father Axel Fredrik Palander was a rear admiral (lower half) in the Swedish Royal Navy, and the director of the Royal Navy shipyard in Karlskrona. His mother was Emelie Jacquette Constance du Rées. Louis Palander became a naval cadet already at the early age of 14. In 1864 he graduated from the Navy Academy in Karlberg as a second lieutenant and participated in expeditions to the Mediterranean, Sierra Leone and Liberia on the corvette Gefle, as well as in a trip to the United States. After several other appointments at sea, Louis Palander participated in Nordenskiölds expedition to Spitsbergen in 1868, on board the steamer Sofia (the ship's captain was baron Fredrik von Otter). He married Anna Katarina Grischotti the same year.
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Mark Shevelev
Mark Shevelev (Russian: Шевелёв, Марк Иванович) (1904–1991) was a Soviet pilot during World War II and was one of founders and Chief of Staff of Soviet Long Range Aviation. Shevelev held the rank of Lieutenant-General. He was a head of aviation department Aviaarktika of the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route, Hero of the Soviet Union.
Mark Shevelev was born 11 (24) October 1904 in Saint Petersburg to Jewish parents. Shevelev joined Red Army in 1920 and participated in the Civil War. Joined Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik) in 1921. Graduated air transportation department of Leningrad Institute of transport in 1925.
Mark Shevelev joined nascent Soviet polar avaiation in 1929. Since 1933 he headed aviation department of the Chief Directorate of the Northern Sea Route, Participated in 6 polar expeditions in 1929-1937. In 1937 he led the expedition to airlift North Pole-1 personnel and equipment to the North Pole. He had been awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union title (36th awarded since the award had been created) for this expedition.
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Martin Frobisher
Sir Martin Frobisher (c. 1535 or 1539 – 15 November 1594) was an English seaman who made three voyages to the New World to look for the Northwest Passage. All landed in northeastern Canada, around today's Resolution Island and Frobisher Bay. On his second voyage, Frobisher found what he thought was gold ore and carried 200 tons of it home on three ships, where initial assaying determined it to be worth a profit of £5.1 per ton. Encouraged, Frobisher returned to Canada with an even larger fleet and dug several mines around Frobisher Bay. He carted 1,350 tons of the ore back where, after years of smelting, it was realized that both that batch of ore and the earlier one he had taken were worthless iron pyrite. As an English privateer/pirate, he collected riches from French ships. He was later knighted for his service in repelling the Spanish Armada in 1588.
As early as 1560 or 1561, Frobisher had formed a resolution to undertake a voyage in search of a Northwest Passage as a trade route to India and China (referred to at that time as Cathay).
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Mercator Cooper
Mercator Cooper (September 29, 1803 – spring 1872) was a ship's captain who is credited with the first formal American visit to Tokyo, Japan and the first formal landing on the mainland East Antarctica.
Both events occurred while sailing ships out of Sag Harbor, New York, where he was born.
On November 9, 1843, Cooper left Sag Harbor as captain of the 440-ton ship Manhattan on a whaling voyage. On March 14–15, 1845 the Manhattan picked up 11 Japanese sailors in the southern Japanese islands.
Outside of Tokyo Bay four of the survivors took a Japanese boat with a message that Cooper wanted to deliver the remainder to the harbor. The Japanese normally wanted to avoid contact with outsiders because of the Tokugawa Shogunate policy of Sakoku.
However, on April 18, 1845, an emissary from the shogun gave the ship permission to proceed – accompanied by "about three hundred Japanese boats with about 15 men in each took the ship in tow" according to Cooper's log. "They took all our arms out to keep till we left. There were several of the nobility came on board to see the ship. They appeared very friendly."
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Michael Barne
Michael Barne (15 October 1877 – 31 May 1961) was an officer of the 1901-04 Discovery Expedition and was the last survivor of the expedition.
Barne was born at Sotterley Park, Suffolk the son of Frederick Barne and his wife Lady Constance Adelaide Seymour, daughter of Francis Seymour, 5th Marquess of Hertford. His father was Member of Parliament for East Suffolk. He was educated at Stubbington School in preparation for the Navy, which he entered the service as a Midshipman in 1893. In 1898 he was commissioned to serve aboard HMS Porcupine.
In 1901 he was appointed by Scott as Second Lieutenant to the Polar Expedition. Despite suffering frostbite Barne made copious notes throughout his three years with the expedition, both about general conditions and his specialist fields( magnetronemy and Soundings). Scott rated his ability to calm possible tensions highly.Barne Inlet, a 17-mile-wide (27 km) feature on the Western side of the Ross Ice Shelf he discovered is named after him. He was awarded the Polar Medal for his contribution to the expedition.
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Mikhail Lavrov
Mikhail Andrianovich Lavrov (Russian: Лавров, Михаил Андрианович) (1799–1882) was a Russian rear-admiral and Arctic explorer.
Mikhail Lavrov was born on September 13, 1799 in the city of Arkhangelsk. He graduated from Cadets Corps in Saint Petersburg and served at the Baltic Fleet. He participated in the voyage of the cargo ship Mezen from Kronstadt to Arkhangelsk and back in 1819–1820. In 1821–1824, in the rank of senior officer, he participated in the expedition of Fyodor Litke on board of the brig Novaya Zemlya, making description of coast line of Murmansk and Novaya Zemlya archipelago. In 1825–1827, he made a round-the-world voyage on board sloop Krotkiy with Admiral Ferdinand Wrangel, visiting Kamchatka and Russian America. In 1831–1834, Lavrov served in the rank of lieutenant commander in the Mediterranean and Adriatic, participated in a battle against pirate ships, sinking four of them, and was therefore promoted to the rank of commander. In 1833, he was awarded with an Order of St. George of the 4th degree for immaculate service in the officer rank in 18 six-month campaigns.
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Mikhail Lazarev
Admiral Mikhail Petrovich Lazarev (Russian: Михаил Петрович Лазарев, November 3, 1788 – April 11, 1851) was a Russian fleet commander and explorer who discovered Antarctica.
Lazarev was born in Vladimir, a scion of the old Russian nobility from the Vladimir province. In 1800, he enrolled in Russia's Naval College. Three years later he was sent to the British fleet, where he would stay for a continuous five-year navigation. From 1808 to 1813, Lazarev served in the Baltic Fleet. He took part in the Russo-Swedish War of 1808-1809 and Patriotic War of 1812.
Lazarev first circumnavigated the globe in 1813-1816, aboard the vessel Suvorov; the expedition began at Kronstadt and reached Alaska. During this voyage, Lazarev discovered the Suvorov Atoll.
As a commander of the ship Mirny and Fabian von Bellingshausen's deputy on his world cruise in 1819-1821 (Bellingshausen commanded Vostok), Lazarev took part in the discovery of Antarctica and numerous islands. On January 28, 1820 the expedition discovered the Antarctic mainland, approaching the Antarctic coast at the coordinates 69°21′28″S 2°14′50″W / 69.35778°S 2.24722°W / -69.35778; -2.24722 and seeing ice-fields there.
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Mikhail Somov
Mikhail Mikhailovich Somov (Russian: Михаил Михайлович Сомов) (7 April 1908, Moscow - 30 December 1973, Leningrad) was a Soviet oceanologist, polar explorer, Doctor of Geographical Sciences (1954).
Mikhail Somov graduated from the Moscow Hydrometeorological Institute in 1937. In 1939, he was appointed senior researcher at the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute. In 1950-1951, Mikhail Somov headed a drift-ice station North Pole-2. In 1955-1957, he became a leader of the first Soviet Antarctic Expedition. Mikhail Somov was also the first Soviet delegate to the Scientific Committee for Antarctic Research.
The Somov Sea north of Victoria Land and a glacier in Queen Maud Land (both East Antarctica) bear Mikhail Somov's name, as well as a scientific icebreaker. A minor planet 3334 Somov discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos in 1981 is named after him.
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Naddodd
Naddod (Old Norse: Naddoðr or Naddaðr, literally "studded") was a Faroese Viking who is credited with the discovery of Iceland. Naddod was also one of the first settlers on the Faroe Islands after Grímur Kamban became the first to settle there around 825. Naddod was born in Agder, which comprises the two Norwegian counties of Aust-Agder and Vest-Agder.
Landnámabók, a medieval Icelandic manuscript, describes in considerable detail the settlement (Icelandic: landnám) of Iceland by the Norse in the 9th and 10th century. According to Landnámabók, Iceland was discovered by Naddod, who was sailing from Norway to the Faroe Islands, but got lost and drifted to the east coast of Iceland. Naddod came upon the shore of a land with a bay and mountains near what is today the Icelandic town of Reyðarfjörður. Although he climbed a mountain to look for smoke rising from fire-places he saw no sign of humans. Naddod decided to continue his journey to the Faroe Islands, but as he returned to his boat it started to snow and so he named the land Snæland (Snowland). The island later became known as Ísland (Iceland). (See names of Iceland).
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Nathaniel Palmer
Nathaniel Brown Palmer (8 August 1799 – 21 June 1877) was an American seal hunter, explorer, sailing captain, and ship designer. He was born in Stonington, Connecticut.
During the 1810s the skins of Antarctic Ocean seals were highly valued as items for trade with China. As a skilled and fearless seal hunter, Palmer achieved his first command at the early age of 21. His vessel, a diminutive sloop named the Hero, was only 47 feet (14 m) in length. Palmer steered southward in the Hero at the beginning of the Antarctic summer of 1820–1821. Aggressively searching for new seal rookeries south of Cape Horn, on 17 November 1820, Palmer and his men became the first Americans and the third group of people to discover the Antarctic Peninsula. Larger ships skippered by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen and Edward Bransfield had reported sighting land earlier in 1820. Along with English sealer George Powell, Palmer also co-discovered the nearby South Orkney Islands archipelago.
After concluding a successful sealing career, Palmer, still in the prime of life, switched his attention to the captaining of fast sailing ships for the transportation of express freight. In 1843, Captain Palmer took command of the Paul Jones on her maiden voyage from Boston to Hong Kong, arriving in in 111 days. In this new role, the Connecticut captain traveled many of the world's principal sailing routes. Observing the strengths and weaknesses of the ocean-going sailing ships of his time, Palmer suggested and designed improvements to their hulls and rigging. The improvements made Palmer a co-developer of the mid-19th century clipper ship.
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Nikifor Begichev
Nikifor Alekseevich Begichev (Bigichev) (Russian: Никифор Алексеевич Бегичев (Бигичев) (February 7 (N.S. February 19), 1874 – May 18, 1927) was a Russian seaman and polar explorer. Twice awarded by the Big Golden Medal of the Russian Academy of Sciences
Born in Tsariov town, Astrakhan guberniya (region) in the family of Volga River fishers. In 1895 called up to the service in the Russian Navy. Three times travelled as a sailor and a boatswain to the The Antilles islands.
He was a participant in Baron Eduard Toll's 1900–1903 Russian Polar Expedition as the bosun of ship Zarya. After the death of Baron Toll, Begichev took part in the research. During this exploring, he has saved the life of his commander- lieutenant Aleksandr Kolchak, the future famous admiral. Walking by the sea ice, Kolchak fell in the split. When Begichev pulled him from the water, lieutenant did not give any signs of live. Begichev took off his dry clothes, and dressed Kolchak. Then to re-animate him, Begichev fired his pipe and put in Kolchak's mouth. Kolchak opened his eyes.
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Nikolai Kolomeitsev
Nikolai Nikolaevich Kolomeitsev, also spelt Kolomeytsev (Russian: Николай Николаевич Коломейцев) (16 July 1867 (near Kherson, Ukraine) - 1944 in Paris) was a Russian naval officer and explorer of the Arctic.
Nikolai Kolomeitsev was born in the village of Pokrovka near Kherson in Ukraine (then part of the Russian Empire) in 1867. He entered military service in 1884 and graduated as an officer of the Imperial Russian Navy in 1887. He was promoted to lieutenant in December 1893. In 1894-1895, he was assigned to the Russian Pacific Fleet, and after graduating from mine warfare school, served on several vessels operating in Siberia.
Kolomeitsev became a member of the Chief Hydrographic Administration’s Survey Expedition to the White Sea. He also took part in an expedition to the Yenisei Gulf led by L. Dobrotvorskiy, which gave him expertise on sailing in arctic waters.
In 1900, Baron Eduard Toll led an expedition on behalf of the Russian Academy of Sciences on ship Zarya. Kolomeitsev was named commander of the ship during the expedition. His second-in-command was Fyodor Andreyevich Matisen, who had taken part in an expedition to Svalbard. Alexander Kolchak also accompanied the expedition as third naval officer and hydrographer. All these officers were from military backgrounds. The expedition was known as The Russian Polar Expedition. Its aim was to explore well the area north of the New Siberian Islands and eventually sail towards the North Pole in order to find the elusive Sannikov Land.
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Nikolay Urvantsev
Nikolay Nikolayevich Urvantsev (Russian: Николай Николаевич Урванцев; 29 January [O.S. 17 January] 1893 – 20 February 1985) was a Soviet geologist and explorer. He was born in the town of Lukoyanov of Nizhny Novgorod Governorate, Russian Empire to the family of a merchant. He graduated from the Tomsk Engineering Institute in 1918.
Urvantsev was among the discoverers of the Norilsk coal basin and Norilsk copper-nickel ore region in 1919-1922 and was among the founders of Norilsk town.
In 1922, while leading a geological expedition, Urvantsev found evidence of the mysteriously disappeared Amundsen's 1918 Arctic expedition crew members Peter Tessem and Paul Knutsen. Urvantsev recovered the mail and scientific data that the two ill-fated Norwegians had been carrying. The valuable documents were lying abandoned on the Kara Sea shore near the mouth of the Zeledeyeva River.
In 1930-1932 Urvantsev, together with Georgy Ushakov, explored the Severnaya Zemlya archipelago where they discovered a number of islands. He published a book about the expedition, At the Severnaya Zemlya. He also explored other remote areas of Russia, Taimyr and Central Siberian Plateau.
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Olav Bjaaland
Olav Bjaaland (5 March 1873 – 8 June 1961) was a Norwegian ski champion from Telemark. In 1911, he was one of the first five men to reach the South Pole as part of an expedition led by Roald Amundsen.
Olav Bjaaland was born in Morgedal, Telemark, Norway. At the turn of the century, Bjaaland, together with the Hemmestveit brothers were among the best skiers in Norway. In 1902, he won the nordic combined at the Holmenkollen Ski Festival, to this day the classic event in nordic skiing. In 1909 Bjaaland, together with five others were invited to France to compete with the best skiers of Europe.
