- published: 09 Jan 2009
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- author: kiko888heyya
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Achaemenid Empire
The Achaemenid Empire (/ækəˈmɛnɪˌdi/; Old Persian: Parsā, name of ruling dynasty: Haxāmanišiya) (c. 550–330 BCE), sometimes known as First Persian Empire, was an Iranian empire in Southwest Asia, founded in the 6th century BCE by Cyrus the Great who overthrew the Median confederation. It expanded to eventually rule over significant portions of the ancient world which at around 500 BCE stretched from the Indus Valley in the east, to Thrace and Macedon on the northeastern border of Greece making it the biggest empire the world had yet seen. The Achaemenid Empire would eventually control Egypt as well. It was ruled by a series of monarchs who unified its disparate tribes and nationalities by constructing a complex network of roads.
Calling themselves the Parsa after their original Aryan tribal name Parsua, Persians settled in a land which they named Parsua, bounded on the west by the Tigris River and on the south by the Persian Gulf. This became their heartland for the duration of the Achaemenid Empire. It was from this region that eventually Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II of Persia) would advance to defeat the Median, the Lydian, and the Babylonian Empires, opening the way for subsequent conquests into Egypt and Asia minor.
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Akkadian Empire
Coordinates: 33°6′N 44°6′E / 33.1°N 44.1°E / 33.1; 44.1
The Akkadian Empire (Akkadian URUAkkad KI, Hittite KUR A.GA.DÈ.KI "land of Akkad"; Biblical Hebrew אַכַּד Akkad) was an empire centered in the city of Akkad (Sumerian: Agade) and its surrounding region in Mesopotamia.
During the 3rd millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism.Akkadian gradually replaced Sumerian as a spoken language somewhere around the turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate).
The Akkadian Empire reached its political peak between the 24th and 22nd centuries BC, following the conquests of its founder Sargon of Akkad (2334–2279 BC). Under Sargon and his successors, Akkadian language was briefly imposed on neighboring conquered states such as Elam. Akkad is sometimes regarded as the first empire in history, though there are earlier Sumerian claimants.[citation needed]
The precise archaeological site of the city of Akkad has not yet been found.[citation needed] The form Agade appears in Sumerian, for example in the Sumerian King List; the later Assyro-Babylonian form Akkadû ("of or belonging to Akkad") was likely derived from this. The etymology and meaning of Akkad (written a.ga.dèKI or URIKI) are unknown. Centuries later, the neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus mentioned in his archaeological records that Ishtar's worship in Agade was later superseded by that of the goddess Anunit, whose shrine was at Sippar—suggesting proximity of Sippar and Agade. Despite numerous searches, the city has never been found. One theory holds that Agade was situated opposite Sippar on the left bank of the Euphrates, and was perhaps the oldest part of the city of Sippar. Another theory is that the ruins of Akkad are to be found beneath modern Baghdad. Reputedly it was destroyed by invading Gutians with the fall of the Akkadian Empire.
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Americas
The Americas, or America, are lands in the Western hemisphere, also known as the New World.
In the English language, the Americas refers to the landmasses of North America and South America with their associated islands and regions, whereas America, in current usage, usually refers to the United States of America.
The Americas cover 8.3% of the Earth's total surface area (28.4% of its land area) and contain about 13.5% of the human population (about 900 million people).
The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000–17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct pleistocene megafauna along ice-free corridors that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific Northwest coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of hundreds of meters following the last ice age.
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Austrian Empire
The Austrian Empire (German: Kaiserthum Oesterreich, modern spelling Kaisertum Österreich) was a modern era successor empire, which was centered on what is today's Austria and which officially lasted from 1804 to 1867. It was followed by the Empire of Austria-Hungary, whose proclamation was a diplomatic move that elevated Hungary's status within the Austrian Empire as a result of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867. The Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867 to 1918) was itself dissolved by the victors at the end of World War I and broken into separate new states.
The term "Austrian Empire" is also used for the Habsburg possessions before 1804, which had no official collective name, although Austria is more frequent; the term of Austria-Hungary has also been used.[citation needed]
The Austrian Empire was founded by the Habsburg monarch Holy Roman Emperor Francis II (who became Emperor Francis I of Austria), as a state comprising his personal lands within and outside of the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation.
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Balberta
Balberta is a major Mesoamerican archaeological site on the Pacific coastal plain of southern Guatemala, belonging to the Maya civilization. It has been dated to the Early Classic period and is the only known major site on the Guatemalan Pacific coastal plain to have exposed Early Classic architecture that has not been buried under posterior Late Classic construction. The site was related to the nearby site of San Antonio, which lies 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) to the west.
Balberta first appears to have been occupied in the Late Preclassic period, when it was a small site of minor importance. After a period of rapid growth it became one of the largest Early Classic sites on the Guatemalan Pacific coast and reached the height of its power between AD 200 and AD 400, after which it rapidly declined and was replaced by a new capital at the nearby site of Montana. It traded with the distant metropolis of Teotihuacan in the Valley of Mexico, with other recovered artifacts having their origin on the Gulf coast of Mexico.Cacao was probably one of the city's main exports, being a particularly valued perishable product in Mesoamerica. At its height Balberta demonstrated true state-level political organisation and dominated a wide swathe of the Guatemalan coast. Balberta was suddenly abandoned around AD 400.
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Becan
Becan (Spanish: Becán) is an archaeological site of the Maya civilization in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica. Becan is located near the center of the Yucatán Peninsula, in the present-day Mexican state of Campeche, about 150 km (93.2 mi) north of Tikal. The Maya sites of Balamku, Calakmul, Chicanna and Xpuhil are nearby. The name Becan was bestowed on the site by archaeologists who rediscovered the site, meaning "ravine or canyon formed by water" in Yukatek Maya, after the site's most prominent and unusual feature, its surrounding ditch.
Archaeological evidence shows that Becan was occupied in the middle Pre-Classic period (see: Mesoamerican chronology), about 550 BCE, and grew to a major population and ceremonial center a few hundred years later in the late Preclassic. The population and scale of construction declined in the early classic (c 250 CE), although it was still a significant site, and trade goods from Teotihuacan have been found. A ditch and ramparts were constructed around the site at this time. There is a ditch that runs the circumference of the city which covers approximately 25 hectares (61.7 acres). Around 500 the population again increased dramatically and many large new buildings were constructed, mostly in the Rio Bec style of Maya architecture. Construction of major buildings and elite monuments stopped about 830, although ceramic evidence show that the site continued to be occupied for some time thereafter, although the population went into decline and Becan was probably abandoned by about 1200.
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British Empire
The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates, mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. It originated with the overseas colonies and trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. At its height, it was the largest empire in history and, for over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922 the British Empire held sway over about 458 million people, one-fifth of the world's population at the time, and covered more than 33,700,000 km2 (13,012,000 sq mi), almost a quarter of the Earth's total land area. As a result, its political, linguistic and cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least one of its numerous territories.
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Portugal and Spain pioneered European exploration of the globe, and in the process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great wealth these empires generated, England, France and the Netherlands began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries with the Netherlands and France left England (and then, following union between England and Scotland in 1707, Great Britain) the dominant colonial power in North America and India. The loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North America in 1783 after a war of independence deprived Britain of some of its oldest and most populous colonies.
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Cacaxtla
Cacaxtla is an archaeological site located near the southern border of the Mexican state of Tlaxcala. It was a sprawling palace containing vibrantly colored murals painted in unmistakable Maya style. The nearby site of Xochitecatl was a more public ceremonial complex associated with Cacaxtla. Cacaxtla and Xochitecatl prospered 650-900 CE, probably controlling important trade routes through the region with an enclave population of no more than 10,000 people.
Cacaxtla was the capital of region inhabited by the Olmeca-Xicalanca people. The origins of the Olmeca-Xicalanca are not known with certainty, but they are assumed to come from the Gulf coast region, and were perhaps Maya settlers who arrived in this part of central Mexico around 400 CE.
The term "Olmeca-Xicalanca" was first mentioned by Tlaxcalan historian Diego Muñoz Camargo at the end of the 16th century. This historian described Cacaxtla as the principal settlement of the “Olmeca”, although what we today refer to as the Olmec culture ended ~400 BCE, that is, almost 800 years earlier.
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Calakmul
Calakmul (also Kalakmul and other less frequent variants) is a Maya archaeological site in the Mexican state of Campeche, deep in the jungles of the greater Petén Basin region. It is 35 kilometres (22 mi) from the Guatemalan border. Calakmul was one of the largest and most powerful ancient cities ever uncovered in the Maya lowlands. Calakmul is a modern name, in ancient times the city core was known as Ox Te' Tuun.
Calakmul was a major Maya power within the northern Peten region of the Yucatan of southern Mexico. Calakmul administered a large domain marked by the extensive distribution of their emblem glyph of the snake head sign, to be read "Kaan". Calakmul was the seat of what has been dubbed the Kingdom of the Snake or Snake Kingdom. This Snake Kingdom reigned during most of the Classic period. Calakmul itself is estimated to have had a population of 50,000 people and had governance, at times, over places as far away as 150 kilometers. There are 6,750 ancient structures identified at Calakmul the largest of which is the great pyramid at the site. Structure 2 is over 45 metres (148 ft) high, making it one of the tallest of the Maya pyramids. Four tombs have been located within the pyramid. Like many temples or pyramids within Mesoamerica the pyramid at Calakmul increased in size by building upon the existing temple to reach its current size. The size of the central monumental architecture is approximately 2 square kilometres (0.77 sq mi) and the whole of the site, mostly covered with dense residential structures, is about 20 square kilometres (7.7 sq mi).
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Caliphate of Córdoba
The Caliphate of Córdoba (Arabic: خلافة قرطبة; trans. Khilāfat Qurṭuba) ruled the Iberian peninsula (Al-Andalus) and part of North Africa, from the islamic Qurtuba (Córdoba) city, from 929 to 1031. This period was characterized by remarkable success in trade and culture; many of the masterpieces of Islamic Iberia were constructed in this period, including the famous Great Mosque of Córdoba. In January 929, Abd-ar-Rahman III proclaimed himself Caliph (Arabic: خليفة) of Qurtuba in place of his original title Emir of Córdoba (Arabic: أمير قرطبة 'Amīr Qurṭuba). Abd-ar-Rahman III was a member of the Umayyad dynasty; the same dynasty who held the titles of Emir of Córdoba since 756. The rule of the Caliphate is known as the heyday of Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula. The Caliphate was practically disintegrated due to civil war (fitna) between descendants of the last legitimate Caliph Hisham II and the successors of his prime minister (hayib) Al-Mansur. The shell of the Caliphate existed until 1031 when, after years of infighting, it fractured into a number of independent Taifa kingdoms. Despite these fractures, the Islamic civilisation in Iberia, one of the most culturally florid periods of European civilisation, continued until 1492 when its last bastion, the Alhambra in Granada, was formally surrendered to the Christians.
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Casas Grandes
Casas Grandes (Spanish for Great Houses; also known as Paquimé) is the contemporary name given to a pre-Columbian archaeological zone and its central site, located in northwestern Mexico in the modern-day Mexican state of Chihuahua. It is one of the largest and most complex sites in the region. Developed as multi-storied dwellings about 1350 CE after earlier settlement beginning after 1130 CE, the community was abandoned approximately 1450 CE. Regarded as one of the most significant archaeological zones in the northwestern region, Casas Grandes is located in a wide, fertile valley on the Casas Grandes or San Miguel River, 35 miles (56 km) south of Janos and 150 miles (240 km) northwest of the state capital, the city of Chihuahua. The settlement relied on irrigation to support its agriculture. Casas Grandes has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The archaeological zone is contained within the eponymous modern municipio (municipality) of Casas Grandes. The valley and region have been inhabited by indigenous groups for thousands of years.
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Chichen Itza
Chichen Itza ((
/tʃiːˈtʃɛn iːˈtsɑː/,Spanish: Chichén Itzá [tʃiˈtʃen iˈtsa], from Yucatec Maya: Chi'ch'èen Ìitsha' [tɕʰɨɪʼtɕʼeːn˧˩ iː˧˩tsʰaʲ]; "at the mouth of the well of the Itza"), was a large pre-Columbian city built by the Maya civilization. The archaeological site is located in the municipality of Tinum, in the Mexican state of Yucatán.
Chichen Itza was a major focal point in the northern Maya lowlands from the Late Classic (c.600–900 AD) through the Terminal Classic (c.800–900) and into the early portion of the Early Postclassic period (c.900–1200). The site exhibits a multitude of architectural styles, reminiscent of styles seen in central Mexico and of the Puuc and Chenes styles of the northern Maya lowlands. The presence of central Mexican styles was once thought to have been representative of direct migration or even conquest from central Mexico, but most contemporary interpretations view the presence of these non-Maya styles more as the result of cultural diffusion.
Chichen Itza was one of the largest Maya cities and it was likely to have been one of the mythical great cities, or Tollans, referred to in later Mesoamerican literature. The city may have had the most diverse population in the Maya world, a factor that could have contributed to the variety of architectural styles at the site.
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Ciudad Universitaria
Ciudad Universitaria (University City), Mexico, is UNAM's main campus, located in Coyoacán borough in the southern part of Mexico City. Designed by architects Mario Pani and Enrique del Moral, it encloses the Olympic Stadium, about 40 faculties and institutes, the Cultural Center, an ecological reserve, the Central Library, and a few museums. It was built during the 1950s on an ancient solidified lava bed in Coyoacán called "El Pedregal" to replace the scattered buildings in downtown Mexico City where classes were given. It was completed in 1954 at a cost of approximately $25 million dollar. At the time of its completion it was the largest single construction project in Mexico since the Aztecs. It was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2007.
Although the University has other buildings in Mexico City (mostly for undergraduate studies and cultural purposes), in other Mexican states and in other countries (such as Canada and the United States), Ciudad Universitaria, known simply as "C.U.", is the prime symbol of the University.
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Dumbarton Oaks
Dumbarton Oaks is a historic estate in the Georgetown neighborhood of Washington, D.C.. It was the residence and gardens of Robert Woods Bliss (1875–1962) and his wife Mildred Barnes Bliss (1879–1969).
The Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection was founded here by the Bliss couple, who gave the property to Harvard in 1940. It is currently administered by the Trustees for Harvard University. The research institute that has emerged from this bequest is dedicated to supporting scholarship in the fields of Byzantine, Pre-Columbian, and garden design and landscape architecture studies, especially through its research fellowships, meetings, exhibitions, and publications. Dumbarton Oaks also opens its gardens and museum collections to the public, and hosts public lectures and a concert series.
The land of Dumbarton Oaks was formerly part of the Rock of Dumbarton grant that Queen Anne made in 1702 to Colonel Ninian Beall (ca. 1625-1717). About 1801, William Hammond Dorsey (1764–1818) built the first house on the property (the central block of the existing structure) and an orangery, and in the mid-nineteenth century, Edward Magruder Linthicum (1787–1869) greatly enlarged the residence and named it The Oaks. The Oaks also was the Washington residence of U.S. Senator and Vice President John C. Calhoun (1782–1850) between 1822 and 1829.
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Dutch Empire
The Dutch Empire (Dutch: Nederlands-koloniale Rijk) comprised the overseas territories controlled by the Dutch Republic and later, the modern Netherlands from the 17th to the 20th century. The Dutch followed Portugal and Spain in establishing an overseas colonial empire, but based on military conquest of already-existing Portuguese and Spanish settlements, and not on discovery and colonization. For this, they were aided by their skills in shipping and trade and the surge of nationalism accompanying the struggle for independence from Spain. Alongside the British, the Dutch initially built up colonial possessions on the basis of indirect state capitalist corporate colonialism, via the Dutch East and West India Companies. Dutch exploratory voyages such as those led by Willem Barents, Henry Hudson and Abel Tasman revealed to Europeans vast new territories.
With Dutch naval power rising rapidly as a major force from the late 16th century, the Netherlands dominated global commerce during the second half of the 17th century during a cultural flowering known as the Dutch Golden Age. The Netherlands lost many of its colonial possessions, as well as its global power status, to the British when the metropole fell to French armies during the Revolutionary Wars. The restored portions of the Dutch Empire, notably the Dutch East Indies and Suriname, remained under Dutch control until the decline of European imperialism following World War II.
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El Tajín
El Tajín is a pre-Columbian archeological site and one of the largest and most important cities of the Classic era of Mesoamerica. A part of the Classic Veracruz culture, El Tajín flourished from 600 to 1200 C.E. and during this time numerous temples, palaces, ballcourts, and pyramids were built. From the time the city fell in 1230 to near the end of the 18th century, no European seems to have known of its existence, until a government inspector chanced upon the Pyramid of the Niches in 1785.
El Tajín was named a World Heritage site in 1992, due to its cultural importance and its architecture. This architecture includes the use of decorative niches and cement in forms unknown in the rest of Mesoamerica. Its best-known monument is the Pyramid of the Niches, but other important monuments include the Arroyo Group, the North and South Ballcourts and the palaces of Tajín Chico. In total there have been 17 ballcourts discovered at this site. Since the 1970s, El Tajin has been the most important archeological site in Veracruz for tourists, attracting over 650,000 visitors a year.
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Empire of Brazil
The Empire of Brazil was a 19th-century state that broadly comprised the territories which form modern Brazil. Its government was a representative parliamentary constitutional monarchy under the rule of Emperors Dom Pedro I and his son Dom Pedro II, both members of the House of Braganza—a branch of the Capetian dynasty. A colony of the Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil became the seat of the Portuguese colonial Empire in 1808, when the Portuguese Prince regent, later King Dom João VI (John VI), fled from Napoleon I's invasion of Portugal and established himself and his government in the Brazilian city of Rio de Janeiro. João VI later returned to Portugal, leaving his eldest son and heir, Pedro, to rule Brazil as regent.
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Empire of Japan
The Empire of Japan (Kyūjitai: 大日本帝國; Shinjitai: 大日本帝国; Romaji: Dai Nippon Teikoku; literally Great Imperial State of Japan; officially Great Japan or Empire of Great Japan; commonly as Imperial Japan or the Japanese Empire) was an empire and world power that existed from the Meiji Restoration on 3 January 1868 to the enactment of the post-World War II Constitution of Japan on 3 May 1947.
Imperial Japan's rapid industrialization and militarization under the slogan Fukoku Kyōhei (富国強兵?, "Enrich the Country, Strengthen the Army") led to its emergence as a world power, eventually culminating in its membership in the Axis alliance and the conquest of a large part of the Asia-Pacific region. At the height of its power in 1942, the Japanese Empire ruled over a land area spanning 7,400,000 square kilometres (2,857,000 sq mi), making it one of the largest maritime empires in history.
After several large-scale military successes during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) and the Pacific War, the Empire of Japan also gained notoriety for its war crimes against the peoples of the countries it conquered. After suffering many defeats and the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, however, the Empire of Japan surrendered to the Allies on 2 September 1945. A period of occupation by the Allies followed the surrender, and a new constitution was created with American involvement. The constitution came into force on 3 May 1947, officially dissolving the Empire. American occupation and reconstruction of the country continued well into the 1950s, eventually forming the current nation-state whose title is simply that ("the nation of Japan" Nippon-koku) or just "Japan" .
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First French Empire
The First French Empire (French: Empire Français), also known as the Greater French Empire or Napoleonic Empire, was the empire of Napoleon I of France. It was the dominant power of much of continental Europe during the early 19th century.
Napoleon became Emperor of the French (L'Empereur des Français, pronounced: [ɑ̃.pʁœʁ dɛ fʁɑ̃.sɛ]) on 18 May 1804 and crowned Emperor on 2 December 1804, ending the period of the French Consulate, and won early military victories in the War of the Third Coalition against Austria, Prussia, Russia, Portugal, and allied nations, notably at the Battle of Austerlitz (1805) and the Battle of Friedland (1807). The Treaty of Tilsit in July 1807 ended two years of bloodshed on the European continent.
The subsequent series of wars known collectively as the Napoleonic Wars extended French influence over much of Western Europe and into Poland. At its height in 1812, the French Empire had 130 départements, ruled over 44 million subjects, maintained an extensive military presence in Germany, Italy, Spain, and the Duchy of Warsaw, and could count Prussia and Austria as nominal allies. Early French victories exported many ideological features of the French Revolution throughout Europe. Seigneurial dues and seigneurial justice were abolished, aristocratic privileges were eliminated in all places except Poland, and the introduction of the Napoleonic Code throughout the continent increased legal equality, established jury systems, and legalized divorce. Napoleon placed relatives on the thrones of several European countries and granted many noble titles, most of which were not recognized after the empire fell.
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German Empire
The German Empire (German: Deutsches Kaiserreich) is the common name given to the state officially named the Deutsches Reich (literally: "German Realm"), designating Germany from the unification of Germany and proclamation of Wilhelm I as German Emperor on 18 January 1871, to 1918, when it became a federal republic after defeat in World War I and the abdication of the Emperor, Wilhelm II.
The German Empire consisted of 27 constituent territories (most of them ruled by royal families). While the Kingdom of Prussia contained most of the population and most of the territory of the Reich; the Prussian leadership became supplanted by German leaders and Prussia itself played a lesser role. As Dwyer (2005) points out, Prussia's "political and cultural influence had diminished considerably" by the 1890s. Its three largest neighbors were rivals Imperial Russia to the east and France to the west and ally Austria-Hungary to the south.
After 1850, Germany industrialized rapidly, with a foundation in coal, iron (and later steel), chemicals and railways. From a population of 41 million people in 1871, it grew to 68 million in 1913. From a heavily rural nation in 1815, it was now predominantly urban. During its 47 years of existence, the German Empire operated as an industrial, technological and scientific giant, receiving more Nobel Prizes in science than Britain, France, Russia and the United States combined.
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Ghana Empire
The Ghana Empire or Wagadou Empire (existed before c. 830 until c. 1235) was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania, and Western Mali. Complex societies had existed in the region since about 1500 BCE, and around Ghana's core region since about 300 CE. When Ghana's ruling dynasty began is uncertain, it is first mentioned in documentary sources around 830 CE by Al-Kwarizmi. The domestication of the camel, which preceded Muslims and Islam by several centuries, brought about a gradual change in trade, and for the first time, the extensive gold, ivory trade, and salt resources of the region could be sent north and east to population centers in North Africa, the Middle East and Europe in exchange for manufactured goods.
The Empire grew rich from the trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt. This trade produced an increasing surplus, allowing for larger urban centres. It also encouraged territorial expansion to gain control over the lucrative trade routes.
The first written mention of the kingdom comes from Arabic-language sources some time after the conquest of North Africa by Muslims, when geographers began compiling comprehensive accounts of the world known to Islam around 800. The sources for the earlier periods are very strange as to its society, government or culture, though they do describe its location and note its commercial relations. The Cordoban scholar Abu Ubayd al-Bakri collected stories from a number of travelers to the region, and gave a detailed description of the kingdom in 1067/1068 (460 AH). He claimed that the Ghana could "put 200,000 men into the field, more than 40,000 of them archers" and noted they had cavalry forces as well.
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Guatemala
Guatemala (
i/ˌɡwɑːtəˈmɑːlə/ GWAH-tə-MAH-lə), officially the Republic of Guatemala (Spanish: República de Guatemala [reˈpuβlika ðe ɣwateˈmala]), is a country in Central America bordered by Mexico to the north and west, the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, Belize to the northeast, the Caribbean to the east, and Honduras and El Salvador to the southeast. Its area is 108,890 km2 (42,043 mi2) with an estimated population of 13,276,517.
A representative democracy, its capital is Guatemala de la Asunción, also known as Guatemala City. Guatemala's abundance of biologically significant and unique ecosystems contributes to Mesoamerica's designation as a biodiversity hotspot. The former Mayan civilization was a Mesoamerican civilization, which continued throughout the Post-Classic period until the arrival of the Spanish. The Mayas live in Guatemala, Honduras, Belize, the southern part of Mexico and northern parts of El Salvador.
Guatemala became independent from Spain in 1821, joining the Mexican Empire. After it became an independent country in its own right, it was ruled by a series of dictators, assisted by the United Fruit Company. The late 20th century saw Guatemala embroiled in a 36-year-long civil war. Following the war, Guatemala has witnessed both economic growth and successful democratic elections. In the most recent election, held in 2011, Otto Pérez Molina of the Patriotic Party, won the presidency.
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Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty (simplified Chinese: 汉朝; traditional Chinese: 漢朝; pinyin: Hàn Cháo; Wade–Giles: Han Ch'ao; IPA: [xân tʂʰɑ̌ʊ̯]) (206 BCE – 220 CE) was an imperial dynasty of China, preceded by the Qin Dynasty (221–207 BCE) and succeeded by the Three Kingdoms (220–280 CE). It was founded by the rebel leader Liu Bang, known posthumously as Emperor Gaozu of Han. It was briefly interrupted by the Xin Dynasty (9–23 CE) of the former regent Wang Mang. This interregnum separates the Han into two periods: the Western Han (206 BCE – 9 CE) and Eastern Han (25–220 CE). Spanning over four centuries, the period of the Han Dynasty is considered a golden age in Chinese history. To this day, China's majority ethnic group refers to itself as the "Han people" and Chinese characters are referred to as "Han characters".
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Honduras
Honduras is a republic in Central America. It was at times referred to as Spanish Honduras to differentiate it from British Honduras, which became the modern-day state of Belize. The country is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Fonseca, and to the north by the Gulf of Honduras, a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea.
Honduras was home to several important indigenous cultures, most notably the Maya. Much of the country was conquered by Spain who introduced its predominant language and many of its customs in the sixteenth century. It became independent in 1821 and has been a republic since the end of Spanish rule.
Its size is just over 112,492 km² with an estimated population of almost eight million. Its capital is Tegucigalpa. Its northern portions are part of the Western Caribbean Zone.
It is notable for its production of minerals, tropical fruit, and recently for exportation of clothing for the international market.
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Hospicio Cabañas
The Hospicio Cabañas in Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico, a World Heritage Site, is one of the oldest and largest hospital complexes in Spanish America.
The complex was founded in 1791 by the Bishop of Guadalajara in order to combine the functions of a workhouse, hospital, orphanage, and almshouse. It owes its name to Juan Ruiz de Cabañas who was appointed to the see of Guadalajara in 1796 and engaged Manuel Tolsá, a renowned architect from Mexico City, to design the structure.
Tolsá's design was based on classic examples such as Les Invalides in Paris and El Escorial near Madrid. The buildings form a rectangle measuring 164 m by 145 m. These are single-storey structures which are 7.5 m in height. The chapel is twice as high and has a dome rising to 32.5 m. The complex is erected on one level, "so as to facilitate the movement of the sick, the aged, and children."
Following the death of Cabañas in 1823, construction continued until 1829. Although it served for a time as a barracks in the mid-19th century, the hospital lasted well into the 20th century and continued to function until 1980, when the Cabañas Cultural Institute, with affiliated schools for arts and crafts, moved in. The highlight of the interior decoration is a series of monumental frescoes by José Clemente Orozco, including one of his most famed creations, the allegory of The Man of Fire (1936–39).
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Idrisid dynasty
The Idrisids (Arabic: الأدارسة al-Idārisah, Berber: Idrisiyen) were a Zaydi-Shia dynasty of Morocco, ruling from 788 to 985. It was named after its founder Idriss I, the great grandchild of Hasan ibn Ali. Idrisids are traditionally regarded as the founders of the Moroccan state.
The founder of the dynasty was Idris ibn Abdallah (788–791), who traced his ancestry back to Ali ibn Abi Talib and his wife Fatimah, daughter of the Prophet Muhammad. After the battle of Fakh, near Mecca, between the Abbasids and a Shiite party, he fled to the Maghreb. He first arrived in Tangier, at that time the most important city of Morocco, and by 788 he had settled in Volubilis.
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Italian Empire
The Italian Empire (Italian: Impero Italiano) was created after the Kingdom of Italy joined other European powers in establishing colonies overseas during the "scramble for Africa". Modern Italy as a unified state only existed from 1861. By this time France, Spain, Portugal, Britain, and the Netherlands, had already carved out large empires over several hundred years. One of the last remaining areas open to colonisation was on the African continent.
By the outbreak of World War I in 1914, Italy had annexed Eritrea and Somalia, and had wrested control of portions of the Ottoman Empire, including Libya, though it was defeated in its attempt to conquer Ethiopia. The Fascist government under Italian dictator Benito Mussolini which came to power in 1922 sought to increase the size of the empire further. Ethiopia was successfully taken, four decades after the previous failure, and Italy's European borders were expanded. An official "Italian Empire" was proclaimed on 9 May 1936 following the conquest of Ethiopia. Italy sided with Nazi Germany during World War II and initially enjoyed successes. However, Allied forces eventually captured Italian overseas colonies and by the time Italy itself was invaded in 1943, its empire had all but ceased to exist.
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Izapa
Izapa is a very large pre-Columbian archaeological site located in the Mexican state of Chiapas; it was occupied during the Late Formative period. The site is situated on the Izapa River, a tributary of the Suchiate River, near the base of the Tacaná volcano), the fourth largest mountain in Mexico.
The settlement at Izapa extended over 1.4 miles, making it the largest site in Chiapas. The site reached its apogee between 600 BCE and 100 CE; several archaeologists have theorized that Izapa may have been settled as early as 1500 BCE, making it as old as the Olmec sites of San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán and La Venta.[citation needed] Izapa remained occupied through the Late Classic period. The period of Izapa’s height is still unknown due to little material for carbon dating, so the issue is still widely debated.
Due to the abundance of carved Maya stelae and monuments at Izapa, the term "Izapa style" is used to describe similarly executed works throughout the Pacific foothills and highlands beyond, including some found at Takalik Abaj and Kaminaljuyu.
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Kaminaljuyu
Kaminaljuyu (pronounced kaminalχuʲu) is a Pre-Columbian site of the Maya civilization that was primarily occupied from 1500 BC to AD 1200. Kaminaljuyu has been described as one of the greatest of all archaeological sites in the New World by Michael Coe, although its remains today - a few mounds only - are far less impressive than other Maya sites more frequented by tourists. When first mapped scientifically (by E. M. Shook over a period of decades from the 1930s on), it comprised some 200 platforms and pyramidal mounds, at least half of which were created before the end of the Preclassic period (AD 250). Debate continues about the size, scale, and degree by which, as an economic and political entity, it integrated both the immediate Valley of Guatemala and the Southern Maya area.
The known parts of Kaminaljuyu lie on a broad plain beneath roughly the western third of modern Guatemala City. The Valley of Guatemala is surrounded by hills which culminate in a string of lofty volcanoes to the south. At an altitude of ca. 7,000 feet above sea level, the climate is temperate. Soils are rich because of frequent volcanic eruptions; volcanic ash in the form of hardened tuff reaches depths of several hundred meters in and around Kaminaljuyu, and deep clefts or barrancas mark the landscape.