On this trip, Bjaaland by chance met Roald Amundsen; the already-successful explorer invited Bjaaland, as a skier, to join his forthcoming expedition to the North Pole. Bjaaland was thrilled, and still believing that they were heading to the North Pole, they left Oslo, Norway on 7 June 1910. Upon learning that they instead were heading south to race for the Antarctic pole against Robert Falcon Scott, Bjaaland had shouted: "Hurrah, that means we’ll get there first!" For his participation in the expedition, he was awarded the Medal of the South Pole (Sydpolsmedaljen), a Royal Norwegian award instituted by King Haakon VII in 1912 to reward participants in Roald Amundsen's South Pole expedition.
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Oscar Wisting
Oscar Adolf Wisting (6 June 1871 – 5 December 1936) was a Norwegian polar explorer. Together with Roald Amundsen he was the first person to reach both the North and South Poles.
Oscar Wisting was born in Larvik, in Vestfold county, Norway. At the age of sixteen, he went to sea and in 1892 joined the Royal Norwegian Navy. He was working as a naval gunner at Karljohansvern, the naval base in Horten during 1909 when Roald Amundsen asked him to go north with him on his forthcoming North Pole expedition. Amundsen later secretly changed his plans. Wisting went to sea believing they were heading for the North Pole. Instead he learned that they were going south to pick up the race with Robert Falcon Scott to the South Pole.
On 14 December 1911 along with Amundsen, Helmer Hanssen, Olav Bjaaland and Sverre Hassel, Wisting planted the Norwegian flag on the Geographic South Pole, the first explorers to have reached that point.
From 1918 to 1925 Wisting was chief officer onboard the Maud in Roald Amundsen's attempt to traverse the Northeast passage. From 1923 to 1925 Wisting more or less acted as leader of the expedition after Amundsen left to try to fly to the pole instead.
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Otto Nordenskiöld
Nils Otto Gustaf Nordenskjöld (December 6, 1869 – June 2, 1928) was a Finnish and Swedish geologist, geographer, and polar explorer.
Nordenskjöld was born in Hässelby in Småland in eastern Sweden, in a Finland Swedish family that included his maternal uncle Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld (a noted polar explorer) and cousin Gustaf Nordenskiöld. His father and mother were cousins, but his father's family name was "Nordenskjöld", while his mother's family name was spelled "Nordenskiöld".
He studied at Uppsala University, obtaining a doctorate in geology in 1894, and later became a lecturer and then associate professor in the university's geology department.
Otto Nordenskjöld led mineralogical expeditions to Patagonia in the 1890s, and to Alaska and the Klondike area in 1898.
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Otto Schmidt
Otto Yulyevich Schmidt (Russian: О́тто Ю́льевич Шмидт) (September 30 [O.S. September 18] 1891 — September 7, 1956) was a Soviet scientist, mathematician, astronomer, geophysicist, statesman, academician, Hero of the USSR (27 June 1937), and member of the Communist Party.
He was born in Mogilev, Russian Empire (now Belarus). His father was a descendant of German settlers in Courland, while his mother was a Latvian.
In 1913, Schmidt married Vera Yanitskaia and graduated from the University of Kiev, where he worked as a privat-docent starting from 1916. After the October Revolution of 1917, he was a board member at several People's Commissariats (narkomats) – such as Narkomprod from 1918 to 1920 (Narodnyi Komissariat Prodovolstviya, or People's Commissariat for Supplies), People's Commissariat for Finance from 1921 to 1922 (Narodnyi Komissariat Finansov, or People's Commissariat for Finances). Schmidt was one of the chief proponents of developing the higher education system, publishing, and science in Soviet Russia.
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Otto Sverdrup
Otto Neumann Knoph Sverdrup (31 October 1854, Bindal, Helgeland – 26 November 1930) was a Norwegian sailor and Arctic explorer.
He was born in Bindal as a son of farmer Ulrik Frederik Suhm Sverdrup (1833–1914) and his wife Petra Neumann Knoph (1831–1885). He was a great-grandnephew of Georg Sverdrup and Jacob Liv Borch Sverdrup, first cousin twice removed of Harald Ulrik and Johan Sverdrup, second cousin once removed of Jakob, Georg and Edvard Sverdrup, third cousin of Georg Johan, Jakob, Mimi, Leif and Harald Ulrik Sverdrup. He was a brother-in-law of Johan Vaaler, and Otto himself married his own first cousin, Gretha Andrea Engelschiøn (1866–1937), in October 1891 in Kristiania. Their daughter Audhild Sverdrup (1893–1932) married Carl Johan Sverdrup Marstrander.
His father was born on Buøy in Kolvereid municipality. As oldest son Otto was heir to the Sverdrup properties at Buøy. However, he left it all to his younger brothers and went to Åbygda in Bindal, to the farm named Hårstad, where Otto Sverdrup was born. In 1872, at the age of 17, Otto Sverdrup returned to Nærøy, to Ottersøy where his uncle Søren worked in transportation with his own vessels. Here Sverdrup started his career as a seaman and after a while he was sailing abroad. In 1875 he passed his mate's examination, and some years later the shipmaster's examination.
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Pyotr Anjou
Pyotr Fyodorovich Anjou (Russian: Пётр Фёдорович Анжу) (15 February 1796 – 12 October 1869), was an Arctic explorer and an admiral of the Imperial Russian Navy
Anjou's grandfather was a Frenchman who entered the service of Russia in the middle of the 18th Century. His father became a Russian citizen and worked as a doctor. Anjou was born in Vyshny Volochyok, near Tver. He graduated from the Marine Cadet Corps
As a lieutenant, Anjou was given a task to describe the northern coast of Siberia in 1820. He and his assistants (P.Ilyin, Ilya Berezhnikh, and A.Figurin) described the coastline and the islands between the rivers Olenek and Indigirka and made a map of the New Siberian Islands.
In 1825-1826, Anjou participated in describing the northeastern coast of the Caspian Sea and the western coast of the Aral Sea. He distinguished himself in the Battle of Navarino as a lieutenant of the line of battle ship "Gangut".
Later on, he held a few commanding posts and also served in administrative and scientific establishments of the Russian Admiralty. One of the groups of the New Siberian Islands bears Anjou's name (the Anjou Islands).
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Pyotr Shirshov
Pyotr Petrovich Shirshov (Russian: Пётр Петрович Ширшов) (December 25 (O.S. December 12), 1905, Ekaterinoslav (today Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine) - February 17, 1953, Moscow) was a Ukrainian Soviet oceanographer, hydrobiologist, polar explorer, statesman, academician (1939), and Hero of the Soviet Union (1938).
Pyotr Shirshov graduated from the Odessa Public Education Institute in 1929. In 1929-1932, he was a researcher at the Botanical Garden of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. In 1932-1936, Pyotr Shirshov was employed as a researcher at the All-Union Arctic Institute. He participated in numerous Arctic expeditions, including the ones on icebreakers Sibiryakov (1932) and Chelyuskin and a drifting ice station North Pole-1 (1937-1938). In 1942-1948, Pyotr Shirshov was People's Commissar (later Minister) of the Soviet Maritime Fleet. In 1946-1953, he headed the Institute of Oceanology of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, which he had established himself. In 1946-1950, Pyotr Shirshov chaired the Pacific Ocean Science Committee.
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Pytheas
Pytheas of Massalia or (using the Latin form) Massilia (Ancient Greek Πυθέας ὁ Μασσαλιώτης) (4th century BC), was a Greek geographer and explorer from the Greek colony, Massalia (modern day Marseilles). He made a voyage of exploration to northwestern Europe at about 325 BC. He travelled around and visited a considerable part of Great Britain. Pytheas is the first person on record to describe the Midnight Sun,polar ice, Germanic and possibly Finnic tribes. He is the one who introduced the idea of distant Thule to the geographic imagination. His account of the tides is the earliest to state they are caused by the moon.
Pliny says that Timaeus (born about 350 BC) believed Pytheas' story of the discovery of amber. Strabo says that Dicaearchus (died about 285 BC) did not trust the stories of Pytheas. That is all the information that survives concerning the date of Pytheas' voyage. Presuming that Timaeus would not have written until after he was 20 years old at about 330 BC and Dicaearchus would have needed time to write his most mature work, after 300 BC, there is no reason not to accept Tozer's window of 330 BC – 300 BC for the voyage. Some would give Timaeus an extra 5 years, bringing the voyage down to 325 BC at earliest. There is no further evidence.
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Ralph Plaisted
Ralph Plaisted (30 September 1927 – 8 September 2008) and his three companions, Walt Pederson, Gerry Pitzl and Jean-Luc Bombardier, are regarded by most polar authorities to be the first to succeed in a surface traverse across the ice to the North Pole on 19 April 1968, making the first confirmed surface conquest of the Pole.
Plaisted was a high-school dropout from Bruno, Minnesota, who found success as an insurance salesman. An avid outdoorsman, in the early 1960's he was one of the first Minnesotans to buy a Ski-Doo snowmobile, a then-novel invention of Canada's Bombardier Company, and became a convert and booster of the machine. In 1965, Plaisted drove his snowmobile 250 miles from Ely to St. Paul, Minnesota in one day, which is regarded as the first long-distance snowmobile trek.
Plaisted and his friend Art Aufderheide conceived the idea of reaching the North Pole by snowmobile in the spring of 1966, aiming to make the trip the following year. In April and May 1967 Plaisted's first attempt was thwarted at 83° 20' latitude by storms and open water. The attempt did result in a CBS-TV documentary To the Top of the World, reported by Charles Kuralt, who accompanied the Plaisted team.
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Reinhold Messner
Reinhold Messner (born 17 September 1944) is an Italian mountaineer, adventurer and explorer from the German-speaking autonomous province Alto Adige/Südtirol "whose astonishing feats on Everest and on peaks throughout the world have earned him the status of the greatest climber in history." He is renowned for making the first solo ascent of Mount Everest without supplemental oxygen and for being the first climber to ascend all fourteen "eight-thousanders" (peaks over 8,000 metres (26,000 ft) above sea level). He is the author of at least 63 books (in German, 1970–2006), many of which have been translated into other languages.
Born in Brixen (Bressanone), Italy, Messner is a native speaker of German and also fluent in Italian. He grew up in Villnöß and spent his early years climbing in the Alps and fell in love with the Dolomites. His father, Josef Messner, was a teacher. He was also very strict and sometimes severe with Reinhold. Josef led Reinhold to his first summit at the age of five. Reinhold had eight brothers and one sister: he later climbed with his brother Günther and made Arctic crossings with his brother Hubert.
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Richard Chancellor
Richard Chancellor (died 1556) was an English explorer and navigator; the first to penetrate to the White Sea and establish relations with Russia.
Chancellor, a native of Bristol, acquired geographical and maritime proficiency from the explorer Sebastian Cabot and the geographer John Dee. Cabot had always been interested in making a voyage to Asia through the Arctic, and for this purpose King Edward VI chartered an association of English merchants, the Company of Merchant Adventurers in 1552-1553, with the Duke of Northumberland as principal patron. They hoped not only to discover a North-East Passage but also to find a market for English woollen cloth.
Sir Hugh Willoughby was given three ships for the search, and Chancellor went as second-in-command. A Norwegian coastal storm separated them; Willoughby, with two ships, sailed east and discovered Novaya Zemlya but died with all his men on the Lapland coast. Chancellor, with the ship Edward Bonaventure, found the entrance to the White Sea and anchored at the port of Archangel.
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Richard Collinson
Sir Richard Collinson KCB (7 November 1811 – 13 September 1883) was an English naval officer and explorer of the Arctic.
He was born in Gateshead, Tyne and Wear, England, then part of County Durham. He joined the Royal Navy in 1823 at age twelve and rose in the ranks, becoming a lieutenant in 1835, commander in 1841, and captain in 1842.
Collinson commanded HMS Enterprise in the search for Sir John Franklin, entering the Northwest Passage through the Bering Strait. He sailed from Plymouth in January 1850, accompanied by the HMS Investigator, which was under the command of Robert McClure, his subordinate; however, the two ships became separated. As a result, the Enterprise arrived at Point Barrow, Alaska a fortnight after the Investigator and was forced to turn back due to ice and winter at Hong Kong, while McClure and the Investigator made it through and achieved recognition as the first ship to transit the Northwest Passage.
He was awarded a Gold Medal by the Royal Geographical Society, knighted in 1875, and made an admiral on the retired list in the same year.
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Richard E. Byrd
Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd, Jr., USN (25 October 1888 – 11 March 1957) was a naval officer who specialized in feats of exploration. He was a pioneering American aviator, polar explorer, and organizer of polar logistics. Aircraft flights, in which he served as a navigator and expedition leader, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, a segment of the Arctic Ocean, and a segment of the Antarctic Plateau. Byrd claimed that his expeditions had been the first to reach the North Pole and the South Pole by air. His South Pole claim is generally supported by a consensus of those who have examined the evidence. Byrd was a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the highest honor for heroism given by the United States.
He was the son of Esther Bolling (Flood) and Richard Evelyn Byrd, Sr. He was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia. His ancestors include planter John Rolfe and his wife Pocahontas, William Byrd II of Westover Plantation, who established Richmond, and Robert "King" Carter, a colonial governor. He was the brother of Virginia Governor and U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, a dominant figure in Virginia Democratic Party between the 1920s and 1960s; their father served as Speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates for a time.
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Richard Evelyn Byrd
Rear Admiral Richard Evelyn Byrd, Jr., USN (25 October 1888 – 11 March 1957) was a naval officer who specialized in feats of exploration. He was a pioneering American aviator, polar explorer, and organizer of polar logistics. Aircraft flights, in which he served as a navigator and expedition leader, crossed the Atlantic Ocean, a segment of the Arctic Ocean, and a segment of the Antarctic Plateau. Byrd claimed that his expeditions had been the first to reach the North Pole and the South Pole by air. His South Pole claim is generally supported by a consensus of those who have examined the evidence. Byrd was a recipient of the Medal of Honor, the highest honor for heroism given by the United States.
He was the son of Esther Bolling (Flood) and Richard Evelyn Byrd, Sr. He was a descendant of one of the First Families of Virginia. His ancestors include planter John Rolfe and his wife Pocahontas, William Byrd II of Westover Plantation, who established Richmond, and Robert "King" Carter, a colonial governor. He was the brother of Virginia Governor and U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, a dominant figure in Virginia Democratic Party between the 1920s and 1960s; their father served as Speaker of the Virginia House of Delegates for a time.