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Khmer Empire
The Khmer Empire was one of the most powerful empires in Southeast Asia. The empire, which grew out of the former kingdom of Chenla, at times ruled over and/or vassalized parts of modern-day Laos, Thailand, Vietnam, Burma, and Malaysia. Its greatest legacy is Angkor, in present-day Cambodia, which was the site of the capital city during the empire's zenith. Angkor bears testimony to the Khmer empire's immense power and wealth, as well as the variety of belief systems that it patronised over time. The empire's official religions included Hinduism and Mahayana Buddhism, until Theravada Buddhism prevailed, even among the lower classes, after its introduction from Sri Lanka in the 13th century. Modern researches by satellites have revealed Angkor to be the largest pre-industrial urban center in the world.
The history of Angkor as the central area of settlement of the historical kingdom of Kambujadesa is also the history of the Khmer from the 9th to the 13th centuries.
From Kambuja itself — and so also from the Angkor region — no written records have survived other than stone inscriptions. Therefore the current knowledge of the historical Khmer civilization is derived primarily from:
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Korean Empire
The Korean Empire (Hangul: 대한제국; Hanja: 大韓帝國; Daehan Jeguk; literally Great Korean Empire) is the name of the state of Korea that existed from the Proclamation of the Korean Empire in October 1897 to the Annexation of Korea by Japan on August 20, 1910. It succeeded the Joseon Dynasty.
In October 1897, Emperor Gojong proclaimed the new entity at Gyeongungung Palace and oversaw the partially successful modernization of the military, economy, land system, education system, and various industries. Japan became terrified by the speed of the modernisation the Korean Empire was having and decided to speed up its plans for annexation. This was further speeded by the assassination of Ito Hirobumi. On August 22, 1910, Korea was annexed by Imperial Japan, which defeated the Russian Empire in 1905.
The Sino-Japanese War marked the rapid decline of any power the Joseon Dynasty of Korea had managed to hold against foreign interference, as the battles of the conflict itself had been fought on Korean soil and the surrounding seas. With its newfound preeminence over the waning and weak Qing Dynasty, Japan had delegates negotiate the Treaty of Shimonoseki with the Qing emissaries, through which Japan wrested control over the Liaodong Peninsula from the Qing (a move designed to prevent the southern expansion of Japan's new rival, Russia), and, more importantly over Korea. However, Russia recognized this agreement as an act against its interests in northeastern China and eventually brought France and Germany to its side in saying that the Liaodong Peninsula should be repatriated to the Qing China.
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Lake Texcoco
Lake Texcoco (Spanish: Lago de Texcoco) was a natural lake formation within the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs built the city of Tenochtitlan on an island in the lake. The Spaniards built Mexico City over Tenochtitlan. Efforts to control flooding led to most of the lake being drained, leaving a much smaller Lake Texcoco west of the city, surrounded by salt marsh.
The Valley of Mexico is a basin with an average elevation of 2,236 metres (7,336 ft) above mean sea level located in the southern highlands of Mexico's central altiplano. It formerly extended over a large portion in the southern half of the basin, where it was the largest of an interconnected chain of five major and several smaller lakes (the other main lakes being Xaltocan, Zumpango, Chalco and Xochimilco lakes). During periods of high water levels—typically after the May-to-October rainy seasons—the lakes were often joined as one body of water, at an average elevation of 2,242 metres (7,356 ft) above mean sea level. In the drier winter months the lake system tended to separate into individual bodies of water, a flow that was mitigated by the construction of dikes and causeways in the Late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican chronology. Lake Texcoco was the lowest-lying of all the lakes, and occupied the minimum elevation in the valley so that water ultimately drained towards it. The Valley of Mexico has been a closed basin since at least the Late Pliocene, and the lakes subsequently had no natural surface outflow, with the drainage basin forming an endorheic system.
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Medes
The Medes (/midz/) (from Old Persian Māda-) were an ancient Iranian people who lived in Iran in an area known as Media and spoke a northwestern Iranian language referred to as the Median language. Their arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of Iranian tribes in the late second millennium BCE (the Bronze Age collapse) through the beginning of the first millennium BCE.
In the 7th century BCE a unified Median state was formed which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. An alliance with the Babylonians helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BCE which resulted in the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal centre) beyond their original homeland (central-western Iran) and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Halys River in Anatolia. The Median kingdom was conquered in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great who established the next Iranian dynasty—the Achaemenid Empire.
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Mexico
Mexico (i/ˈmɛksɨkoʊ/; Spanish: México, IPA: [ˈmexiko] (
listen)), officially the United Mexican States (Spanish: 
Estados Unidos Mexicanos (help·info)), is a federal constitutional republic in North America. It is bordered on the north by the United States of America; on the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; on the southeast by Guatemala, Belize, and the Caribbean Sea; and on the east by the Gulf of Mexico. Covering almost two million square kilometres (over 760,000 sq mi), Mexico is the fifth largest country in the Americas by total area and the thirteenth largest independent nation in the world. With an estimated population of over 113 million, it is the eleventh most populous country and the most populous Spanish-speaking country. Mexico is a federation comprising thirty-one states and a Federal District, the capital city.
In Pre-Columbian Mexico many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory from its base in México-Tenochtitlan, which was administered as the Viceroyalty of New Spain. This territory would eventually become Mexico as the colony's independence was recognized in 1821. The post-independence period was characterized by economic instability, the Mexican-American War and territorial cession to the United States, a civil war, two empires and a domestic dictatorship. The latter led to the Mexican Revolution in 1910, which culminated with the promulgation of the 1917 Constitution and the emergence of the country's current political system. Elections held in July 2000 marked the first time that an opposition party won the presidency from the Institutional Revolutionary Party.
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Mexico City
Mexico City ( /ˈmɛksɨkoʊ ˈsɪti/; Spanish: Ciudad de México [sjuˈðað ðe ˈmexiko], also known as México D.F., or simply D.F.) is the Federal District (Distrito Federal), capital of Mexico and seat of the federal powers of the Mexican Union. It is a federal entity within Mexico which is not part of any one of the 31 Mexican states but belongs to the federation as a whole. Mexico City is the country's largest city as well as its most important political, cultural, educational and financial center.
As an "alpha" global city Mexico City is one of the most important financial centers in North America. It is located in the Valley of Mexico (Valle de México), a large valley in the high plateaus at the center of Mexico, at an altitude of 2,240 metres (7,350 ft). The city consists of sixteen boroughs.
The 2009 estimated population for the city proper was around 8.84 million people, and has a land area of 1,485 square kilometres (573 sq mi). According to the most recent definition agreed upon by the federal and state governments, the Mexico City metropolitan area population is 21.2 million people, making it the largest metropolitan area in the western hemisphere and the fifth largest agglomeration in the world.
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Ming Dynasty
The Ming Dynasty, also Empire of the Great Ming, was the ruling dynasty of China for 276 years (1368–1644) following the collapse of the Mongol-led Yuan Dynasty. The Ming, described by some as "one of the greatest eras of orderly government and social stability in human history", was the last dynasty in China ruled by ethnic Han Chinese. Although the Ming capital Beijing fell in 1644 to a rebellion led by Li Zicheng (who established the Shun Dynasty, soon replaced by the Manchu-led Qing Dynasty), regimes loyal to the Ming throne—collectively called the Southern Ming—survived until 1662.
Ming rule saw the construction of a vast navy and a standing army of one million troops. Although private maritime trade and official tribute missions from China had taken place in previous dynasties, the tributary fleet under the Muslim eunuch admiral Zheng He in the 15th century far surpassed all others in size. There were enormous construction projects, including the restoration of the Grand Canal and the Great Wall and the establishment of the Forbidden City in Beijing during the first quarter of the 15th century. Estimates for the late-Ming population vary from 160 to 200 million.
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Monte Albán
Monte Albán is a large pre-Columbian archaeological site in the Santa Cruz Xoxocotlán Municipality in the southern Mexican state of Oaxaca (17.043° N, 96.767°W). The site is located on a low mountainous range rising above the plain in the central section of the Valley of Oaxaca where the latter's northern Etla, eastern Tlacolula, and southern Zimatlán & Ocotlán (or Valle Grande) branches meet. The present-day state capital Oaxaca City is located approximately 9 km (6 mi) east of Monte Albán.
The partially excavated civic-ceremonial center of the Monte Albán site is situated atop an artificially-leveled ridge, which with an elevation of about 1,940 m (6,400 ft) above mean sea level rises some 400 m (1,300 ft) from the valley floor, in an easily defensible location. In addition to the aforementioned monumental core, the site is characterized by several hundred artificial terraces, and a dozen clusters of mounded architecture covering the entire ridgeline and surrounding flanks (Blanton 1978). The archaeological ruins on the nearby Atzompa and El Gallo hills to the north are traditionally considered to be an integral part of the ancient city as well.
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Morelia
Morelia is a city and municipality in the north central part of the state of Michoacán in central Mexico. The city is in the Guayangareo Valley and is the capital of the state. The main pre-Hispanic cultures here were the P'urhépecha and the Matlatzinca, but no major cities were founded in the valley during this time. The Spanish took control of the area in the 1520s. The Spanish under Viceroy Antonio de Mendoza founded a settlement here in 1541 with the name of Valladolid, which became rival to the nearby city of Pátzcuaro for dominance in Michoacán. In 1580, this rivalry ended in Valladolid’s favor and it became the capital of the colonial province. After the Mexican War of Independence, the city was renamed Morelia in honor of José María Morelos y Pavón, who is from here. In 1991, the city was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site for its well preserved colonial buildings and layout of the historic center.
Human settlements in the Guayangareo Valley in which Morelia is located have been dated back as far as the 7th century. Artifacts found here have shown Teotihuacán culture influence on early cultures in this area. In the 12th century, the Tarascos or the P'urhépecha arrived in the valley. They dominated it politically for the rest of the pre-Hispanic period but did not build any major settlements here. Between the 12th and the 15th century, Matlatzincas moved into the area with permission of the Tarascos, who were based around nearby Pátzcuaro Lake. The main Matlatzinca settlement was where Júarez Plaza in the city is today.
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Mughal Empire
The Mughal Empire, Shahan-e-Gurkhani, Shahan-e-Mughal, Sultanate-e-Mughliya, Daulat-e-Mughliya (Persian: شاهان گورکانی Shāhān-e Gūrkānī; Urdu: مغلیہ سلطنت; self-designation: گوركانى Gūrkānī ), or Mogul (also Moghul) Empire in traditional English usage, was an imperial power from the Indian Subcontinent. The Mughal emperors were direct descendants of Genghis Khan through Chagatai Khan and Timur. The Mughal Empire began in 1526; at the height of their power in the late 17th and early 18th centuries, they controlled most of the Indian Subcontinent—extending from Bengal in the east to Balochistan in the west, Kashmir in the north to the Kaveri basin in the south. According to "Babur-Nama", Kazakh tribal aristocracy along with number of other Turkic soldiers participated actively in the campaign of Babur, which made great influence over the development of Mughal Empire. Its population at that time has been estimated as between 110 and 150 million, over a territory of more than 3.2 million square kilometres (1.2 million square miles).
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Nazi Germany
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..." Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
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Oxkintok
Oxkintok is a pre-Columbian Maya archaeological site on the Yucatán Peninsula, located at the northern tip of the Puuc hills - a few kilometers to the east of the modern town of Maxcanú, Yucatán, Mexico.
In the Maya language, the name "Oxkintok" can be parsed as "Ox" (three) and "Kin" (day/sun), but there are multiple possibilities for "Tok" (if the final letter is a soft /K/ then it may mean "snatch away / defend, lean, fall, or burn", but if the final letter is truly a glottalized /K’/ then it may mean "puncture, let blood, or chert / flint / hard stone"). Different translations, based upon the various meanings of "Tok" are found in the literature.
The site has provided evidence of habitation from the Late Preclassic through the Late Postclassic periods of Maya prehistory. However, Oxkintok became a major center between the Early Classic and Terminal Classic periods (including what Carmen Varela terms the "Middle Classic"). It is well known as possessing a very early Long Count date in AD 475 (on the lintel of Structure 6 in the "Canul" group). The latest dated monument at the site records a date in AD 859.
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Palenque
Palenque (Bàak' in Modern Maya) was a Maya city state in southern Mexico that flourished in the 7th century. The Palenque ruins date back to 226 BC to its fall around 1123 AD. After its decline it was absorbed into the jungle, which is made up of cedar, mahogany, and sapodilla trees, but has been excavated and restored and is now a famous archaeological site attracting thousands of visitors. It is located near the Usumacinta River in the Mexican state of Chiapas, located about 130 km (81 mi) south of Ciudad del Carmen (see map) about 150 m (164 yd) above sea-level. It stays at a humid 26°C (79°F) with roughly 2160 mm (85 in) of rain a year.
Palenque is a medium-sized site, much smaller than such huge sites as Tikal or Copán, but it contains some of the finest architecture, sculpture, roof comb and bas-relief carvings that the Mayas produced. Much of the history of Palenque has been reconstructed from reading the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the many monuments; historians now have a long sequence of the ruling dynasty of Palenque in the 5th century and extensive knowledge of the city-state's rivalry with other states such as Calakmul and Toniná. The most famous ruler of Palenque was Pacal the Great whose tomb has been found and excavated in the Temple of the Inscriptions.
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Parthian Empire
The Parthian (pronounced /ˈpɑrθiən/) Empire (247 BC – 224 AD), also known as the Arsacid (/ˈɑrsəsɪd/) Empire (Modern Persian: اشکانیان Ashkāniān), was a major Iranian political and cultural power in ancient Persia. Its latter name comes from Arsaces I of Parthia who, as leader of the Parni tribe, founded it in the mid-3rd century BC when he conquered the Parthia region in Iran's northeast, then a satrapy (province) in rebellion against the Seleucid Empire. Mithridates I of Parthia (r. c. 171–138 BC) greatly expanded the empire by seizing Media and Mesopotamia from the Seleucids. At its height, the Parthian Empire stretched from the northern reaches of the Euphrates, in what is now south-eastern Turkey, to eastern Iran. The empire, located on the Silk Road trade route between the Roman Empire in the Mediterranean Basin and Han Empire of China, became a center of trade and commerce.
The Parthians largely adopted the art, architecture, religious beliefs, and royal insignia of their culturally heterogeneous empire, which encompassed Persian, Hellenistic, and regional cultures. For about the first half of its existence, the Arsacid court adopted elements of Greek culture, though it eventually saw a gradual revival of Iranian traditions. The Arsacid rulers were titled the "King of Kings", as a claim to be the heirs to the Achaemenid Empire; indeed, they accepted many local kings as vassals where the Achaemenids would have had centrally appointed, albeit largely autonomous, satraps. The court did appoint a small number of satraps, largely outside Iran, but these satrapies were smaller and less powerful than the Achaemenid potentates. With the expansion of Arsacid power, the seat of central government shifted from Nisa, Turkmenistan to Ctesiphon along the Tigris (south of modern Baghdad, Iraq), although several other sites also served as capitals.
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Petén Basin
The Petén Basin is a geographical subregion of Mesoamerica, located in the northern portion of the modern-day nation of Guatemala, and essentially contained within the department of El Petén. During the Late Preclassic and Classic periods of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican chronology many major centers of the Maya civilization flourished, such as Tikal, and a distinctive Petén-style of Maya architecture and inscriptions arose. The archaeological sites La Sufricaya and Holmul are located in this region.
By the first half of the 1st millennium BC, the Petén and Mirador Basin of this region were already well-established with a number of monumental sites and cities of the Maya civilization. Significant Maya sites of this Preclassic era of Mesoamerican chronology include Nakbé, El Mirador, Naachtun, San Bartolo and Cival in the Mirador Basin.
Later, Petén became the heartland of the Maya Classic Period (c. 200 – 900). At its height around 750 it is estimated that Petén was home to several million people, being one of the most densely populated regions of the world at the time. Some areas are estimated to have had ca 2,000 people/km². Agriculture was very extensive, and there is some evidence suggesting that the land was depleted by unsustainable overfarming, resulting in a famine which was an important factor in the collapse of the Classic Maya states of this area. The population is estimated to have dropped by two-thirds between the mid 9th century and the mid 10th century.
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Portuguese Empire
The Portuguese Empire (Portuguese: Império Português), also known as the Portuguese Overseas Empire (Ultramar Português) or the Portuguese Colonial Empire (Império Colonial Português), was the first global empire in history. In addition, it was the longest-lived of the modern European colonial empires, spanning almost six centuries, from the capture of Ceuta in 1415 to the handover of Macau in 1999 or the grant of sovereignty to East Timor in 2002. The empire spread throughout a vast number of territories that are now part of 53 different sovereign states.
Portuguese sailors began exploring the coast of Africa in 1419, using recent developments in navigation, cartography and maritime technology such as the caravel, in order that they might find a sea route to the source of the lucrative spice trade. In 1488, Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1498, Vasco da Gama reached India. In 1500, either by an accidental landfall or by the crown's secret design, Pedro Álvares Cabral discovered Brazil on the South American coast. Over the following decades, Portuguese sailors continued to explore the coasts and islands of East Asia, establishing forts and factories as they went. By 1571, a string of outposts connected Lisbon to Nagasaki along the coasts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and Asia. This commercial network brought great wealth to Portugal.
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Pyramid of the Moon
The Pyramid of the Moon is the second largest pyramid in Teotihuacan, Mexico after the Pyramid of the Sun. It is located in the western part of Teotihuacan and mimics the contours of the mountain Cerro Gordo, just north of the site. Some have called it Tenan, which in Nahuatl, means "mother or protective stone." The Pyramid of the Moon covers a structure older than the Pyramid of the Sun which existed prior to 200 AD.
The Pyramid's construction between 200 and 450 AD completed the bilateral symmetry of the temple complex. A slope in front of the staircase gives access to the Avenue of the Dead, a platform atop the pyramid was used to conduct ceremonies in honor of the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan, the goddess of water, fertility, the earth, and even creation itself. This platform and the sculpture found at the pyramid's bottom are thus dedicated to The Great Goddess.
Opposite the Great Goddess's altar is the Plaza of the Moon. The Plaza contains a central altar and an original construction with internal divisions, consisting of four rectangular and diagonal bodies that formed what is known as the "Teotihuacan Cross."
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Pyramid of the Sun
The Pyramid of the Sun is the largest building in Teotihuacan and one of the largest in Mesoamerica. Found along the Avenue of the Dead, in between the Pyramid of the Moon and the Ciudadela, and in the shadow of the massive mountain Cerro Gordo, the pyramid is part of a large complex in the heart of the city.
The name Pyramid of the Sun comes from the Aztecs, who visited the city of Teotihuacán centuries after it was abandoned; the name given to the pyramid by the Teotihuacanos is unknown. It was constructed in two phases. The first construction stage, around 100 A.D., brought the pyramid to nearly the size it is today. The second round of construction resulted in its completed size of 738 feet (225 meters) across and 246 feet (75 meters) high, making it the third largest pyramid in the world, but being much shorter than the Great Pyramid of Giza (146 meters). The second phase also saw the construction of an altar atop of the pyramid, which has not survived into modern times. The Adosada platform was added to the pyramid in the early third century, at around the same time that the Ciudadela and Temple of the Feathered Serpent, Teotihuacan Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent were constructed.
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Qing Dynasty
The Qing Dynasty was the last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912 with a brief, abortive restoration in 1917. It was preceded by the Ming Dynasty and followed by the Republic of China.
The dynasty was founded by the Jurchen Aisin Gioro clan in contemporary Northeastern China. The Aisin Gioro leader, Nurhachi, who was originally a vassal of the Ming emperors, began unifying the Jurchen clans in the late sixteenth century. By 1635, Nurhachi's son Hong Taiji could claim they constituted a single and united Manchu people and began forcing the Ming out of Liaoning in southern Manchuria. In 1644, the Ming capital Beijing was sacked by a peasant revolt led by Li Zicheng, a former minor Ming official who became the leader of the peasant revolt, who then proclaimed the Shun dynasty. The last Ming ruler, the Chongzhen Emperor, committed suicide when the city fell. When Li Zicheng moved against Ming general Wu Sangui, the latter made an alliance with the Manchus and opened the Shanhai Pass to the Manchurian army. Under Prince Dorgon, they seized control of Beijing and overthrew Li Zicheng's short-lived Shun Dynasty. Complete pacification of China was accomplished around 1683 under the Kangxi Emperor.
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Quelepa
Quelepa is an important archaeological site located in eastern El Salvador. The site was founded around 400 BC, in the Late Preclassic period (500 BC - AD 250). The inhabitants constructed a platform from plaster and pumice and rebuilt it a number of times. Artefacts recovered during the excavations of the site indicate that the local population depended upon subsistence agriculture, these artefacts included metates (a kind of mortar) and comales (a type of griddle). The site belonged to the Mesoamerican cultural region. Quelepa is generally considered to have been settled by the Lenca people. Quelepa means "stone jaguar" in the Lenca language, probably in reference to the large Jaguar Altar found at the site.
Throughout its occupational history, the inhabitants crafted stone tools from obsidian. The site appears to have been linked to trade routes to western El Salvador and the Guatemalan Highlands and also to the north in Honduras.
Although sites in western El Salvador were severely affected by the eruption of the Ilopango Volcano in the Early Classic, the only affect this had upon Quelepa was the cutting of trade routes into Mesoamerica. This did not result in stagnation at the site but rather resulted in the florescence of a local culture.
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Russian Empire
The Russian Empire (Pre-reform Russian orthography: Россійская Имперія, Modern Russian: Российская Империя, translit: Rossiyskaya Imperiya) was a state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia and the predecessor of the short-lived Russian Republic, which was succeeded by the Soviet Union. It was one of the largest empires in world history, surpassed in landmass only by the British and Mongol empires: at one point in 1866, it stretched from eastern Europe across Asia and into North America.
At the beginning of the 19th century, the Russian Empire extended from the Arctic Ocean in the north to the Black Sea on the south, from the Baltic Sea on the west to the Pacific Ocean and into North America on the east. With 125.6 million subjects registered by the 1897 census, it had the third largest population of the world at the time, after Qing China and the British Empire. Like all empires, it represented a large disparity in economic, ethnic and religious positions. Its government, ruled by the Emperor, was the last absolute monarchy in Europe at the time of its demise.
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Safavid dynasty
The Safavid dynasty (Persian: سلسلهٔ صفويان; Azerbaijani: صفویلر) was one of the most significant ruling dynasties of Iran. They ruled one of the greatest Persian empires since the Muslim conquest of Persia and established the Twelver school of Shi'a Islam as the official religion of their empire, marking one of the most important turning points in Muslim history. The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1722 (experiencing a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736) and at their height, they controlled all of modern Islamic Republic of Iran, Republic of Azerbaijan and Republic of Armenia, most of Iraq, Georgia, Afghanistan, and the Caucasus, as well as parts of Pakistan, Turkmenistan and Turkey. Safavid Iran was one of the Islamic "gunpowder empires", along with its neighbours, the Ottoman and Mughal empires.
The Safavid dynasty had its origin in the Safaviyya Sufi order, which was established in the city of Ardabil in the Azerbaijan region. It was of mixed ancestry (Azerbaijani,Kurdish and Turkmen, which included intermarriages with Georgian and Pontic Greek dignitaries). From their base in Ardabil, the Safavids established control over all of Greater Iran and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region, thus becoming the first native dynasty since the Sassanid Empire to establish a unified Iranian state.
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San Juan Teotihuacán
San Juan Teotihuacán is a town and municipality located in the State of Mexico. It is in the northeast of the Valley of Mexico, 45 km northeast of Mexico City and 119 km from the state capital of Toluca. Teotihuacan takes its name from the ancient city and World Heritage site that is located next to the municipal seat. “Teotihuacan” is from Nahuatl and means “place of the gods.” In Nahua mythology the sun and the moon were created here. The seal of the municipality features the Pyramid of the Sun from the archeological site, which represents the four cardinal directions. The building is tied to a character that represents water which is linked to an arm that is joined to the head of an indigenous person who is seated and speaking. This person represents a god. Much of the history of the area has been tied to the ancient city, most recently involves controversy connected with commerce and development around the site.
According to myth, this site was chosen by the gods to create the center of the universe. Settlement began here around 500 BCE as a village making stone objects. Starting in the 2nd century CE, it grew into a political and religious center which lasted until the 9th century. This was the largest urban center to be constructed in central Mexico until Tenochtitlan further south in the 15th century. All that is left of this city is the archeological site, which preserves structures such as the Pyramids of the Sun and Moon, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, the market and numerous smaller structures, most of which were government buildings.
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Second French Empire
The Second French Empire (French: Le Second Empire Français) was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870, between the Second Republic and the Third Republic, in France.
Although the machinery of government was almost the same under the Second Empire as it had been under the First, its founding principles were different. The function of the Empire, as Emperor Napoleon III often repeated, was to guide the people internally towards justice and externally towards perpetual peace. Holding his power by universal male suffrage, and having frequently, from his prison or in exile, reproached previous oligarchical governments with neglecting social questions, he set out to solve them by organising a system of government based on the principles of the "Napoleonic Idea", i.e. of the emperor, the elect of the people as the representative of the democracy, and as such supreme; and of himself, the representative of the great Napoleon I of France, "who had sprung armed from the French Revolution like Minerva from the head of Jove", as the guardian of the social gains of the revolutionary period.
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Spanish Empire
The Spanish Empire (Spanish: Imperio Español) comprised territories and colonies administered by Spain in Europe, the Americas, Africa, Asia and Oceania. It originated during the Age of Exploration and was one of the first global empires. At the time of Habsburgs, Spain reached the peak of its political and economic power when it became the foremost global power. Its establishment in the 15th century ushered in the modern global era and five centuries of European dominance of global affairs. Spain's territorial reach beyond Europe spanned six centuries, from the first voyages to the Americas in 1492 until the independence of its last African colonies in the 1970s.
After the War of the Castilian Succession (1475–1479), Spain had emerged with a personally unified monarchy, with the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs or los Reyes Catolicos between the Queen of Castile and the King of Aragon: the internal and foreign policy was coordinated although the rule was separate. In 1492, the Spanish monarchs completed the Reconquista with the incorporation of Granada to the Kingdom of Castile. That same year Christopher Columbus commanded the first Spanish exploratory voyage west across the Atlantic Ocean, leading to the Discovery of America and Europe's eventual colonial engagement in the New World. The Americas thereby became the focus of Spanish exploration and colonization.
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Stanford University
Coordinates: 37°26′N 122°10′W / 37.43°N 122.17°W / 37.43; -122.17
The Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University or Stanford, is an American private research university located in Stanford, California on an 8,180-acre (3,310 ha) campus near Palo Alto, California, United States. It is situated in the northwestern Silicon Valley, approximately 20 miles (32 km) northwest of San Jose and 37 miles (60 km) southeast of San Francisco.
Leland Stanford, a Californian railroad tycoon and politician, and his wife Jane Lathrop Stanford founded the university in 1891 in honor of their son, Leland Stanford, Jr., who died of typhoid two months before his 16th birthday. The university was established as a coeducational and nondenominational institution, but struggled financially after the senior Stanford's 1893 death and after much of the campus was damaged by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Following World War II, Provost Frederick Terman supported faculty and graduates' entrepreneurialism to build self-sufficient local industry in what would become known as Silicon Valley. By 1970, Stanford was home to a linear accelerator, was one of the original four ARPANET nodes, and had transformed itself into a major research university in computer science, mathematics, natural sciences, and social sciences.
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Temple University
Temple University is a comprehensive public research university in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. Originally founded in 1884 by Dr. Russell Conwell, Temple University is among the nation's largest providers of professional education (law, medicine, podiatric medicine, pharmacy, dentistry, architecture) and prepares the largest body of professional practitioners in Pennsylvania, offering over 300 academic degree programs at seven campuses and sites in Pennsylvania and its international campuses in Rome, Tokyo, Singapore and London. It is the 26th largest university in the United States with more than 37,000 undergraduate, graduate, and professional students.
Temple is one of Pennsylvania's state-related universities, meaning that it receives state funds but is independently operated. It shares this status with the Pennsylvania State University, the University of Pittsburgh, and Lincoln University.
Temple University has over 300 degree programs from 17 schools and colleges and 4 professional schools. The university is known for its programs in areas such as business, communications, education, art, music, science, and the health professions. Temple is ranked 132nd amongst national universities and 66th amongst public institutions in the US according to U.S. News & World Report's 2011 rankings, placing it 3rd in Pennsylvania for public universities. Temple is also regarded as one of the "Best Northeastern Colleges" and having the 35th best entrepreneurial undergraduate program in the nation according to Princeton Review. The Princeton Review and Forbes also named Temple one of the most connected campuses in the United States in their 2006 survey.
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Teotihuacan
Coordinates: 19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.6925°N 98.8438°W / 19.6925; -98.8438
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica.
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC and continued to be built until about 250 AD. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps 125,000 or more, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the Mexican Highland around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
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Tierradentro
Tierradentro is a National archeological park in the jurisdiction of the municipality of Inza, Department of Cauca, Colombia. The park is located 100 km away from the capital of the Department, Popayán.
The area is very well known for its pre-Columbian hypogea, which were found in several excavations, and are divided in many archeological places. some of them are: Alto del Aguacate (Avocado Hill), Alto de San Andrés, Alto de Segovia, Alto del Duende and El Tablón.
The typical hypogeum has an entry oriented towards the west, a spiral staircase and a main chamber, usually 5 to 8 meters below the surface, with several lesser chambers around, each one containing a corpse. The walls are painted with geometric, anthropomorphic and zoomorphic patterns in red, black and white. Some statues and remains of pottery and fabrics can be seen scarcely due to grave robbery before the hypogea were constituted as protected areas.
The pre-Columbian culture that created this funeral complex inhabited this area during the first millennium A.C. Tierradentro Archaeological park features hypogea dating from 6th to 9th centuries AD. The details in the sculptures and pictoric patterns are similar to the San Agustín culture.
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Tikal
Tikal (or Tik’al according to the modern Mayan orthography) is one of the largest archaeological sites and urban centres of the pre-Columbian Maya civilization. It is located in the archaeological region of the Petén Basin in what is now northern Guatemala. Situated in the department of El Petén, the site is part of Guatemala's Tikal National Park and in 1979 it was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
Tikal was the capital of a conquest state that became one of the most powerful kingdoms of the ancient Maya. Though monumental architecture at the site dates back as far as the 4th century BC, Tikal reached its apogee during the Classic Period, ca. 200 to 900 AD. During this time, the city dominated much of the Maya region politically, economically, and militarily, while interacting with areas throughout Mesoamerica such as the great metropolis of Teotihuacan in the distant Valley of Mexico. There is evidence that Tikal was conquered by Teotihuacan in the 4th century AD. Following the end of the Late Classic Period, no new major monuments were built at Tikal and there is evidence that elite palaces were burned. These events were coupled with a gradual population decline, culminating with the site’s abandonment by the end of the 10th century.
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Tiwanaku
Coordinates: 16°33′17″S 68°40′24″W / 16.55472°S 68.67333°W / -16.55472; -68.67333
Tiwanaku, (Spanish: Tiahuanaco and Tiahuanacu) is an important Pre-Columbian archaeological site in western Bolivia, South America. Tiwanaku is recognized by Andean scholars as one of the most important precursors to the Inca Empire, flourishing as the ritual and administrative capital of a major state power for approximately five hundred years. The ruins of the ancient city state are near the south-eastern shore of Lake Titicaca in the La Paz Department, Ingavi Province, Tiwanaku Municipality, about 72 km (45 mi) west of La Paz. The site was first recorded in written history by Spanish conquistador and self-acclaimed "first chronicler of the Indies" Pedro Cieza de León. Leon stumbled upon the remains of Tiwanaku in 1549 while searching for the Inca capital Qullasuyu. Some have hypothesized that Tiwanaku's modern name is related to the Aymara term taypiqala, meaning "stone in the center", alluding to the belief that it lay at the center of the world. However, the name by which Tiwanaku was known to its inhabitants may have been lost, as the people of Tiwanaku had no written language.
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Uaxactun
Uaxactun (pronounced [waʃakˈtun]) is an ancient ruin of the Maya civilization, located in the Petén Basin region of the Maya lowlands, in the present-day department of Petén, Guatemala. The site lies some 12 miles (19 km) north of the major center of Tikal. The name is sometimes spelled as Waxaktun.
With recent achievements in the decipherment of the ancient Maya hieroglyphic writing system, it has been determined that the ancient name for this site was something like Siaan K'aan or "Born in Heaven". The name "Uaxactun" was given to the site by its rediscoverer, United States archeologist Sylvanus Morley, in May 1916. He coined the name from Maya words Waxac and Tun, to mean "Eight Stones". The name has two meanings; the Morley's stated reason for the name was to commemorate it as the first site where an inscription dating from the 8th Baktún of the Maya calendar was discovered (making it then the earliest known Maya date). The other meaning is a pun, since "Uaxactun" sounds like "Washington", the U.S. capital and home of the Carnegie Institute which funded Morley's explorations.
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Uxmal
Uxmal (Yucatec Maya: Óoxmáal [óˑʃmáˑl]) is an ancient Mayan city of the classical period. Today it is one of the most important archaeological sites of Mayan culture, along with those of Chichen Itza and Tikal. It is located in the Puuc region and is considered one of the Maya cities most representative of the region's dominant architectural style.
It is located 62 km south of Mérida, capital of Yucatán state in Mexico. Its buildings are noted for their size and decoration. Linking the buildings, as well as to other cities in the area such as Chichén Itzá and Tikal in modern-day Guatemala, are ancient roads left by the Mayans called sacbes.
Its buildings are typical of the Puuc style, with smooth low walls that open on ornate friezes based on representations of typical Mayan huts, which are represented by columns (representing the reeds with which were built the walls of the huts) and trapezoidal shapes (representing the thatched roofs), entwined snakes and, in many cases two-headed snakes, masks of the rain god, Chaac with its big noses that represent the rays of the storms, and feathered serpents with open fangs leaving from the same human beings. Also seen in some cities influences of Nahua origin and the follow of the cult of Quetzalcoatl and Tlaloc that were integrated with the original bases of the Puuc tradition.
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Valley of Mexico
The Valley of Mexico is a highlands plateau in central Mexico roughly coterminous with the present-day Distrito Federal and the eastern half of the State of Mexico. Surrounded by mountains and volcanoes, the Valley of Mexico was a centre for several pre-Columbian civilizations, including Teotihuacan, the Toltec, and the Aztec. The ancient Aztec term Anahuac (Land Between the Waters) and the phrase Basin of Mexico are both used at times to refer to the Valley of Mexico. The Basin of Mexico became a well known site that epitomized the scene of early Classic Mesoamerican cultural development as well.
The Valley of Mexico is located in the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The valley contains most of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area, as well as parts of the State of Mexico, Hidalgo, Tlaxcala and Puebla. The Valley of Mexico can be subdivided into four basins, but the largest and most-studied is the area which contains Mexico City. This section of the valley in particular is colloquially referred to as the "Valley of Mexico". The valley has a minimum altitude of 2,200 metres (7,200 ft) above sea level and is surrounded by mountains and volcanoes that reach elevations of over 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). It is an enclosed valley with no natural outlet for water to flow and a gap to the north where there is a high mesa but no high mountain peaks. Hydrologically, the valley has three features. The first feature is the lakebeds of five now-extinct lakes, which are located in the southernmost and largest of the four sub-basins. The other two features are piedmont, and the mountainsides that collect the precipitation that eventually flows to the lake area. These last two are found in all four of the sub-basins of the valley.Seismic activity is frequent here, and the valley is considered an earthquake prone zone.
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Veracruz
Veracruz, formally Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (Spanish pronunciation: [beɾaˈkɾuz ðe iɣˈnasjo ðe la ˈʎaβe]), officially Free and Sovereign State of Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave (Spanish: Estado Libre y Soberano de Veracruz de Ignacio de la Llave), is one of the 31 states that, along with the Federal District, comprise the 32 federative entities of Mexico. It is divided in 212 municipalities and its capital city is Xalapa-Enríquez.
It is located in Eastern Mexico. It is bordered by the states of Tamaulipas to the north, San Luis Potosi and Hidalgo to the west, Puebla to the southwest, Oaxaca and Chiapas to the south and Tabasco to the southeast. To the east, Veracruz has a significant share of coastline on the Gulf of Mexico.
The state is noted for its mixed ethnic and large indigenous populations. Its cuisine reflects the many cultural influences that have come through the state because of the importance of the port of Veracruz.
In addition to the capital city, the state's largest cities include Veracruz, Coatzacoalcos, Córdoba, Minatitlán, Poza Rica, Boca Del Río and Orizaba.
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Warsangali Sultanate
The Warsangali Sultanate (Somali: Saldanadda Warsangeli, Arabic: سلطنة الورسنجلي) was a Somali imperial ruling house centered in northeastern and in some parts of southeastern Somalia. It was one of the largest sultanates ever established in the territory, and, at the height of its power, included the Sanaag region and parts of the northeastern Bari region of the country, an area historically known as Maakhir or the Maakhir Coast. The Sultanate was founded in the late 13th century in northern Somalia by a group of Somalis from the Warsangali branch of the Darod clan, and was ruled by the descendants of the Gerad Dhidhin. In the late 19th century, the influential Sultan Mohamoud Ali Shire governed the Sultanate, assuming control during some of its most turbulent years. The Akil Dhahar ruled south of Sanaag and some portions of the Bari region. In 1884, the United Kingdom established the protectorate of British Somaliland through various treaties with the northern Somali sultanates, including the Warsangali Sultanate.
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Xitle
Xitle (Nahuatl, "navel") is a volcano in the Ajusco range in Cumbres del Ajusco National Park. It is located in the Tlalpan borough in the southwestern part of Mexico City. It is an ash cone volcano with a conical form, round base, altitude of approximately 300m, and a slope between 30° and 40°.
Xitle registered its last eruption in 400. Among the consequences of this eruption were the formation of the Pedregal de San Ángel lava fields, to the south of the Mexican Federal District. Cuicuilco, one of the most refined cities of Mesoamerica was destroyed by one of Xitle's eruptions in 50 BC and was covered by lava. The subsequent diaspora of the Cuicuilcans, and the attendant diffusion of their culture across most of central Mexico, influenced important cultural changes in the nearby power center of Teotihuacan.
This article also draws on material from a lecture given by Professor Jason Yaeger at the University of Wisconsin Madison.
Coordinates: 19°12′0″N 99°15′0″W / 19.2°N 99.25°W / 19.2; -99.25
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Xochicalco
Xochicalco (Nahuatl pronunciation: [ʃotʃiˈkaɬko]) is a pre-Columbian archaeological site in the Municipality of Miacatlán in the western part of the Mexican state of Morelos. The name Xochicalco may be translated from Nahuatl as "in the (place of the) house of Flowers". The site is located 38 km southwest of Cuernavaca, about 76 miles by road from Mexico City. The site is open to visitors all week, from 10 am to 5 pm, although access to the observatory is only allowed after noon. The apogee of Xochicalco came after the fall of Teotihuacan and it has been speculated that Xochicalco may have played a part in the fall of the Teotihuacan empire.
The architecture and iconography of Xochicalco show affinities with Teotihuacan, the Maya area, and the Matlatzinca culture of the Toluca Valley. Today some residents of the nearby village of Cuentepec speak Nahuatl.
The main ceremonial center is atop an artificially leveled hill, with remains of residential structures, mostly unexcavated, on long terraces covering the slopes. The site was first occupied by 200 BC, but did not develop into an urban center until the Epiclassic period (AD 700 – 900). Nearly all the standing architecture at the site was built at this time. At its peak, the city may have had a population of up to 20,000 people.
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Xochimilco
Xochimilco (Spanish IPA: [ʃotʃiˈmilko]) is one of the sixteen delegaciones or boroughs within Mexican Federal District. The borough is centered on the formerly independent city of Xochimilco, which was established on what was the southern shore of Lake Xochimilco in the pre-Hispanic period. Today, the borough consists of the eighteen “barrios” or neighborhoods of this city along with fourteen “pueblos” or villages that surround it, covering an area of 125 km2 (48 sq mi). While the borough is somewhat in the geographic center of the Federal District, it is considered to be “south” and has an identity separate from the historic center of Mexico City. This is due to its historic separation from that city during most of its history. Xochimilco is best known for its canals, which are left from what was an extensive lake and canal system which connected most of the settlements of the Valley of Mexico. These canals, along with artificial islands called chinampas attract tourists and other city residents to ride on colorful gondola like boats called “trajineras” around the 170 km (110 mi) of canals. This canal and chinampa system, as a vestige of the area’s pre-Hispanic past, has made Xochimilco a World Heritage Site; however, environmental degradation of both the canals and the chinampas is severe and ongoing, putting that status in question for the future.
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Xochipala
Xochipala is a minor archaeological site in the Mexican state of Guerrero, whose name has become attached, somewhat erroneously, to a style of Formative Period figurines and pottery from 1500 to 200 BCE. The archaeological site belongs to the Classic and Postclassic eras, from 200-1400 CE.
The Organera Xochipala archaeological zone takes its name from the nearby village of Xoxhipala and the local organ pipe cactus. The archaeological site belongs to the Classic and, most importantly, the Postclassic eras, from 200 to 1400 CE. In the mid-20th century this site, representative of the Mezcala culture, was extensively looted of an estimated 20,000 pieces. Most of the sculptural artifacts have been studied as looted pieces appearing in art collections.
The area is better known for its Xochipala-style figurines and stone bowls, which have been dated to the Formative (or Preclassic) Period 1500 to 200 BCE.
The site is particularly notable for the discovery of a corbelled arch, an innovation generally attributed the Maya. Whether the corbelled arch was independently developed in Guerrero or was imported from the Maya regions is still unsettled.
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Yuan Dynasty
The Yuan Dynasty (Chinese: 元朝, p Yuán Cháo; Mongolian: Их Юань улс) was the branch of Mongol Borjigin dynasty established by Kublai Khan. Although the Mongols had ruled northern China for decades, it was not until 1271 that Kublai Khan officially proclaimed the dynasty in the traditional Chinese style. His realm – the Great Yuan Empire (t 大元帝國, s 大元帝国, p Dà Yuán Dìguó) – was by this point isolated from the other khanates and controlled only most of present-day China and its surrounding areas including modern Mongolia. It was the first non-Han dynasty to rule all of China and lasted until 1368, after which its remnants in Mongolia were known as the Northern Yuan.
The Yuan is considered both a successor to the Mongol Empire and as an imperial Chinese dynasty. In official Chinese histories, the Yuan Dynasty bore the Mandate of Heaven, following the Song Dynasty and preceding the Ming Dynasty. Although the dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, he placed his grandfather Genghis Khan on the imperial records as the official founder of the dynasty as Taizu.
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Almohad Caliphate
The Almohad Dynasty (Berber: Imweḥḥden, from Arabic الموحدون al-Muwaḥḥidun, "the monotheists" or "the Unitarians"), was a MoroccanBerber-Muslim dynasty founded in the 12th century that established a Berber state in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains in roughly 1120.
The movement was started by Ibn Tumart in the Masmuda tribe, followed by Abd al-Mu'min al-Gumi between 1130 and his death in 1163, the Almohads defeated the ruling Almoravids, extending their power over all of the Maghreb. Al-Andalus, Moorish Iberia (modern Portugal and southern Spain) under the Almoravid dynasty, followed the fate of Africa.
The Almohad dominance of Iberia continued until 1212, when Muhammad III, "al-Nasir" (1199–1214) was defeated at the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in the Sierra Morena by an alliance of the Christian princes of Castile, Aragon, Navarre, and Portugal. Nearly all of the Moorish dominions in Iberia were lost soon after, with the great Moorish cities of Córdoba and Seville falling to the Christians in 1236 and 1248 respectively.
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Arturo Montiel
Arturo Montiel Rojas (b. October 15, 1943 in Atlacomulco, State of México) is a Mexican politician affiliated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). He is a former governor of the State of México and a former federal deputy.
Montiel is the son of Gregorio Montiel Monroy and Delia Rojas García. He received bachelor's degrees in public administration and accountancy from the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) in 1970. He married Maude Versini in 2002, a French journalist 31 years younger than he was. They divorced in September 2007.
As a politician, he has been the mayor of Naucalpan and director of civil protection at the federal Ministry of the Interior. At the state level he has been secretary of economic development and has presided twice over the local branch of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI).
In 1999, during his gubernatorial campaign for the State of Mexico, he portrayed himself as a tough-on-crime candidate, using a series of controversial radio spots in which he implied that criminals did not deserve human rights protection, saying "human rights are for humans, not for rats" ("rat" being common slang for "thief"). He won the election by simple majority and served from 1999 until 2005.
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Atahualpa
Atahualpa, Atahuallpa, Atabalipa, or Atawallpa (March 20, 1497 – August 29, 1533), was the last Sapa Inca or sovereign emperor of the Tahuantinsuyu, or the Inca Empire, prior to the Spanish conquest of the Incan Empire. Atahualpa became emperor upon defeating his older half-brother Huáscar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father, Inca Huayna Capac, from an infectious disease which may have been smallpox.
During the Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire, the Spaniard Francisco Pizarro captured Atahualpa and used him to control the Inca empire. Eventually, the Spanish executed Atahualpa, ending the Inca Empire (although several successors claimed the title of Sapa Inca ("unique Inca") and led a resistance against the invading Spaniards). After Atahualpa died, the Incan Empire began to erode.
When questioned by his Spanish captors in the Cajamarca prison about his origins, Atahualpa personally declared that he was the son of the Inca Huayna Capac from Tomebamba (Ecuador), and his mother was the Quito princess Paccha Duchicela, from Caranqui(Ecuador). The union was a politically expedient one, as the southern Ecuadorian Andes had been conquered by Huayna Capac's father, Túpac Inca Yupanqui some years earlier and Huayna Capac had recently conquered the northern Ecuadorian Andes, which Paccha Duchicela royal family had some influence.
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Buyid dynasty
The Buyid dynasty, also known as the Buyid Empire or the Buyids (Persian: آل بویه Āl-e Buye), also known as Buwaihids, Buyahids, or Buyyids, were a Shī‘ah Iranian dynasty that originated from Daylaman in Gilan. They founded a confederation that controlled most of modern-day Iran and Iraq in the 10th and 11th centuries.
The founders of the Būyid confederation were ‘Alī ibn Būyah and his two younger brothers, al-Hassan and Aḥmad. Originally a soldier in the service of the Ziyārīds of Ṭabaristān, ‘Alī was able to recruit an army to defeat a Turkish general from Baghdad named Yaqut in 934. Over the next nine years the three brothers gained control of the remainder of the 'Abbāsid Caliphate. While they accepted the titular authority of the caliph in Baghdad, the Būyid rulers assumed effective control of the state.
The first several decades of the Būyid confederation were characterized by large territorial gains. In addition to Fars and Jibal, which were conquered in the 930s, and central Iraq, which submitted in 945, the Būyids took Kermān (967), Oman (967), the Jazīra (979), Ṭabaristān (980), and Gorgan (981). After this, however, the Būyids went into a slow decline, with pieces of the confederation gradually breaking off and local dynasties under their rule becoming de facto independent.
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Cañari
The Cañari (in Kichwa: Kañari) are an indigenous ethnic group traditionally inhabiting the territory of the modern provinces of Azuay and Cañar in Ecuador; the term also refers to an independent pre-Hispanic tribal confederation of the same name, from which the modern people are descended. They are particularly noted for their resistance against the Inca Empire. Eventually conquered by the Inca shortly before the arrival of the Spanish, the Cañari would later ally with the Spanish against the Inca. Today, the population of Cañari, which includes many mestizos, numbers only in the thousands.
The general government of the Cañari was a federated monarchy. Each curaca or ruler governed his/her tribe independently; but, in great general emergencies, all of the leaders came together to deliberate in a general assembly, presided over by a sir or ruler from Guapondelig (called Tumebamba after the conquest of the Inca), who exercised certain jurisdiction over the others.
The rulers practised polygamy and the first male child succeeded the father in governing the tribe. The leaders were not equal in power or riches; because of this they all had alliances, protecting some against the oppression of others.
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Chavín culture
The Chavín were a civilization that developed in the northern Andean highlands of Peru from 900 BC to 200 BC. They extended their influence to other civilizations along the coast. The Chavín were located in the Mosna Valley where the Mosna and Huachecsa rivers merge. This area is 3150 meters above sea level and encompasses the quechua, jalca, and puna life zones.
The most well-known archaeological site of the Chavín era is Chavín de Huántar, located in the Andean highlands north of Lima. It is believed to have been built around 900 BC and was the religious and political center of the Chavín people. It has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The chief example of architecture is the Chavín de Huántar temple. The temple's design shows complex innovation to adapt to the highland environments of Peru. To avoid the temple's being flooded and destroyed during the rainy season, the Chavín people created a successful drainage system. Several canals built under the temple acted as drainage. The Chavín people also showed advanced acoustic understanding. During the rainy season, water rushed through the canals and created a roaring sound. The temple appeared to be roaring like a jaguar, a sacred animal. The temple was built of white granite and black limestone, neither of which is found near the Chavín site. This meant that leaders organized many workers to bring the special materials from far away rather than use local rock deposits.
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Chichimeca
Chichimeca was the name that the Nahua peoples of Mexico generically applied to a wide range of semi-nomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico and southwestern United States, and carried the same sense as the European term "barbarian". The name was adopted with a pejorative tone by the Spaniards when referring especially to the semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples of northern Mexico. In modern times only one ethnic group is customarily referred to as Chichimecs, namely the Chichimeca Jonaz, although lately this usage is being changed for simply "Jonáz" or their own name for themselves "Úza".
The Chichimeca peoples were in fact many different groups with varying ethnic and linguistic affiliations. As the Spaniards worked towards consolidating the rule of New Spain over the Mexican indigenous peoples during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the "Chichimecan tribes" maintained a resistance. A number of ethnic groups of the region allied against the Spanish, and the following military colonization of northern Mexico has become known as the "Chichimeca Wars".
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Columbian exchange
The Columbian Exchange was a dramatically widespread exchange of animals, plants, culture, human populations (including slaves), communicable disease, and ideas between the Western and Eastern Hemispheres. The contact between the two areas circulated a wide variety of new crops and livestock which supported increases in population in both hemispheres. Explorers returned to Europe with maize, potatoes, and tomatoes, which became very important crops in Eurasia by the 18th century. Similarly, Europeans introduced manioc and the peanut to tropical Southeast Asia and West Africa, where they flourished and supported growth in populations on soils that otherwise would not produce large yields.
In the biological and ecological exchange that took place following Spanish establishment of colonies in New World, people of Europe and Africa settled in the New World, and animals, plants and diseases of Eurasia and the Western Hemisphere were introduced to each area in an interchange.
This exchange of plants and animals transformed European, American, African, and Asian ways of life. New foods became staples of human diets, and new growing regions opened up for crops. For example, before AD 1000, potatoes were not grown outside of South America. By the 1840s, Ireland was so dependent on the potato that a diseased crop led to the devastating Irish Potato Famine. Since being introduced by 16th-century Portuguese traders, who brought them from the Americas,maize and manioc replaced traditional African crops as the continent’s most important staple food crops. New staple crops that were introduced to Asia from the Americas via Spanish colonizers in the 16th century, including maize and sweet potatoes, contributed to the population growth in Asia.
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Conquistador
Conquistadors ( /kɒn.ˈkiːstədɔrz/; Spanish and Portuguese: Conquistadores, Spanish: [koŋkistaˈðoɾes], Portuguese: [kõkiʃtaˈðoɾɨʃ]; "Conquerors") were soldiers, explorers, and adventurers at the service of the Spanish or Portuguese Empires. They sailed beyond Europe, conquering territory and opening trade routes. They colonized much of the world for Spain and Portugal in the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries.
The name derived from the Reconquista (711–1492), the reconquest of the territory of the Iberian Peninsula that was controlled by Muslims (the state called Al-Andalus). In 1492 Castile expanded its exploratory activities, using Portuguese navigators.[citation needed] Portugal had previously established a marine route to Japan via the southern coast of Africa, with numerous coastal enclaves along the route. Following the discovery of the New World by Christopher Columbus in 1492, expeditions led by conquistadors brought much of the Americas under the control of Spain in the 16th century.
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Cuauhtémoc
Cuauhtémoc (also known as Cuauhtemotzin, Guatimozin or Guatemoc; c. 1495 – 28 February 1525) was the Aztec ruler (tlatoani) of Tenochtitlan from 1520 to 1521. The name Cuāuhtemōc (Nahuatl pronunciation: [kʷaːʍˈtemoːk]) means "One That Has Descended Like an Eagle", commonly rendered in English as "Swooping Eagle" as in the moment when an eagle folds its wings and plummets down to strike its prey, so this is a name that implies aggressiveness and determination.
Cuauhtémoc took power in 1520 as successor of Cuitláhuac and was a cousin of the former emperor Moctezuma II, and his young wife, who would later be known as Isabel Moctezuma, was one of Moctezuma's daughters. He ascended to the throne when he was 25 years of age, as his city was being besieged by the Spanish and devastated by an epidemic of smallpox brought to the New World by Spanish Invaders. Probably after the killings in the main temple, there were few Aztec captains available to take the position.
On August 13, 1521, Cuauhtémoc went to call for reinforcements from the countryside to aid the falling Tenochtitlán, after eighty days of continuous urban warfare against the Spanish. Of all the Nahuas, only Tlatelolcas remained loyal, and the surviving Tenochcas looked for refuge in Tlatelolco, where even women took part in the battle. Cuauhtémoc was captured while fleeing Tenochtitlán by crossing Lake Texcoco in disguise with his wife, family, and friends. He surrendered to Hernán Cortés along with the surviving pipiltin (nobles), and offered him his knife and asked to be killed.
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Doris Heyden
Doris Heyden (née Heydenreich; June 2, 1905 – September 25, 2005) was a prominent scholar of pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures, particularly those of central Mexico. She was born in East Orange, New Jersey, United States. She died on September 25, 2005 from the lingering after effects of a stroke suffered in 1999.
Heyden was a member of a group of artists, writers, folklorists, scholars, and political activists who together created the "Mexican Renaissance". The exponents of this post-Revolutionary circle drew upon Mexican history and traditions while contributing to a variety of international movements including realism, Symbolism, surrealism and communism. Important members were mural painters Diego Rivera, Frida Kahlo, José Clemente Orozco and David Alfaro Siqueiros, Zapotec painter Rufino Tamayo, mystical painters Remedios Varo and Leonora Carrington, caricaturist and Mesoamerican scholar Miguel Covarrubias, as well as photographer Manuel Alvarez Bravo.
Born Doris Heydenreich Selz in 1905, Heyden claimed noble German and Austrian descent from a family with titles going back to 1312. She spent a happy and prosperous childhood in Maplewood, New Jersey and Glencoe, Illinois with access to New York City and Chicago. Her early life was illuminated by art, music, and books. She began writing and publishing at about age ten, at first concentrating on poetry and mysteries, and then contributing to Newark, New Jersey newspapers around age thirteen. Heyden started painting even earlier, when she was five years old. Although she never became a great artist, she made her mark in another field.
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Francisco de Montejo
Francisco de Montejo y Alvarez (c. 1479 in Salamanca – c. 1553 in Spain) was a Spanish conquistador in Mexico and Central America.
Francisco de Montejo was born in Salamanca, Spain, in 1479 to Juan de Montejo and Catalina Alvarez de Tejeda. He left Spain in 1514, and arrived in Cuba in time to join Grijalva's expedition along the coast of Yucatán and the Gulf of Mexico. There he had the rank of Captain, and command of 4 ships. On his return to Cuba, he joined with Hernan Cortes and as part of that expedition, helped found the city of La Rica Villa de la Vera Cruz (today Veracruz) in Mexico. Cortes then sent him as an envoy back to Spain in 1519 to report on the expedition. While in Spain Montejo married Beatriz de Herrera.
In December 1526 the Spanish King, Carlos I, issued a royal decree naming Montejo Adelantado and Capitan General of Yucatán. He returned to Yucatán in 1528, and attempted to conquer it along the east coast (Tulum, Chetumal) but was driven back by the ferocity of the resistance of the Maya living along this coast. In 1530 he decided to try conquering Yucatán from the west, and began by pacifying what is today the modern Mexican state of Tabasco. From 1531–1535 he tried unsuccessfully to conquer western Yucatán, with some successes but in 1535 his forces were driven from Yucatán. In 1533, Montejo received a royal decree giving him permission to conquer Puerto Caballos and Naco in Honduras. This put him in conflict with Pedro de Alvarado, who had received a similar decree in 1532. This only became an issue after Alvarado declared he had conquered and pacified the province of Honduras in 1536. Alvarado continued as Governor of Honduras until 1540, although he was recalled to Spain in 1537.
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Francisco Pizarro
Francisco Pizarro González (c. 1471 or 1476 – 26 June 1541) was born in Trujillo, Spain, the illegitimate son of Gonzalo Pizarro, an infantry colonel, and Francisca González, a woman of poor means. His exact birth date is uncertain, but is believed to be sometime in the 1470s, probably 1471. Scant attention was paid to his education and he grew up illiterate. He was a distant cousin of Hernán Cortés. On 10 November 1509, Pizarro sailed from Spain to the New World with Alonzo de Ojeda on an expedition to Urabí. He sailed to Cartagena and joined the fleet of Martin Fernández de Encíso, and, in 1513, accompanied Balboa to the Pacific. In 1514, he found a supporter in Pedrarias Dávila, the Governor of Castilla de Oro, and was rewarded for his role in the arrest of Balboa with the positions of mayor and magistrate in Panama City, serving from 1519 to 1523.
Reports of Peru's riches and Cortés's success in Mexico tantalized Pizarro and he undertook two expeditions to conquer the Incan Empire in 1524 and in 1526. Both failed as a result of native hostilities, bad weather, and lack of provisions. Pedro de los Ríos, the Governor of Panama, made an effort to recall Pizarro, but the conquistador resisted and remained in the south. In April 1528, he reached northern Peru and found the natives rich with precious metals. This discovery gave Pizarro the motivation to plan a third expedition to conquer Peru, and he returned to Panama to make arrangements, but the Governor refused to grant permission for the project. Pizarro returned to Spain to appeal directly to King Charles I. His plea was successful, and he received not only a license for the proposed expedition but considerable authority over any lands conquered during the venture. He was joined by family and friends, and the expedition left Panama in 1530.
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Fremont culture
The Fremont culture or Fremont people is a pre-Columbian archaeological culture which received its name from the Fremont River in the U.S. state of Utah where the first Fremont sites were discovered. The Fremont River itself is named for John Charles Frémont, an American explorer. It inhabited sites in what is now Utah and parts of Nevada, Idaho and Colorado from AD 700 to 1300. It was adjacent to, roughly contemporaneous with, but distinctly different from the Anasazi culture.
Fremont Indian State Park in the Clear Creek Canyon area in south-central Utah contains the biggest Fremont culture site in Utah. A recent, major discovery of a new site at Range Creek, Utah, has drawn a great deal of interest because it has stayed undisturbed for centuries. Nearby Nine Mile Canyon has long been known for its large collection of Fremont rock art. Other sites are found in Dinosaur National Monument, Zion National Park and Arches National Park.
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George Cowgill
George L. Cowgill (born 1929) is an American anthropologist and archaeologist. He is currently professor emeritus at Arizona State University. He received his PhD from Harvard in 1963 with a dissertation on The Post-Classic Period in the Southern Maya Lowlands. Most of his career has been devoted to research at the ancient Mexican city of Teotihuacan. He taught at Brandeis University between 1960 and 1990. Cowgill has made important contributions in a number of areas, including the archaeology of Mesoamerica, the comparative study of early states and cities, and quantitative methods in archaeology.
Cowgill was selected as the 1992 Distinguished Lecturer in Archaeology by the American Anthropological Association. In 2004 he was awarded the Alfred Vincent Kidder Award of the American Anthropological Association for his contributions to the archaeology of the Americas. This is one of the most prestigious awards in the field of archaeology.
Cowgill's major archaeological fieldwork and analysis has been centered on Teotihuacan. With René Millon, Cowgill spent years systematically mapping the city of Teotihuacán in the Valley of Mexico near modern Mexico City. In the 1960s he compiled an extensive database of the artifacts collected in the survey. This was one of the first large-scale archaeological databases, and it continues to be used for research today. In the late 1980s, Cowgill co-directed excavations at the Feathered Serpent Pyramid at Teotihuacan with Saburo Sugiyama and Rubén Cabrera. Several of Cowgill's published articles on Teotihuacan are among the most important syntheses of archaeological information on this ancient city.
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Hernán Cortés
Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro, 1st Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca (Spanish pronunciation: [erˈnaŋ korˈtes de monˈroj i piˈθaro]; 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish Conquistador who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions of mainland Mexico under the rule of the King of Castile in the early 16th century. Cortés was part of the generation of Spanish colonizers that began the first phase of the Spanish colonization of the Americas.
Born in Medellín, Spain, to a family of lesser nobility, Cortés chose to pursue a livelihood in the New World. He went to Hispaniola and later to Cuba, where he received an encomienda and, for a short time, became alcalde (magistrate) of the second Spanish town founded on the island. In 1519, he was elected captain of the third expedition to the mainland, an expedition which he partly funded. His enmity with the Governor of Cuba, Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, resulted in the recall of the expedition at the last moment, an order which Cortés ignored. Arriving on the continent, Cortés executed a successful strategy of allying with some indigenous peoples against others. He also used a native woman, Doña Marina, as an interpreter; she would later bear Cortés a son. When the Governor of Cuba sent emissaries to arrest Cortés, he fought them and won, using the extra troops as reinforcements. Cortés wrote letters directly to the king asking to be acknowledged for his successes instead of punished for mutiny. After he overthrew the Aztec Empire, Cortés was awarded the title of Marqués del Valle de Oaxaca, while the more prestigious title of Viceroy was given to a high-ranking nobleman, Antonio de Mendoza. In 1541 Cortés returned to Spain, where he died peacefully but embittered, six years later.