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Roald Amundsen
Roald Engelbregt Gravning Amundsen (Norwegian pronunciation: [ˈɾuːɑl ˈɑmʉnsən]; 16 July 1872 – c. 18 June 1928) was a Norwegian explorer of polar regions. He led the Antarctic expedition (1910-12) to discover the South Pole in December 1911 and he was the first expedition leader to (undisputedly) reach the North Pole in 1926. He is also known as the first to traverse the Northwest Passage (1903-06). He disappeared in June 1928 while taking part in a rescue mission. Amundsen, along with Douglas Mawson, Robert Falcon Scott, and Ernest Shackleton, was a key expedition leader during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration.
Amundsen was born to a family of Norwegian shipowners and captains in Borge, between the towns Fredrikstad and Sarpsborg. His father was Jens Amundsen. He was the fourth son in the family. His mother chose to keep him out of the maritime industry of the family and pressured him to become a doctor, a promise that Amundsen kept until his mother died when he was aged 21, whereupon he quit university for a life at sea. Amundsen had hidden a lifelong desire inspired by Fridtjof Nansen's crossing of Greenland in 1888 and the doomed Franklin expedition. As a result, he decided on a life of intense exploration.[citation needed]
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Robert Falcon Scott
Robert Falcon Scott CVO (6 June 1868 – c. 29 March 1912) was a Royal Navy officer and explorer who led two expeditions to the Antarctic regions: the Discovery Expedition, 1901–04, and the ill-fated Terra Nova Expedition, 1910–13. During this second venture, Scott led a party of five which reached the South Pole on 17 January 1912, only to find that they had been preceded by Roald Amundsen's Norwegian expedition. On their return journey, Scott and his four comrades all perished from a combination of exhaustion, starvation and extreme cold.
Before his appointment to lead the Discovery Expedition, Scott had followed the conventional career of a naval officer in peacetime Victorian Britain, where opportunities for career advancement were both limited and keenly sought after by ambitious officers. It was the chance for personal distinction that led Scott to apply for the Discovery command, rather than any predilection for polar exploration. However, having taken this step, his name became inseparably associated with the Antarctic, the field of work to which he remained committed during the final twelve years of his life.
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Robert McClure
Sir Robert John Le Mesurier McClure (or M'Clure) (28 January 1807 – 17 October 1873) was an Irish explorer of the Arctic. In 1854, he was the first to transit the Northwest Passage (by boat and sledge), as well as the first to circumnavigate the Americas.
He was born at Wexford, in Ireland, the posthumous son of one of Abercrombie's captains, and spent his childhood under the care of his godfather, General Le Mesurier, governor of Alderney, by whom he was educated for the army. He entered the navy, however, in 1824, and twelve years later gained his first experience of Arctic exploration as mate of HMS Terror in the expedition (1836–1837) commanded by Captain (afterwards Sir) George Back.
On his return he obtained his commission as lieutenant, and from 1838 to 1839 served on the Canadian lakes, being subsequently attached to the North American and West Indian naval stations, where he remained till 1846. Two years later he joined the Franklin search expedition (1848–1849) under James Clark Ross as first lieutenant of Enterprise.
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Robert Peary
Robert Edwin Peary, Sr. (May 6, 1856 – February 20, 1920) was an American explorer who claimed to have led the first expedition, on April 6, 1909, to reach the geographic North Pole. Peary's claim was widely credited for most of the 20th century, though it was criticized even in its own day.
Robert Edwin Peary was born in Cresson, Pennsylvania, in 1856. Peary graduated from Bowdoin College, Phi Beta Kappa, in 1877. He was also a member of the Theta chapter of Delta Kappa Epsilon while at Bowdoin, and the flag of DKE was one of the five flags that he took with him to the North Pole. His home in Fryeburg, Maine, still remains in pristine condition as an inn known as the Admiral Peary House.
Peary made several expeditions to the Arctic, exploring Greenland by dog sled in 1886 and 1891 and returning to the island three times in the 1890s, including the Peary Relief Expedition to Greenland of 1892. He twice attempted to cross northwest Greenland over the ice cap, discovering Navy Cliff. American artist F. W. Stokes joined some of these expeditions.
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Rudolf Samoylovich
Rudolf (Ruvim) Lazarevich Samoylovich (Russian: Рудольф Лазаревич Самойлович) (September 13 (O.S. September 1), 1881, Azov - 1940?) was a Soviet polar explorer, professor (1928), and doctor of geographic sciences (1934).
In 1904, Rudolf Samoylovich graduated from the Mining Academy in Freiberg, Germany. In 1912, he participated in Vladimir Rusanov's geological expedition to Spitsbergen. Rudolf Samoylovich was one of the initiators and the first director of the Northern Research and Trade Expedition (Северная научно-промысловая экспедиция) (1920-1925). In 1925, this research center was reorganized into the Institute of Northern Studies (Институт по изучению Севера), headed by Rudolf Samoylovich in 1925-1930. In 1932-1938, he was deputy director of the All-Union Arctic Institute (Всесоюзный арктический институт). Rudolf Samoylovich was also the founder and first chairman of the Polar Countries' Department at Leningrad State University (1934-1937). Rudolf Samoylovich was the head of the rescue party on the Krasin icebreaker (1928). Also, he participated in the Graf Zeppelin expedition (1931) and headed expeditions on icebreakers Vladimir Rusanov (1932), Georgy Sedov (1934), and Sadko (1936 and 1937-1938). In 1938, Rudolf Samoylovich was arrested and then most likely executed some time in 1940. In 1957, he was rehabilitated.
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Semyon Dezhnyov
Semyon Ivanovich Dezhnyov (Russian: Семён Ива́нович Дежнёв; IPA: [sʲɪˈmʲɵn ɪˈvanəvʲɪt͡ɕ dʲɪˈʐnʲɵf]; commonly spelled Dezhnev in English-language sources; c. 1605 – 1673) was a Russian explorer of Siberia and the first European to sail through the Bering Strait, 80 years before Bering did. In 1648 he sailed from the Kolyma River on the Arctic Ocean to the Anadyr River on the Pacific. His exploit was forgotten for almost a hundred years and Vitus Bering is usually given credit for discovering the strait that bears his name.
He was Pomor, born about 1605, possibly at Veliky Ustyug or the village of Pinega. According to Lydia Black (2004: 17), Dezhnyov was recruited for Siberian service, possibly as a service-man or government agent, in 1630. He served for eight years in Tobolsk and Yeniseisk, and then went to Yakutia in 1639, or possibly earlier. He ”is said to have been a member of the Cossack detachment under Beketov, who is credited with founding Yakutsk (on the Lena River) in 1632. In any case, no later than 1639 he was sent to Yakutia, where he married a Yakut captive and spent the next three years collecting tribute from the natives.
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Shirase Nobu
Shirase Nobu (白瀬 矗?, July 20, 1861 – September 4, 1946) was a Japanese army officer who led the Japanese Antarctic Expedition, 1910–12. This expedition explored the coastal area of King Edward VII Land and the eastern part of the Ross Ice Shelf, reaching a latitude of 80°05'S. At one point, Shirase's men achieved an unexpected rendezvous with a party from the South Pole expedition led by Roald Amundsen.
Shirase and his men were the first humans to make a landfall on the Edward VII Peninsula. The Shirase party were feted as heroes on their return to Japan.[citation needed]
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Stepan Makarov
Stepan Osipovich Makarov (Russian: Степа́н О́сипович Мака́ров; 8 January 1849 [O.S. 27 December] – 13 April [O.S. 31 March] 1904) was a Russian vice-admiral, a highly accomplished and decorated commander of the Imperial Russian Navy, an oceanographer, awarded by the Russian Academy of Sciences, and author of several books. Makarov also designed a small number of ships. The town of Shiritoru on Sakhalin island, was renamed Makarov in 1946 in his honor.
Stepan Makarov was born in Nikolaev (now Mykolayiv, Ukraine) in a family of a fleet praporshchik (прапорщик по Адмиралтейству, an auxiliary officer). His family moved to Nikolayevsk na Amure in 1858 and Makarov attended school there. In 1863, he joined the Imperial Russian Navy where he served as a cadet aboard a clipper of the Pacific Fleet. In 1866 he took part in the voyage of the corvette Askold from Vladivostok to Kronstadt via the Cape of Good Hope. Makarov served with the Baltic Fleet between 1867 and 1876 serving as flag captain to Admiral Andrei Popov. He transferred to the Black Sea Fleet in 1876.
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Sverre Hassel
Sverre Helge Hassel (30 July 1876 – 6 June 1928) was a Norwegian polar explorer and one of the first five people to reach the South Pole.
Sverre Hassel was born in Christiania, and as soon as he was old enough, he went to sea, earning his mate's certificate. Between 1898 and 1902, Hassel participated in Otto Sverdrup's attempt to circumnavigate Greenland.
Along with Helmer Hanssen, Hassel was picked as an expert dog driver to take part in Roald Amundsen's South Pole expedition 1910 – 1912. On 14 December 1911, Hassel together with Amundsen, Hanssen, Olav Bjaaland and Oscar Wisting were the first to reach the South Pole. For his participation in the expedition, he was awarded the Medal of the South Pole (Sydpolsmedaljen), the Royal Norwegian award instituted by King Haakon VII in 1912 to reward participants in Roald Amundsen's South Pole expedition.
Hassel was constable of the Naval Corps in 1904 before he was hired as an assistant at the customs authorities in Kristiansand. In 1922, Hassel became customs inspector and office manager in Grimstad.
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Thomas Marmaduke
Thomas Marmaduke was an English explorer, sealer, and whaler in the early 17th century.
In a list dated from September 1600 Marmaduke is mentioned as being a younger brother of the Hull Trinity House. He was master of one of the two Hull interlopers sent to Bjørnøya in 1609. It was claimed that in this year, sailing in the Heartsease, he "discovered" Spitsbergen; although there is no evidence for this claim, and the island had already been discovered by the Dutch in 1596. On this claim the merchants of Hull based their rights to fish for whales in Spitsbergen in subsequent decades.
In 1611, Marmaduke was again sent up, this time in the interloper Hopewell of Hull. He hunted walrus, or "sea morses" (as they were called). In July, Marmaduke met with two shallops of the Mary Margaret, a ship sent by the Muscovy Company to hunt whales, in Horn Sound. Their ship had been crushed by ice in or near Cove Comfortless (Engelskbukta), north of Horn Sound. They led him north to the bay in order to salvage their goods. Later, the Elizabeth, Jonas Poole, master and pilot, sailed into the bay and attempted to shift his cargo to enable him to accommodate the goods of the Mary Margaret, but in doing so his ship capsized, forcing the crew of both the Mary Margaret and the Elizabeth to sail home in the Hopewell. In this year or the next he was claimed to have discovered Jan Mayen and named it Trinity Island. There is no cartographical or written evidence for this alleged discovery.
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Tobias Furneaux
Captain Tobias Furneaux (21 August 1735 – 18 September 1781) was an English navigator and Royal Navy officer, who accompanied James Cook on his second voyage of exploration. He was the first man to circumnavigate the world in both directions.
Furneaux was born at Swilly House near Plymouth, son of William Furneaux (1696-1748) of Swilly, and Susanna Wilcocks (1698-1775). He entered the Royal Navy, and was employed on the French and African coasts and in the West Indies during the latter part of the Seven Years' War (1760–1763). He served as second lieutenant of HMS Dolphin under Captain Samuel Wallis on the latter's voyage round the globe (August 1766 – May 1768).
In November 1771, Furneaux was given command of Adventure, which accompanied James Cook (in Resolution) on his second voyage. On this expedition Furneaux was twice separated from his leader (8 February 1773 to 19 May 1773; and 22 October 1773 to 14 October 1774, the date of his return to England). On the former occasion he explored a great part of the south and east coasts of Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), and made the earliest British chart of the same. Most of his names here survive; Cook, visiting the shore-line on his third voyage, confirmed Furneaux's account and delineation of it, with certain minor criticisms and emendations, and named after him the Furneaux Group at the eastern entrance to Bass Strait, and the group now known as the Low Archipelago.
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Umberto Nobile
Umberto Nobile (Italian pronunciation: [umˈbɛrto ˈnɔbile]; January 21, 1885 – July 30, 1978) was an Italian aeronautical engineer and Arctic explorer. Nobile was a developer and promoter of semi-rigid airships during the Golden Age of Aviation between the two World Wars. He is primarily remembered for designing and piloting the airship Norge, which may have been the first aircraft to reach the North Pole, and which was indisputably the first to fly across the polar ice cap from Europe to America. Nobile also designed and flew the Italia, a second polar airship; this second expedition ended in a deadly crash and provoked an international rescue effort.
Born in Lauro, in the southern Italian province of Avellino, Nobile graduated from the University of Naples with degrees in both electrical and industrial engineering. In 1906 he began working for the Italian state railways, where he worked on electrification of the rail system. In 1911 his interests turned to the field of aeronautical engineering, and he enrolled in a one-year course offered by the Italian Army. Nobile had always been fascinated by the work of airship pioneers such as Ferdinand von Zeppelin. When Italy entered World War I in 1915, the then 29-year-old attempted three times to enlist, but was rejected as physically unfit for service.
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Valerian Albanov
Valerian Ivanovich Albanov (Russian: Валериан Иванович Альбанов) (1881 - 1919) was a Russian navigator, best known for being one of only two survivors of the ill-fated Brusilov Expedition of 1912.
Albanov was born in 1881 in Voronezh and was raised by his uncle in the city of Ufa. At the age of seventeen he entered the Naval College at Saint Petersburg, from which he graduated in 1904. He served on board a number of ships before signing on as navigator aboard the Saint Anna under Georgy Brusilov for an expedition intended to traverse the Northeast Passage (a feat which had only been successfully performed once before, by the Finnish explorer Nordenskiöld). The expedition was ill-planned and ill-executed by Captain Brusilov, and the Saint Anna became locked in the polar ice of the Kara Sea in October 1912. Supplies were abundant, so officers and crew prepared themselves for wintering, hoping to be freed in the following year's thaw.