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Hopewell tradition
The Hopewell tradition (also incorrectly called the "Hopewell culture"[citation needed]) is the term used to describe common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern United States from 200 BCE to 500 CE. The Hopewell tradition was not a single culture or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations. They were connected by a common network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell Exchange System. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the Southeastern United States into the southeastern Canadian shores of Lake Ontario. Within this area societies participated in a high degree of exchange with the highest amount of activity along waterways. The Hopewell exchange system received materials from all over the United States. Most of the items traded were exotic materials and were received by people living in the major trading and manufacturing areas. These people then converted the materials into products and exported them through local and regional exchange networks. The objects created by the Hopewell exchange system spread far and wide and have been seen in many burials outside the Midwest.
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Hunnic Empire
The Hunnic empire was formed under the reign of Attila, centered in present-day Hungary; its territory included parts of Germany, the Balkans, and Ukraine. It bordered the Eastern Roman Empire to the southeast and the Western Roman Empire to the west and southwest; its other boundaries are uncertain. The empire dissolved after Attila's death in 453 as a result of struggles over succession and leadership, finally disappearing around 469.
The origins of the Huns that swept through Europe during the 4th Century remain unclear; they may have been connected with the Xiongnu and the later Northern Xiongnu, defeated and dispersed by China some three centuries before. However, most mainstream historians consider them as a group of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with mixed origin.[citation needed] There was a Hunnic language, and Gothic seems also to have been used as a lingua franca.
European accounts first mention the Huns in the lands north-west of the Caspian Sea about 370, when they conquered a tribe of Alans to their west. Pushing further westward, the Huns subjugated many Ostrogoths. In 395, a Hun raid across the Caucasus mountains devastated Armenia, then captured Erzurum, besieged Edessa and Antioch, and even reached Tyre.
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Inca Empire
The Inca Empire, or Inka Empire (Quechua: Tawantinsuyu), was the largest empire in pre-Columbian America. The administrative, political and military center of the empire was located in Cusco in modern-day Peru. The Inca civilization arose from the highlands of Peru sometime in the early 13th century.
From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used a variety of methods, from conquest to peaceful assimilation, to incorporate a large portion of western South America, centered on the Andean mountain ranges, including, besides Peru, large parts of modern Ecuador, western and south central Bolivia, northwest Argentina, north and central Chile, and southern Colombia into a state comparable to the historical empires of Eurasia.
The official language of the empire was Quechua, although hundreds of local languages and dialects of Quechua were spoken. The Inca referred to their empire as Tawantinsuyu which can be translated as The Four Regions or The Four United Provinces.
There were many local forms of worship, most of them concerning local sacred "Huacas", but the Inca leadership encouraged the worship of Inti—the sun god—and imposed its sovereignty above other cults such as that of Pachamama. The Incas considered their King, the Sapa Inca, to be the "child of the sun."
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Karl Taube
Karl Andreas Taube (born September 14, 1957) is an American Mesoamericanist, archaeologist, epigrapher and ethnohistorian, known for his publications and research into the pre-Columbian cultures of Mesoamerica and the American Southwest. As of 2009[update] he holds a position as Professor of Anthropology at the College of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences, University of California, Riverside. In 2008 he was named the College of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences distinguished lecturer.
Taube commenced his undergraduate education at Stanford, relocating to Berkeley where he completed a B.A. in Anthropology in 1980. His graduate studies were undertaken in Anthropology at Yale, where he completed his Masters degree in 1983 and was awarded his Doctorate in 1988. At Yale Taube studied under several notable Mayanist researchers, including Michael D. Coe, Floyd Lounsbury and the art historian Mary Miller. Taube later co-authored with Miller a well-received encyclopaedic work, The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya.
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Kingdom of Kush
The Kingdom of Kush or Kush was an ancient African state centered on the confluences of the Blue Nile, White Nile and River Atbara in what is now the Republic of Sudan.
Established after the Bronze Age collapse and the disintegration of the New Kingdom of Egypt, it was centered at Napata in its early phase. After king Kashta ("the Kushite") invaded Egypt in the 8th century BC, the Kushite kings ruled as Pharaohs of the Twenty-fifth dynasty of Egypt for a century, until they were expelled by Psamtik I in 656 BC.
During Classical Antiquity, the Kushite imperial capital was at Meroe. In early Greek geography, the Meroitic kingdom was known as Ethiopia. The Kushite kingdom with its capital at Meroe persisted until the 4th century AD, when it weakened and disintegrated due to internal rebellion. The Kushite capital was subsequently captured by the Beja Dynasty, who tried to revive the empire. The Kushite capital was eventually captured and destroyed by the kingdom of Axum. After the collapse of the Kushite empire several states emerged in its former territories, among them Nubia.
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Linda Schele
Linda Schele (30 October 1942 – 18 April 1998) was an expert in the field of Maya epigraphy and iconography. She played an invaluable role in the decipherment of much of the Maya hieroglyphics. She produced a massive volume of drawings of stelae and inscriptions, which, following her wishes, are free for use to scholars. In 1978, she founded the annual Maya Meetings at The University of Texas at Austin.
Born in Nashville, Tennessee, Linda Schele graduated from the University of Cincinnati in Education and Art in 1964, and obtained her post graduate degree in Art in 1968. She married David Schele in 1968, and started teaching Studio Art at the University of South Alabama, remaining there till 1980, by which time she was Professor.
She traveled with her husband, David Schele, to photograph Maya ruins in Yucatán on behalf of the University. An obligatory visit to Palenque turned into a 12 day stay after she was fascinated by the art, and she decided to investigate the culture and history of the ancient people who had created the city.
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Manco Cápac
Manco Cápac (Quechua Manqu Qhapaq "founder royal") was the legendary first Sapa Inca of the Kingdom of Cusco and a figure of Inca mythology. There are several versions of his origin story, which connect him to the foundation of Cusco.
Although he is mentioned in chronicles and is a basis for historical explanation of the origin of the Incas, his existence remains shrouded in mystery.
In one myth, Manco Cápac was a son of the sun god Inti and Mama Quilla, and brother of Pacha Kamaq. Manco Cápac himself was worshipped as a fire and a Sun God. According to the Inti legend, Manco Cápac and his siblings were sent up to the earth by the sun god and emerged from the cave of Pacaritambo carrying a golden staff, called tapac-yauri. Instructed to create a Temple of the Sun in the spot where the staff sank into the earth, they traveled to Cusco via underground caves and there built a temple in honour of their father Inti.
In the Viracocha legend, Manco Cápac (Ayar Manco) was the son of Viracocha of Paqari-Tampu (today Pacaritambo, 25 km south of Cusco). He and his brothers (Ayar Anca, Ayar Cachi and Ayar Uchu) and sisters (Mama Ocllo, Mama Huaco, Mama Raua and Mama Cura) lived near Cusco at Pacaritambo, and they united their people with other tribes encountered in their travels. They sought to conquer the tribes of the Cusco Valley. This legend also incorporates the golden staff, thought to have been given to Manco Cápac by his father. Accounts vary, but according to some versions of the legend, the young Manco jealously betrayed his older brothers, killed them, and became the ruler of Cusco.
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Manuel Gamio
Manuel Gamio (1883–1960) was a Mexican anthropologist, archaeologist, sociologist, and a leader of the indigenismo movement. He is often considered as the father of modern anthropological studies in Mexico. He devised a well-known system for classifying the hunter-gatherers of Central America.
Gamio was born in Mexico City, where he studied engineering at the School of Mining. However, at age 19 he left his studies to work on a family rubber plantation, where the states of Oaxaca, Veracruz and Puebla join. There he learned Nahuatl from the plantation workers and developed a strong interest in Mexico's indigenous cultures.
He returned to study at the National Museum under Zélia Nuttall, who in 1909 sent him to study under Franz Boas at Columbia University. There he earned a Ph.D. From Boas he adopted the cultural approach characteristic of the anthropology of the United States in the twentieth century. Boas considered Gamio one of his best students.
He returned to Mexico in 1910 and the following year he was among the founders of the Escuela Internacional de Arqueología y Etnología Americana (International School of Archaeology and Ethnology of the Americas) in Mexico City, with funds obtained from Germany and the United States. Other individuals associated with the school included Eduard Seler, Alfred M. Tozzer and Boas. This was during the Mexican Revolution, and thus was a difficult time to establish new scientific institutions. Gamio was director of the school from 1916 through 1920, when it closed for lack of funds.
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Mapuche
The Mapuche are a group of indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina. They constitute a wide-ranging ethnicity composed of various groups who shared a common social, religious and economic structure, as well as a common linguistic heritage. Their influence extended between the Aconcagua River and Chiloé Archipelago and later eastward to the Argentine pampa. The Mapuche make up about 4% of the Chilean population, and are particularly concentrated in Araucanía Region due to emigration into Santiago.
The term Mapuche can refer to the whole group of Picunches (people of the north), Huilliches (people of the South) and Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía, or exclusively to the Moluche or Nguluche from Araucanía. The Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture; their traditional social organisation consists of extended families, under the direction of a "lonko" or chief, although in times of war they would unite in larger groupings and elect a toqui (from Mapudungun toki "axe, axe-bearer") to lead them.
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Mary Miller
Mary Ellen Miller (born December 30, 1952) is an American art historian and Dean of Yale College. In 1998, she was appointed as the Vincent Scully, Jr. Professor of the History of Art. In 2008, she was appointed as Sterling Professor at Yale. She has served as the Chair of the History of Art, Latin American Studies, and Archaeological Studies Departments at Yale, as well as Director of Undergraduate Studies of the History of Art.
She served as the guest curator for "The Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya", a highly acclaimed exhibition of Maya art that took place in 2004 at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C., and the Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco. For that exhibition, she wrote the catalogue of the same title—a finalist for the Alfred H. Barr Jr. Award of the College Art Association—with Simon Martin, senior epigrapher at the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania. A previous exhibition catalogue, The Blood of Kings, co-authored with Linda Schele was awarded the Barr Prize in 1986.
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Medes
The Medes (/midz/) (from Old Persian Māda-) were an ancient Iranian people who lived in Iran in an area known as Media and spoke a northwestern Iranian language referred to as the Median language. Their arrival to the region is associated with the first wave of Iranian tribes in the late second millennium BCE (the Bronze Age collapse) through the beginning of the first millennium BCE.
In the 7th century BCE a unified Median state was formed which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East. An alliance with the Babylonians helped the Medes to capture Nineveh in 612 BCE which resulted in the collapse of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes were subsequently able to establish their Median kingdom (with Ecbatana as their royal centre) beyond their original homeland (central-western Iran) and had eventually a territory stretching roughly from northeastern Iran to the Halys River in Anatolia. The Median kingdom was conquered in 550 BCE by Cyrus the Great who established the next Iranian dynasty—the Achaemenid Empire.
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Mesoamerica
Mesoamerica (Spanish: Mesoamérica) is a region and cultural area in the Americas, extending approximately from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Costa Rica, within which a number of pre-Columbian societies flourished before the Spanish colonization of the Americas in the 15th and 16th centuries.
As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures. Beginning as early as 7000 BC the domestication of maize, beans, squash and chili, as well as the turkey and dog, caused a transition from paleo-Indian hunter-gatherer tribal grouping to the organization of sedentary agricultural villages. In the subsequent formative period, agriculture and cultural traits such as a complex mythological and religious tradition, a vigesimal numeric system, and a complex calendric system, a tradition of ball playing, and a distinct architectural style, were diffused through the area. Also in this period villages began to become socially stratified and develop into chiefdoms with the development of large ceremonial centers, interconnected by a network of trade routes for the exchange of luxury goods such as obsidian, jade, cacao, cinnabar, Spondylus shells, hematite, and ceramics. While Mesoamerican civilization did know of the wheel and basic metallurgy, neither of these technologies became culturally important.
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Moctezuma I
Moctezuma I (c. 1398–1469), also known as Motecuhzoma Ilhuicamina, Huehuemotecuhzoma or Montezuma I (Classical Nahuatl: Motēuczōma Ilhuicamīna [moteːkʷˈsoːma ilwikaˈmiːna], Classical Nahuatl: Huēhuemotēuczōma [weːwemoteːkʷˈsoːma]), was the fifth Aztec emperor - king of Tenochtitlan. During his reign the Aztec Empire was consolidated, major expansion was undertaken and Tenochtitlan started becoming the dominant partner of the Aztec Triple Alliance.
Moctezuma was the son of emperor Huitzilihuitl and queen Miahuaxihuitl. He was a brother of Chimalpopoca, Tlacaelel I and Huehue Zaca. Moctezuma executed Zaca for singing and beating his drum loudly.
According to legend, Miahuaxihuitl miraculously became pregnant with Moctezuma after swallowing a jewel. This may be the origin of the name Ilhuicamina. Moctezuma later married Chichimecacihuatzin I, his mother's niece.#59
Tlacaelel held the position of cihuacoatl - "First councillor" during Moctezuma's reign and some sources ascribe a lot of the success of Moctezuma to Tlacaelel, but this may be a postconquest invention (Gillespie 1989:132).
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Moctezuma II
Moctezuma II (c. 1466 – June 1519), also known by a number of variant spellings including Montezuma, Moteuczoma, Motecuhzoma and referred to in full by early Nahuatl texts as Motecuhzoma Xocoyotzin (Moctezuma the Young), was the ninth tlatoani or ruler of Tenochtitlan, reigning from 1502 to 1520. The first contact between indigenous civilizations of Mesoamerica and Europeans took place during his reign, and he was killed during the initial stages of the Spanish conquest of Mexico, when Conquistador Hernán Cortés and his men fought to escape from the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan.
During his reign the Aztec Empire reached its maximal size. Through warfare, Moctezuma expanded the territory as far south as Xoconosco in Chiapas and the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and incorporated the Zapotec and Yopi people into the empire. He changed the previous meritocratic system of social hierarchy and widened the divide between pipiltin (nobles) and macehualtin (commoners) by prohibiting commoners from working in the royal palaces.
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Mogollon culture
The Mogollon ( /mʌɡɨˈjoʊn/ or /moʊɡəˈjoʊn/) is one of the four major prehistoric archaeological Oasisamerica culture areas of the American Southwest and Northern Mexico. The American Indian culture known as the Mogollon lived in the southwest from approximately AD 150 until sometime between AD 1400 and AD 1450. The name Mogollon comes from the Mogollon Mountains, which were named after Don Juan Ignacio Flores Mogollón, Spanish Governor of New Mexico from 1712-1715.
The Mogollon archaeological area was first recognized by Emil Haury, following work at two archaeological sites (the Harris Village in the town of Mimbres, New Mexico, and the Mogollon Village, on the upper San Francisco River) in southwestern New Mexico in 1933 and 1934. Haury recognized that superficial similarities with the Hohokam archaeological culture and the Ancient Pueblo ("Anasazi") archaeological culture, including (initially unpainted) brown-paste pottery and the use of surface "pueblo" dwellings were insufficient to firmly characterize the inhabitants of the Mogollon region as subdivisions of these other archaeologically known cultures. Five decades of subsequent research conducted by teams based out of the Field Museum of Natural History, the Arizona State Museum at the University of Arizona, the Amerind Foundation, and the Mimbres Foundation, confirmed Haury's initial findings. Today, the distinctiveness of the Mogollon culture area in pottery manufacture, architectural construction, ground-stone tool design, and habits and customs of residence location and mortuary treatment are generally recognized.
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Nahua peoples
The Nahuas are a group of indigenous peoples of Mexico. Their language of Uto-Aztecan affiliation is called Nahuatl and consists of many more dialects and variants, a number of which are mutually unintelligible. About 1,500,000 Nahua speak Nahuatl and another 1,000,000 speak only Spanish.
Evidence suggests the Nahua peoples originated in the southwestern part of what is now the United States and northwestern Mexico. They split off from the other Uto-Aztecan speaking peoples and migrated into central Mexico around 500 CE. They settled in and around the Basin of Mexico and spread out to become the dominant people in central Mexico. Some of the most important Mesoamerican civilizations were of Nahua ethnicity, including the Toltec and Aztec cultures, as well as the Tepaneca, Acolhua, Tlaxcaltec, Xochimilca, and many others.
The name Nahua is derived from the Nahuatl word nāhuatl, which means "clear", "intelligible" or "speaking the Nahuatl language". It was used in contrast with popoloca, "to speak unintelligibly" or "speak a foreign language". Another, related term is Nahuatlaca, literally "Nahua people".
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Olmec
The Olmec were the first major civilization in Mexico. They lived in the tropical lowlands of south-central Mexico, in the modern-day states of Veracruz and Tabasco.
The Olmec flourished during Mesoamerica's Formative period, dating roughly from as early as 1500 BCE to about 400 BCE. Pre-Olmec cultures had flourished in the area since about 2500 BCE, but by 1600-1500 BCE Early Olmec culture had emerged centered around the San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán site near the coast in southeast Veracruz. They were the first Mesoamerican civilization and laid many of the foundations for the civilizations that followed. Among other "firsts", the Olmec appeared to practice ritual bloodletting and played the Mesoamerican ballgame, hallmarks of nearly all subsequent Mesoamerican societies.
The most familiar aspect of the Olmecs is their artwork, particularly the aptly named "colossal heads". The Olmec civilization was first defined through artifacts which collectors purchased on the pre-Columbian art market in the late 19th century and early 20th century. Olmec artworks are considered among ancient America's most striking.
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Otomi people
The Otomi people (English pronunciation: /ˌoʊtəˈmiː/ is an indigenous ethnic group inhabiting the central altiplano of Mexico.
The two most populous groups are the Highland or Sierra Otomí living in the mountains of La Huasteca and the Mezquital Otomí, living in the Mezquital valley in the eastern part of the state of Hidalgo, and in the state of Querétaro. Sierra Otomí usually self identify as Ñuhu or Ñuhmu depending on the dialect they speak, whereas Mezquital Otomi selfidentify as Hñähñu (pronounced [ʰɲɑ̃ʰɲũ]). Smaller Otomi populations exist in the states of Puebla, Mexico, Tlaxcala, Michoacán and Guanajuato. The Otomi language belonging to the Oto-Pamean branch of the Oto-Manguean language family is spoken in many different varieties some of which are not mutually intelligible.
One of the early complex cultures of Mesoamerica, the Otomi were likely the original inhabitants of the central Mexican altiplano before the arrival of Nahuatl speakers around ca. 1000 AD, but graduately they were replaced and marginalized by Nahua peoples. In the colonial period Otomi speakers helped the Spanish conquistadors as mercenaries and allies, which allowed them to extend into territories that had previously been inhabited by semi-nomadic Chichimecs, for example Querétaro and Guanajuato.
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Pedro de Alvarado
Pedro de Alvarado y Contreras (Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain, ca. 1485 or ca. 1495 – Guadalajara, New Spain, 4 July 1541) was a Spanish conquistador and governor of Guatemala. He participated in the conquest of Cuba, in Juan de Grijalva's exploration of the coasts of Yucatan and the Gulf of Mexico, and in the conquest of Mexico led by Hernan Cortes. He is considered the conquistador of most of Central America (El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras). Although renowned for his skill as a soldier, Alvarado is known also for the cruelty of his treatment of native populations, and mass murders committed in the subjugation of the native peoples of Mexico. Historiography portrays that indigenous people, both Nahuatl-speakers and speakers of other languages, called him Tonatiuh, meaning "sun" in the Nahuatl language. Yet he was also called "Red Sun" in Nahuatl, which allows a variety of interpretations. Whether this epithet refers to Don Alvarado's red hair, some esoteric quality attributed to him, or both, is disputed.
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Plum Bayou culture
Plum Bayou culture is a Pre-Columbian Native American culture that lived in what is now east-central Arkansas from 650—1050 CE, a time known as the Late Woodland Period. Archaeologists defined the culture based on the Toltec Mounds site and named it for a local waterway.
The Baytown culture (300 to 650 CE) preceded the Plum Bayou culture, and was then followed by early Mississippian cultures, which flourished from 900—1600 CE, until diseases brought by European decimated their populations.
The Plum Bayou culture had contact with the Coles Creek culture, located along the Mississippi River, and early Caddoan cultures, located in river valleys of the Red, Ouachita, and Arkansas Rivers in Arkansas and into Oklahoma.
Exotic materials found at Plum Bayou sites reveal trade with the Ozark Plateau, West Gulf Coastal Plain, and the Ouachita Mountains.
Major Plum Bayou sites with single or multiple mounds include:
Plum Bayou culture was one of the earliest groups to build ceremonial community centers with platform mounds and rectangular plazas. They primarily lived in small villages in the uplands and floodplains of the White and Arkansas Rivers. Archaeologists divide Plum Bayou settlements into "single household, multiple household, multiple household with mound, and multiple mound sites."
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Rashidun Caliphate
The Rashidun Caliphate (Arabic: الخلافة الراشدية al-khilāfat ar-Rāshidīyah), (c. 632-661) comprising the first four caliphs in Islam's history, was founded after Muhammad's death in 632 (Year 10 A.H. in the Islamic calendar). At its height, the Caliphate extended from the Arabian Peninsula, to the Levant, Caucasus and North Africa in the west, to the Iranian highlands and Central Asia in the east. At its greatest extent it was one of the largest empires in history. It is also known as the Patriarchal Caliphate.
After Muhammad's death in 632, the Medinan Ansar debated which of them should succeed him in running the affairs of the Muslims while Muhammad's household was busy with his burial. Umar (a Quraish) and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah pledged their loyalty to Abu Bakr, with the Ansar and the Quraish soon following suit. Abu Bakr thus became the first Khalifa Rasul Allah (Successor of the Messenger of God), and embarked on campaigns to propagate Islam. First, though, he would have to subdue the Arabian tribes which had gone back on their oaths of allegiance to Islam and the Islamic community. As a Khalifa or Caliph he was not a monarch and never claimed such a title nor did his three successors do so.
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Shuar people
The Shuar people are an indigenous people of Ecuador and Peru. They are members of the Jivaroan peoples, who are Amazonian tribes living at the headwaters of the Marañón River.
Shuar, in the Shuar language, means "people." The people who speak the Shuar language live in tropical rainforest between the upper mountains of the Andes, and the tropical rainforests and savannas of the Amazonian lowlands, in Ecuador extending to Peru. Shuar live in various places — thus, the muraiya (hill) shuar are people who live in the foothills of the Andes; the achu (swamp-palm) shuar (or Achuar) are people who live in the wetter lowlands east of the Andes (Ecuador and Peru).
Shuar refer to Spanish-speakers as apach, and to non-Spanish/non-Shuar speakers as inkis. Europeans and European Americans used to refer to Shuar as jívaros or jíbaros; this word probably derives from the 16th century Spanish spelling of "shuar" (see Gnerre 1973), but has taken other meanings including "savage" (and Shuar consider it an insult); outside of Ecuador, Jibaro has come to mean "rustic". The Shuar are popularly depicted in a wide variety of travelogue and adventure literature because of Western fascination with their former practice of shrinking human heads (tsantsa).
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Somali people
Somalis (Somali: Soomaaliyeed, Arabic: الصوماليون) are an ethnic group located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali Peninsula. The overwhelming majority of Somalis speak the Somali language, which is part of the Cushitic branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Ethnic Somalis number around 15-17 million and are principally concentrated in Somalia (more than 10 million), Ethiopia (4.6 million), Yemen (a little under 1 million), Kenya (900,000), Djibouti (464,600), and an unknown but large number live in parts of the Middle East, North America and Europe.
Samaale, the oldest common ancestor of several Somali clans, is generally regarded as the source of the ethnonym Somali. The name "Somali" is, in turn, held to be derived from the words soo and maal, which together mean "go and milk" — a reference to the ubiquitous pastoralism of the Somali people. Another plausible etymology proposes that the term Somali is derived from the Arabic for "wealthy" (dhawamaal), again referring to Somali riches in livestock.
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Songhai Empire
The Songhai Empire, also known as the Songhay Empire, was a state located in western Africa. From the early 15th to the late 16th century, Songhai was one of the largest Islamic empires in history. This empire bore the same name as its leading ethnic group, the Songhai. Its capital was the city of Gao, where a Songhai state had existed since the 11th century. Its base of power was on the bend of the Niger River in present day Niger and Burkina Faso.
The Songhai state has existed in one form or another for over a thousand years if one traces its rulers from the first settlement in Gao to its semi-vassal status under the Mali Empire through its continuation in Niger as the Dendi Kingdom.
The Songhai are thought to have settled at Gao as early as 800 CE, but did not establish it as the capital until the 11th century, during the reign of Dia Kossoi. However, the Dia dynasty soon gave way to the Sonni, proceeding the ascension of Sulaiman-Mar, who gained independence and hegemony over the city and was a forbear of Sonni Ali. Mar is often credited with wresting power away from the Mali Empire and gaining independence for the small Songhai kingdom at the time.
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Spearthrower Owl
"Spearthrower Owl" (or Atlatl Cauac) (? – 439 AD) is the name commonly given to a Mesoamerican personage from the Early Classic period, who is identified in Maya inscriptions and iconography. It has been suggested that Spearthrower Owl was a ruler of Teotihuacán at the start of height of its influence across Mesoamerica in the 4th and 5th century, and that he was responsible for the introduction of Teotihuacán-related cultural traits in the Maya area.
"Spearthrower Owl" is a name invented by archaeologists basically just describing the visual appearance of the Teotihuacán-originated spear-holding owl symbol stylised as one or two Maya glyphs usually used to represent his name. The symbols themselves are not readable Maya writing, even though inserted among otherwise normal glyphs.
However, in Tikal, the name appears written once as an ordinary Maya glyph compound that can be spelled out. The suggested spelling for the name is Jatz'om K'uh, meaning "owl that will strike". This naturally also looks like a verbal description of the spear-holding owl symbol.
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Tairona
Tairona was a group of chiefdoms in the region of Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in present-day Cesar, Magdalena and La Guajira Departments of Colombia, South America, which goes back at least to the 1st century AD and had significant demographic growth around the 11th century.
The Tairona people formed one of the two principal linguistic groups of the Chibcha family, the other being the Muisca. Genetic and archaeological evidence shows a relatively dense occupation of the region by at least 200 BC. Pollen data compiled by Luisa Fernanda Herrera in the 1980 shows considerable deforestation and the use of cultigens such as yuca and maiz since possibly 1200 BC. However, occupation of the Colombian Caribbean coast by sedentary or semi-sedentary populations have been documented to have occurred by ca 4000 BC. Ethnohistorical data shows that initial contact with the Spanish was tolerated by the Tairona but by the 1600 confrontations built and a small part of the Tairona population moved to the higher stretches of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. This movement allowed them to evade the worst of the Spanish colonial system during the 17th and 18th centuries. The indigenous Kogui, Wiwa, Arhuacos (Ijka, Ifca) and Cancuamo people who live in the area today are believed to be direct descendants of the Tairona.
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Taíno people
The Taínos were pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles. It is thought that the seafaring Taínos are relatives of the Arawak people of South America. The Taíno language is a member of the Arawakan language family, which ranges from South America across the Caribbean.
At the time of Columbus's arrival in 1492, there were five Taíno chiefdoms and territories on Hispaniola (modern day Haiti and Dominican Republic), each led by a principal Cacique (chieftain), to whom tribute was paid. Puerto Rico also was divided into chiefdoms. As the hereditary head chief of Taíno tribes, the cacique was paid significant tribute. Caciques enjoyed the privilege of wearing golden pendants called guanin, living in square bohíos instead of the round ones that the villagers inhabited, and sitting on wooden stools when receiving guests. At the time of the Spanish conquest, the largest Taíno population centers may have contained over 3,000 people each.
The Taínos were historically enemies of the neighboring Carib tribes, another group with origins in South America who lived principally in the Lesser Antilles. The relationship between the two groups has been the subject of much study. For much of the 15th century, the Taíno tribe was being driven to the northeast in the Caribbean (out of what is now South America) because of raids by Caribs. Many Carib women spoke Taíno because of the large number of female Taíno captives among them.
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Teotihuacan
Coordinates: 19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.6925°N 98.8438°W / 19.6925; -98.8438
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica.
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC and continued to be built until about 250 AD. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps 125,000 or more, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the Mexican Highland around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
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Terrence Kaufman
Terrence Kaufman is an American linguist specializing in documentation of unwritten languages, lexicography, Mesoamerican historical linguistics and language contact phenomena. He is currently a professor at the department of anthropology at the University of Pittsburgh.
Kaufman received his PhD in Linguistics from the University of California at Berkeley in 1963. Kaufman has produced descriptive and comparative-historical studies of languages of the Mayan, Siouan, Hokan, Uto-Aztecan, Mixe–Zoquean and Oto-Manguean families.
Probably because of his focus on gathering empirical documentation of unwritten languages through fieldwork and training of native linguists, Kaufman's list of publications is less extensive than those of other scholars in the field. Nevertheless, many of his articles, often coauthored with other scholars such as Lyle Campbell, Sarah Thomason and John Justeson, have been highly influential.
In a 1976 paper coauthored with Lyle Campbell, he advanced a theory that the Olmecs spoke a Mixe–Zoquean language, based on the substantial presence of early Mixe–Zoquean loans in many Mesoamerican languages, particularly from specific, culturally significant semantic domains. This theory has come to be widely accepted, and is often cited as quasi-fact. Along with Lyle Campbell and Thomas Smith-Stark, Kaufman carried out research published in Language (1986) which led to the recognition of Mesoamerica as a linguistic area.
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Tlaxcaltec
The Tlaxcalteca (also Tlaxcalans, Tlaxcallans) were an indigenous group of Nahua ethnicity that inhabited the Kingdom of Tlaxcala located in what is now the Mexican state of Tlaxcala.
The Tlaxcaltec were originally a conglomeration of three distinct ethnic groups who spoke Nahuatl, Otomi and Pinome, respectively. Eventually, the Nahuatl speakers became the dominant ethnic group.
Despite early attempts by the Mexica, the Tlaxcalteca were never conquered by the Aztec Triple Alliance. The Aztecs allowed them to maintain their independence so that they could participate in the xochiyaoyatl (flower wars) with them to facilitate human sacrifice.
The Tlaxcalteca served as allies to Hernán Cortés and his fellow Spanish conquistadors, and were instrumental in the invasion of Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec empire, helping the Spanish reach the Valley of Anahuac and providing a key contingency of the invasion force.
Due to their alliance with the Spanish Crown in the conquest of Mexico, the Tlaxcalteca enjoyed some privileges among the indigenous peoples of Mexico, including the right to carry firearms, ride horses, hold noble title and to rule their settlements autonomously.
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Noel Gallagher - Teotihuacan
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:04
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
X-Files: Fight The Future OST.
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Teotihuacan Pyramids
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:49
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
This is the ancient city of Teotihuacan in Mexico. The pyramid of the Sun and the pyramid of the Moon were built between 1-250 AD Filmed on a trip to Mexico City in 1996.
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This is the ancient city of Teotihuacan in Mexico. The pyramid of the Sun and the pyramid of the Moon were built between 1-250 AD Filmed on a trip to Mexico City in 1996.
- published: 17 Mar 2009
- views: 57779
- author: Dan Calva
BBC News - Ancient language discovered at Teotihuacan in Mexico
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:35
- Updated: 02 Jan 2013
Centuries after the indigenous tribes of Mexico built their giant pyramids in Teotihuacan, discoveries are still being made. Archaeologists are digging deep under the ancient settlement, but with only sixteen percent excavated, it's thought many more treasures are yet to be found. Rajan Datar picks up his trowel and tiny brush, to find out more.
http://wn.com/BBC_News_Ancient_language_discovered_at_Teotihuacan_in_Mexico
Centuries after the indigenous tribes of Mexico built their giant pyramids in Teotihuacan, discoveries are still being made. Archaeologists are digging deep under the ancient settlement, but with only sixteen percent excavated, it's thought many more treasures are yet to be found. Rajan Datar picks up his trowel and tiny brush, to find out more.
- published: 26 Apr 2010
- views: 15672
- author: UFODatabase
Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan (UNESCO/NHK)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:37
- Updated: 10 Dec 2012
The holy city of Teotihuacan ('the place where the gods were created') is situated some 50 km north-east of Mexico City. Built between the 1st and 7th centuries AD, it is characterized by the vast size of its monuments -- in particular, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl and the Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon, laid out on geometric and symbolic principles. As one of the most powerful cultural centres in Mesoamerica, Teotihuacan extended its ... Source: UNESCO TV / © NHK Nippon Hoso Kyokai URL: whc.unesco.org
http://wn.com/Pre-Hispanic_City_of_Teotihuacan_UNESCO_NHK
The holy city of Teotihuacan ('the place where the gods were created') is situated some 50 km north-east of Mexico City. Built between the 1st and 7th centuries AD, it is characterized by the vast size of its monuments -- in particular, the Temple of Quetzalcoatl and the Pyramids of the Sun and the Moon, laid out on geometric and symbolic principles. As one of the most powerful cultural centres in Mesoamerica, Teotihuacan extended its ... Source: UNESCO TV / © NHK Nippon Hoso Kyokai URL: whc.unesco.org
- published: 03 Jun 2010
- views: 10618
- author: unesco
Mystery of Teotihuacan - Pyramids Mexico "The Birthplace Of Gods"
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:13
- Updated: 02 Jan 2013
The name Teotihuacan ("Birthplace Of The Gods") was given by Aztecs centuries AFTER the fall of the city. No one even knows what race the people were. Teotihuacan Pyramids MIRROR of video from truth4Children. Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. At its zenith in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas. At this time it may have had more than 100000 inhabitants, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano. Although it is a subject of debate whether Teotihuacan was the center of a state empire, its influence throughout Mesoamerica is well documented; evidence of Teotihuacano presence, if not outright political and economic control, can be seen at numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate. Possible candidates are the Nahua, Otomi or Totonac ethnic groups. Scholars have also suggested that Teotihuacan was a multiethnic state. The city and the archaeological site were located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán ...
http://wn.com/Mystery_of_Teotihuacan_Pyramids_Mexico_The_Birthplace_Of_Gods
The name Teotihuacan ("Birthplace Of The Gods") was given by Aztecs centuries AFTER the fall of the city. No one even knows what race the people were. Teotihuacan Pyramids MIRROR of video from truth4Children. Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. At its zenith in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas. At this time it may have had more than 100000 inhabitants, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano. Although it is a subject of debate whether Teotihuacan was the center of a state empire, its influence throughout Mesoamerica is well documented; evidence of Teotihuacano presence, if not outright political and economic control, can be seen at numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate. Possible candidates are the Nahua, Otomi or Totonac ethnic groups. Scholars have also suggested that Teotihuacan was a multiethnic state. The city and the archaeological site were located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán ...
- published: 23 Nov 2009
- views: 11621
- author: vudumojo
Teotihuacán, le berceau du cinquième soleil
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 26:02
- Updated: 19 Dec 2012
Dans le secret des pierres (série documentaire)
http://wn.com/Teotihuacán,_le_berceau_du_cinquième_soleil
Dans le secret des pierres (série documentaire)
- published: 31 May 2012
- views: 1461
- author: Lasmatik Aldébaran
Pirámides de Teotihuacan, México. 1 de 5
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:41
- Updated: 01 Jan 2013
Pirámides de Teotihuacan en México. Ciudad de los dioses. Documental sobre esta misteriosa civilización que la revela como una de las más enigmáticas en toda la historia de la humanidad.
http://wn.com/Pirámides_de_Teotihuacan,_México_1_de_5
Pirámides de Teotihuacan en México. Ciudad de los dioses. Documental sobre esta misteriosa civilización que la revela como una de las más enigmáticas en toda la historia de la humanidad.
- published: 23 Jul 2007
- views: 290493
- author: mglsg
Archeology of Teotihuacan, Mexico
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:23
- Updated: 23 Nov 2012
the oldest largest city in the world
http://wn.com/Archeology_of_Teotihuacan,_Mexico
Teotihuacan
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:28
- Updated: 26 Jun 2012
Teotihuacan
http://wn.com/Teotihuacan
Alien Cities Mexico TEOTIHUACAN Nephilim Giants, Pyramids, Annunaki Technology
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:25
- Updated: 08 Dec 2012
Teotihuacan was inherited by the Maya, there's no way they built those pyramids. Advanced technology was given by the BENE HA ELOHIM, sons of God, fallen angels, Satan.Their offspring were the nephilim, the Anakim, Zamzummims, Og King of Bashan are examples. The ZIGGURAT like structures found all over the world containing tall nordic like, blonde haired, blue eyed mummies is undeniable. Sumer, Peru, China, Egypt, Canary Islands etc which are described as "indo-europeans" is laughable, these people are nephilim, they do not have to be giants, The exact same thing is going on today. "alien cities" Mexico teotihuacan "Nephilim giants" Ufo "sun pyramids" annunaki "puma punku" akapana quetzalcoatl
http://wn.com/Alien_Cities_Mexico_TEOTIHUACAN_Nephilim_Giants,_Pyramids,_Annunaki_Technology
Teotihuacan was inherited by the Maya, there's no way they built those pyramids. Advanced technology was given by the BENE HA ELOHIM, sons of God, fallen angels, Satan.Their offspring were the nephilim, the Anakim, Zamzummims, Og King of Bashan are examples. The ZIGGURAT like structures found all over the world containing tall nordic like, blonde haired, blue eyed mummies is undeniable. Sumer, Peru, China, Egypt, Canary Islands etc which are described as "indo-europeans" is laughable, these people are nephilim, they do not have to be giants, The exact same thing is going on today. "alien cities" Mexico teotihuacan "Nephilim giants" Ufo "sun pyramids" annunaki "puma punku" akapana quetzalcoatl
- published: 05 Feb 2012
- views: 6260
- author: infamos
Pirámides de Teotihuacán (Parte 1)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 15:00
- Updated: 28 Dec 2012
Esta es una de las más grandes pirámides en el planeta hecha con miles de toneladas de piedra y tierra, se levanta por encima del paisaje en una enorme pantalla de la riqueza y el poder que se tenía. Teotihuacán sigue siendo fundamental por ser la primera gran metrópolis de las Américas. Las pirámides fueron construidas hace 2000 años en México por un pueblo que desapareció hace mucho tiempo entre mito y leyenda. Su propósito sigue siendo un misterio. ¿Son los templos de los dioses, altares de sacrificios sangrientos, o ambas cosas?.
http://wn.com/Pirámides_de_Teotihuacán_Parte_1
Esta es una de las más grandes pirámides en el planeta hecha con miles de toneladas de piedra y tierra, se levanta por encima del paisaje en una enorme pantalla de la riqueza y el poder que se tenía. Teotihuacán sigue siendo fundamental por ser la primera gran metrópolis de las Américas. Las pirámides fueron construidas hace 2000 años en México por un pueblo que desapareció hace mucho tiempo entre mito y leyenda. Su propósito sigue siendo un misterio. ¿Son los templos de los dioses, altares de sacrificios sangrientos, o ambas cosas?.
- published: 08 Oct 2011
- views: 21125
- author: felix10757
Pirámides de Teotihuacan, México
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:51
- Updated: 05 Jan 2013
Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. The largest pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun, was completed by 100 AD. At its peak (450 AD), the city covered over 30 km² and probably housed a population of over 150000 people. Archaeological evidence suggests that Teotihuacan (45 km northeast of Mexico City) was a multi-ethnic city, with distinct quarters occupied by Otomi, Zapotec, Mixtec, Maya and Nahua peoples. By FC, octubre 2010.
http://wn.com/Pirámides_de_Teotihuacan,_México
Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. The largest pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun, was completed by 100 AD. At its peak (450 AD), the city covered over 30 km² and probably housed a population of over 150000 people. Archaeological evidence suggests that Teotihuacan (45 km northeast of Mexico City) was a multi-ethnic city, with distinct quarters occupied by Otomi, Zapotec, Mixtec, Maya and Nahua peoples. By FC, octubre 2010.
- published: 17 Nov 2010
- views: 24062
- author: PfiLatinAm
Documental de Teotihuacan Ciudad Imperial
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 24:49
- Updated: 04 Jan 2013
Documental que permite ver y conocer imágenes de pinturas y palacios que normalmente el visitante desconoce por estar fuera de la ruta de las piramides
http://wn.com/Documental_de_Teotihuacan_Ciudad_Imperial
Documental que permite ver y conocer imágenes de pinturas y palacios que normalmente el visitante desconoce por estar fuera de la ruta de las piramides
- published: 23 Sep 2011
- views: 49067
- author: sergiopescadorp
Pyramids of Teotihuacan, Outside Mexico City, Mexico
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:54
- Updated: 06 Nov 2012
City of the gods, Teotihuacan's pyramids, whose origin is lost in time, aclip from "Mayavision", a free Intrepid Berkeley Explorer video of major Mayan Temple cities in Central America and Mexico, plus Mexico City with the Virgin of Guadalupe, the Temples of Teotihuacán, and much more. To enjoy all of this Mayan Pyramids film, plus over 30 more free, non-commercial, streaming travel videos from every continent, and still pictures, please ask a search engine for: Intrepid Berkeley Explorer
http://wn.com/Pyramids_of_Teotihuacan,_Outside_Mexico_City,_Mexico
City of the gods, Teotihuacan's pyramids, whose origin is lost in time, aclip from "Mayavision", a free Intrepid Berkeley Explorer video of major Mayan Temple cities in Central America and Mexico, plus Mexico City with the Virgin of Guadalupe, the Temples of Teotihuacán, and much more. To enjoy all of this Mayan Pyramids film, plus over 30 more free, non-commercial, streaming travel videos from every continent, and still pictures, please ask a search engine for: Intrepid Berkeley Explorer
- published: 10 Dec 2007
- views: 51899
- author: intrepberkexplorer
Mirage of Blaze - Mirages
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:11
- Updated: 28 Aug 2012
Our take on the first couple of Mirage of Blaze dvds, as summarized by Starherd: "The story for the video is your typical boys are friends, boy 1 is possessed, boy 2 gets his butt kicked trying to save boy 1 and can only do so with the help of mysterious(ly sexy) stranger." The music in the vid is "Teotihuacan" by Noel Gallagher, from the X-Files Movie album. A considerable amount of audio editing was done to pare it down from seven minutes to a more reasonable four to five minute length for this video. This video contains spoilers for the first half of the Mirage of Blaze anime series.
http://wn.com/Mirage_of_Blaze_Mirages
Our take on the first couple of Mirage of Blaze dvds, as summarized by Starherd: "The story for the video is your typical boys are friends, boy 1 is possessed, boy 2 gets his butt kicked trying to save boy 1 and can only do so with the help of mysterious(ly sexy) stranger." The music in the vid is "Teotihuacan" by Noel Gallagher, from the X-Files Movie album. A considerable amount of audio editing was done to pare it down from seven minutes to a more reasonable four to five minute length for this video. This video contains spoilers for the first half of the Mirage of Blaze anime series.
- published: 01 Nov 2006
- views: 40395
- author: productionswtf
Teotihuacan - Pyramidenstadt der Götter (Doku)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 41:45
- Updated: 09 Dec 2012
Teotihuacan liegt etwa 45 Kilometer nördlich von Mexiko-City. Nur wenig bekannt ist über die Begründer der einzigartigen Pyramidenstadt, denn sie hinterließen keine schriftlichen Aufzeichnungen. Vermutlich um 300 v.Chr. begann der Bau der über Jahrhunderte mächtigsten Metropole Mittelamerikas. Warum wurde die Stadt der Götter auf dem Höhepunkt ihrer kulturellen Blüte verlassen? Archäologische Ausgrabungen sollen das Rätsel um die verschwundene Hochkultur lösen.
http://wn.com/Teotihuacan_Pyramidenstadt_der_Götter_Doku
Teotihuacan liegt etwa 45 Kilometer nördlich von Mexiko-City. Nur wenig bekannt ist über die Begründer der einzigartigen Pyramidenstadt, denn sie hinterließen keine schriftlichen Aufzeichnungen. Vermutlich um 300 v.Chr. begann der Bau der über Jahrhunderte mächtigsten Metropole Mittelamerikas. Warum wurde die Stadt der Götter auf dem Höhepunkt ihrer kulturellen Blüte verlassen? Archäologische Ausgrabungen sollen das Rätsel um die verschwundene Hochkultur lösen.
- published: 09 Dec 2012
- views: 615
- author: GermanOnlineDokus
TEOTIHUACAN Mexico
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:34
- Updated: 18 May 2012
The ruins of the ancient Mexican capital, Teotihuacan, remain a mystery to scientists to the present day. Little is known about the former historic rise and fall of this first major city on the American continent. During its heyday, Teotihuacan extended over an area of more than 20 square kilometres and ruled over a city-state that was larger than that of Ancient Rome. It is believed that the origins of this impressive city date back as far as the 2nd century BC Four large platforms surround the Citadel, the administrative centre of the city. On the opposite side is the magnificent and impressive Quetzalcoatl Temple, which is adorned with several reliefs. The huge towering The Pyramid of the Sun is one of the main landmarks. Overawed by the magnificent structure, the Aztecs described it as, "The Place Where One Becomes God" -- and it is indeed a magnificent and fascinating sight to behold.
http://wn.com/TEOTIHUACAN_Mexico
The ruins of the ancient Mexican capital, Teotihuacan, remain a mystery to scientists to the present day. Little is known about the former historic rise and fall of this first major city on the American continent. During its heyday, Teotihuacan extended over an area of more than 20 square kilometres and ruled over a city-state that was larger than that of Ancient Rome. It is believed that the origins of this impressive city date back as far as the 2nd century BC Four large platforms surround the Citadel, the administrative centre of the city. On the opposite side is the magnificent and impressive Quetzalcoatl Temple, which is adorned with several reliefs. The huge towering The Pyramid of the Sun is one of the main landmarks. Overawed by the magnificent structure, the Aztecs described it as, "The Place Where One Becomes God" -- and it is indeed a magnificent and fascinating sight to behold.
- published: 13 Jun 2009
- views: 2067
- author: TravelVideoStore
Teotihuacan: The Aztec Pyramids - Mexico City - January, 2002
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:36
- Updated: 21 Dec 2012
My wife and I visit the Aztec pyramids, and I climb the Sun pyramid.. And, Yes! That was a Tough climb!
http://wn.com/Teotihuacan_The_Aztec_Pyramids_Mexico_City_January,_2002
My wife and I visit the Aztec pyramids, and I climb the Sun pyramid.. And, Yes! That was a Tough climb!
- published: 04 Oct 2008
- views: 7845
- author: rvr2
Mexico Teotihuacan Pyramid Ancient pre Columbian archaeological site Jim Rogers
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:18
- Updated: 16 Nov 2012
Jim Rogers - 150 Countries, 150000 Miles in three years - Pyramids at Teotihuacan Mexico Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, the archaeological site of Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the so-called "street of the dead", and its colorful well-preserved murals. Teotihuacan was, at its apogee in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas. During its zenith it may have had more than 100000 inhabitants placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano. Although it is a subject of debate whether Teotihuacan was the center of an empire, its influence throughout Mesoamerica is well documented; evidence of Teotihuacano presence, if not outright political and economic control, can be seen at numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate and possible candidates are the Nahua, Otomi or Totonac ethnic groups. Often it has been suggested that Teotihuacan was in fact a multiethnic state. The city and the archaeological site was located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán municipality in the State of México, Mexico, approximately 40 kilometres (25 ...
http://wn.com/Mexico_Teotihuacan_Pyramid_Ancient_pre_Columbian_archaeological_site_Jim_Rogers
Jim Rogers - 150 Countries, 150000 Miles in three years - Pyramids at Teotihuacan Mexico Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, the archaeological site of Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the so-called "street of the dead", and its colorful well-preserved murals. Teotihuacan was, at its apogee in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas. During its zenith it may have had more than 100000 inhabitants placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano. Although it is a subject of debate whether Teotihuacan was the center of an empire, its influence throughout Mesoamerica is well documented; evidence of Teotihuacano presence, if not outright political and economic control, can be seen at numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate and possible candidates are the Nahua, Otomi or Totonac ethnic groups. Often it has been suggested that Teotihuacan was in fact a multiethnic state. The city and the archaeological site was located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán municipality in the State of México, Mexico, approximately 40 kilometres (25 ...
- published: 22 Jan 2009
- views: 12732
- author: BruceFenton
Teotihuacan Part 2 of 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 14:59
- Updated: 21 Apr 2012
Ohlone College Art 103A Professor Kenney Mencher (Art History Stone Age Technology through the Early Renaissance) www.kenney-mencher.com A brief analysis of the architecture, sculptures, and paintings of the Mesoamerican Culture at Teotihuacan.
http://wn.com/Teotihuacan_Part_2_of_2
Ohlone College Art 103A Professor Kenney Mencher (Art History Stone Age Technology through the Early Renaissance) www.kenney-mencher.com A brief analysis of the architecture, sculptures, and paintings of the Mesoamerican Culture at Teotihuacan.
- published: 25 Aug 2011
- views: 1631
- author: Kenney Mencher
X-Files: The Album - Noel Gallagher - Teotihuacan
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:09
- Updated: 03 Jan 2013
X-Files - Noel Gallagher - Teotihuacan Artist: Noel Gallagher Song: Teotihuacan Album: The X-Files: The Album Title: The X-Files: The Album - Fight The Future [Soundtrack] Various Artists Original Release Date: June 2, 1998 www.xfiles.com http en.wikipedia.org www.amazon.com
http://wn.com/X-Files_The_Album_Noel_Gallagher_Teotihuacan
X-Files - Noel Gallagher - Teotihuacan Artist: Noel Gallagher Song: Teotihuacan Album: The X-Files: The Album Title: The X-Files: The Album - Fight The Future [Soundtrack] Various Artists Original Release Date: June 2, 1998 www.xfiles.com http en.wikipedia.org www.amazon.com
- published: 26 Jun 2010
- views: 18881
- author: SP00KYMULD3R
In-flight movie: Teotihuacán, Xochicalco, Chichén Itzá
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:39
- Updated: 02 Apr 2012
Explore the ruins of Mexico: Teotihuacán, Xochicalco, Chichén Itzá and more! Thisshort video is perfect for "in-flight movies" during a fantasy trip in your Spanish classroom. It includes simple Spanish narration and some text for FLES and beginning level Spanish learners.
http://wn.com/In-flight_movie_Teotihuacán,_Xochicalco,_Chichén_Itzá
Explore the ruins of Mexico: Teotihuacán, Xochicalco, Chichén Itzá and more! Thisshort video is perfect for "in-flight movies" during a fantasy trip in your Spanish classroom. It includes simple Spanish narration and some text for FLES and beginning level Spanish learners.
- published: 25 Jun 2008
- views: 6209
- author: MisCositasTV
photo: UN / Evan Schneider
06 Jan 2013
LONDON -- They have barely 3,000 inhabitants and far more sheep than people. They are more than 8,700 miles from London. For much of the year, they are bitterly cold and wind-swept, with only open sea and ice between them and Antarctica ... But the Falkland Islands, the focus of a short war between Britain and Argentina in 1982, have been in the headlines again recently ... Their arguments suggest what has long been evident ... Ms ... Mr ... Cameron said....(size: 5.1Kb)
photo: WN / Imran Nissar
06 Jan 2013
ISLAMABAD - The Pakistani military is accusing forces from neighboring India of crossing the boundary between the two sides' forces in Kashmir and attacking a Pakistani border post, killing a soldier. The military's public relations office said in a statement Sunday that another Pakistani soldier was critically wounded in the incident early Sunday. They said troops are still exchanging gunfire in the area ... All rights reserved ... Parker ... ....(size: 4.3Kb)
photo: AP / Joerg Koch
07 Jan 2013
NEW YORK – In the shadow of the euro crisis and America’s fiscal cliff, it is easy to ignore the global economy’s long-term problems. But, while we focus on immediate concerns, they continue to fester, and we overlook them at our peril. The most serious is global warming. While the global economy’s weak performance has led to a corresponding slowdown in the increase in carbon emissions, it amounts to only a short respite ... ....(size: 5.3Kb)
photo: US Army / Sgt. Christopher Bonebrake
07 Jan 2013
Article by WN.com Correspondent Dallas Darling. When Congress granted President Lyndon B. Johnson absolute powers to "take all necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of the United States and to prevent further aggression," Congress could have also included "all necessary vanities." The 1964 Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which greatly escalated a foreign imperial war in Vietnam, added fuel to the bonfires of vanity....(size: 5.2Kb)
photo: WN / Bhaskar Mallick
05 Jan 2013
Tweet. New Delhi, Jan 5 (ANI). The male friend of the 23-year-old medical student, who was gang-raped and left unclothed and bleeding in the street and later died in hospital two weeks after she was attacked on December 16 on a private bus in New Delhi, has said that things would have gone differently if someone had stopped to help ... "It would have been a very different scenario today, had even one person come to our help that day ... (ANI)....(size: 3.8Kb)
Houston Press
01 Jan 2013
Free Press Houston New Year's Eve Cataclysm. Feat. Buxton, Infinite Apaches, Robert Ellis, Ben Godfrey. Fitzgerald's. December 31, 2012. Devil, your name be "Michelada." ... Page 1 finds me finally inside Fitzgerald's, watching Buxton from just above the sound booth. The first thing that I've noted is that there are a ton of people here who were also at Teotihuacan, the source of these mind-erasing cerveza preparadas ... And it's no surprise ... ....(size: 2.7Kb)
The Examiner
24 Dec 2012
Below are key excerpts of important news articles on the call by US pediatricians to keep mercury-based thimerosal in child vaccines, exposure by the Jimmy Saville case of an elite pedophile ring in the UK, the sharp split in reactions to child massacres in the US and the Muslim world, and more ... If any link fails, click here ... Special note ... Note ... http.//www.nytimes.com/2012/12/18/business/walmart-bribes-teotihuacan.html?pagewanted=all ... ... ....(size: 31.3Kb)
CNTV
23 Dec 2012
A man wearing traditional costumes takes part in a Mayan ceremony to receive the new cycle of the Mayan Calendar, at the Teotihuacan archaeological site, in the state of Mexico, Mexico, on Dec. 21, 2012 ... The archeological sites in southeastern Mexico, including Chichen Itza, Tulum and Palenque, and Chiapas have received the highest number of tourists, with 28,000 visits, while central Mexico's Teotihuacan received 10,000 visitors ... 26 ... ....(size: 9.6Kb)
The Salt Lake Tribune
22 Dec 2012
San Juan Teotihuacan, Mexico » Walmart longed to build in Elda Pineda’s alfalfa field ... In Teotihuacan, The Times found that Walmart de Mexico executives approved at least four different bribe payments — more than $200,000 in all — to build just a medium-size supermarket ... The Teotihuacan case also raises new questions about the way Walmart’s ......(size: 7.2Kb)
The Examiner
22 Dec 2012
Tweet. 0 Email. Report. Photo 1 of 14. Did the Maya really predict the end of the world on December 23, 2012 as widely reported? Find out at the Penn Museum while exploring Maya culture. Credit. Alexander Fleischman for Penn Museum ... This Margarita Panel, carved on a building around 450 CE, features the emblematic name of Copan’s royal founder K’inch Yax K’uk Mo’.Check out the Teotihuacan vessels from a Maya kingdom in Central Mexico ca ... ....(size: 5.6Kb)
Star Telegram
21 Dec 2012
Posted Friday, Dec. 21, 2012. Previous Next. AP. Dancers perform as the sun rises at the Teotihuacan archeological site in Teotihuacan, Mexico, Friday, Dec. 21, 2012. Many believe today is the conclusion of a vast, 5,125-year cycle in the Mayan calendar. Some have interpreted the prophetic moment as the end of the world, while others as believed it marked the birth of a new and better age. (AP Photo/Alexandre Meneghini). AP ... 21, 2012 ... AP ... AP ... AP....(size: 10.7Kb)
Business Insider
20 Dec 2012
The Mayan calendar ends on Friday, and some people believe that means the world will come to an end ... Some of the featured destinations include the storied ruins of Teotihuacan, Palenque and Chichén Itzá ... Tags ... ....(size: 2.1Kb)
The Examiner
20 Dec 2012
UNIFY is organizing a gathering at sacred locations around the globe to occur simultaneously with gathering in major cities to mark the special winter solstice labeled 12/21/12 ... Ceremonies will be synchronized at Mayan points of interest such as Teotihuacan, Uxmal, Polenque, and Zocalo as well as at Stonehenge, Mt ... Location ... ....(size: 1.6Kb)
The Examiner
20 Dec 2012
As the Fifth Dimension put it, tomorrow is the dawning of the Age of Aquarius. That 1969 hit song covers the basics.. When the moon is in the Seventh House. And Jupiter aligns with Mars. Then peace will guide the planets. And love will steer the stars ... THE SOLSTICE ... TEOTIHUACAN - at 4.10 PM. Azteca Dancers and Toltec elders lead ceremonies in Teotihuacan ... Teotihuacan Drumming with 700 drummers and others joining around the world ... Fuji, Japan....(size: 10.8Kb)
Palm Beach Post
19 Dec 2012
Among those stores is one near Teotihuacan, the site of the famous pyramids outside Mexico City ... A Wal-Mart statement said the Teotihuacan store is part of the company's investigation that began about a year ago ... The Times' article brought back memories to local residents who tried to stop construction of the Bodega Aurrera in Teotihuacan....(size: 3.9Kb)
The Independent
19 Dec 2012
The Times investigation uncovered evidence that in 2003, Wal-Mart de Mexico was blocked from building a supermarket in an alfalfa field in San Juan Teotihuacan. The company paid an official $52,000, and the store was built – within sight of the famous Teotihuacan pyramids. Teotihuacan’s mayor, ......(size: 1.5Kb)
The Washington Post
19 Dec 2012
Among those stores is one near Teotihuacan, the site of the famous pyramids outside Mexico City ... A Wal-Mart statement said the Teotihuacan store is part of the company’s investigation that began about a year ago ... The Times’ article brought back memories to local residents who tried to stop construction of the Bodega Aurrera in Teotihuacan....(size: 5.9Kb)
Newstrack India
19 Dec 2012
"The process to open the Bodega Aurrera San Juan Teotihuacan which took place from 2003-2004, mentioned in The New York Times, is part of a Walmart Stores Inc ... The New York Times published a story Monday that said Walmart de Mexico bribed officials to speed construction of a supermarket near the Teotihuacan archaeological zone, paying $52,000 to ......(size: 3.0Kb)
This article is about the archaeological site. For the town and municipality, see Teotihuacán de Arista.
Coordinates: 19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.6925°N 98.8438°W / 19.6925; -98.8438
| Pre-Hispanic City of Teotihuacan * | |
|---|---|
 View of the Avenue of the Dead and the Pyramid of the Sun, from the Pyramid of the Moon |
|
| Country | Mexico |
| Type | Cultural |
| Criteria | I, II, III, IV, VI |
| Reference | 414 |
| Region ** | North America |
| Inscription history | |
| Inscription | 1987 (11th Session) |
| * Name as inscribed on World Heritage List ** Region as classified by UNESCO |
|
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica.[1]
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC and continued to be built until about 250 AD.[2] The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps 125,000 or more,[3][2] placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period.[4] Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the Mexican Highland around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population.[2] The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
Although it is a subject of debate whether Teotihuacan was the center of a state empire, its influence throughout Mesoamerica is well documented; evidence of Teotihuacano presence can be seen at numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region. The Aztecs may have been influenced by this city. The ethnicity of the inhabitants of Teotihuacan is also a subject of debate. Possible candidates are the Nahua, Otomi or Totonac ethnic groups. Scholars have also suggested that Teotihuacan was a multiethnic state.
The city and the archaeological site are located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán municipality in the State of México, Mexico, approximately 40 kilometres (25 mi) northeast of Mexico City. The site covers a total surface area of 83 square kilometres (32 sq mi) and was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987. It is the most visited archaeological site in Mexico.
Contents |
Name[link]
The name Teōtīhuacān was given by the Nahuatl-speaking Aztec centuries after the fall of the city. The term has been glossed as "birthplace of the gods", reflecting Nahua creation myths that were said to occur in Teotihuacan. Teotihuacān is a Nahuatl (Aztec) name meaning "place where gods were born". [5] Nahuatl scholar Thelma D. Sullivan interprets the name as "place of those who have the road of the gods."[6] This is because the Aztecs believed that the gods created the universe at that site. The name is pronounced Nahuatl pronunciation: [te.oːtiːˈwakaːn] in Nahuatl, with the accent on the syllable wa. By normal Nahuatl orthographic conventions, a written accent would not appear in that position. Both this pronunciation and Spanish Spanish pronunciation: [te.otiwaˈkan] are used, and both spellings appear in this article.
The original name of the city is unknown, but it appears in hieroglyphic texts from the Maya region as puh, or "Place of Reeds".[7] This suggests that the Maya of the Classic period understood Teotihuacan as a Place of Reeds similar to other Postclassic Central Mexican settlements that took the name Tollan, such as Tula-Hidalgo and Cholula.