However, during 1913 the sea remained completely frozen. By early 1914 the ship had drifted with the ice NW of Franz Josef Land and did not seem likely to be freed that year either. Albanov, believing that their position was hopeless, requested permission from Captain Brusilov to be relieved from his duties as second-in-command in order to leave the ship and attempt to return to civilization on foot. Albanov's aim was to reach Hvidtenland, the northeastermost island group of Franz Josef Land. He used Fridtjof Nansen's inaccurate map, full of dotted lines where the archipelago was still unexplored.
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Valery Chkalov
Valery Pavlovich Chkalov (Russian: Валерий Павлович Чкалов; IPA: [vɐˈlʲerʲɪj ˈpavləvʲɪt͡ʃ ˈt͡ʃkaləf]) (February 2, 1904 – December 15, 1938) was a Russian aircraft test pilot and a Hero of the Soviet Union (1936).
Chkalov was born in the town of Vasilyevo, near Nizhni Novgorod, the son of a boiler maker. His mother died when he was six years old. Chkalov studied in the technical school in Cherepovets but later returned to work as an apprentice with his father and as a stoker on river boats. He saw his first plane in 1919 and decided to join the Red Army's air force. He trained as a pilot and graduated in 1924 joining a fighter squadron. Chkalov married Olga Orekova in 1927. In the early 1930s he became a test pilot.
Chkalov developed several new figures of aerobatics. In 1936 and 1937, he participated in several ultra long flights, including a 63-hour flight from Moscow, Soviet Union to Vancouver, Washington, United States via the North Pole on an Tupolev ANT-25 plane (June 18–20, 1937), a non-stop distance of 8,811 kilometres (5,475 mi). The flight pioneered the polar air route from Europe to the American Pacific Coast.
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Vasili Pronchishchev
Vasili Vasilyevich Pronchishchev (Russian: Василий Васильевич Прончищев) (1702–9 September [O.S. 29 August] 1736) was a Russian explorer.
In 1718, Vasili Pronchishchev graduated from Moscow School of Mathematics and Navigation and was promoted to naval cadet. In 1733, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant and appointed head of one of the units of the Second Kamchatka Expedition, the purpose of which was to map the shores of the Arctic Ocean from the mouth of the Lena to the mouth of the Yenisey.
In 1735, Vasili Pronchishchev went down the Lena River (from Yakutsk) on his sloop Yakutsk, doubled its delta, and stopped for wintering at the mouth of the Olenek River. Unfortunately many members of the crew fell ill and died, mainly owing to scurvy. Despite the difficulties, in 1736, he reached the eastern shore of the Taymyr Peninsula and went north along its coastline. Finally Pronchishchev and his wife Maria (also referred to as Tatyana Feodorovna) succumbed to scurvy and died on the way back.
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Vasily Chichagov
Vasili Yakovlevich Chichagov (Russian: Василий Яковлевич Чичагов) (February 28, 1726 – April 4, 1809) was an admiral in the Russian Navy and an explorer. He was the father of Pavel Chichagov, a Russian admiral during the Napoleonic Wars.
Joining the Navy at the age of 16, Chichagov was educated in Great Britain. Throughout his life, he would be enthusiastic for all thing British, would marry an English woman, and spend his declining years in the United Kingdom (after he had settled into retirement in 1797).
In 1764 the scientist Lomonosov organized an expedition to find the Northeast Passage between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by sailing along the northern coast of Siberia. Chichagov, then serving as the deputy commandant of Arkhangelsk Port, was put in charge of the expedition with three ships, the Chichagov, the Panov and the Babayev. Although he sailed past Svalbard and reached 80°26'N in 1765 and 80°30'N in 1766, both expeditions failed to find the route.
Islands of Novaya Zemlya Archipelago, the Chichagof Island in the Alexander Archipelago in southeastern Alaska, the bay and cape of Nuka Hiva, in the Marquesas Islands of French Polynesia, and a mountain at Spitzbergen are named after Chichagov.
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Vitus Bering
Vitus Jonassen Bering (baptised 5 August 1681 in Horsens, Denmark – 8 December 1741 on Bering Island, Russia) was a Danish-born navigator in the service of the Russian Navy as (eventually Captain-Komandor) Витус Ионассен Беринг, known among the Russian sailors as Ivan Ivanovich Bering. He is known for his two explorations of the north-eastern coast of the Asian continent and from there the western coast on the North American continent. The Bering Strait, the Bering Sea, Bering Island, Bering Glacier and the Bering Land Bridge have since all been (posthumously) named in honour of the explorer.
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Vivian Fuchs
Sir Vivian Ernest Fuchs FRS (11 February 1908 – 11 November 1999) was an English explorer whose expeditionary team completed the first overland crossing of Antarctica in 1958.
Fuchs was the son of the German immigrant Ernst Fuchs from Jena and of his British wife Violet Watson. Fuchs was born in 1908 in Freshwater, Isle of Wight, and attended Brighton College and St John's College, Cambridge. Fuchs was educated as a geologist, and considered the profession a means to pursue his interest in the outdoors. His first expedition was to Greenland in 1929 with his tutor James Wordie. After graduation in 1930, he travelled with a Cambridge University expedition to study the geology of east African lakes with respect to climate fluctuation. Next, he joined anthropologist Louis Leakey on an expedition to Olduvai Gorge. In 1933, Fuchs married his cousin, Joyce Connell. A world traveller in her own right, Joyce accompanied Vivian on his expedition to Lake Rudolf (now Lake Turkana) in 1934. The findings from this expedition, in which two of their companions were lost, brought Fuchs his PhD from Cambridge in 1937.
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Vladimir Rusanov
Vladimir Alexandrovich Rusanov (Russian: Влади́мир Алекса́ндрович Руса́нов; 3 November [O.S. 15 November] 1875, Oryol – ca. 1913) was an experienced Russian geologist who specialized in the Arctic.
In 1909–1911 V. A. Rusanov carried out explorations in Novaya Zemlya. He was helped by Tyko Vylka, his guide, who later became the Chairman of the Novaya Zemlya Soviet.
In 1912 Rusanov had been appointed to command a government expedition to Svalbard to investigate the coal potential. He sailed from Aleksandrovsk-na-Murmane (now Polyarnyy, near Murmansk) on 26 June on ship Gerkules under Captain Alexander Kuchin, Roald Amundsen's South Pole navigator. The personnel consisted of thirteen men and one woman, Rusanov's French fiancée Julie Jean. Apart from Rusanov there was another geologist and a zoologist.
At the end of a very successful summer’s field work, three members of the expedition (the geologist, the zoologist and the ship's bosun) returned to Russia via Grønfjorden in Norway. The remaining ten, however, without consultation with the authorities in St. Petersburg, set off with Rusanov in an incredibly rash attempt at reaching the Pacific Ocean via the Northern Sea Route. Their ship Gerkules was too small for the kind of expedition Rusanov had in mind.
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Vladimir Wiese
Professor Vladimir Yulyevich Vize (Russian: Владимир Юльевич Визе; 21 February 1886, Tsarskoe Selo - 19 February 1954, Leningrad), was a Russian scientist of German descent who devoted his life to the study of the Arctic ice pack. His name (spelt "Wiese" in German) is associated with the Scientific Prediction of Ice Conditions theory.
Vize was a member of the Soviet Arctic Institute and an authority on polar oceanography. He was also the founder of the Geographico-hydrological School of Oceanography.
In 1912-14 Professor V. Yu. Vize went with G. L. Sedov’s expedition on St. Foka to Novaya Zemlya and Franz Josef Land. After the Russian Revolution Professor Vize went on a number of Soviet Arctic expeditions.
In 1924 oceanographer Vize, studied the drift of Georgy Brusilov's ill-fated Russian ship St. Anna when she was trapped on the pack ice of the Kara Sea. Professor Vize detected an odd deviation of the path of the ship's drift caused by certain variations of the patterns of sea and ice currents. He deemed that the deviation was caused by the presence of an undiscovered island whose coordinates he was able to calculate with precision thanks to the availability of the successive positions of the St. Anna during its drift. The data of the drift had been supplied by navigator Valerian Albanov, one of the only two survivors of the St. Anna.
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Wally Herbert
Sir Walter William "Wally" Herbert (24 October 1934 – 12 June 2007) was a British polar explorer, writer and artist. In 1969 he became the first man to walk undisputed to the North Pole, on the 60th anniversary of Robert Peary's famous, but disputed, expedition. He was described by Sir Ranulph Fiennes as "the greatest polar explorer of our time".
During the course of his polar career, which spanned more than 50 years, he spent 15 years in the wilderness regions of the polar world, and travelled with dog teams and open boats well over 23,000 miles - more than half of that distance through unexplored areas.
Walter Herbert was born into an army family in England but emigrated to Egypt at the age of three, then to South Africa for nine years. He studied at the Royal School of Military Survey then spent 18 months surveying in Egypt and Cyprus. He traveled back to England through Turkey and Greece, drawing portraits for his board and lodging.
In 1955 he carried out surveying in the Antarctic with the Falkland Islands Dependencies Survey, during which he became an expert in dog sleighing. On a journey along the Antarctic Peninsula from Hope Bay to Portal Point he sledged some 5,000 km. This experience with dogs led him to a job with the New Zealand Antarctic programme which commissioned him to purchase dogs in Greenland for the Antarctic. There he learnt Inuit methods of dog driving.
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Willem Barentsz
Willem Barentsz (Dutch pronunciation: [ˈʋɪləm ˈbaːrənts], anglicized as William Barents or Barentz) (c. 1550 – 20 June 1597) was a Dutch navigator, cartographer, explorer, and a leader of early expeditions to the far north.
The Barents Sea,Barentsburg and Barents Region were all named after him.
Willem Barentsz was born around the year 1550 on the island Terschelling in the Seventeen Provinces.
A cartographer by trade, Barentsz sailed to Spain and the Mediterranean to complete an atlas of the Mediterranean region, which he co-published with Petrus Plancius.
His career as an explorer was spent searching for the Northeast passage, which he reasoned must exist as clear, open water north of Siberia since the sun shone 24 hours a day, which he believed would have melted any potential ice.
On 5 June 1594 Barentsz left the island of Texel aboard the small ship Mercury, as part of a group of three ships sent out in separate directions to try and enter the Kara Sea, with the hopes of finding the Northeast passage above Siberia. Between 23 and 29 June, Barentsz stayed at Kildin Island.
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William Baffin
William Baffin (died 23 January 1622) was an English navigator and explorer. Nothing is known of his early life, but it is conjectured that he was born in London of humble origin, and gradually raised himself by his diligence and perseverance. (Britannica 11th Edition gives a year of birth as 1584, but this is simply a guess, without any documentary basis.)
There is no known portrait of William Baffin.
William Baffin explored the Arctic circle, the earliest mention of his name occurs in 1612, in connection with Denmark's King Christian IV's Expeditions to Greenland under the command of Captain James Hall, whom he accompanied as chief pilot. Captain Hall was killed in a fight with the local inhabitants on the west coast of Greenland, and during the following two years Baffin served in the Spitsbergen whale-fishery, at that time controlled by England's Muscovy Company. In the first year he served as pilot aboard the flagship of the whaling fleet, the Tiger, while in the second year he served as pilot aboard one of the fleet's two discovery ships, the Thomasine.
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William Edward Parry
Sir William Edward Parry (19 December 1790 – 8 or 9 July 1855) was an English rear-admiral and Arctic explorer, who in 1827 attempted one of the earliest expeditions to the North Pole. He reached 82°45′ North latitude, setting the record for human exploration farthest North that stood for nearly five decades before being surpassed at 83°20′26″ by Albert Hastings Markham in 1875–1876.
Parry was born in Bath, the son of Dr. Caleb Hillier Parry and Sarah Rigby. He was educated at King Edward's School, Bath. At the age of thirteen he joined the flagship of Admiral Cornwallis in the Channel fleet as a first-class volunteer, in 1806 became a midshipman, and in 1810 received promotion to the rank of lieutenant in the frigate Alexander, which spent the next three years in the protection of the Spitsbergen whale fishery. He took advantage of this opportunity for the study and practice of astronomical observations in northern latitudes, and afterwards published the results of his studies in a small volume on Nautical Astronomy by Night (1816). From 1813–1817 he served on the North American station.
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William Lashly
William Lashly (1867–1940) was a Royal Navy seaman who was a member of both of Robert Falcon Scott's Antarctic expeditions.
The son of a farm worker, Lashly was born in Hambledon, Hampshire, a village near Portsmouth, England. At the time he joined Scott's Discovery expedition in 1901, he was a 33-year-old leading stoker in the Royal Navy, serving on HMS Duke of Wellington. On this expedition, Lashly proved a success and was a member of Scott's "Farthest West" party exploring Victoria Land in 1903. A teetotaller and non-smoker, he was quiet and strong, good-natured, dependable and acknowledged by Chief Engineer Reginald Skelton as 'the best man far and away in the ship'. Before joining the Terra Nova expedition in 1910, he served as an instructor at the Royal Naval College, Osborne on the Isle of Wight.
On Scott's second expedition in Terra Nova in 1911–1913, Lashly was initially in charge of one of the expedition's two motor sledges which were to haul supplies southward in support of the polar party. However, the sledges quickly broke down, and the motor party had to switch to man-hauling the supplies.
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William Scoresby
William Scoresby (5 October 1789 – 21 March 1857), was an English Arctic explorer, scientist and clergyman.
Scoresby was born in the village of Cropton near Pickering 26 miles south of Whitby in Yorkshire. His father, William Scoresby (1760–1829), made a fortune in the Arctic whale fishery. The son made his first voyage with his father at the age of eleven, but then returned to school, where he remained until 1803. After this he became his father's constant companion, and accompanied him as chief officer of the whaler Resolution when on 25 May 1806, he succeeded in reaching 81°30’ N. lat. (19° E. long), for twenty-one years the highest northern latitude attained in the eastern hemisphere. During the following winter, Scoresby attended the natural philosophy and chemistry classes at Edinburgh University, and again in 1809.
In his voyage of 1807, Scoresby began the study of the meteorology and natural history of the polar regions. Earlier results included his original observations on snow and crystals; and in 1809 Robert Jameson brought certain Arctic papers of his before the Wernerian Society of Edinburgh, which at once elected him to its membership.
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William Speirs Bruce
William Speirs Bruce FRSE (1 August 1867 – 28 October 1921) was a Scottish naturalist, polar scientist and oceanographer who organised and led the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition (1902–04) to the South Orkney Islands and the Weddell Sea. Among other achievements, the expedition established the first permanent weather station in Antarctica. Bruce later founded the Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory, but his plans for a transcontinental Antarctic march via the South Pole were abandoned because of lack of public and financial support.