This naming convention led to much confusion in the early 20th century, as scholars debated whether Teotihuacan or Tula-Hidalgo was the Tollan described by 16th–century chronicles. It now seems clear that Tollan may be understood as a generic Nahua term applied to any large settlement. In the Mesoamerican concept of urbanism, Tollan and other language equivalents serve as a metaphor, linking the bundles of reeds and rushes that formed part of the lacustrine environment of the Valley of Mexico and the large gathering of people in a city.[8]
History[link]
Origins and foundation[link]
The early history of Teotihuacan is quite mysterious, and the origin of its founders is debated. For many years, archaeologists believed it was built by the Toltec. This belief was based on colonial period texts, such as the Florentine Codex, which attributed the site to the Toltecs. However, the Nahuatl word "Toltec" generally means "craftsman of the highest level" and may not always refer to the Toltec civilization centered at Tula, Hidalgo. Since Toltec civilization flourished centuries after Teotihuacan, the people could not have been the city's founders.
In the Late Formative time, a number of urban centers arose in central Mexico. The most prominent of these appears to have been Cuicuilco, on the southern shore of Lake Texcoco. Scholars have speculated that the eruption of the Xitle volcano may have prompted a mass emigration out of the central valley and into the Teotihuacan valley. These settlers may have founded and/or accelerated the growth of Teotihuacan.
Other scholars have put forth the Totonac people as the founders of Teotihuacan. There is evidence that at least some of the people living in Teotihuacan immigrated from those areas influenced by the Teotihuacano civilization, including the Zapotec, Mixtec and Maya peoples.
The builders of Teotihuacan took advantage of the geography in the Basin of Mexico. From the swampy ground, they constructed raised beds, called chinampas. This allowed for the formation of channels, and subsequently canoe traffic to transport food from farms around the city.
The earliest buildings at Teotihuacan date to about 200 BC. The largest pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun, was completed by 100 AD.[9]
Zenith[link]
The city reached its peak in 450 AD, when it was the center of a powerful culture whose influence extended through much of the Mesoamerican region. At its peak, the city covered over 30 km² (over 11½ square miles), and perhaps housed a population of 150,000 people, with one estimate reaching as high as 250,000.[10] Various districts in the city housed people from across the Teotihuacano region of influence, which spread south as far as Guatemala. Notably absent from the city are fortifications and military structures.
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The nature of political and cultural interactions between Teotihuacan and the centers of the Maya region (as well as elsewhere in Mesoamerica) has been a long-standing and significant area for debate. Substantial exchange and interaction occurred over the centuries from the Terminal Preclassic to the Mid-Classic period. "Teotihuacan-inspired ideologies" and motifs persisted at Maya centers into the Late Classic, long after Teotihuacan itself had declined.[11] However, scholars debate the extent and degree of Teotihuacano influence. Some believe that it had direct and militaristic dominance; others that adoption of "foreign" traits was part of a selective, conscious and bi-directional cultural diffusion. New discoveries have suggested that Teotihuacan was not much different in its interactions with other centers from the later empires, such as the Toltec and Aztec.[12][13] It is believed that Teotihuacan had a major influence on the Preclassic and Classic Maya, most likely by conquering several Maya centers and regions, including Tikal and the region of Peten, and influencing Maya culture.
Architectural styles prominent at Teotihuacan are found widely dispersed at a number of distant Mesoamerican sites, which some researchers have interpreted as evidence for Teotihuacan's far-reaching interactions and political or militaristic dominance.[14] A style particularly associated with Teotihuacan is known as talud-tablero, in which an inwards-sloping external side of a structure (talud) is surmounted by a rectangular panel (tablero). Variants of the generic style are found in a number of Maya region sites, including Tikal, Kaminaljuyu, Copan, Becan, and Oxkintok, and particularly in the Petén Basin and the central Guatemalan highlands.[15] The talud-tablero style pre-dates its earliest appearance at Teotihuacan in the Early Classic period; it appears to have originated in the Tlaxcala-Puebla region during the Preclassic.[16] Analyses have traced the development into local variants of the talud-tablero style at sites such as Tikal, where its use precedes the 5th-century appearance of iconographic motifs shared with Teotihuacan. The talud-tablero style disseminated through Mesoamerica generally from the end of the Preclassic period, and not specifically, or only, via Teotihuacano influence. It is unclear how or from where the style spread into the Maya region.[17]
The city was a center of industry, home to many potters, jewelers and craftsmen. Teotihuacan is known for producing a great number of obsidian artifacts. No ancient Teotihuacano non-ideographic texts are known to exist (or known to have existed). Inscriptions from Maya cities show that Teotihuacan nobility traveled to, and perhaps conquered, local rulers as far away as Honduras. Maya inscriptions note an individual nicknamed by scholars as "Spearthrower Owl", apparently ruler of Teotihuacan, who reigned for over 60 years and installed his relatives as rulers of Tikal and Uaxactun in Guatemala.
Scholars have based interpretations about the culture at Teotihuacan on archaeology, the murals that adorn the site (and others, like the Wagner Murals, found in private collections), and hieroglyphic inscriptions made by the Maya describing their encounters with Teotihuacano conquerors. The creation of murals, perhaps tens of thousands of murals, reached its height between 450 and 650 AD. The painters' artistry was unrivaled in Mesoamerica. It has been compared with those of painters in Renaissance Florence, Italy.[18]
Collapse[link]
Scholars had thought that invaders attacked the city in the 7th or 8th century, sacking and burning it. More recent evidence, however, seems to indicate that the burning was limited to the structures and dwellings associated primarily with the elite class. Some think this suggests that the burning was from an internal uprising. They say the invasion theory is flawed because early archaeological work on the city was focused exclusively on the palaces and temples, places used by the elites. Because all of these sites showed burning, archaeologists concluded that the whole city was burned. Instead, it is now known that the destruction was centered on major civic structures along the Avenue of the Dead. Some statues seem to have been destroyed in a methodical way, with their fragments dispersed.
Evidence for population decline beginning around the 6th century lends some support to the internal unrest hypothesis. The decline of Teotihuacan has been correlated to lengthy droughts related to the climate changes of 535-536 AD. This theory of ecological decline is supported by archaeological remains that show a rise in the percentage of juvenile skeletons with evidence of malnutrition during the 6th century. This finding does not conflict with either of the above theories, since both increased warfare and internal unrest can also be effects of a general period of drought and famine.[19] Other nearby centers such as Cholula, Xochicalco, and Cacaxtla competed to fill the power void left by Teotihuacan's decline. They may have aligned themselves against Teotihuacan to reduce its influence and power. The art and architecture at these sites emulates Teotihuacan forms, but also demonstrates an eclectic mix of motifs and iconography from other parts of Mesoamerica, particularly the Maya region.
The sudden destruction of Teotihuacan is turning out to be more typical of Mesoamerican city-states than once thought. Many Maya states would suffer similar fates in the coming centuries. Near by in the highlands, Xochicacolo would be sacked and burned in 900 CE and Tula would meet a similar fate around 1150 CE. [20]
Teotihuacan culture[link]
Ethnicity[link]
Archaeological evidence suggests that Teotihuacan was a multi-ethnic city, with distinct quarters occupied by Otomi, Zapotec, Mixtec, Maya and Nahua peoples. The Totonacs have always maintained that they were the ones who built it. The Aztecs repeated that story, but it has not been corroborated by archaeological findings.
In 2001, Terrence Kaufman presented linguistic evidence suggesting that an important ethnic group in Teotihuacan was of Totonacan and/or Mixe–Zoquean linguistic affiliation.[21] He uses this to explain general influences from Totonacan and Mixe–Zoquean languages in many other Mesoamerican languages, whose people did not have any known history of contact with either of the above-mentioned groups. Other scholars maintain that the largest population group must have been of Otomi ethnicity, because the Otomi language is known to have been spoken in the area around Teotihuacan both before and after the classic period and not during the middle period.[22]
Religion[link]
In their landmark 1992 volume, An Illustrated Dictionary of the Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya, Miller and Taube list eight deities:[23]
- The Storm God[24]
- The Great Goddess
- The Feathered Serpent.[25] An important deity in Teotihuacan; most closely associated with the Feathered Serpent Pyramid.
- The Old God
- The War Serpent. Taube has differentiated two different serpent deities whose depictions alternate on the Feathered Serpent Pyramid: the Feathered Serpent and what he calls the "War Serpent". Other researchers are more skeptical.[26]
- The Netted Jaguar
- The Pulque God
- The Fat God. Known primarily from figurines and so assumed to be related to household rituals.[27]
Esther Pasztory adds one more:[28]
- The Flayed God. Known primarily from figurines and so assumed to be related to household rituals.[29]
The consensus among scholars is that the primary deity of Teotihuacan was the Great Goddess of Teotihuacan.[30]
The dominant civic architecture is the pyramid. Politics were based on the state religion; religious leaders were the political leaders.[31]
Teotihuacanos practiced human sacrifice: human bodies and animal sacrifices have been found during excavations of the pyramids at Teotihuacan. Scholars believe that the people offered human sacrifices as part of a dedication when buildings were expanded or constructed. The victims were probably enemy warriors captured in battle and brought to the city for ritual sacrifice to ensure the city could prosper.[32] Some men were decapitated, some had their hearts removed, others were killed by being hit several times over the head, and some were buried alive. Animals that were considered sacred and represented mythical powers and military were also buried alive, imprisoned in cages: cougars, a wolf, eagles, a falcon, an owl, and even venomous snakes.[33]
Numerous stone masks have been found at Teotihuacan, and have been generally believed to have been used during a funerary context,[34] although some scholars call this into question, noting that masks "do not seem to have come from burials".[35]
Residency[link]
Teotihuacan was a mix of residential and work areas. Elite homes were usually compounds which housed multiple elite families (one home was found that was capable of housing 60-100 families). Elite residences were typically made of plaster, each wall in every section elaborately decorated with murals. These compounds or apartment complexes were typically found within the city center. The vast lakes of the Basin of Mexico provided the opportunity for people living around them to construct productive raised beds, or chinampas, from swampy muck, construction that also produced channels between the beds. Different sections of the city housed particular ethnic groups and immigrants. These areas are called barrios, meaning neighborhoods. Typically, these sections of the city were speaking multiple languages.
Archaeological site[link]
Knowledge of the huge ruins of Teotihuacan was never completely lost. After the fall of the city, various squatters lived on the site. During Aztec times, the city was a place of pilgrimage and identified with the myth of Tollan, the place where the sun was created. Teotihuacan astonished the Spanish conquistadores during the post-conquest era. Today Teotihuacan is one of the most noted archaeological attractions in Mexico.
Excavations and investigations[link]
In the late 17th century Carlos de Sigüenza y Góngora (1645–1700) did some excavations around the Pyramid of the Sun.[36] Minor archaeological excavations were conducted in the 19th century. In 1905 archaeologist Leopoldo Batres (es:Leopoldo Batres) led a major project of excavation and restoration. The Pyramid of the Sun was restored to celebrate the centennial of Mexican War of Independence in 1910. Excavations at the Ciudadela were carried out in the 1920s, supervised by Manuel Gamio. Other sections of the site were excavated in the 1940s and 50s. The first site-wide project of restoration and excavation was carried out by INAH from 1960–65 and supervised by Jorge Acosta. This undertaking had the goals of clearing the Avenue of the Dead, consolidating the structures facing it, and excavating the Palace of Quetzalpapalotl.
During the installation of a "sound and light" show in 1971, workers discovered the entrance to a tunnel and cave system underneath the Pyramid of the Sun.[37] Although scholars long thought it to be a natural cave, more recent examinations have established the tunnel was entirely manmade.[38] The interior of Pyramid of the Sun has never been fully excavated.
In 1980-1982, another major program of excavation and restoration was carried out at the Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent and the Avenue of the Dead complex. Most recently[when?], a series of excavations at the Pyramid of the Moon have greatly expanded evidence of cultural practices.
File:Teotihuacancityplan.png
The layout of the city
Site layout[link]
The city's broad central avenue, called "Avenue of the Dead" (a translation from its Nahuatl name Miccoatli), is flanked by impressive ceremonial architecture, including the immense Pyramid of the Sun (Third largest in the New World after the Great Pyramid of Cholula) and the Pyramid of the Moon. Along the Avenue of the Dead are many smaller talud-tablero platforms. The Aztecs believed they were tombs, inspiring the name of the avenue. Now scholars have established these were ceremonial platforms that were topped with temples.[citation needed]
Further down the Avenue of the Dead is the area known as the Citadel, containing the ruined Temple of the Feathered Serpent. This area was a large plaza surrounded by temples that formed the religious and political center of the city. The name "Citadel" was given to it by the Spanish, who believed it was a fort. Most of the common people lived in large apartment buildings spread across the city. Many of the buildings contained workshops where artisans produced pottery and other goods.
The geographical layout of Teotihuacan is a good example of the Mesoamerican tradition of planning cities, settlements and buildings as a representation of the view of the Universe. Its urban grid is aligned to precisely 15.5º east of North. One theory says this is due to the fact that the sun rose at that same angle during the same summer day each year. Settlers used the alignment to calibrate their sense of time or as a marker for planting crops or performing certain rituals. Another theory is that there are numerous ancient sites in Mesoamerica that seem to be oriented with the tallest mountain in their given area. This appears to be the case at Teotihuacan, although the mountain to which it is oriented is not visible from within the Teotihuacan complex due to a closer mountain ridge.[39] Pecked-cross circles throughout the city and in the surrounding regions indicate how the people managed to maintain the urban grid over long distances. It also enabled them to orient the Pyramids to the distant mountain that was out of sight.
The Ciudadela was completed during the Miccaotli phase and the Pyramid of the Sun underwent a complex series of additions and renovations. The Great Compound was constructed across the Avenue of the Dead, west of Ciudadela. This was probably the city’s marketplace. The existence of a large market in an urban center of this size is strong evidence of state organization. Teotihuacan was at that point simply too large and too complex to have been politically viable as a chiefdom.
The Ciudadela is a great enclosed compound capable of holding 100,000 people. About 700,000 cubic meters (yards) of material was used to construct its buildings. Its central feature is the Temple of Quetzalcoatl, which was flanked by elite apartments. The entire compound was designed to overwhelm visitors.
Threat from development[link]
The archaeological park of Teotihuacan is under threat from development pressures. In 2004, the governor of Mexico state, Arturo Montiel, gave permission for Wal-Mart to build a large store in the third archaeological zone of the park.[40] According to Counterpunch.org, "[P]riceless artifacts uncovered during store construction were reportedly trucked off to a local dump and workers fired when they revealed the carnage to the press."[cite this quote]
More recently[when?], Teotihuacan has become the center of controversy over Resplandor Teotihuacano,[41] a proposed massive light and sound spectacular, which, according to Statesman.com "includes large metallic structures, 2,500 lights and three kilometers of cables."[42]
See also[link]
- Spring equinox in Teotihuacán
- Balberta, a Teotihuacan trading partner on the Pacific Coast of Guatemala
- Cerro de la Estrella, a large Teotihuacano-styled pyramid in what is now part of Mexico City
- List of archaeoastronomical sites by country
- List of megalithic sites
- List of Mesoamerican pyramids
- Montana (Mesoamerican site), a Teotihuacan colony on the Pacific Coast of Guatemala
Gallery[link]
-
Front view of the Pyramid of the Sun
-
Another view of the Pyramid of the Sun
-
Pyramid of the sun teotihuacan with crowd.jpg
Left side view of the Pyramid of the Sun
-
-
Model of the Teotihuacan site located at National Museum of Anthropology in Mexico City.
-
Jaguar Mural, Teotihuacan.jpg
Jaguar painting
-
Marble mask, 3rd - 7th century
-
Serpentine mask, 3rd-6th century
-
Teotihuacanmask.jpg
Turquoise mask pendent, 3rd-6th
References[link]
Notes[link]
- ^ Ancient Mexico and Central America
- ^ a b c "Teotihuacan". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Department of Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas, The Metropolitan Museum of Art Source: Teotihuacan | Thematic Essay. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/teot/hd_teot.htm.
- ^ Millon, p. 18.
- ^ Millon, p. 17, who says it was the sixth largest city in the world in 600 AD.
- ^ Archaeology of Native North America by Dean R. Snow.
- ^ Millon (1993), p.34.
- ^ Mathews and Schele (1997, p.39)
- ^ Miller and Taube (1993, p.170)
- ^ Millon (1993), p.24.
- ^ Malmström (1978, p.105) gives an estimate of 50,000 to 200,000 inhabitants. Coe et al. (1986) says it "might lie between 125,000 and 250,000". Millon, p. 18, lists 125,000 in 600 AD. Taube, p. 1, says "perhaps as many as 150,000".
- ^ Braswell (2003, p.7)
- ^ "Mexico's Pyramid of Death". National Geographic. 2006. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0610/feature5/index.html. Retrieved 2008-02-26.
- ^ "Sacrificial Burial Deepens Mystery At Teotihuacan, But Confirms The City's Militarism". ScienceDaily. 2004. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/12/041203084345.htm. Retrieved 2008-02-26.
- ^ See for example Cheek (1977, passim.), who argues that much of Teotihuacan's influence stems from direct militaristic conquest.
- ^ See Laporte (2003, p.205); Varela Torrecilla and Braswell (2003, p.261).
- ^ Braswell (2003, p.11)
- ^ Braswell (2003, p.11); for the analysis at Tikal, see Laporte (2003, pp.200–205)
- ^ Davies, p. 78.
- ^ Kaufman (2001, p.4)
- ^ Snow, Dean R. (2010). Archaeology of Native North America. Prentice Hall. pp. 156.
- ^ Terrence Kaufman, "Nawa linguistic prehistory", SUNY Albany
- ^ * Wright Carr, David Charles (2005). "El papel de los otomies en las culturas del altiplano central 5000 a.C - 1650 d.C". Arqueología mexicana XIII (73): 19. (Spanish)
- ^ Miller & Taube, p. 162-163.
- ^ Instead of "Storm God", Miller and Taube call this deity "Tlaloc", the name of the much later Aztec storm god. Coe (1994), p. 101, uses the same term. However, the use of Nahuatl Aztec names to denote Teotihuacan deities has been in decline (see Berlo, p. 147).
- ^ Instead of "the Feathered Serpent", Miller and Taube call this deity "Quetzalcoatl", the name of the much later Aztec feathered serpent god.
- ^ Sugiyama (1992), p. 220.
- ^ Pasztory (1997), p. 84.
- ^ Pasztory (1997), p. 83-84.
- ^ Pasztory (1997), p. 84.
- ^ Cowgill (1997), p. 149. Pasztory (1992), p. 281.
- ^ Sugiyama, p. 111.
- ^ Coe (1994), p. 98.
- ^ Sugiyama: 109, 111
- ^ Birmingham Museum of Art (2010). Birmingham Museum of Art : guide to the collection. [Birmingham, Ala]: Birmingham Museum of Art. pp. 83. ISBN 978-1-904832-77-5. http://artsbma.org.
- ^ Pasztory (1993), p. 54.
- ^ http://www.milenio.com/node/501242 Tunnel under Pyramid of the Feathered Serpent under exploration in 2010
- ^ Heyden (1975, p.131)
- ^ Šprajc (2000, p.410)
- ^ "Teotihuacan History". http://www.ourworldwonders.com/Teotihuacan/History.htm.
- ^ Ross, John (February 27 - March 1, 2009). "The World's Most Remarkable Buildings Under Threat". Counterpunch.org Weekend Edition. http://www.counterpunch.org/ross02272009.html.
- ^ http://www.resplandorteotihuacano.com/
- ^ Schwartz, Jeremy (January 8, 2009). "Light and sound show threatens to damage Teotihuacan pyramids". Statesman.com. http://www.statesman.com/blogs/content/sharedgen/blogs/austin/mexico/entries/2009/01/08/light_and_sound_show_threatens.html?cxntfid=blogs_uncovering_mexico.
Bibliography[link]
-
- Berrin, Kathleen; and Esther Pasztory (1993). Teotihuacan: Art from the City of the Gods. New York: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-23653-4. OCLC 28423003.
- Braswell, Geoffrey E. (2003). "Introduction: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction". In Geoffrey E. Braswell (Ed.). The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 1–44. ISBN 0-292-70587-5. OCLC 49936017.
- Brown, Dale M. (ed.) (1992). Aztecs: Reign of Blood and Splendor. Lost Civilizations series. Alexandria, VA: Time-Life Books. ISBN 0-8094-9854-5. OCLC 24848419.
- Cheek, Charles D. (1977). "Excavations at the Palangana and the Acropolis, Kaminaljuyu". In William T. Sanders and Joseph W. Michels (Eds.). Teotihuacan and Kaminaljuyu: a Study in Prehistoric Culture Contact. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. pp. 1–204. ISBN 0-271-00529-7. OCLC 3327234.
- Coe, Michael D.; and Rex Koontz (1994) [1962]. Mexico: From the Olmecs to the Aztecs. New York: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-27722-2. OCLC 50131575.
- Coe, Michael D.; Dean Snow and Elizabeth Benson (1986). Atlas of Ancient America. New York: Facts on File. ISBN 0-8160-1199-0.
- Cowgill, George L. (1992). "Teotihuacan Glyphs and Imagery in the Light of Some Early Colonial Texts". In Janet Catherine Berlo (ed.). Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan: A Symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 8th and 9th October 1988. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection. pp. 231–246. ISBN 0-88402-205-6. OCLC 25547129.
- Cowgill, George (1997). "State and Society at Teotihuacan, Mexico" (PDF online reproduction). Annual Review of Anthropology (Palo Alto, CA: Annual Reviews Inc) 26 (1): 129–161. DOI:10.1146/annurev.anthro.26.1.129. OCLC 202300854. http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/teotihuacan/teotihuacan.pdf.
- Davies, Nigel (1982). The Ancient Kingdoms of Mexico. England: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-013587-1.
- Heyden, Doris (1975). "An Interpretation of the Cave underneath the Pyramid of the Sun in Teotihuacan, Mexico". American Antiquity (Menasha, WI: Society for American Archaeology) 40 (2): 131–147. DOI:10.2307/279609. JSTOR 279609. OCLC 1479302.
- Kaufman, Terrence (2001). "Nawa linguistic prehistory". Mesoamerican Language Documentation Project. http://www.albany.edu/anthro/maldp/papers.htm.
- Laporte, Juan Pedro (2003). "Architectural Aspects of Interaction Between Tikal and Teotihuacan during the Early Classic Period". In Geoffrey E. Braswell (Ed.). The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 199–216. ISBN 0-292-70587-5. OCLC 49936017.
- Malmström, Vincent H. (1978). "Architecture, Astronomy, and Calendrics in Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica" (PDF Reprinted). Journal for the History of Astronomy 9: 105–116. http://www.dartmouth.edu/~izapa/M-15.pdf. Retrieved 2007-01-17.
- Miller, Mary; and Karl Taube (1993). The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion. London: Thames & Hudson. ISBN 0-500-05068-6. OCLC 27667317.
- Millon, René (1993). "The Place Where Time Began: An Archaeologist's Interpretation of What Happened in Teotihuacan History". In Berrin, Kathleen and Esther Pasztory (Eds.). Teotihuacan: Art from the City of the Gods. New York: Thames and Hudson. pp. 16–43. ISBN 0-500-23653-4. OCLC 28423003.
- Pasztory, Esther (1992). "Abstraction and the rise of a utopian state at Teotihuacan", in Janet Berlo, ed. Art, Ideology, and the City of Teotihuacan, Dumbarton Oaks, pp. 281-320.
- Schele, Linda; and Peter Mathews (1998). The Code of Kings: The Language of Seven Sacred Maya Temples and Tombs. New York: Scribner. ISBN 0-684-80106-X. OCLC 37819972.
- Sugiyama, Saburo (2003). Governance and Polity at Classic Teotihuacan; in Julia Ann Hendon, Rosemary A. Joyce, "Mesoamerican archaeology". Wiley-Blackwell.
- Séjourné, Laurette,Un Palacio en la ciudad de los dioses, Teotihuacán, Mexico, Instituto nacional de antropología e historia, 1959.
- Séjourné, Laurette (1962)El Universo de Quetzalcóatl, Fondo de Cultura Económica.
- Séjourné, Laurette (1966) Arqueología de Teotihuacán, la cerámica, Fondo de Cultura Económica.
- Séjourné, Laurette,Teotihuacan, métropole de l'Amérique, Paris, F. Maspero, 1969.
- Šprajc, Ivan; Sprajc, Ivan (2000). "Astronomical Alignments at Teotihuacan, Mexico". Latin American Antiquity (Washington, DC: Society for American Archaeology) 11 (4): 403–415. DOI:10.2307/972004. JSTOR 972004.
- Taube, Karl A. (2000) (PDF). The Writing System of Ancient Teotihuacan. Ancient America series #1. Barnardsville, NC: Center for Ancient American Studies. OCLC 44992821. http://www.mesoweb.com/bearc/caa/01.html.
- Varela Torrecilla, Carmen; and Geoffrey E. Braswell (2003). "Teotihuacan and Oxkintok: New Perspectives from Yucatán". In Geoffrey E. Braswell (Ed.). The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction. Austin: University of Texas Press. pp. 249–272. ISBN 0-292-70587-5. OCLC 49936017.
- Weaver, Muriel Porter (1993). The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica (3rd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press. ISBN 0-01-263999-0.
- Webmoor, Timothy (2007) (online digital publication, in Symmetrical Archaeology [2005–, collaboratory directors T. Webmoor and C. Witmore]). Reconfiguring the Archaeological Sensibility: Mediating Heritage at Teotihuacan, Mexico. PhD thesis. Stanford Archaeology Center/Metamedia Lab, Stanford University. http://humanitieslab.stanford.edu/Teotihuacan/180. Retrieved 2008-06-02.
External links[link]
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- Teotihuacan Research Guide, academic resources and links, maintained by Temple University
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- Mesoamerican Photo Archives: Teotihuacan, by David Hixson
- 360° Panoramic View of the Avenue of the Dead, the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon , by Roland Kuczora
- Teotihuacan Mexico, culture, history and tourism
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| Noel Gallagher | |
|---|---|
.jpg) |
|
| Background information | |
| Birth name | Noel Thomas David Gallagher |
| Born | (1967-05-29) 29 May 1967 (age 45) Manchester, England |
| Genres | Rock, Britpop, alternative rock, psychedelic rock |
| Occupations | Musician, songwriter |
| Instruments | Vocals, guitar, bass, piano, keyboards, sitar, melodica, mellotron, violin, banjo, drums |
| Years active | 1991–present |
| Labels | Creation, Big Brother, Epic, Sour Mash |
| Associated acts | Oasis, Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds, The Rain, Tailgunner, Smokin' Mojo Filters, Inspiral Carpets |
| Notable instruments | |
| Epiphone Supernova Signature Model Gibson ES-355 Gibson ES-345 Gibson Les Paul Gibson J-200 Martin D-28 |
|
Noel Thomas David Gallagher (born 29 May 1967) is an English musician and singer-songwriter, formerly the lead guitarist, occasional lead singer and principal songwriter of the rock band Oasis. He is currently fronting his solo project, Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds. Raised in Burnage, Manchester with Liam, Noel began learning guitar at the age of thirteen. After a series of odd jobs in construction, he worked for local Manchester band Inspiral Carpets as a roadie and technician in 1988. Whilst touring with them, he learned that Liam had formed a band of his own, known as The Rain, which eventually took on the name Oasis. After Gallagher returned to England, he was invited by his brother to join Oasis as songwriter and guitarist.
Oasis' debut album, Definitely Maybe (1994), marked the beginning of the band's rise to fame as head of the Britpop movement. Oasis' second album, (What's the Story) Morning Glory?, reached the top of the album charts in many countries and their third studio album, Be Here Now, became the fastest-selling album in UK chart history. Britpop eventually declined in popularity and Oasis' next two albums failed to revive it. However, the band's final two albums, Don't Believe the Truth (2005) and Dig Out Your Soul (2008), were hailed as its best efforts in over a decade and found renewed success. On 28 August 2009, following an altercation with Liam prior to a gig in Paris, Gallagher announced his departure from Oasis and on 23 October 2009, he confirmed he would embark on a solo career.[1]
Gallagher's run with Oasis was marked by turbulence, especially during the peak of Britpop, during which he was involved in several disputes with Liam, and the brothers' fights and wild lifestyles regularly made headlines in British tabloid newspapers. Gallagher (along with Oasis) also shared a personal rivalry with fellow Britpop band Blur. However, Gallagher was often regarded as the spear-head of the Britpop movement, and at one point of time, NME termed a number of Britpop bands (including Kula Shaker, Ocean Colour Scene and Cast) as "Noelrock", citing Gallagher's influence on their success.[2] Many have praised Gallagher's songwriting, with George Martin claiming Noel to be 'the finest songwriter of his generation'.[3]
Contents |
Childhood and early life[link]
Noel Gallagher was born in Longsight, Manchester, to Irish parents Peggy and Thomas Gallagher. He was the couple's second child, after the birth of Paul Anthony Gallagher. Soon after the birth of younger brother Liam in 1972, the Gallaghers moved to Ashburn Avenue in the Manchester suburb of Burnage.[4] Noel had an unhappy childhood. He and his brothers were often beaten by his alcoholic father,[5] and he was often reclusive—Liam described him as "the weirdo in the family". Due to their unease around their father, Noel and Paul both developed stammers.[4] As the oldest child, Paul was given a room to himself, and Noel was forced to share with Liam.[5]
Peggy Gallagher acquired a legal notice of separation from her husband in 1976. Six years later she finally left him, taking the three boys with her.[4] As teenagers the Gallagher brothers—especially Noel—were regular truants, often getting in trouble with the police. When his mother took a job working in the school canteen, Noel ensured that he stopped by to visit her during lunch before skipping the rest of the day.[6] He was expelled from school at the age of 15 for throwing a bag of flour over a teacher.[7] He used to hang around with the football hooligan firms Maine Line Crew, Under-5s and Young Guvnors in the 1980s,[8] and at the age of thirteen, Noel received six months' probation for robbing a corner shop.[5] It was during this period of probation, with little else to do, that Noel first began to teach himself to play a guitar his father had left him, imitating his favourite songs from the radio. Noel was particularly inspired by the debut of The Smiths on Top of the Pops in 1983, performing their single "This Charming Man". He later reflected, "From that day on ... I wanted to be [Smiths guitarist] Johnny Marr."[9]
As teenagers the Gallagher brothers maintained limited contact with their father in order to secure jobs in construction. However, the relationship between father and sons continued to be tempestuous; Noel said, "Because we were always arguing we'd still be working at nine o'clock every night".[6] Having left his father's building company, he took a job at another building firm sub-contracted to British Gas. There he sustained an injury when a heavy cap from a steel gas pipe landed on his right foot. Following a period of recuperation, Noel was offered a less physically demanding role in the company's storehouse, freeing up time in which to practice guitar and write songs. He claimed to have written at least three of the songs on Definitely Maybe in this storehouse (including "Live Forever" and "Columbia"). He later called the storehouse "The Hit Hut" and claimed the walls were painted gold[10] Much of the late 1980s found Noel unemployed and living in a bedsit, occupying his time with recreational drug use, songwriting and guitar playing. He is left handed, but plays right handed.[11]
In May 1988, Noel met guitarist Graham Lambert of Inspiral Carpets during a Stone Roses show. The two struck up an acquaintanceship and Noel became a regular at Inspiral Carpets shows. When he heard singer Steve Holt was leaving the band, Noel auditioned to be the new vocalist.[12] He was rejected, but became part of their road crew for two years. Singer Tom Hingley said Gallagher owes his own career to the band, since "his business sense, work ethic, message and humour are Inspiral down to the core."[13] Noel struck up a friendship with monitor engineer Mark Coyle over their love of the Beatles, and the pair spent sound-checks dissecting the group's songs.[14]
Career with Oasis[link]
Joining the band[link]
In 1991, Noel returned from an American tour with the Inspiral Carpets to find that his brother Liam had become a singer with a local band called "The Rain". Noel attended one of their concerts at Manchester's Boardwalk, but was unimpressed by the group's act. After rejecting an offer from Liam to be the band's manager,[15] he agreed to join the band, on the condition that he take creative control of the group and become its sole songwriter. According to another source, Noel Gallagher told Liam and the rest of the group after having heard them play for the first time: "Let me write your songs and I'll take you to superstardom, or else you'll rot here in Manchester". His control over the band in its early years earned him the nickname "The Chief".[16]
In May 1993, the band heard that a record executive from Creation Records would be scouting for talent at King Tut's in Glasgow. Together, they found the money to hire a van and make the six-hour journey. When they arrived, they were refused entry to the club because no one notified the venue that Oasis had been added to the bill. The band eventually secured the opening slot and played a four-song set that impressed Creation founder Alan McGee.[17] McGee then took the Live Demonstration tape to Sony America and invited Oasis to meet with him a week later in London, at which point they were signed to a six-album contract. Gallagher has since claimed that he only had six songs written at the time, and has put his success in the interview down to "bullshitting".[5] However, McGee believes that when they met, Gallagher had fifty or so songs written, and merely lied about how prolific he had been following the contract.[10] Richard Ashcroft was so impressed with Oasis during the time, that he invited them to tour with his band The Verve as an opening act.[18]
Gallagher claimed to have written Oasis' first single, "Supersonic", in "the time it takes to play the song."[10] "Supersonic" was released in early 1994 and peaked at No.31 on the official UK charts. The single was later followed by Oasis' debut album Definitely Maybe, which was released in August 1994 and was a critical and commercial success. It became the fastest-selling debut album in British history at the time, and entered the UK Charts at #1.[19] Despite their rapidly growing popularity, Noel briefly left Oasis in 1994 during their first American tour. The conditions were poor, and he felt the American audience—still preoccupied with grunge and metal—did not understand the band.[20] Noel stated that his early songs, especially "Live Forever", were written to refute grunge's pessimism.[21] Tensions mounted between him and Liam, culminating in a fight after a disastrous L.A. gig.[10] Having effectively decided to quit the music industry, he flew to San Francisco without telling the band, management or the crew. It was during this time that Noel wrote "Talk Tonight" as a "thank you" for the girl he stayed with, who "talked him from off the ledge". He was tracked down by Creation's Tim Abbot and during a trip by the pair to Las Vegas, Noel decided to continue with the band. He reconciled with his brother and the tour resumed in Minneapolis.[22]
Britpop and the height of fame[link]
Gallagher followed up the debut in 1995 with Oasis' first UK No.1 single in "Some Might Say". This preceded their second album, (What's the Story) Morning Glory?, released later that year. Though it suffered initial critical apathy, the album became the second fastest-selling album ever in the UK, entering the UK album charts at No.1 and peaking at No.4 on the Billboard 200 chart.[19]
The success of Oasis and his newfound fame and fortune were not lost on Gallagher, and both he and his brother became famous for their "rock and roll lifestyle". They drank heavily, abused drugs, fought fans, critics, peers, and each other, and made celebrity friends such as Ian Brown, Paul Weller, Mani, Mick Jagger, Craig Cash, Kate Moss and Johnny Depp. Noel Gallagher spent extravagantly, buying various cars and a swimming pool, despite the fact he can neither drive,[23] nor swim.[24] He named his house in Belsize Park in London "Supernova Heights" (after the song "Champagne Supernova"), and his two cats "Benson" and "Hedges" after his favourite brand of cigarettes.[25]
Oasis went on to have greater success with their next two singles, "Wonderwall" and "Don't Look Back in Anger" charting at No.2 and No.1 respectively; the former becoming their sole top 10 hit in the US. Originally, Noel had wanted to take lead vocals on "Wonderwall", but Liam insisted on singing it. As compensation, Noel decided he would sing lead vocals on "Don't Look Back in Anger".[26] 1995 also saw Gallagher play two songs for the charity album Help! : "Fade Away", accompanied by friend and Oasis fan Johnny Depp and Depp's then-girlfriend Kate Moss; and The Beatles' 1969 hit "Come Together", along with Paul Weller, Paul McCartney and others in a supergroup called Smokin' Mojo Filters.[27] Noel has also collaborated with the Chemical Brothers, Ian Brown, The Stands, The Prodigy and Weller, amongst others. Gallagher became so influential that a June 1996 NME article argued that "If Noel Gallagher, the most successful songwriter of his generation, champions a group, then said group are guaranteed more mainstream kudos and, quite possibly, more sales. And since Noel has taken to championing only five or six groups, then it's a powerful cabal he's promoting."[2] The NME article grouped the bands Gallagher praised, including The Boo Radleys, Ocean Colour Scene, and Cast, under the banner of "Noelrock". John Harris typified these bands, and Gallagher, of sharing "a dewy-eyed love of the 1960s, a spurning of much beyond rock's most basic ingredients, and a belief in the supremacy of 'real music'".[28]
In March 1996, Noel and Liam Gallagher met their father again when the News of the World paid him to go to their hotel during a tour. Noel left for his room, later commenting "as far as I'm concerned, I haven't got a father. He's not a father to me, y'know? I don't respect him in any way whatsoever".[5] Also in 1996, Oasis sold out two nights at Knebworth, playing to over 250,000 fans. Following the worldwide success of Morning Glory?, Be Here Now (1997) became Oasis' most eagerly anticipated album to date. As with the previous two albums, all the tracks were written by Noel. After an initial blaze of publicity, positive critical reviews, and commercial success, the album failed to live up to long-term expectations, and public goodwill towards Be Here Now was short-lived.[29] The album was ultimately regarded by many as a bloated, over-indulgent version of Oasis, which Gallagher has since blamed on the drug-addicted state and indifference of the band at the time.[30]
Gallagher began to suffer drug-induced panic attacks during this period. His Depression and paranoid well-being inspired the song "Gas Panic!", subsequently included on the 2000 album Standing on the Shoulder of Giants. Gallagher claimed to have quit using illicit drugs on 5 June 1998. He stated in 2001, "I liked drugs, I was good at them. But I'd had panic attacks for about a year and I stopped because I wanted to. After you make the decision, it is quite easy." Between 1993 and 1998, he claims, "I can hardly remember a thing."[20]
Post-Britpop years[link]
After the hype surrounding the release of Be Here Now had started to wane, critical response to the band became calmer and more considered, leading to a media backlash. In 1997, Noel was criticised for attending a high-profile and well-publicised media party at 10 Downing Street, hosted by the newly-appointed Prime Minister, Tony Blair, along with other celebrities and industry figures who had supported New Labour in the run-up to the general election. Both brother Liam and Blur's Damon Albarn declined their invitations, with Albarn commenting "Enjoy the schmooze, comrade."[31] The perception of Gallagher as someone now mixing with politicians—or, in particular, a famous photograph of him sipping champagne with Blair—conflicted with the "working class hero" status championed through songs such as "Up in the Sky".[32]
In 1999, rhythm guitarist Paul "Bonehead" Arthurs quit the band, with bassist Paul McGuigan following soon afterwards. As a result, the fourth studio album, Standing on the Shoulder of Giants, was recorded by just the Gallaghers and drummer Alan White, with Noel playing all guitar parts. Gallagher commented on Bonehead's departure, "It's hardly Paul McCartney leaving the Beatles, is it?".[33] After the recording sessions were completed, Gallagher selected Gem Archer to join in place of Bonehead.
Later that year Alan McGee decided to leave Creation and sold the rest of his 51% stake in the label to Sony.[34] Gallagher took this opportunity to set up Big Brother Recordings, which took over Oasis' distribution in the UK, but Sony imprint Epic Records continues to handle the band's international distribution.[35] Around the time of the album's release, Andy Bell, formerly of Ride, joined the band as bassist. In 2001, Gallagher formed his own label, Sour Mash Records, which released records by the likes of Shack and Proud Mary. The incorporation of the label followed Gallagher's debut as a producer, working with Proud Mary on their debut, The Same Old Blues.[36]
In late 2006, Gallagher toured the UK, Europe, Japan, America and Australia in a series of acclaimed intimate semi-acoustic gigs accompanied by Gem Archer and Terry Kirkbride on percussion. The show proved successful and a further series of sets took place in 2007. March 2007 saw Gallagher perform in Moscow—the first time an Oasis member has performed in Russia.[37] Yet Gallagher dismissed claims that he was planning to embark on a solo career.[38] In early 2007, Gallagher joined the rest of Oasis to collect the "Outstanding Contribution to Music" Award at the Brit Awards 2007.[39]
Noel, along with the band recorded their seventh studio album between 2007 and the next year in Abbey Road Studios and Los Angeles, and started at the end of the summer of 2008 a tour that will last at least 12 months.
In March 2009, The Times in conjunction with iTunes released a selection of live recordings by Noel Gallagher taken from his semi-acoustic performance at the Royal Albert Hall on 27 March 2007 in aid of Teenage Cancer Trust. The Dreams We Have as Children features classic and rare tracks from the Oasis canon along with several cover versions of some of Noel's favourite artists.
Departure from the band[link]
On 28 August 2009 Noel quit Oasis after a fight with his brother, Liam Gallagher. A little before midnight on Friday he posted a statement on his message board called "Tales from the Middle of Nowhere" on the band's website announcing his departure.[40]
Post-Oasis[link]
Solo performances[link]
Noel's first concerts without Oasis were announced on 1 February 2010[41] to be at London's Royal Albert Hall on 25 and 26 March 2010 for Teenage Cancer Trust .[42] Noel was supported by The Courteeners and Plan B respectively.[43] Terry Kirkbride and Gem Archer joined him on-stage,[44][45] as did Jay Darlington,[46] all of whom Gallagher had previously worked with while he was still a member of Oasis. He played a mostly acoustic set, and played a variety of Oasis album tracks and B-sides.[47] It was almost the same set he played at the Royal Albert Hall in 2007.[48][49][50] Noel also joined friend Paul Weller onstage in London on 21 April 2010, and played the Oasis song "Mucky Fingers" and a song he co wrote with Weller, "Echoes Round the Sun".
Returning to the studio[link]
.jpg)
Noel confirmed that he would be returning to the studio in August 2010 to record drums for another unnamed artist. Paul Weller subsequently confirmed in an interview with Absolute Radio that he was the previously unnamed artist who would be using Noel's drumming services. He also denied rumours that he would be the Best Man for Russell Brand's marriage to Katy Perry.[51] In August, it was mentioned on a UK Music blog, Sourmash Music, that Noel has been working with Liverpool's own The Sand Band. Lead singer David McDonnell has been co-writing with Noel and are looking to collaborate on future solo projects together.[52]
On 24 November 2010, Miles Kane revealed that Noel sings on a track from his debut solo album entitled My Fantasy. He also revealed that he will appear on Noel's forthcoming album, playing guitar.[53]
On 10 February 2011, Noel stated he has "not even started" his first solo record, despite Liam rumouring that he 'swiped' material from the Dig Out Your Soul sessions. "I am not recording new stuff, not just yet," Noel said to Talksport. "It'll be out when it's finished I guess. Well I've not even started it, so I don't know."[54]
Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds[link]
Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds released a self-titled album on 17 October 2011; a collaboration album with Amorphous Androgynous will be released in 2012.[55] He will be on tour, debuting in Dublin on 23 October 2011. The touring band for Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds includes David McDonnell (guitar), Russell Pritchard (bass), Mikey Rowe (keyboards) and Jeremy Stacey (drums).[56] On 20 July 2011, Gallagher released a 47 second trailer of his first single "The Death of You and Me". The video for the debut single was released on 25 July at 8:21 am (GMT).[57]
Personal life[link]
Relationships[link]
At the age of 18, Gallagher became engaged to his then-girlfriend Diane, but they never married and eventually separated. In 1988, he moved out of his family home to live with Louise Jones, whom he described as his "soulmate" and for whom he wrote "Slide Away". They had an on-again, off-again relationship before finally separating in June 1994, with Gallagher stating, "I don’t think I’ll ever get over it."[58]
In June 1997, Gallagher married Meg Mathews in Las Vegas, Nevada. He had met her in 1994 through her roommate, MTV presenter Rebecca de Ruvo, whom he was dating at the time and whom he left for Mathews.[59] Mathews gave birth to a daughter, Anaïs Gallagher, on 27 January 2000. Gallagher and Mathews divorced in January 2001 on grounds of his adultery with Scottish publicist Sara MacDonald. After the divorce was finalised, Gallagher admitted he had only claimed to have cheated in order to speed up the divorce process and that he had never actually been unfaithful.[60]
Since his separation from Mathews, Gallagher has been in a relationship with MacDonald, whom he met at club Space on Ibiza in June 2000. He wrote "Waiting for the Rapture" about their meeting. They have two sons, Donovan Rory MacDonald Gallagher (born 22 September 2007)[61] and Sonny Patrick MacDonald Gallagher (born 1 October 2010). Gallagher and MacDonald were married on 18 June 2011 in a private ceremony at the Lime Wood Hotel in the New Forest National Park.[62] Gallagher's best friend Russell Brand was best man at the wedding.
Other[link]
He was a frequent guest on The Russell Brand Show on BBC Radio 2, appearing on almost every show, leading Brand to dub him an unofficial "Co presenter". He is also a regular on the digital radio sports show, "TalkSPORT"[63] Other notable friends of his are, Mani of Primal Scream, Richard Ashcroft of The Verve – for whom he dedicated a song, "Cast No Shadow", the band members of the Chemical Brothers, -[64] Sex Pistols members John Lydon[65] and Steve Jones[66] the members of the rock band Kasabian,[67] Andy Nicholson,[68] boxer Ricky Hatton,[69] Paul McCartney,[70] Liverpool F.C footballer Jamie Carragher, Chris Martin, Jonny Buckland,[71] Johnny Marr,[72] Paul Weller,[73] Ian Brown, John Squire, Lee Mavers, Craig Cash, Kelly Jones and Johnny Depp (who played slide guitar on the Oasis song Fade In-Out).[74] He was also good friends with Kate Moss who used to stay with him when she was visiting London.[75][76][77] In 2001 he was reported to have an estimated personal fortune of £25 million.[78] In 2009 The Sunday Times Rich List estimated Noel and Liam's combined personal fortune at £52 million.[79]
Gallagher is a fan of football, being a life-long supporter of Manchester City F.C. (Gallagher admitting he 'cried like a baby' when City won the Premier League title) [80]and Celtic F.C [81] He is a friend of former City midfielder Joey Barton,[82] as well as Celtic manager Neil Lennon[83] and Italian striker Alessandro Del Piero, who described Gallagher as Italy's "lucky mascot" during the 2006 FIFA World Cup,[84] and appears in the Oasis video "Lord Don't Slow Me Down".[85] Gallagher was an official ambassador for England's bid to host the 2018 FIFA World Cup.[86]
Gallagher stated in a 2006 radio interview with Russell Brand that he does not believe in God or "an all-guiding force."[87] Despite this assertion, throughout his career, many of his songs have mentioned God ("Carry Us All," "Gas Panic!," "The Hindu Times," "Little by Little," to name four), and all the tracks he had contributed to Dig Out Your Soul, as well as the other bandmates' songs, have lyrics and references to God and other biblical terms. Dig Out Your Soul has been described by Noel as a "religious Armageddon". But in recent interviews for Dig Out Your Soul regarding religion, Noel stated "See, I don't know what I am. If I was an atheist I'd just write songs about not believing in God – but I don't know what I am."[88]
In 2008 it was announced that Gallagher would sell his home in Ibiza located near fellow musician James Blunt's, saying while in Los Angeles on the Russell Brand BBC Radio 2 show that he "Can't stand living there in the knowledge that Blunt is nearby making terrible music."[89]
Gallagher along with Matt Morgan (who was co-host on The Russell Brand Show) sat in for Dermot O'Leary's Saturday show on BBC Radio 2 on 10 September 2011.
Gallagher was reportedly asked by Simon Cowell to be a judge on The X Factor after Dannii Minogue, Cheryl Cole and Cowell himself declined to participate in series 8, which Gallagher subsequently declined as well.[90]
Songwriting and musicianship[link]
Noel Gallagher was the primary songwriter in Oasis, and on the group's first few albums he was the sole songwriting contributor. Gallagher is often criticised for the praise he gives to his own songs. He points out "If you'd written 'Live Forever', you'd be walking to a different tune the next day too."[91] Gallagher has often been accused by critics of plagiarising the music of his heroes, but he has maintained outright homages in his music are his intention. In a 1996 Guitar World interview, he described himself as "a fan who writes songs" and stated, "I'm not saying, 'I'm the greatest songwriter in the world. Listen to me.' Usually, I'm saying, 'These are the greatest songwriters in the world. And I'm gonna put them all in this song"'. His response to critics about the topic of "blatantly pinching riffs" was, "No, I don't feel guilty. But you feel pissed off because you didn't do it first."[92]
Though naturally left-handed, Gallagher plays guitar right-handed, which he claims is the only thing he can do with his non-dominant hand.[93] Noel has said he sometimes does not understand his own lyrics, commenting in 2005 that "when I'm halfway through 'Don't Look Back in Anger' I say to myself. 'I still don't know what these words mean!'"[94] Noel has declared to be dyslexic, which slows down the process of his songwriting, nor can he read or write music.[95]
Changing band dynamic[link]
Gallagher's role as chief songwriter for Oasis changed over time as he allowed a greater level of lyrical input from the other band members. Standing on the Shoulder of Giants included Oasis' first ever album track written by Liam Gallagher. Heathen Chemistry included a further three tracks by Liam (including the single "Songbird"), one by Archer and one by Andy Bell. Don't Believe the Truth featured another three tracks by Liam (though one of them, "Love Like a Bomb" was co-written with Archer), one from Archer, and two from Bell. The latter two albums have been greeted with increasing critical and commercial success in the U.K., particularly Don't Believe the Truth.[96] Yet the second single from Don't Believe the Truth, "The Importance of Being Idle" became the second Noel-sung Oasis track to top the UK charts and was named 2005's finest track by Q magazine, as well as being nominated for the NME's "Best Song of 2005" award. However, on the last Oasis albums, Noel's increasing role as lead singer, apparently to compensate for his diminished role as songwriter, caused some tension with Liam.[97]
Zak Starkey, son of former Beatles drummer Ringo Starr and previous drummer for Gallagher's heroes The Who and Johnny Marr, replaced long-time drummer Alan White during the recording sessions for Don't Believe the Truth. The loss of White prompted Gallagher to comment, in a 2005 interview, that he puts Oasis' trouble with drummers, in part, to the fact that he is himself a talented drummer, saying "I get a lot of stick for it, but I'm the best drummer in the group."[98]
Controversy[link]
Gallagher is well known for his controversial, outspoken statements in the press; he acknowledged his tendency for faux pas in the song "My Big Mouth" on the album Be Here Now. Yet Gallagher has defended himself, saying "people think [I'm] controversial for the answers [I] give to silly questions in interviews, but ... I'm not thinking about insulting ... people; I say what I genuinely feel is in my heart. My conscience is clean, d'you know what I mean? Y'know, I'm true to myself—fuck everybody else."[99] His opinions have earned him an "elder statesman" reputation, with NME dubbing him "The wisest man in rock".[100]
Damon Albarn and Blur[link]
The most infamous of Gallagher's controversial statements was in a 1995 interview with The Observer, where he expressed a wish for Damon Albarn and Alex James of rivals Blur to "catch AIDS and die", a comment which he quickly apologised publicly for, and stated that "AIDS is no laughing matter."[101][102] This statement was preceded by the success of (What's the Story) Morning Glory?, which led to a well-documented feud with fellow Britpop band Blur. The differing styles of the bands, coupled with their prominence within the Britpop movement, led the British media to seize upon the rivalry between the bands. Both factions played along, with the Gallaghers taunting Blur at the 1996 BRIT Awards by singing a rendition of "Parklife" when they collected their "Best British Band" award (with Liam changing the lyrics to "Shite-life").
Gallagher maintains that the rivalry was conceived by the magazine NME and members of Blur's entourage as a ploy to raise their respective profiles, and that since this point he has had no respect for either party. However, Albarn has suggested the roots of the feud were much more personal.[103] By 2007, the tension between the two had cooled, and in an NME interview, Gallagher said "I've got a lot of respect for Damon, I really do mean it. Because I'm indifferent to Damon he thinks that I think he's a cunt. Our Liam will talk to him, I won't because he's just another singer in a band to me, but I don't think he's a cunt. Good luck to him!"[104] In an interview during The Jonathan Ross Show on 22 October 2011, Gallagher explained how he coincidently met Albarn in a night club and how they reconciled their feuds and reminisced about the music scene in the 1990s. Furthermore, Gallagher and Albarn met and shared "a warm embrace" at the Brit Awards 2012.
Liam Gallagher[link]
The Gallagher brothers famously share a turbulent relationship; one of their arguments was even released on a 1995 bootleg single entitled Wibbling Rivalry. Although in recent years their relationship had stabilised, during the band's early career there were a handful of incidents where the two have actually come to blows. In an L.A. show during their first American tour in 1994, Liam took to changing the words of the songs so that they were offensive to both Americans and Noel. A confrontation after the show which led to a chair being thrown and a brawl caused Noel to leave the tour and head for Las Vegas; Noel later claimed he had "visions of Fear and Loathing flashing in [his] eyes". During recording sessions for the second Oasis album, (What's the Story) Morning Glory?, the brothers had a violent fight involving a cricket bat, when Liam invited everyone from a local pub back into the studio while Noel was trying to work.[105] In 1995, Noel was obliged to sing Wonderwall on Later... with Jools Holland when Liam failed to turn up.[106]
In 1996, Noel provided lead vocals at a performance for MTV Unplugged when Liam backed out minutes before the set was due to start. Liam claimed to have been struck down with a "sore throat"; the band later found out that Liam did not like performing acoustically.[5] Noel was further angered when Liam proceeded to heckle him from the balcony and nurse his "sore throat" with beer and cigarettes while the band performed. Just before the band were about to board a plane to the United States for their important make-or-break US tour, Liam left the airport, claiming he had to find a house for his then-wife Patsy Kensit. He later joined the band for their last few gigs and the infamous MTV Awards performance; the remaining dates were scrapped. The band's future was daily tabloid news.
While on tour in Barcelona in 2000, Oasis were forced to cancel a gig when Alan White's arm seized up, and the band spent the night drinking instead. Liam made a derogatory comment about Noel's then-wife Meg Mathews, and attempted to cast doubt over the legitimacy of Noel's daughter Anais, causing Noel to head-butt Liam. Following this, Noel declared he was quitting overseas touring, but returned for an Oasis gig in Dublin on 8 July 2000. During the performance, the two brothers shook hands at the end of "Acquiesce".[107]
However, the relationship between the two brothers had become strained throughout 2009, leading eventually to a last-minute cancellation of an Oasis concert scheduled to take place on 28 August 2009 in Paris, due to an "altercation within the group."[108] Later that evening, Noel confirmed he had left Oasis as he "simply could not go on working with Liam a day longer." Through the Oasis website, Noel said "It's with some sadness and great relief to tell you that I quit Oasis tonight".[109] On 29 August, Noel expanded further on his blog, stating "the level of verbal and violent intimidation towards me, my family, friends and comrades has become intolerable. And the lack of support and understanding from my management and band mates has left me with no other option than to get me cape and seek pastures new."[110]
On May 21st 2012, after almost 3 years of no communication, it was revealed that Liam and Noel had been in "friendly text contact" after Manchester City won the Barclays Premier League. A source close to the brothers said "They were both over the moon when City won and messages were exchanged. It took something like that to break the ice and they've also been in touch since by text,". The pair are still yet to meet.
Glastonbury[link]
Gallagher reportedly blasted the organizers of the 2008 Glastonbury Festival for scheduling Jay-Z as a headliner for the traditionally guitar-driven festival:
"If it ain't broke don't fix it. If you start to break it then people aren't going to go. I'm sorry, but Jay-Z? No chance. Glastonbury has a tradition of guitar music and even when they throw the odd curve ball in on a Sunday night you go 'Kylie Minogue?' I don't know about it. But I'm not having hip-hop at Glastonbury. It's wrong."[111]
Emily Eavis, the organiser of England's famed Glastonbury music festival, said she was honoured U.S. hip-hop artist Jay-Z was headlining the event saying: "He is absolutely the right act for our festival," she said. "There is no reason why we should not have the greatest living hip-hop artist on at Glastonbury."[112] Eavis also cited that Jay-Z was far from the first hip-hop artist to appear at Glastonbury. The Roots, Cypress Hill, and De La Soul had all previously performed at the Glastonbury Festival.
Jay-Z responded to this controversy saying the following:
"We don't play guitars, Noel, but hip-hop has put in its work like any other form of music. This headline show is just a natural progression. Rap music is still evolving. From Afrika Bambaataa DJ-ing in the Bronx and Run DMC going platinum, to Jazzy Jeff And The Fresh Prince winning the first rap Grammy, I'm just next in the line. We have to respect each other's genre of music and move forward."[113]
Jay-Z opened his set at Glastonbury 2008 with a cover of Oasis' song "Wonderwall". When Gallagher was asked about the incident he replied "The way it's played itself out is that I said Jay-Z had no right to play Glastonbury, which is a crock of horseshit. I got off a plane and someone asked me about the fact that Glastonbury hadn't sold out for the first time in years, and if it was because of Jay-Z. From there it grew into this crap that I was standing on an orange crate at Speakers' Corner saying, 'Gather round, brothers and sisters. Have you heard what's happening at Glastonbury this year?' I have a certain turn of phrase. So if I say, "Chicken sandwiches in McDonald's are just plain fucking wrong," it doesn't mean I'm attacking all chickens or all sandwiches. I've hung out with Jay-Z in Tokyo. I've seen his show. It's not my bag, but it's all right. We have a mutual friend in Chris Martin. So I am a guy who doesn't like hip-hop—shock, horror. I don't dislike rappers or hip-hop or people who like it. I went to the Def Jam tour in Manchester in the '80s when rap was inspirational. Public Enemy were awesome. But it's all about status and bling now, and it doesn't say anything to me."[114] When Jay Z was asked about Gallagher's comments he said "I haven't spoken to him [Gallagher], I heard he was reaching out. I don't bear any grudge, it's all good. I just believe in good music and bad music, I've always said that. You look at any interview from the beginning of time, I've always stated that I don't believe in the lines and classifications that people put music in so they can easily define it". When asked who he would be interested in collaborating with in the future, the rapper said, "Anyone. Oasis as well – it doesn't matter to me."[115]
Politics[link]
Gallagher has spoken out about his political views on several occasions, most notably when he visited Tony Blair at No. 10 Downing Street in 1997. In an interview in 1997 when he was asked about why he visited Blair he replied, "I've taken a lot of flack for going to No. 10 Downing Street but the thing about that is, I never considered myself a rebel anyway. I wasn't going there representing the 'Indie community'. I wasn't representing anyone. I was going there for me. You have to understand that from when I went to school and from when I was born all we ever knew was conservative, Tory, right-wing government. What people don't mention is, they say 'He went to meet Tony Blair.' No. I went to meet the LABOUR prime minister. Our parents always drummed into us that the Labour Party was for the people and the Tory Party was not. I went to meet the Labour prime minister. Full stop."[116]
In an interview in 2007 when asked about politics he said, "I'd been unemployed all my life. It was a big deal for me when he [Tony Blair] got in. Now David Cameron is no different than our Tony Blair and Gordon Brown is no different than our David Cameron. They're all cut from the same cloth and it annoys me that the biggest political icon in the last 30 years has been Margaret Thatcher, and she's a dick. Someone who tried to destroy the working class. It freaks me out. So I don't really think there's anything left to vote for. I believe that I, as a person, can only change things once every 5 years and that's by voting, and my point is that even casting that vote means that the same guy gets in, the only difference is one has a red tie and the other has a blue one. That's all it means, so I think that I should start the Gallagher Party."[117]
He was open in his support for Barack Obama's successful bid for U.S. President, calling his acceptance speech to the 2008 Democratic National Convention "spellbinding."[118]
In 1997 he played a 5 song set at the Tibetan Freedom Concert in NYC.[119] As a result Oasis have been deemed "unsuitable" by the Chinese government, forcing a planned tour of the country in 2009 to be cancelled.[120]
He has also been very vocal about knife crime. He said to one journalist, "It all goes back to the Thatcher Years. I know it's a cliché to say it but that's where the rot set in. If you go up north to any city there are rows and rows and rows of derelict houses. They can't even afford to knock them down and build something new, and that's where it all starts, if kids haven't got anything what are they supposed to do?"
When the interviewer suggested it was for status he replied, "In my day status was about trying to be somebody, not trying to kill somebody, so how's that all changed?"[121]
Speaking out about the August 2011 riots that took place in England, Gallagher claimed that violent video games and violent television shows which children were being exposed to were partially to blame for social problems.