In 1892 Bruce abandoned his medical studies at the University of Edinburgh and joined the Dundee Whaling Expedition to Antarctica as a scientific assistant. This was followed by Arctic voyages to Novaya Zemlya, Spitsbergen and Franz Josef Land. In 1899 Bruce, by then Britain's most experienced polar scientist, applied for a post on Robert Falcon Scott's Discovery Expedition, but delays over this appointment and clashes with Royal Geographical Society (RGS) president Sir Clements Markham led him instead to organise his own expedition, and earned him the permanent enmity of the British geographical establishment. Although Bruce received various awards for his polar work, including an honorary doctorate from the University of Aberdeen, neither he nor any of his SNAE colleagues were recommended by the RGS for the prestigious Polar Medal.
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Yakov Gakkel
Yakov Yakovlevich Gakkel (Russian: Яков Яковлевич Гаккель) (July 18, 1901, Saint Petersburg — December 30, 1965, Leningrad) was a Soviet oceanographer, doctor of geographical sciences (1950), professor, director of the geography department of the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute, son of a scientist Yakov Modestovich Gakkel.
Yakov Gakkel participated in numerous Arctic expeditions, including the ones on icebreakers Sibiryakov (1932) and Chelyuskin (1934). He was the first one to create a bathymetric map of the Arctic basin.
Yakov Gakkel was awarded two orders and several medals during his scientific career. In 1966, one of the mid-oceanic ridges was named after him.
This article includes content derived from the Great Soviet Encyclopedia, 1969–1978, which is partially in the public domain.
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Yakov Sannikov
Yakov Sannikov (Russian: Яков Санников) (1780, Ust-Yansk - no earlier than 1812) was a Russian merchant and explorer of the New Siberian Islands.
In 1800, Sannikov discovered and charted Stolbovoy Island, and in 1805 Faddeyevsky Island. In 1809-1810, he took part in the expedition led by Matvei Gedenschtrom. In 1810, Sannikov crossed the island of New Siberia and a year later explored Faddeyevsky Island. He also discovered Bunge Land.
He suggested that there was a vast land north of the Kotelny Island. This hypothetical island has become known as Sannikov Land.
A strait between Maly Lyakhovsky and Kotelny islands bears Sannikov's name.
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Yevgeny Fyodorov
Yevgeny Konstantinovich Fyodorov (Russian: Евгений Константинович Фёдоров; 10 April (O.S. 28 March), 1910, Bendery - 30 December 1981) was a Soviet geophysicist, statesman, public figure, academician (1960), and Hero of the Soviet Union (1938).
Yevgeny Fyodorov graduated from Leningrad State University in 1932. In 1932-1938, he was a research associate on several polar stations, including the first drifting ice station North Pole-1 (1937-1938). In 1938-1939, Yevgeny Fyodorov headed the Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute. In 1939-1947 and 1962–1974, he was in charge of the Soviet Weather Service (Гидрометеослужба СССР). In 1947-1955, Yevgeny Fyodorov was employed at the Geophysics Institute of the Soviet Academy of Sciences. He was the one to establish and then head the Applied Geophysics Institute of the Soviet Weather Service.
Yevgeny Fyodorov authored numerous works dedicated to his research on the Arctic geophysical fields, water balance of clouds, artificial influence on meteorological processes, study of highest atmospheric layers with the use of satellites, pollution etc. Yevgeny Fyodorov was awarded the USSR State Prize (1946, 1969), five Orders of Lenin, Order of the October Revolution, six other orders, and several medals.
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Yevgeny Tolstikov
Yevgeny Ivanovich Tolstikov (Russian: Евгений Иванович Толстиков) (1913 - December, 1987) was a Soviet polar explorer, awarded by the Hero of the Soviet Union title. He led the Third Soviet Antarctic Expedition and one of the first manned drifting ice station in the Arctic.
In 1979, he was made deputy chairman of the State Committee for Hydrometeorolgy and Environmental Control.
A minor planet 3357 Tolstikov discovered by Czech astronomer Antonín Mrkos in 1984 is named after him.
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Antarctic Treaty Summit Movie
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:27
- Updated: 24 Aug 2012
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq Thanks to: BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY, THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, TINKER FOUNDATION, MARINE MAMMAL COMMISSION, US-UK FULBRIGHT COMMISSION, INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCIENCE / WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION JOINT COMMITTEE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR, AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION, UNITED NATIONS UNIVERSITY / INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES, ASSOCIATION FOR POLAR EARLY CAREER SCIENTISTS, BREN SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE &MANAGEMENT;, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA, SCOTT POLAR RESEARCH INSTITUTE, UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
http://wn.com/Antarctic_Treaty_Summit_Movie
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq Thanks to: BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY, THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, TINKER FOUNDATION, MARINE MAMMAL COMMISSION, US-UK FULBRIGHT COMMISSION, INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCIENCE / WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION JOINT COMMITTEE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR, AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION, UNITED NATIONS UNIVERSITY / INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES, ASSOCIATION FOR POLAR EARLY CAREER SCIENTISTS, BREN SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE &MANAGEMENT;, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA, SCOTT POLAR RESEARCH INSTITUTE, UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
Antarctic Treaty: The power of impossible ambitions
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:26
- Updated: 01 Nov 2012
Greenpeace's campaign to keep oil and gas exploration out of Antarctica was a lesson in impossible ambitions: sometimes, you achieve them. Kelly Rigg talks about persistence, imagination, and the lessons we can learn from a campaign to save a continent.
http://wn.com/Antarctic_Treaty_The_power_of_impossible_ambitions
Greenpeace's campaign to keep oil and gas exploration out of Antarctica was a lesson in impossible ambitions: sometimes, you achieve them. Kelly Rigg talks about persistence, imagination, and the lessons we can learn from a campaign to save a continent.
- published: 14 Dec 2011
- views: 4739
- author: GreenpeaceVideo
Antarctic Treaty: Lesson in imagination
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:24
- Updated: 03 Dec 2012
www.greenpeace.org Greenpeace's campaign to keep oil and gas exploration out of Antarctica was a lesson in impossible ambitions sometimes, you achieve them. Kelly Rigg talks about persistence, imagination, and the lessons we can learn from a campaign to save a continent.
http://wn.com/Antarctic_Treaty_Lesson_in_imagination
www.greenpeace.org Greenpeace's campaign to keep oil and gas exploration out of Antarctica was a lesson in impossible ambitions sometimes, you achieve them. Kelly Rigg talks about persistence, imagination, and the lessons we can learn from a campaign to save a continent.
- published: 01 Dec 2009
- views: 23101
- author: GreenpeaceVideo
Antarctic Treaty: Lessons for climate solutions
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:26
- Updated: 23 Jun 2011
Filmed at Paradise Bay on the Antarctic Peninsula in front of an Almirante Brown Station, Steven Blumenfeld discusses the importance of the Antarctic Treaty with Polar Explorer Robert Swan OBE (the first man in history to have walked to both the North and South Poles) during the International Antarctic Treaty Expedition in November 2009. In the lead up to the critical COP-15 Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, Steven explains how the Antarctic Treaty can be used as a model for international cooperation in which common goals and objectives are used to build a platform over seemingly irreconcilable issues that may exist below. It is imperative that we focus our energy on the mutual goals of nations and citizens to ensure a sustainable course of action, rather than allowing disputes related to the implementation of those goals to keep us on a course for disaster. Filmed by Kyle O'Donoghue
http://wn.com/Antarctic_Treaty_Lessons_for_climate_solutions
Filmed at Paradise Bay on the Antarctic Peninsula in front of an Almirante Brown Station, Steven Blumenfeld discusses the importance of the Antarctic Treaty with Polar Explorer Robert Swan OBE (the first man in history to have walked to both the North and South Poles) during the International Antarctic Treaty Expedition in November 2009. In the lead up to the critical COP-15 Climate Change Conference in Copenhagen, Steven explains how the Antarctic Treaty can be used as a model for international cooperation in which common goals and objectives are used to build a platform over seemingly irreconcilable issues that may exist below. It is imperative that we focus our energy on the mutual goals of nations and citizens to ensure a sustainable course of action, rather than allowing disputes related to the implementation of those goals to keep us on a course for disaster. Filmed by Kyle O'Donoghue
- published: 08 Dec 2009
- views: 704
- author: Steven Blumenfeld
International Antarctic Treaty Expedition: reflections
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:10
- Updated: 27 Dec 2009
Brief clip highlighting some reflections from the International Antarctic Treaty Expedition in November 2009. Featuring Emily Pritchard and Steven Blumenfeld. Filmed by Kyle O'Donoghue. www.2041.com
http://wn.com/International_Antarctic_Treaty_Expedition_reflections
Brief clip highlighting some reflections from the International Antarctic Treaty Expedition in November 2009. Featuring Emily Pritchard and Steven Blumenfeld. Filmed by Kyle O'Donoghue. www.2041.com
- published: 25 Dec 2009
- views: 172
- author: Steven Blumenfeld
International Antarctic Treaty Expedition [full - part 1 of 2]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 16 Apr 2012
Full film of the International Antarctic Treaty Expedition, November 16-30, 2009. Filmed, edited, and produced by Kyle O'Donoghue. www.2041.com
http://wn.com/International_Antarctic_Treaty_Expedition_full_part_1_of_2_
Full film of the International Antarctic Treaty Expedition, November 16-30, 2009. Filmed, edited, and produced by Kyle O'Donoghue. www.2041.com
- published: 29 Dec 2009
- views: 355
- author: Steven Blumenfeld
Antarctica Treaty
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:52
- Updated: 10 May 2012
Short Drama
http://wn.com/Antarctica_Treaty
Prof. Oran Young Antarctic Treaty Summit 2009
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:12
- Updated: 11 Jul 2010
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq Thanks to: BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY, THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, TINKER FOUNDATION, MARINE MAMMAL COMMISSION, US-UK FULBRIGHT COMMISSION, INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCIENCE / WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION JOINT COMMITTEE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR, AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION, UNITED NATIONS UNIVERSITY / INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES, ASSOCIATION FOR POLAR EARLY CAREER SCIENTISTS, BREN SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE &MANAGEMENT;, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA, SCOTT POLAR RESEARCH INSTITUTE, UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
http://wn.com/Prof_Oran_Young_Antarctic_Treaty_Summit_2009
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq Thanks to: BRITISH ANTARCTIC SURVEY, THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, TINKER FOUNDATION, MARINE MAMMAL COMMISSION, US-UK FULBRIGHT COMMISSION, INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF SCIENCE / WORLD METEOROLOGICAL ORGANIZATION JOINT COMMITTEE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL POLAR YEAR, AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION, UNITED NATIONS UNIVERSITY / INSTITUTE OF ADVANCED STUDIES, ASSOCIATION FOR POLAR EARLY CAREER SCIENTISTS, BREN SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE &MANAGEMENT;, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA SANTA BARBARA, SCOTT POLAR RESEARCH INSTITUTE, UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
- published: 11 Jan 2009
- views: 417
- author: AntarcticTreaty
Wyatt Roy Speaks to the Antarctic Treaty Amendment Bill
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 13:00
- Updated: 31 Oct 2012
Wyatt Roy speaks in Parliament about measures to protect the Antarctic environment and help seach and rescue operations in the Antarctic region
http://wn.com/Wyatt_Roy_Speaks_to_the_Antarctic_Treaty_Amendment_Bill
Wyatt Roy speaks in Parliament about measures to protect the Antarctic environment and help seach and rescue operations in the Antarctic region
- published: 16 Mar 2012
- views: 108
- author: WyattRoy4Longman
Antarctic Treaty - a short film by Zia Trench
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:18
- Updated: 11 Mar 2012
This documentary was commissioned by the Antarctica Treaty Summit board of scientists protecting the Antarctic for use in 'peaceful purposes only.' Voice-over, script and interviews by Zia Trench.
http://wn.com/Antarctic_Treaty_a_short_film_by_Zia_Trench
This documentary was commissioned by the Antarctica Treaty Summit board of scientists protecting the Antarctic for use in 'peaceful purposes only.' Voice-over, script and interviews by Zia Trench.
- published: 29 Jan 2009
- views: 1054
- author: Ziashere
THE ANTARCTIC TREATY Power of Impossible Ambitions
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:26
- Updated: 02 May 2012
Green College Online channel strives to bring you educational, informative and breaking news from around the globe, focused on the environment, innovation, legislation and sustainability. Creating change. Ensuring sustainability. Empowering you. Please feel free to visit our online campus for more information about our elearning courses: www.greencollegeonline.com Disclaimer: This material is not property of Green College Online. Images, videos, music and other media is used only for awareness and message value. We would like to thank all parties and individuals featured on GCO TV for access to this incredible material and the opportunity to share it.
http://wn.com/THE_ANTARCTIC_TREATY_Power_of_Impossible_Ambitions
Green College Online channel strives to bring you educational, informative and breaking news from around the globe, focused on the environment, innovation, legislation and sustainability. Creating change. Ensuring sustainability. Empowering you. Please feel free to visit our online campus for more information about our elearning courses: www.greencollegeonline.com Disclaimer: This material is not property of Green College Online. Images, videos, music and other media is used only for awareness and message value. We would like to thank all parties and individuals featured on GCO TV for access to this incredible material and the opportunity to share it.
- published: 14 Feb 2012
- views: 42
- author: GreenCollegeOnline
Signing of Antarctic Treaty
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:15
- Updated: 13 Nov 2012
Antarctica is the only continent in the world without a native human population or sovereignty. Instead, it is governed by the Antarctic Treaty System. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by the twelve countries whose scientists had been active in and around Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-58. It entered into force in 1961 and has since been acceded to by many other nations. The total number of Parties to the Treaty is now 50.
http://wn.com/Signing_of_Antarctic_Treaty
Antarctica is the only continent in the world without a native human population or sovereignty. Instead, it is governed by the Antarctic Treaty System. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by the twelve countries whose scientists had been active in and around Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-58. It entered into force in 1961 and has since been acceded to by many other nations. The total number of Parties to the Treaty is now 50.
- published: 11 Nov 2012
- views: 162
- author: LastOceanNZ
StreamServe | 2041 Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:04
- Updated: 13 Apr 2012
2041 was founded by polar explorer, environmental leader and public speaker Robert Swan, OBE, the first person in history to walk to both the North and South poles. Swan has dedicated his life to the preservation of Antarctica by the promotion of recycling, renewable energy and sustainability to combat the effects of climate change. In the year 2041 the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty could potentially be modified or amended. Our aim is to work towards the continuing protection of the Antarctic Treaty so that the last great wilderness on earth is never exploited. StreamServe supports 2041 and has sponsored a student to travel to Antartica with Robert and provide live blogs during this journey.
http://wn.com/StreamServe_|_2041_Protocol_on_Environmental_Protection_to_the_Antarctic_Treaty
2041 was founded by polar explorer, environmental leader and public speaker Robert Swan, OBE, the first person in history to walk to both the North and South poles. Swan has dedicated his life to the preservation of Antarctica by the promotion of recycling, renewable energy and sustainability to combat the effects of climate change. In the year 2041 the Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty could potentially be modified or amended. Our aim is to work towards the continuing protection of the Antarctic Treaty so that the last great wilderness on earth is never exploited. StreamServe supports 2041 and has sponsored a student to travel to Antartica with Robert and provide live blogs during this journey.
- published: 03 Mar 2010
- views: 333
- author: streamservedocs
Dr. Yeadong Kim Antarctic Treaty Summit 2009
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:39
- Updated: 05 Nov 2009
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History. in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq
http://wn.com/Dr_Yeadong_Kim_Antarctic_Treaty_Summit_2009
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History. in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq
- published: 11 Jan 2009
- views: 103
- author: AntarcticTreaty
![International Antarctic Treaty Expedition [full - part 2 of 2]](http://web.archive.org./web/20121213033202im_/http://i.ytimg.com/vi/o6FBZWJU0Q0/default.jpg "International Antarctic Treaty Expedition [full - part 2 of 2]")
International Antarctic Treaty Expedition [full - part 2 of 2]
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:52
- Updated: 09 Jun 2010
[part 2] Full film of the International Antarctic Treaty Expedition, November 16-30, 2009. Filmed, edited, and produced by Kyle O'Donoghue. www.2041.com
http://wn.com/International_Antarctic_Treaty_Expedition_full_part_2_of_2_
[part 2] Full film of the International Antarctic Treaty Expedition, November 16-30, 2009. Filmed, edited, and produced by Kyle O'Donoghue. www.2041.com
- published: 29 Dec 2009
- views: 173
- author: Steven Blumenfeld
Smithsonian Hosts Antarctic Treaty Summit
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:04
- Updated: 28 Sep 2010
In honor of the 50th Anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty, the Smithsonian will host a 4-day symposium from Nov. 30 to Dec. 3 to highlight lessons learned about international governance "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind."
http://wn.com/Smithsonian_Hosts_Antarctic_Treaty_Summit
In honor of the 50th Anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty, the Smithsonian will host a 4-day symposium from Nov. 30 to Dec. 3 to highlight lessons learned about international governance "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind."
- published: 23 Nov 2009
- views: 455
- author: SmithsonianScience
Prof. David Walton Antarctic Treaty Summit 2009
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:00
- Updated: 07 Jun 2011
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History. in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq
http://wn.com/Prof_David_Walton_Antarctic_Treaty_Summit_2009
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History. in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq
- published: 11 Jan 2009
- views: 216
- author: AntarcticTreaty
Antarctica Expedition November 2009 - Robert Swan's 2041 - Part1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:58
- Updated: 21 Apr 2012
Robert Swan's 2041 Antarctica Expedition. 47 students and business leaders from 16 nations on the Inspire Antarctic Treaty Expedition of November 2009. About the preservation of Antarctica and the climate as a whole. How the Antarctic Treaty protects Antarctic from drilling and mining for its possible (fossil) resources. The treaty serves as a leading example of how nations can set aside differences and interests for a common goal: the environment. In the year 2041 this treaty will come up for review and Antarctica will be up for grabs. Promotion of renewable energy can result in a situation where drilling for fossil resources won't make any (economical) sense and Antarctica will remain the last preserved wilderness on earth. Moreover it can abate global warming and the effects it has on parts of Antarctica where temperatures are increasing such as the Peninsula.
http://wn.com/Antarctica_Expedition_November_2009_Robert_Swan's_2041_Part1
Robert Swan's 2041 Antarctica Expedition. 47 students and business leaders from 16 nations on the Inspire Antarctic Treaty Expedition of November 2009. About the preservation of Antarctica and the climate as a whole. How the Antarctic Treaty protects Antarctic from drilling and mining for its possible (fossil) resources. The treaty serves as a leading example of how nations can set aside differences and interests for a common goal: the environment. In the year 2041 this treaty will come up for review and Antarctica will be up for grabs. Promotion of renewable energy can result in a situation where drilling for fossil resources won't make any (economical) sense and Antarctica will remain the last preserved wilderness on earth. Moreover it can abate global warming and the effects it has on parts of Antarctica where temperatures are increasing such as the Peninsula.
- published: 07 Dec 2009
- views: 1017
- author: mrjelties
Amb. Jorge Berguño Antarctic Treaty Summit 2009
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:05
- Updated: 28 Sep 2010
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History. in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq
http://wn.com/Amb_Jorge_Berguño_Antarctic_Treaty_Summit_2009
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History. in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq
- published: 11 Jan 2009
- views: 311
- author: AntarcticTreaty
International Antarctic Treaty Expedition on NDTV
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:35
- Updated: 15 Jul 2012
Clip of me from International Antarctic Treaty Expedition Nov 2009 on 'Green Matters' NDTV 24/7 India on 18 Dec 2009
http://wn.com/International_Antarctic_Treaty_Expedition_on_NDTV
Clip of me from International Antarctic Treaty Expedition Nov 2009 on 'Green Matters' NDTV 24/7 India on 18 Dec 2009
- published: 15 Jul 2012
- views: 22
- author: Steven Blumenfeld
Prof. Paul Berkman Antarctic Treaty Summit 2009
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:30
- Updated: 23 May 2010
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History. in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq
http://wn.com/Prof_Paul_Berkman_Antarctic_Treaty_Summit_2009
Celebrating the 50th anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty on its signature-day in the city where it was signed "with the interests of science and the progress of all mankind" The Antarctic Treaty Summit: Science-Policy Interactions in International Governance will be convened at the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History. in Washington, DC from 30 November - 3 December 2009 To assess legacy lessons about managing nearly 10% of the Earth "for peaceful purposes only" Find out how you can be involved: www.atsummit50.aq
- published: 11 Jan 2009
- views: 303
- author: AntarcticTreaty
2009 Cupro Nickel Antarctic Treaty Coin
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 0:57
- Updated: 02 Feb 2011
Visit www.eaglenationalmint.com for more details. 2009 Unc. Cupro Nickel 50th Anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty Coin
http://wn.com/2009_Cupro_Nickel_Antarctic_Treaty_Coin
Visit www.eaglenationalmint.com for more details. 2009 Unc. Cupro Nickel 50th Anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty Coin
- published: 12 Jan 2011
- views: 63
- author: EagleNationalMint
Signing of the Antarctic Treaty
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:15
- Updated: 14 Nov 2012
Antarctica is the only continent in the world without a native human population or sovereignty. Instead, it is governed by the Antarctic Treaty System. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by the twelve countries whose scientists had been active in and around Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-58. It entered into force in 1961 and has since been acceded to by many other nations. The total number of Parties to the Treaty is now 50.
http://wn.com/Signing_of_the_Antarctic_Treaty
Antarctica is the only continent in the world without a native human population or sovereignty. Instead, it is governed by the Antarctic Treaty System. The Antarctic Treaty was signed in Washington on 1 December 1959 by the twelve countries whose scientists had been active in and around Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957-58. It entered into force in 1961 and has since been acceded to by many other nations. The total number of Parties to the Treaty is now 50.
- published: 13 Nov 2012
- views: 18
- author: LastOceanNZ
photo: AP / Reed Saxon
10 Dec 2012
The wreckage of a small plane believed to be carrying Mexican-American singing superstar Jenni Rivera has been found in northern Mexico and there are no apparent survivors, authorities said. Transportation and Communications Minister Gerardo Ruiz Esparza said on Sunday that "everything points toward" it being the US-registered Learjet 25 carrying Rivera and six other people from Monterrey en route to Toluca, Mexico ... 192 Source. ... Share ... ....(size: 17.5Kb)
photo: AP / Bullit Marquez
11 Dec 2012
The death toll brought about by typhoon “Pablo” continued to rise with 714 persons confirmed dead by the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC) yesterday while those missing ballooned to 890 as massive search, retrieval and relief operations continue in the typhoon-ravaged areas in Mindanao ... 4 ... They were subsequently brought to Caraga Regional Hospital ... (NHMFC) (P100,000) ... With AFP ....(size: 5.4Kb)
photo: AP / Ahn Young-joon
12 Dec 2012
North Korea defied international warnings and fired a long-range rocket on Wednesday, the second launch under its new leader and a clear sign Pyongyang is pushing forward with its quest to develop the technology needed to deliver a nuclear warhead ... But South Korea and Japan said they couldn’t immediately confirm that ... officials could determine whether a North Korean satellite was circling the Earth ... Kim said ... Keywords....(size: 2.7Kb)
photo: USAF / Staff Sgt. Jonathan Lovelady
10 Dec 2012
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. In the desert of central Australia still resides a primitive tribe known as the Arunta. This non-technological and stateless group, which mainly depends on hunting and gathering, had suffered several inexplicable deaths ... Therefore, they organized an atinga, or revenge group ... When the guiltless tribe learned of their approach, they sent out a delegation of young women as a token of peace....(size: 5.8Kb)
photo: AP / Todd Williamson
10 Dec 2012
MÉXICO, D.F., diciembre 9 (EL UNIVERSAL).- La Voz México, programa de talentos de Televisa, confirmó la muerte de la cantante Jenni Rivera, a través de su Twitter. "Que toquen fuerte las bandas, suelten por mí mariposas, apláudanme con sus palmas... http.//twitpic.com/bkmhl0 .Descanse en paz Jenni Rivera" ... Además, anunció un homenaje luctuoso dedicado a la cantante ... Descanse en Paz" ... ....(size: 2.1Kb)
noodls
13 Dec 2012
Minister for Sustainability, Environment, Water, Population and Communities Environment Minister visits Australian Antarctic Territory ... Environment Minister, Tony Burke, today left for Antarctica to gain first-hand experience of the continent and to meet the men and women whose work is critical to the success of the Australian Antarctic program....(size: 3.7Kb)
San Francisco Chronicle
13 Dec 2012
It doesn't need a treaty or official seal of approval to run itself. The treaty gathering, which has attracted more than 190 countries to a two-week parlay in Dubai, has proved out the worst predictions ... A treaty that allows Internet suppression would be a gift to Russian President Vladimir Putin and the controlling mullahs of Tehran ... It shouldn't be subject to a misguided treaty....(size: 1.8Kb)
BBC News
13 Dec 2012
EU leaders believe that the first stage of a banking union - a Single Supervisory Mechanism (SSM) - can be put into place without having to change EU treaties ... The UK's on Wednesday it was "not convinced that an effective banking union can be created within the existing constraints of the European treaties" ... It took seven years for the EU to adopt the Lisbon Treaty....(size: 3.7Kb)
Stuff
13 Dec 2012
But ITU Secretary-General Hamadoun Tour pleaded that the document was part of a balance that gave Western countries most of what they wanted in the more critical binding ITU treaty ... Several in attendance said they expected the conference to take up both the resolution and the treaty itself again on Thursday after factions failed to agree on treaty revisions ... "The US remains committed to keeping the internet out of the ITRs (treaty)." ... ....(size: 4.3Kb)
Reuters
13 Dec 2012
But ITU Secretary-General Hamadoun Touré pleaded that the document was part of a balance that gave Western countries most of what they wanted in the more critical binding ITU treaty ... Several in attendance said they expected the conference to take up both the resolution and the treaty itself again on Thursday after factions failed to agree on treaty revisions ... U.S ... remains committed to keeping the Internet out of the ITRs (treaty)." ... ....(size: 4.1Kb)
Irish Times
13 Dec 2012
HARRY McGEE. FISCAL TREATY CAMPAIGN. The Commission formed to conduct the information campaign for the Fiscal Treaty referendum in May warned the separate Government guide to the issues could create “confusion” among voters ... ....(size: 1.3Kb)
Irish Times
13 Dec 2012
His proposal includes deepening tax co-ordination, which is highly sensitive for Ireland, and it would necessitate treaty change. However, a senior European diplomat said there was no prospect of the summit agreeing a plan in which member states would have to reopen the treaties ... Draft summit conclusions circulated by Mr Van Rompuy said the changes he suggests after 2014 “may imply” a change to the European treaties ... ... ....(size: 3.9Kb)
BBC News
13 Dec 2012
In order to keep to this framework, the legal framework will need to be designed in a way that avoids the need for a change to existing European treaties. A treaty change would open a whole new can of worms - it would need to be negotiated with all the EU governments, including the awkward UK ... In the long run, however, a treaty change looks ......(size: 7.9Kb)
StreetInsider
13 Dec 2012
CMMK is a wholly owned subsidiary of South American Silver Limited, which is a protected investor under the Bilateral Investment Treaty between the United Kingdom and Bolivia (the "UK-Bolivia Treaty"). The acts and omissions of the Bolivian Government are in violation of the UK-Bolivia Treaty and of international law ... under the UK-Bolivia Treaty....(size: 8.5Kb)
Kansas City Star
13 Dec 2012
McAfee told Bloomberg that he’d penned an apology to Guatemalan President Otto Perez Molina “for putting him in a very slippery position in the negotiations of a peace treaty with Belize.” ... Belize and the United States signed an extradition treaty in March 2000, but as long as McAfee is not formally charged with a crime in Belize he appears safe from extradition while in the United States ... ....(size: 4.2Kb)
Kansas City Star
13 Dec 2012
Shameful senators. I am very upset at the votes last week made by Sens. Jerry Moran and Pat Roberts of Kansas (12-6, Editorial, “An irrational treaty vote”). To vote against the U.N ... Sen. Moran said he had to vote his conscience. Why then was I polled on this very question? ... citizens. Moran supported the treaty earlier ... How would Kansans even know that this treaty was up for a vote? Ahhhh, Glenn Beck and Rick Santorum ... Of course....(size: 9.0Kb)
The Register
13 Dec 2012
Irish Times
13 Dec 2012
MARIE O'HALLORAN. The Government was described as a “coalition of the heartless of the gutless” ... The “promise of the democratic revolution is patent nonsense” ... Tánaiste Eamon Gilmore said ... When our economy is sound . ... Independent TD Catherine Murphy said at the time of the Maastricht Treaty Ireland was to get £7.2 billion over five years ... ....(size: 1.8Kb)
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|
| Signed | December 1, 1959 |
|---|---|
| Location | Washington D. C., USA |
| Effective | June 23, 1961 |
| Condition | ratification of all 12 signatories |
| Signatories | 12 |
| Parties | 49 |
| Depository | Government of the United States of America |
| Languages | English, French, Russian and Spanish |
 Antarctic Treaty at Wikisource |
|
The Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, collectively called the Antarctic Treaty System or ATS, regulate international relations with respect to Antarctica, Earth's only continent without a native human population. For the purposes of the treaty system, Antarctica is defined as all of the land and ice shelves south of 60°S latitude. The treaty, entering into force in 1961 and currently having 49 signatory nations, sets aside Antarctica as a scientific preserve, establishes freedom of scientific investigation and bans military activity on that continent. The treaty was the first arms control agreement established during the Cold War. The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat headquarters have been located in Buenos Aires, Argentina, since September 2004.[1]
Contents |
The Antarctic Treaty System[link]
| International ownership treaties |
|---|
| Antarctic Treaty System |
| Law of the Sea |
| Outer Space Treaty |
| Moon Treaty |
| International waters |
| Extraterrestrial real estate |
The main treaty was opened for signature on December 1, 1959, and officially entered into force on June 23, 1961.[2] The original signatories were the 12 countries active in Antarctica during the International Geophysical Year (IGY) of 1957–58. The 12 countries had significant interests in Antarctica at the time: Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States. These countries had established over 50 Antarctic stations for the IGY. The treaty was a diplomatic expression of the operational and scientific cooperation that had been achieved "on the ice".
Articles of the Antarctic Treaty[link]
- Article 1 – The area to be used for peaceful purposes only; military activity, such as weapons testing, is prohibited but military personnel and equipment may be used for scientific research or any other peaceful purpose;
- Article 2 – Freedom of scientific investigations and cooperation shall continue;
- Article 3 – Free exchange of information and personnel in cooperation with the United Nations and other international agencies;
- Article 4 – The treaty does not recognize, dispute, nor establish territorial sovereignty claims; no new claims shall be asserted while the treaty is in force;
- Article 5 – The treaty prohibits nuclear explosions or disposal of radioactive wastes;
- Article 6 – Includes under the treaty all land and ice shelves but not the surrounding waters south of 60 degrees 00 minutes south;
- Article 7 – Treaty-state observers have free access, including aerial observation, to any area and may inspect all stations, installations, and equipment; advance notice of all activities and of the introduction of military personnel must be given;
- Article 8 – Allows for jurisdiction over observers and scientists by their own states;
- Article 9 – Frequent consultative meetings take place among member nations;
- Article 10 – All treaty states will discourage activities by any country in Antarctica that are contrary to the treaty;
- Article 11 – All disputes to be settled peacefully by the parties concerned or, ultimately, by the International Court of Justice;
- Articles 12, 13, 14 – Deal with upholding, interpreting, and amending the treaty among involved nations.
The main objective of the ATS is to ensure in the interests of all humankind that Antarctica shall continue forever to be used exclusively for peaceful purposes and shall not become the scene or object of international discord. The treaty forbids any measures of a military nature, but not the presence of military personnel.
Other agreements[link]
File:Cover AAT 1959.jpg
This 1959 cover commemorated the opening of the Wilkes post office in the Australian Antarctic Territory.
Other agreements — some 200 recommendations adopted at treaty consultative meetings and ratified by governments — include:
- Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora (1964) (entered into force in 1982)
- The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals (1972)
- The Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980)
- The Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities (1988) (signed in 1988, not in force)
- The Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty was signed October 4, 1991 and entered into force January 14, 1998; this agreement prevents development and provides for the protection of the Antarctic environment through five specific annexes on marine pollution, fauna and flora, environmental impact assessments, waste management, and protected areas. It prohibits all activities relating to mineral resources except scientific. A sixth annex — on liability arising from environmental emergencies — was adopted in 2005 but is yet to enter into force.
Meetings[link]
The Antarctic Treaty System's yearly Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings (ATCM) are the international forum for the administration and management of the region. Only 28 of the 49 parties to the agreements have the right to participate in decision-making at these meetings, though the other 20 are still allowed to attend. The decision-making participants are the Consultative Parties and, in addition to the 12 original signatories, include 16 countries that have demonstrated their interest in Antarctica by carrying out substantial scientific activity there.[3]
Members[link]
signatory, consulting, reserved right for territorial claim
signatory, consulting
signatory, acceding status
non-signatory
Note: The table can be sorted alphabetically or chronologically using the 
icon.
| Country[4] | Original signatory | Consultative | Acceding |
|---|---|---|---|
 Argentina  (claim)* |
01961-06-23June 23, 1961 | ||
 Australia (claim) |
01961-06-23June 23, 1961 | ||
 Austria |
01987-08-25August 25, 1987 | ||
 Belarus |
02006-12-27December 27, 2006 | ||
 Belgium |
01960-07-26July 26, 1960 | ||
 Brazil |
01983-09-12September 12, 1983 | 01975-05-16May 16, 1975 | |
 Bulgaria |
01998-05-25May 25, 1998 | 01978-09-11September 11, 1978 | |
 Canada |
01988-05-04May 4, 1988 | ||
 Chile  (claim)* |
01961-06-23June 23, 1961 | ||
 People's Republic of China |
01985-10-07October 7, 1985 | 01983-06-08June 8, 1983 | |
 Colombia |
01989-01-31January 31, 1989 | ||
 Cuba |
01984-08-16August 16, 1984 | ||
 Czech Republic (as  Czechoslovakia) |
01962-06-14June 14, 1962 | ||
 Denmark |
01965-05-20May 20, 1965 | ||
 Ecuador |
01990-11-19November 19, 1990 | 01987-09-15September 15, 1987 | |
 Estonia |
02001-05-17May 17, 2001 | ||
 Finland |
01989-10-09October 9, 1989 | 01984-05-15May 15, 1984 | |
 France  (claim) |
01960-09-16September 16, 1960 | ||
 Germany (claim) (rests since 1945) East Germany |
01981-03-03March 3, 1981 October 5, 1987 |
01979-02-05February 5, 1979 November 19, 1974 |
|
 Greece |
01987-01-08January 8, 1987 | ||
 Guatemala |
01991-07-31July 31, 1991 | ||
 Hungary |
01984-01-27January 27, 1984 | ||
 India |
01983-09-12September 12, 1983 | 01983-08-19August 19, 1983 | |
 Italy |
01987-10-05October 5, 1987 | 01981-03-18March 18, 1981 | |
 Japan |
01960-08-04August 4, 1960 | ||
 Malaysia |
02011-10-31October 31, 2011 | ||
 Monaco |
02008-05-30May 30, 2008 | ||
 Netherlands |
01990-11-19November 19, 1990 | 01967-03-30March 30, 1967 | |
 New Zealand (claim) |
01960-11-01November 1, 1960 | ||
 North Korea |
01987-01-21January 21, 1987 | ||
 Norway (claim) |
01960-08-24August 24, 1960 | ||
 Papua New Guinea |
01981-03-16March 16, 1981 | ||
 Peru |
01989-10-09October 9, 1989 | 01981-04-10April 10, 1981 | |
 Poland |
01977-01-29January 29, 1977 | 01961-06-23June 23, 1961 | |
 Portugal |
02010-01-29January 29, 2010 | ||
 Romania |
01971-09-15September 15, 1971 | ||
 Russia (as  Soviet Union)** |
01960-11-02November 2, 1960 | ||
 Slovakia (as Czechoslovakia) |
01962-06-14June 14, 1962 | ||
 South Africa[5] |
01960-06-21June 21, 1960 | ||
 South Korea |
01989-10-09October 9, 1989 | 01986-11-28November 28, 1986 | |
 Spain |
01988-09-21September 21, 1988 | 01982-03-31March 31, 1982 | |
 Sweden |
01988-09-21September 21, 1988 | 01984-03-24March 24, 1984 | |
 Switzerland |
01990-11-15November 15, 1990 | ||
 Turkey |
01996-01-25January 25, 1996 | ||
 Ukraine |
02004-05-27May 27, 2004 | 01992-10-28October 28, 1992 | |
 United Kingdom  (claim)* |
01960-05-31May 31, 1960 | ||
 United States** |
01960-08-18August 18, 1960 | ||
 Uruguay |
01985-10-07October 7, 1985 | 01980-01-11January 11, 1980 | |
 Venezuela |
01999-05-24May 24, 1999 | ||
* Claims overlap.
** Reserved the right to claim areas.
Currently[update], there are 49 treaty member nations: 28 consultative and 21 acceding. Consultative (voting) members include the seven nations that claim portions of Antarctica as national territory. The 21 non-claimant nations either do not recognize the claims of others, or have not stated their positions.
Antarctic Treaty Secretariat[link]
Main article: Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in Buenos Aires, Argentina in September 2004 by the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM). Jan Huber (Netherlands) served as the first Executive Secretary for five years until August 31, 2009. He was succeeded on September 1, 2009 by Manfred Reinke (Germany), appointed for a four-year term.
The tasks of the Antarctic Treaty Secretariat can be divided into the following areas:
- Supporting the annual Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM) and the meeting of the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP).
- Facilitating the exchange of information between the Parties required in the Treaty and the Environment Protocol.
- Collecting, storing, arranging and publishing the documents of the ATCM.
- Providing and disseminating public information about the Antarctic Treaty system and Antarctic activities.
Legal system[link]
Antarctica has no permanent population and hence no citizenship or government. All personnel present on Antarctica at any time are citizens or nationals of some sovereignty outside of Antarctica, as there is no Antarctic sovereignty. The majority of Antarctica is claimed by one or more countries, but most countries do not explicitly recognize those claims. The area on the mainland between 90 degrees west and 150 degrees west, combined with the interior of the Norwegian Sector (the extent of which has never been officially defined)[citation needed], is the only major land on Earth not claimed by any country.[6]
Governments that are party to the Antarctic Treaty and its Protocol on Environmental Protection implement the articles of these agreements, and decisions taken under them, through national laws. These laws generally apply only to their own citizens, wherever they are in Antarctica, and serve to enforce the consensus decisions of the consultative parties: about which activities are acceptable, which areas require permits to enter, what processes of environmental impact assessment must precede activities, and so on. The Antarctic Treaty is often considered to represent an example of the Common heritage of mankind principle.[7]
Argentina[link]
According to Argentine regulations, any crime committed within 50 kilometers of any Argentine base is to be judged in Ushuaia (as capital of Tierra del Fuego, Antarctica, and South Atlantic Islands). In the part of Argentine Antarctica that is also claimed by Chile and UK, the person to be judged can ask to be transferred there.[citation needed]
Australia[link]
Since the designation of the Australian Antarctic Territory pre-dated the signing of the Antarctic Treaty, some of the complex suite of Australian laws that relate to Antarctica date from more than two decades before the Antarctic Treaty era. In terms of criminal law, the laws that apply to the Jervis Bay Territory (which follows the laws of the Australian Capital Territory) apply to the Australian Antarctic Territory. Key Australian legislation applying Antarctic Treaty System decisions include the Antarctic Treaty Act 1960, the Antarctic Treaty (Environment Protection) Act 1980 and the Antarctic Marine Living Resources Conservation Act 1981.[8]
United States[link]
The law of the United States, including certain criminal offenses by or against U.S. nationals, such as murder, may apply to areas not under jurisdiction of other countries. To this end, the United States now stations special deputy U.S. Marshals in Antarctica to provide a law enforcement presence.[9]
Some U.S. laws directly apply to Antarctica. For example, the Antarctic Conservation Act, Public Law 95-541, 16 U.S.C. § 2401 et seq., provides civil and criminal penalties for the following activities, unless authorized by regulation or statute:
- the taking of native Antarctic mammals or birds
- the introduction into Antarctica of non-indigenous plants and animals
- entry into specially protected or scientific areas
- the discharge or disposal of pollutants into Antarctica or Antarctic waters
- the importation into the U.S. of certain items from Antarctica
Violation of the Antarctic Conservation Act carries penalties of up to US$10,000 in fines and one year in prison. The Departments of the Treasury, Commerce, Transportation, and the Interior share enforcement responsibilities.[citation needed] The Act requires expeditions from the U.S. to Antarctica to notify, in advance, the Office of Oceans and Polar Affairs of the State Department, which reports such plans to other nations as required by the Antarctic Treaty.[citation needed] Further information is provided by the Office of Polar Programs of the National Science Foundation.[citation needed]
New Zealand[link]
In 2006, the New Zealand police reported that jurisdictional issues prevented them issuing warrants for potential American witnesses who were reluctant to testify during the Christchurch Coroner's investigation into the death by poisoning of Australian astrophysicist Rodney Marks at the South Pole base in May 2000.[10][11] Dr. Marks died while wintering over at the United States' Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station located at the geographic South Pole. Prior to autopsy, the death was attributed to natural causes by the National Science Foundation and the contractor administering the base. However, an autopsy in New Zealand revealed that Dr. Marks died from methanol poisoning. The New Zealand Police launched an investigation. In 2006, frustrated by lack of progress, the Christchurch Coroner said that it was unlikely that Dr. Marks ingested the methanol knowingly, although there is no certainty that he died as the direct result of the act of another person. During media interviews, the police detective in charge of the investigation criticized the National Science Foundation and contractor Raytheon for failing to co-operate with the investigation.[12][13][14]
South Africa[link]
South African law applies to all South African citizens in Antarctica, and they are subject to the jurisdiction of the magistrate's court in Cape Town.[15] In regard to violations of the Antarctic Treaty and related agreements, South Africa also asserts jurisdiction over South African residents and members of expeditions organised in South Africa.[16]
See also[link]
- Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition (ASOC)
- Arctic Council
- Continental organizations
- Multilateral treaty
References[link]
- ^ ATS.aq
- ^ "Information about the Antarctic Treaty and how Antarctica is governed.". Polar Conservation Organisation. December 28, 2005. http://polarconservation.org/education/plonearticle.2005-12-28.3597747204. Retrieved February 6, 2011.
- ^ Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
- ^ "Secretariat of the Antarctic Treaty: Parties". http://www.ats.aq/devAS/ats_parties.aspx?lang=e. Retrieved May 23, 2009.
- ^ "Antarctic Treaty System (ATS)". Department of International Relations and Cooperation. http://www.dfa.gov.za/foreign/Multilateral/inter/ats.htm. Retrieved October 5, 2010.
- ^ Wright, Minturn, "The Ownership of Antarctica, Its Living and Mineral Resources", Journal of Law and the Environment 4 (1987).
- ^ Jennifer Frakes, The Common Heritage of Mankind Principle and the Deep Seabed, Outer Space, and Antarctica: Will Developed and Developing Nations Reach a Compromise? Wisconsin International Law Journal. 2003; 21:409
- ^ Australian Antarctic Division – Australian environmental law and guidelines
- ^ Marshals and Antarctica
- ^ Hotere, Andrea. "South Pole death file still open". Sunday Star Times, December 17, 2006. Retrieved on December 19, 2006.
- ^ Deutsche Presse-Agentur. "Death of Australian astrophysicist an Antarctic whodunnit". Monstersandcritics.com, December 14, 2006. Retrieved on December 19, 2006.
- ^ Chapman, Paul. "New Zealand Probes What May Be First South Pole Murder". The Daily Telegraph, (December 14, 2006), reprinted in The New York Sun (December 19, 2006). Retrieved on December 19, 2006.
- ^ Booker, Jarrod. "South Pole scientist may have been poisoned". The New Zealand Herald, (December 14, 2006). Retrieved on December 19, 2006.
- ^ "South Pole Death Mystery – Who killed Rodney Marks?" Sunday Star Times (January 21, 2007)
- ^ Section 2 of the South African Citizens in Antarctica Act, No. 55 of 1962, as amended by the Environmental Laws Rationalisation Act, No. 51 of 1997.
- ^ Antarctic Treaties Act, No. 60 of 1996.
External links[link]
 |
Wikisource has original text related to this article: |
- Antarctic Treaty Secretariat
- Full Text of the Antarctic Treaty
- Australian Antarctic Territory
- National Science Foundation – Office of Polar Programs
- List of all Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meetings
- An Antarctic Solution for the Koreas San Diego Union-Tribune, August 25, 2005 (Both South Korea and North Korea are members of the Antarctic Treaty)
- Emblem of the Antarctic Treaty
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other uses, see David Walton (disambiguation).
David Robert Walton (May 30, 1963 – June 21, 2006) was a British economist, and a member of the Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee from July 2005 until his death in June 2006.[1]
Walton gained a BA in Economics and Politics with first class honours at Van Mildert College, Durham University in 1984. After graduating Walton took a position at HM Treasury working as an economist. He held this position until 1986 when he left to pursue an MA in Economics at University of Warwick, in which he gained a distinction. He joined the economics team at Goldman Sachs in 1987. In 2003 he was appointed as their Chief European Economist and as the Chairman of the Society of Business Economists. In 2005 became a Visiting Research Professor at the University of Oxford's Economics Department, and joined the Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee.
David Walton died on June 21, 2006 after contracting necrotising fasciitis, possibly occurring from the urinary tract.[2] In his final meeting, Walton was the only member preferring an increase in the interest rate, the other seven members voting to maintain the rate at 4.5%.[3] Walton had also been the only member supporting such an increase in the previous month's meeting.[4]
References[link]
- ^ "David Walton: Powerhouse City economist". The Independent (London). 23 June 2006. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/david-walton-405087.html.
- ^ Koster, Olinka (11 January 2007). "Flesh-eating bug killed top economist in 24 hours". Daily Mail (London). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/news/news.html?in_article_id=428234&in_page_id=1770.
- ^ Minutes of the Monetary Policy Committee meeting held on 7-8 June 2006
- ^ Minutes of the Monetary Policy Committee Meeting held on 3 and 4 May 2006
| The Bank of England's Monetary Policy Committee | ||
|---|---|---|
 |
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| Governor: Mervyn King (June 2003–present) | ||
| July 2005-January 2006: | King | Nickell | Bean | Barker | Tucker | Large | Lambert | Lomax | Walton | |
| February 2006-March 2006: | King | Nickell | Bean | Barker | Tucker | Lambert | Lomax | Walton | Gieve | |
| April 2006-May 2006: | King | Nickell | Bean | Barker | Tucker | Lomax | Walton | Gieve | |
| June 2006: | King | Bean | Barker | Tucker | Lomax | Walton | Gieve | Blanchflower | |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Walton, David |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | British economist |
| Date of birth | May 30, 1963 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | June 21, 2006 |
| Place of death | |
 |
This biography of a British economist is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. |
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For those of a similar name, see Robert Swann (disambiguation).
 |
This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (October 2010) |
Robert Charles Swan, OBE, FRGS is the first person to walk to both Poles.[1]
He was born on 28 July 1956 in Durham, England and attended Aysgarth School and then Sedbergh School (1969–1974) before completing a BA degree in Ancient History (1976–1979) at St Chad's College, Durham University. He is currently an advocate for the protection of Antarctica and renewable energy. Swan is also the founder of 2041, a company which is dedicated to the preservation of the Antarctic[2] and the author with Gil Reavill of Antarctica 2041: My Quest to Save the Earth's Last Wilderness.[3]
Contents
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"In the Footsteps of Scott" (1984–1987)[link]
Southern Quest set sail on November 3, 1984 to travel the 14,842 nautical miles (27,487 km) to Antarctica. The expedition stopped over in Lyttelton, New Zealand to meet Bill Burton, who at 96 years old was the last surviving member of Scott's expedition in 1912. Swan's initial Antarctic expedition was thus officially dubbed "In the Footsteps of Scott". Upon arrival on the frozen continent, Swan and his team spent the Antarctic winter at the 'Jack Hayward' base with colleagues John Tolson and Dr. Michael Stroud. When the winter had passed, Swan, Mear, and Wood set out to walk 900 miles (1,400 km) to the South Pole. They arrived at the South Pole on 11 January 1986, after 70 days without the aid of any radio communications or back-up support and having hauled 350 lb (160 kg) sledges. Swan's team had achieved the longest unassisted march ever made in history. Once at the pole, they received the bad news that their ship, Southern Quest, had been crushed by pack ice and had sunk, just minutes before they arrived. There was much criticism of the adventure from the scientists working in Antarctica as time and money had to be spent in flying some of the party back out to New Zealand. However, Swan returned in 1987 with a ship to collect the rest of the team at 'Jack Hayward' base and to remove all traces of his expedition, i.e., rubbish and remaining stores.
The North Pole (1987–1989)[link]
Three years after reaching the South Pole, Swan assembled a team of eight people from seven nations for an attempt at the North Pole. The team consisted of Dr. Misha Malakhov from Russia, Rupert Summerson of the UK, Graeme Joy of Australia, Arved Fuchs of Germany, Hiroshi Onishi from Japan, Angus Cockney of the Inuit, and Daryl E. Roberts of the USA. The expedition was called "Icewalk". Icewalk's base camp held 22 representatives from 15 different nations. They produced a series of educational films there and facilitated the removal of rubbish from the surrounding Arctic wilderness. Swan and his team reached the North Pole on 14 May 1989. The team nearly drowned during their expedition to the North Pole, due to the unseasonable melting of Arctic ice. Their journey made Swan the first man to walk to both the North and South poles.
From Earth Summit to World Summit (1992–2002)[link]
In 1992, Swan was invited by the United Nations to be a keynote speaker to the first Earth Summit for Sustainable Development, held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. In response to the world leaders' challenge to "think global act local", Swan made a commitment to deliver a global and local environmental mission involving industry, business, and young people to the next World Summit in 2002.
In 1996–97 he organized One Step Beyond, The South Pole Challenge, which brought 35 young adventurers from 25 nations together in Antarctica. They came together to define the global mission that Swan had been tasked with at the Earth Summit. The mission was to remove and recycle 1,500 tons of waste that had been left at Bellinghausen station in Antarctica after decades of scientific research. The team worked for eight years to raise the money, plan, and execute the mission. The rubbish at the Russian base of Bellinghausen, King George Island, was finally cleared and the native penguins reclaimed their beach for the first time in 47 years. After the cleanup, Swan noticed a small, disused scientists' station on the horizon at King George Island. It sparked an idea that generated the concept of the "E-base" – the world's first education station in Antarctica.
Having fulfilled the challenge for a global mission by cleaning up Bellinghausen station, Swan turned his efforts to a local mission. In 2002, Swan and his '2041' sailboat embarked on the longest overland 'voyage' in history. The voyage's destination was the 2002 World Summit for Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, South Africa. Swan partnered with 'loveLife' – a charity battling AIDS in South Africa.
The 'voyage' reached out to over 750,000 young people across South Africa. During the World Summit, the 'Ice Station' exhibit was visited by 128 world leaders and 35,000 visitors, including 12,000 young people. It was awarded first prize for outstanding contribution to the World Summit.
Swan was once again charged by the world leaders to continue his mission and report back at the next World Summit for Sustainable Development, ten years later, in 2012.
'2041' and Inspire Antarctic Expeditions (2003–2008)[link]
Swan's 67' foot racing yacht '2041' is named after the year in which the 'Madrid Protocol' comes up for debate. The protocol, signed by nearly every nation, provides additional protection for the Antarctic Treaty and designates the continent as "a Natural Reserve Land for Science and Peace". It also places a ban on mining and mineral exploration in Antarctica for 50 years (1991–2041).
The Cape to Rio Yacht Race, January – April 2003[link]
As the first step to the 2012 World Summit, Swan brought a team of young African leaders on '2041' for the "Cape to Rio Yacht Race".
The Circumnavigation of Africa, May 2003 – May 2004[link]
Returning from the Rio, the yacht embarked on "The Circumnavigation of Africa". The voyage promoted AIDS awareness, water saving, and recycling whilst visiting over 30 ports.
Along the route, communities came out in force to participate in clean-up projects with the aim of improving their immediate environment. Three young men from 'loveLife' were chosen by Swan to become the first African crew in history to circumnavigate their own continent.[citation needed]
The Sydney Hobart Yacht Race, December 2004 – January 2005[link]
Continuing on her journey towards the 2012 World Summit, Swan entered sailboat '2041' in the Sydney Hobart Yacht Race with the world's first sails made entirely from recycled plastic (PET) bottles. '2041' was crewed by industry leaders and teachers selected for their outstanding inspiration for young people. The sailboat finished 24th in the race.
Inspire Antarctic Expeditions, 2003 – present[link]
After 23 years of sustainable leadership and teamwork experience, Swan led the first corporate expedition to Antarctica in 2003. The expedition members witnessed firsthand the effects of climate change in Antarctica. They were tasked by Swan to become leaders in sustainability upon their return home. Between the 2003 – 2007 expeditions, Swan's dream of building the E-base became a reality. Each successive year's expedition members helped plan, build, and promote the E-base—the world's first education station in Antarctica to be used as a resource for teachers and young people from around the world.
The E-base and the Voyage for Cleaner Energy, 2008 – present[link]
"The E-base Goes Live", March 2008[link]
Powered entirely on renewable energy, Swan and a small team lived and sent broadcasts from the E-base via the internet for two weeks. It was the first time in history that a team had attempted to survive in Antarctica relying solely on renewable energy. Their mission was successful, and the team departed the continent after the allotted two weeks in good health.
The Voyage for Cleaner Energy, April 2008 – present[link]
On April 8, 2008, the Voyage for Cleaner Energy and '2041' sailboat launched from San Francisco, California. '2041' was refitted to operate entirely on wind, solar, and biodiesel generated energy. '2041' and Swan engaged in a multi-city tour of the West Coast of the USA to highlight renewable energy and engage the youth of the world to take positive steps toward renewable, sustainable energy practices. April 8, 2008 was officially deemed "Robert Swan Day" in San Francisco at the bequest of Mayor Gavin Newsom.
Awards, Honors & Publications[link]
- 1987 In the Footsteps of Scott published by Jonathon Cape, authored by Swan and Roger Mear
- 1988 Swan was awarded the Polar Medal by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II[4]
- 1988 Destination: Antarctica published by Scholastic, Inc.
- 1989 Official Flag Bearer for the Explorers Club of New York to the North Pole (USA)
- 1989 Appointed United Nations Environment Program Goodwill Ambassador (UNEP)
- 1990 Winner of the United Nations Global 500 award
- 1990 Icewalk published by Icewalk Features
- 1992 Appointed United Nations Education/Science and Cultural Organization Goodwill Ambassador with Special Responsibility for Youth (UNESCO)
- 1992 Visiting Professor of the School of Environment, Leeds Metropolitan University (UK)
- 1993 Founded the Robert Swan Foundation – a registered charity for the promotion of youth and scientific endeavors in the environment
- 1993 Doctorate of Letters, The Robert Gordon University (UK)
- 1994 Appointed Special Envoy to the Director General of UNESCO
- 1995 Awarded OBE by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II
- 1998 Smithsonian Award for the Information technology in Education & Academia (USA)
- 2000 Honorary Member of the Amstel Club, the Netherlands
- 2000 2041: The Voyage South published by Hayloft Publishing
- 2002 Vice President of the Countryside Management Association (UK)
- 2005 Awarded 'Freedom of the City of London'
- 2005 Elected, by membership vote, Honorary President of the 'Ski Club of Great Britain'
- 2006 Honorary Fellow at St. Chad's College, Durham University (UK)
- April 5, 2008 torchbearer of the 2008 Summer Olympics torch relay in St Petersburg, Russia[5]
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ "Explore Records > First person to walk to both poles". Guinness World Records. http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/records-1/first-person-to-walk-to-both-poles/. Retrieved 2012-02-27.
- ^ "Who we are". 2041.com. 2041. http://www.2041.com/about-2041/. Retrieved 2012-02-27.
- ^ Swan, Robert; Reavill, Gil (2009). Antarctica 2041: my quest to save the earth's last wilderness (illustrated ed.). Broadway Books. ISBN 978-0-7679-3175-5.
- ^ London Gazette: (Supplement) no. 51209. p. 885. 26 January 1988. Retrieved 2008-12-05.
- ^ Олимпийский огонь понесут Друзь, Фрейндлих и Плющенко, Komsomolskaya Pravda, 4 April 2008
External links[link]
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Swan, Robert |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 1956 |
| Place of birth | |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
http://wn.com/Robert_Swan
This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Swan
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