In October 2011 Gallagher told Newsnight he believes the Labour leader Ed Miliband is "utterly uninspiring and dull", and says he has no idea what he stands for.[122]
In February 2012, he implied that the UK under the Premiership of Margaret Thatcher was a more fertile ground for dissent in the arts: "Under Thatcher, who ruled us with an iron rod, great art was made. Amazing designers and musicians. Acid house was born. Very colourful and progressive. Now, no one’s got anything to say. 'Write a song? No thanks, I’ll say it on Twitter'. It’s a sad state when more people retweet than buy records." [123]
He also claimed that he was embarrassed by the 2011 London Riots. "Last August I was on tour in Europe and people were asking me about the riots. All over the world, Syria and Egypt, people were rioting for freedom. And these kids in England are rioting for tracksuits. It's embarrassing," [124]
Musical equipment[link]
Throughout his career Gallagher has used a wide range of different guitars, effect pedals and amplifers from his large collection. Most of it emerged from the Standing on the Shoulder of Giants sessions, where he decided to drop the equipment used in the three previous albums and instead buy "loads of really weird pedals, old guitars, and small amps", as the lack of deadline to deliver the album allowed Gallagher to "take quite a few days just messing around."[125]
Guitars[link]
- Electric guitars
- Epiphone Supernova – Gallagher's signature model combines features from Gallagher's most frequently used guitars over the years, including various Gibson and Epiphone semi acoustics. The Union Jack paintjob echoes his custom-painted Epiphone Sheraton that he used at Maine Road in 1996.[citation needed]
- Epiphone Riviera[citation needed]
- Epiphone Sheraton[citation needed]
- Fender Telecaster – Gallagher uses several, one of which, a 60s model, was given to Noel by Johnny Depp as a birthday present[125]
- Epiphone Les Paul[125]
- Gibson Les Paul[125]
- Epiphone Casino[125]
Effect pedals[link]
In the early days of Oasis, Gallagher did not use pedals: "I used to just turn up the amps as full as I could get them".[125] Since then, he has begun using a large number of effects, but singled out the Ibanez Tube Screamer.[125]
Amplification[link]
Gallagher has said that he used only 100-watt Marshalls early in his career. After Definitely Maybe, he began using smaller amps, singling out Fenders (Princeton and Bandmaster), and also a combo made by Clark Amplification, which builds amplifiers based on vintage Fender and Marshall amps.[125]
Discography[link]
See also: Oasis discography and Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds
Albums[link]
- 2009: The Dreams We Have as Children - Live at the Royal Albert Hall
- 2011: Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds
Also featured on:-
- 1995: Stanley Road by Paul Weller, acoustic guitar on "I Walk on Gilded Splinters"
- 1997: Dig Your Own Hole by The Chemical Brothers, vocals on "Setting Sun"
- 1998: Unfinished Monkey Business by Ian Brown, vocals on "Corpses in Their Mouths"
- 1998: Saturnzreturn by Goldie, guitar on "Temper Temper"
- 1998: The X-Files: The Album, the track "Teotihuacan"
- 1998: More Than Us E.P. by Travis, the track "All I Want To Do Is Rock (Live Version)"
- 1999: Surrender by The Chemical Brothers, vocals on "Let Forever Be"
- 2000: Tailgunner by Tailgunner, drums
- 2000: The Same Old Blues by Proud Mary, production, plus additional vocals, guitars, bass and percussion
- 2002: Illumination by Paul Weller, drums, percussion & bass on "One X One"
- 2003 (Recorded in 2000): Live at the Royal Albert Hall by The Who, guitar, backing vocals on "Won't Get Fooled Again"
- 2004: Solarized by Ian Brown: collaboration on the song "Keep What Ya Got".
- 2004: All Years Leaving by The Stands, guitar on "Some Weekend Night"
- 2008: 22 Dreams by Paul Weller, bass, piano, mellotron and wurlitzer on "Echoes Round The Sun"
- 2011: Colour of the Trap by Miles Kane, backing vocals on "My Fantasy"[126]
High Flying Birds[link]
| Year | Single | Peak chart positions | Album | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| UK | IRE | |||
| 2011 | "The Death of You and Me" | 15 | 35 | Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds |
| "AKA... What a Life!" | 20 | - | ||
| "If I Had a Gun..." | 95 | - | ||
| 2012 | "Dream On" | 52 | - | |
| Year | Album details | Peak chart positions | Certifications | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| UK [127] |
FRA [128] |
GER [129] |
IRE [130] |
ITA [128] |
JPN [131] |
KOR [132] |
SPA [128] |
US [133] |
|||
| 2011 | Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds
|
1 | 9 | 11 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 12 | 15 | 28 |
|
Other charted songs[link]
| Year | Single | Peak chart positions | Album |
|---|---|---|---|
| UK | |||
| 2009 | "Don't Look Back in Anger" (Live for Teenage Cancer Trust) |
101 | The Dreams We Have as Children - Live at the Royal Albert Hall |
| "Talk Tonight" (Live for Teenage Cancer Trust) |
119 | ||
| "Cast No Shadow" (Live for Teenage Cancer Trust) |
120 | ||
| "(It's Good) To Be Free" (Live for Teenage Cancer Trust) |
121 | ||
| "The Importance of Being Idle" (Live for Teenage Cancer Trust) |
141 | ||
| 2011 | "The Good Rebel" (Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds - B-Side) |
192 | "The Death of You and Me" |
| 2011 | "Let the Lord Shine a Light On Me" (Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds - B-Side) |
107 | "AKA... What a Life!" |
| 2011 | "Everybody's on the Run" (Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds - album track) |
128 | Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds |
As featured artist[link]
| Year | Single | Peak chart positions | Album |
|---|---|---|---|
| UK | |||
| 1995 | "Come Together" (The Smokin' Mojo Filters ) |
19 | The Help Album |
| 1997 | "Setting Sun" (The Chemical Brothers featuring Noel Gallagher) |
1 | Dig Your Own Hole |
| 1998 | "Temper Temper" (Goldie featuring Noel Gallagher) |
13 | Saturnzreturn |
| 1998 | "Let Forever Be" (The Chemical Brothers featuring Noel Gallagher) |
9 | Surrender |
| 1998 | "All I Want To Do Is Rock" (Live Version) (Travis featuring Noel Gallagher) |
16 | More Than Us E.P. |
| 2004 | "Keep What Ya Got" (Ian Brown featuring Noel Gallagher) |
18 | Solarized |
2004 Free Love, Freeway - Ricky Gervais Ft. Noel Gallagher credited as 'a special guest' on Backing Vocals for the 'Office Christmas Special DVD' which you can watch the video of the recording session featuring Noel & Ricky.
Other[link]
- 2011, Well... All Right! (compilation album compiled by Gallagher - released covermount into Mojo magazine)
References[link]
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- ^ a b c Harris, John. Britpop!: Cool Britannia and the Spectacular Demise of English Rock. Da Capo Press, 2004. Pg. 118. ISBN 0-306-81367-X
- ^ a b c d e f "Oasis". Behind the Music, VH1. 2000.
- ^ a b Harris, pg. 119
- ^ Hattenstone, Simon (6 December 2008). "Interview: Noel Gallagher talks Oasis past and present". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2008/dec/06/noel-gallagher-oasis. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
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- ^ Harris, pg. 120
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- ^ This is cited at many sources, including an interview with VH1's Behind the Music (2000), Russell Brand on 1 Leicester Square (2006) and Oasis: In Their Own Words (1996)
- ^ Harris, pg. 121
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- ^ Harris, pg. 123
- ^ Interview with Frank Skinner, The Frank Skinner Show, 2000
- ^ Robertson, Ian (1996). Oasis: What's the Story?. Blake Books. ISBN 0-7119-5695-2.
- ^ Harris, pg. 128-29
- ^ "Bittersweet Triumph". Musicsaves.org. http://www.musicsaves.org/verve/interviews/37.shtml. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
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- ^ "Noel Gallagher on ten years of Oasis – exclusive interview". Friday Night with Jonathan Ross. 10 September 2004. http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2004/09_september/10/ross_gallagher.shtml. Retrieved 18 February 2008. "I can't drive, but it didn't stop me buying five cars."
- ^ "Best Oasis Q&A Ever: Noel Gallagher Discusses His Issues With Canada, Lars Ulrich". Rolling Stone. 7 November 2006. Archived from the original on 20 February 2008. http://web.archive.org/web/20080220080229/http://www.rollingstone.com/rockdaily/index.php/2006/11/07/best-oasis-qa-ever-noel-gallagher-discusses-his-issues-with-canada-lars-ulrich/. Retrieved 18 February 2008. ""We're just having a bet over there and my mate reckons that you couldn't swim the English Channel." ... Now I can't swim, but I'd still give it a go."
- ^ 1997 report on London News
- ^ Interview at Soccer AM (Sky Sports 1), 11 September 2004
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- ^ Robinson, John (19 June 2004). "Not here now". The Guardian (London). http://arts.guardian.co.uk/glastonbury2004/story/0,,1242267,00.html. Retrieved 14 January 2008.
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- ^ "I'd be bigger than Elvis says Noel". Yahoo Music. 14 February 2007. http://uk.news.launch.yahoo.com/dyna/article.html?a=/14022007/344/d-bigger-elvis-says-noel.html&e=l_news_dm. Retrieved 21 September 2007.
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- ^ "Review: Noel Gallagher – Teenage Cancer Trust Show, Royal Albert Hall | Live4ever – The Brit Rock Daily". Live4ever.uk.com. 26 March 2010. http://www.live4ever.uk.com/2010/03/review-noel-gallagher-teenage-cancer-trust-show-royal-albert-hall/. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
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- ^ Sean Michaels (10 February 2011). "Noel Gallagher: 'I am not recording new stuff' | Music | guardian.co.uk". Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2011/feb/10/noel-gallagher-denies-solo-album. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
- ^ RETROFUZZ. "The Official Noel Gallagher Website | Home". Noelgallagher.com. http://www.noelgallagher.com. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
- ^ "Noel Gallagher’s High Flying Birds Confirm First UK Tour Dates | Live4ever Ezine". Live4ever.uk.com. 2011-08-02. http://www.live4ever.uk.com/2011/08/noel-gallaghers-high-flying-birds-confirm-first-uk-tour-dates/. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
- ^ "News | Noel Gallagher Announces Two Solo Albums". The Quietus. http://thequietus.com/articles/06541-noel-gallagher-announces-solo-album. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
- ^ "Oasis: Noel's Girlfriends". En.AllExperts.com. http://en.allexperts.com/q/Oasis-542/Noel-Girlfriends.htm. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ (Audio) The Howard Stern Show. WXRK. June 1997. http://imfeelingsupersonic.blogspot.com/2008/02/noel-gallagher-howard-stern-show-1997.html. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- ^ "Noel and Meg finally divorce". BBC. 19 January 2001. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/1125485.stm. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- ^ "Gallagher becomes a father again". BBC. 22 September 2007. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/7008537.stm. Retrieved 28 May 2009.
- ^ Michaels, Sean (20 June 2011). "Noel Gallagher gets married without inviting Liam". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2011/jun/20/noel-gallagher-gets-married-liam. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
- ^ "Search – Node – Noel%20gallagher – talkSPORT – for men who love to talk sport". talkSPORT. http://www.talksport.co.uk/search/node/noel%20gallagher. Retrieved 9 July 2011. [dead link]
- ^ Richardson, Andy (September 1995). "Morning Story". NME. http://oasisinterviews.blogspot.com/1995/09/noel-gallagher-nme-30th-september-1995.html. Retrieved 13 August 2010.
- ^ "John Lydon official website". http://www.johnlydon.com/SELECT.HTM. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- ^ "The Oasis Newsroom". Live4ever.us. 27 November 2008. http://www.live4ever.us/2008/11/mexico-steve-jones-and-wheres-ricky. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "Kasabian – Kasabian 'Friends For Life' With Oasis". Contactmusic.com. http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/kasabian%20friends%20for%20life%20with%20oasis. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ MacInnes, Paul (15 March 2005). "Pete to Carl: Will you be my best man?". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2007/mar/05/news.libertines. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
- ^ "Oasis' Liam and Noel Gallagher join Ricky Hatton in Las Vegas". NME. 23 November 2008. http://www.nme.com/news/oasis/41233. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
- ^ "Noel Gallagher on Radio 1". BBC. 12 January 2008. http://uk.youtube.com/results?search_query=Noel+Gallagher+on+Radio+1+-+01.12.08&search_type=&aq=-1&oq=. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "The Gallagher interview in full". The Observer (London). 29 June 2009. http://observer.guardian.co.uk/omm/story/0,,1507223,00.html. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "Latest Oasis News With stopcryingyourheartout.com: When Johnny Marr Lent Noel Gallagher His Gibson Guitar". Stopcryingyourheartoutnews.blogspot.com. 19 September 2008. http://stopcryingyourheartoutnews.blogspot.com/2008/09/when-johnny-marr-lent-noel-gallagher.html. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "Total Guitar: Noel Gallagher". Musicfanclubs.org. http://www.musicfanclubs.org/oasis/totalguitarnoel.html. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "Johnny Depp – Oasis Appearance Depp's Career High". Contactmusic.com. http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/oasis%20appearance%20depp.s%20career%20high. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "YouTube – Noel Gallagher on The Evening Session – 20.08.96 – Part 2". Uk.youtube.com. 14 September 2008. http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=Xkyjf6xJSh4&feature=related. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "Oasis' Liam and Noel Gallagher join Ricky Hatton in Las Vegas | News". NME. http://www.nme.com/news/oasis/41233. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "Noel: My boy will be a legend". The Sun (UK). 24 September 2007. http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/showbiz/bizarre/article269486.ece. Retrieved 14 January 2008.
- ^ Laville, Sandra (10 January 2001). "Noel Gallagher's wife wants £10m divorce deal". Daily Telegraph (London). http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1314112/Noel-Gallaghers-wife-wants-10m-divorce-deal.html. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ Oasis' Gallagher Brothers Weather Economic Storm - Worth 52 million
- ^ . BBC. 14 May 2012. http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/football/18055827. Retrieved 14 May 2012.
- ^ "Gallagher on 'staggering' City takeover". BBC. 3 September 2008. http://fourfourtwo.com/interviews/celebrityfans/192/article.aspx/7595458.stm. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- ^ Whalley, Mike (13 June 2007). "'It's pure City' says Noel". Manchester Evening News. http://www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/sport/football/manchester_city/s/1009/1009076_its_pure_city_says_noel.html. Retrieved 22 July 2007.
- ^ "Celebrity Fans". Four Four Two. http://fourfourtwo.com/interviews/celebrityfans/192/article.aspx. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
- ^ "Oasis Rocker Gallagher Revealed as Del Piero's Lucky Mascot". Deutsche Welle. 7 July 2006. http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,2082415,00.html. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- ^ "Del Piero gets shirty with Noel". The Sun (London). 8 November 2008. http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/showbiz/bizarre/article1915523.ece. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- ^ "Nick Clegg hails England's 'unbeatable' World Cup bid". BBC News. 23 August 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/8934838.stm.
- ^ "Noel Gallagher on Russell Brand Radio Show.avi". YouTube. 9 April 2007. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=63rOA2foEDU. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "Noel Gallagher: The Boss". Clash Music. 2 October 2008. http://www.clashmusic.com/feature/noel-gallagher. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- ^ "James Blunt 'forces' Noel Gallagher to move home". NME. 25 February 2008. http://www.nme.com/news/nme/34640. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- ^ "No forgiveness for Oasis star over X Factor snub". Wales Online. 18 August 2011. http://www.walesonline.co.uk/showbiz-and-lifestyle/showbiz/2011/08/18/no-forgivemes-for-oasis-star-over-x-factor-snub-91466-29261025/. Retrieved 21 September 2011.
- ^ Interview with Jonathan Ross, Friday Night with Jonathan Ross, 10 September 2004
- ^ Caws, Matthew. "Top of the Pops". Guitar World. May 1996.
- ^ Sutcliffe, Phil. "Meet the New Boss". Mojo Classic: Morrissey and the Story of Manchester. Vol. 1, issue 13. 2006
- ^ "GALLAGHER: 'I HAVE NO IDEA WHAT MY SONGS MEAN'". Contactmusic. 12 August 2005. http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/gallagher%20i%20have%20no%20idea%20what%20my%20songs%20mean. Retrieved 14 January 2008.
- ^ Sennett, Sean; Groth, Simon (2010). Off the Record: 25 Years of Music Street Press. Univ. of Queensland Press. p. 254. ISBN 0-7022-3863-5. http://books.google.com/books?id=JNBusPDBQxEC&pg=PA254.
- ^ "Oasis albums reception". Metacritic. http://www.metacritic.com/search/process?sort=relevance&termType=all&ts=Oasis&ty=2&x=0&y=0. Retrieved 18 February 2008.
- ^ Manning, Toby (27 May 2005). "Oasis: The Whole Truth". Daily Mirror. UK. http://www.mirror.co.uk/archive/2005/05/27/oasis-the-whole-truth-89520-15561438/. Retrieved 14 January 2008. [dead link]
- ^ NME, issue of 10 December 2005
- ^ Noel Gallagher; Etalk Daily Interview; 2005
- ^ Dan Atkinson, Mail on Sunday Economics Editor (2008-11-24). "Slump is stifling initiative | Mail Online". London: Dailymail.co.uk. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/showbiz/showbiznews.html?in_article_id=458355&in_page_id=1773. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
- ^ Pierce, Ryan. "Top 10 Music Rivalries: Number 5: Blur vs. Oasis". AskMen.com. http://www.askmen.com/toys/top_10_100/121c_top_10_list.html. Retrieved 17 January 2006.
- ^ Titorenko, Mark (19 February 1996). "Noel's AIDS comment". The Oasis Archive. http://ireland.iol.ie/~kglennon/paper/bandi.htm. Retrieved 17 January 2006. (scroll down to section 3.5)
- ^ Gallagher and Albarn both interviewed on Live Forever: The Rise and Fall of Brit Pop; John Dower; 2003
- ^ "Exclusive: Noel Gallagher interview". NME. 17 February 2007. http://www.nme.com/news/oasis/26492. Retrieved 14 January 2008.
- ^ Definitely Maybe DVD Interview.
- ^ "Later... with Jools Holland". episode 10. series 39. 25 November 2011. BBC Two.
- ^ Barber, Nicholas (16 July 2000). "Music: The Gallaghers stand on the shoulder of a giant anticlimax". The Independent (UK). http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-5097432.html. Retrieved 19 February 2008.
- ^ "Oasis cancel second festival appearance | News". NME. http://www.nme.com/news/oasis/47000. Retrieved 3 October 2009.
- ^ "Oasis News". Oasisinet.com. http://www.oasisinet.com/NewsArticle.aspx?n=773. Retrieved 3 October 2009.
- ^ "Entertainment | 'Intimidation' behind Oasis split". BBC News. 2009-08-29. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8228687.stm. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
- ^ Paterson, Colin (12 April 2008). "Hip-hop "wrong" for Glastonbury". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7345780.stm. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
- ^ "Emily Eavis: The real reason we invited Jay-Z to Glastonbury". The Independent (UK). 17 April 2008. http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/emily-eavis-the-real-reason-we-invited-jayz-to-glastonbury-808985.html. Retrieved 7 May 2008.
- ^ "Noel Gallagher is narrow minded: Jay-Z". NDTVmusic.com. 13 May 2008. http://www.ndtvmusic.com/story.asp?id=ENTEN20080049721. Retrieved 13 May 2008. [dead link]
- ^ Odell, Michael (22 September 2008). "The SPIN Interview: Noel Gallagher". SPIN. http://www.spin.com/articles/spin-interview-noel-gallagher?page=0%2C2. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- ^ Reid, Shaheem (July 3, 2008). "Jay-Z Says He'd Be Open To Working With Noel Gallagher And Oasis: 'I Don't Bear Any Grudge' For Glastonbury Dis". MTV. http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1590390/jayz-hed-be-open-working-with-oasis.jhtml. Retrieved 28 June 2009.
- ^ "YouTube – Noel & Liam Gallagher on Radio 1 – 23.10.97 – Part 3". Uk.youtube.com. 5 October 2008. http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=-Fo76cAojy8. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "YouTube – Noel on BBC2 NewsNight – Brit Awards". Uk.youtube.com. 14 February 2007. http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=1hOUN99LtUg. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "Oasis' Noel Gallagher wishes Barack Obama was British | News". NME. 2 September 2008. http://www.nme.com/news/nme/39423. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "YouTube – 7 June 1997 – Tibetan Freedom Concert in NYC". Uk.youtube.com. 24 November 2006. http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=uwIQwonJppo. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ "Oasis China concerts are shelved". BBC News. 2009-03-02. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7919299.stm. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
- ^ "YouTube – Noel Gallagher speaks out about knife crime". Uk.youtube.com. 4 July 2008. http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=-vLwqOeb5ww. Retrieved 9 August 2009.
- ^ Wilson, Graeme (2011-10-13). "Noel Gallagher’s pop at Ed Miliband". London: The Sun. http://www.thesun.co.uk/sol/homepage/news/politics/3869415/Noel-Gallaghers-pop-at-Ed-Miliband.html. Retrieved 2011-10-23.
- ^ "Noel Gallagher: 'Great music was made in spite of Margaret Thatcher' | News". Nme.Com. 2012-02-05. http://www.nme.com/news/noel-gallagher/61846. Retrieved 2012-04-16.
- ^ Published Sunday, Feb 5 2012, 4:47am EST (2012-02-05). "Noel Gallagher: 'Britain was better under Margaret Thatcher' - Celebrity News". Digital Spy. http://www.digitalspy.com/celebrity/news/a363982/noel-gallagher-britain-was-better-under-margaret-thatcher.html. Retrieved 2012-04-16.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Interview with Noel Gallagher". Guitar One (Harris Publications). October 2002. http://www.clarkamplification.com/gtronemagazine.html. Retrieved 17 August 2009.
- ^ "Miles Kane reveals new Noel Gallagher album collaborations". NME. 24 November 2010. http://www.nme.com/news/miles-kane/53970.
- ^ "Archive Chart". UK Albums Chart. The Official Charts Company. http://www.theofficialcharts.com/archive-chart/_/3/2011-10-29//. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
- ^ a b c "French Charts > Oasis" (in French). lescharts.com Hung Medien. http://lescharts.com/showitem.asp?interpret=Noel+Gallagher%27s+High+Flying+Birds&titel=Noel+Gallagher%27s+High+Flying+Birds&cat=a. Retrieved 02-09-2008.
- ^ "Album - Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds,Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds" (in German). Media Control Charts. http://www.charts.de/album.asp?artist=Noel+Gallagher%27s+High+Flying+Birds&title=Noel+Gallagher%27s+High+Flying+Birds&cat=a&country=de. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
- ^ "Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds - Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds - Irish Charts//". Irish Albums Chart. Irish Recorded Music Association. http://irma.ie/aucharts.asp. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
- ^ "Japanese Album Charts: Week 4, October 2011" (in Japanese). Oricon. http://www.oricon.co.jp/search/result.php?kbn=ja&types=rnk&year=2011&month=10&week=4&submit5.x=23&submit5.y=18. Retrieved 13 December 2011. "5 ノエル・ギャラガーズ・ハイ・フライング・バーズ（初回生産限定盤） ノエル・ギャラガーズ・ハイ・フライング・バーズ 10/12 22777"
- ^ "Gaon Album Charts" (in Korean). Gaon Chart. http://www.gaonchart.co.kr/main/section/album/list.gaon. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
- ^ Charts and awards for Noel Gallagher's High Flying Birds at Allmusic
- ^ "BPI: Certified Awards Search". British Phonographic Industry (BPI). http://www.bpi.co.uk/certifiedawards/search.aspx. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
Further reading[link]
- Gallagher, Paul; Christian, Terry. Brothers, From Childhood to Oasis (Virgin Books)
- Harris, John. Britpop!: Cool Britannia and the Spectacular Demise of English Rock. Da Capo Press, 2004. ISBN 0-306-81367-X
- Hewitt, Paolo. Getting High: The Adventures of Oasis (Boxtree Press)
- Mathur, Paul. Take Me There: The Story Of Oasis (Bloomsbury Publishing PLC)
- Middles, Mick. Oasis: Round Their Way (Independent Music Press)
- Moody, P. Oasis: Lost Inside (UFO Music Ltd)
- Robertson, I. Oasis: What's The Story? (Blake Books)
- Wheeler, J. Oasis: How Does It Feel? (UFO Books Ltd)
- Williams, J. & Cook J. Oasis member attacked on stage (Canoe.ca)
External links[link]
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Noel Gallagher |
 |
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Noel Gallagher |
- Official website
- Noel Gallagher on Myspace
- Noel Gallagher at the Internet Movie Database
- Noel Gallagher on SoundCloud
- Noel Gallagher's channel on YouTube
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Gallagher, Noel |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | 29 May 1967 |
| Place of birth | Manchester, England |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noel_Gallagher
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
For other uses, see James Rogers (disambiguation).
| James Beeland Rogers, Jr. | |
|---|---|
 |
|
| Born | (1942-10-19) October 19, 1942 (age 69) Baltimore, Maryland, USA[1] |
| Alma mater | Balliol College, Oxford Yale University |
| Occupation | Chairman of Rogers Holdings and Beeland Interests, Inc. Co-founder of the Quantum Fund |
| Website | |
| www.jimrogers.com | |
James Beeland Rogers, Jr. (born October 19, 1942) is an American investor and author. He is currently based in Singapore. Rogers is the Chairman of Rogers Holdings and Beeland Interests, Inc. He was the co-founder of the Quantum Fund with George Soros and creator of the Rogers International Commodities Index (RICI).
Rogers is an outspoken proponent of the free market, but he does not consider himself a member of any school of thought. Rogers acknowledged, however, that his views best fit the label of Austrian School of economics.[2][3]
Contents |
Early life and education[link]
Rogers was born in Baltimore, Maryland and raised in Demopolis, Alabama.[1][4] He started in business at the age of five by selling peanuts and by picking up empty bottles that fans left behind at baseball games. He got his first job on Wall Street, at Dominick & Dominick, after graduating with a bachelor's degree in History from Yale University in 1964. Rogers then acquired a second BA degree in Philosophy, Politics and Economics from Balliol College, Oxford University in 1966.
Business career[link]
1970-2002[link]
In 1970, Rogers joined Arnhold and S. Bleichroder. In 1973, Rogers co-founded the Quantum Fund with George Soros. During the following 10 years, the portfolio gained 4200% while the S&P advanced about 47%.[5] The Quantum Fund was one of the first truly international funds.
In 1980, Rogers decided to "retire", and spent some of his time traveling on a motorcycle around the world. Since then, he has been a guest professor of finance at the Columbia Business School.[6]
In 1989 and 1990, Rogers was the moderator of WCBS' The Dreyfus Roundtable and FNN's The Profit Motive with Jim Rogers. From 1990 to 1992, he traveled through China again, as well as around the world, on motorcycle, over 100,000 miles (160,000 km) across six continents, which was picked up in the Guinness Book of World Records. He tells of his adventures and worldwide investments in Investment Biker, a bestselling investment book.
In 1998, Rogers founded the Rogers International Commodity Index. In 2007, the index and its three sub-indices were linked to exchange-traded notes under the banner ELEMENTS. The notes track the total return of the indices as an accessible way to invest in the index. Rogers is an outspoken advocate of agriculture investments.
Between January 1, 1999 and January 5, 2002, Rogers did another Guinness World Record journey through 116 countries, covering 245,000 kilometers with his wife, Paige Parker, in a custom-made Mercedes. The trip began in Iceland, which was about to celebrate the 1000th anniversary of Leif Eriksson's first trip to America. On January 5, 2002, they were back in New York City and their home on Riverside Drive. His route around the world can be viewed on his website, jimrogers.com. He wrote Adventure Capitalist following this around-the-world adventure. It is currently his bestselling book.
2002 to present[link]
On his return in 2002, Rogers became a regular guest on Fox News' Cavuto on Business and other financial TV shows.[7] In 2002, Rogers said that Fed Chairman Alan Greenspan's "reaction to the stock-market bubble has caused two more bubbles to grow: a real-estate bubble and a consumer-debt bubble."[8] In 2006, Rogers said he was shorting US financials, home builders and Fannie Mae.[9][10]
In 2005, Rogers wrote Hot Commodities: How Anyone Can Invest Profitably in the World's Best Market. In this book, Rogers quotes a Financial Analysts Journal academic paper co-authored by Yale School of Management professor, Geert Rouwenhorst, entitled Facts and Fantasies about Commodity Futures. Rogers contends this paper shows that commodities investment is one of the best investments over time, which is a concept somewhat at odds with conventional investment thinking.
In December 2007, Rogers sold his mansion in New York City for about 16 million USD and moved to Singapore. Rogers claimed that he moved because now is a ground-breaking time for investment potential in Asian markets. Rogers's first daughter is now being tutored in Mandarin to prepare her for the future. He is quoted as saying: "If you were smart in 1807 you moved to London, if you were smart in 1907 you moved to New York City, and if you are smart in 2007 you move to Asia." In a CNBC interview with Maria Bartiromo broadcast on May 5, 2008, Rogers said that people in China are extremely motivated and driven, and he wants to be in that type of environment, so his daughters are motivated and driven. He also stated that this is how America and Europe used to be. He chose not to move to Chinese cities like Hong Kong or Shanghai due to the high levels of pollution causing potential health problems for his family; hence, he chose Singapore. He has also advocated investing in certain smaller Asian frontier markets such as Sri Lanka and Cambodia, and currently serves as an Advisor to Leopard Capital’s Leopard Sri Lanka Fund.[11] However, he is not fully bullish on all Asian nations, as he remains skeptical of India's future - "India as we know it will not survive another 30 or 40 years".[12] In 2008 Rogers endorsed Ron Paul for President of the United States.[13]
Rogers has two daughters with Paige Parker. Hilton Augusta (nicknamed Happy) was born in 2003, and their second daughter Beeland Anderson in 2008. His latest book, A Gift To My Children, contains lessons in life for his daughters as well as investment advice and was published in 2009.
On November 4, 2010, at Oxford University’s Balliol College, he urged students to scrap career plans for Wall Street or the City, London’s financial district, and to study agriculture and mining instead. “The power is shifting again from the financial centers to the producers of real goods. The place to be is in commodities, raw materials, natural resources."[14]
In February 2011 Rogers announced that he has started a new index fund which focuses on "the top companies in agriculture, mining, metals and energy sectors as well as those in the alternative energy space including solar, wind and hydro."[15] The index is called The Rogers Global Resources Equity Index and according to Rogers, only the best and most liquid companies go into the index.
Bibliography[link]
- 1995: Investment Biker: Around the World with Jim Rogers. - ISBN 1-55850-529-6
- 2003: Adventure Capitalist: The Ultimate Road Trip. - ISBN 0-375-50912-7
- 2004: Hot Commodities: How Anyone Can Invest Profitably in the World's Best Market. - ISBN 1-4000-6337-X
- 2007: A Bull in China: Investing Profitably in the World's Greatest Market. - ISBN 1-4000-6616-6
- 2009: A Gift to My Children: A Father's Lessons For Life And Investing. - ISBN 1-4000-6754-5
Further reading[link]
- Schwager, Jack D. (1993). Market Wizards: Interviews with Top Traders. Collins; Reissue edition. ISBN 0-88730-610-1.
- Train, John (2003). Money Masters of Our Time. Collins; Reprint edition. ISBN 978-0-88730-970-0.
External links[link]
 |
This article's use of external links may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines. Please improve this article by removing excessive or inappropriate external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into footnote references. (September 2010) |
|
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Jim Rogers |
- The Millennium Adventure, Official Jim Rogers website
- The Rogers International Commodity Index A site for information on the RICI
- Articles
- "An Early Christmas for Jim Rogers". - BusinessWeek - December 8, 2004.
- "Invest In Commodities – and Keep Your Shirt". - November 23, 2006.
- "We Want Our Kids To Learn Chinese". - MySinchew. - July 19, 2008. - (article about Rogers' life in Singapore)
- "Adventure Capitalist". - PODER Magazine. - April 2010.
- Interviews
- Curated Interview With Jim Rogers From Market Wizards
- Jim Rogers on the British Pound, US Dollar, And China
- Jim Rogers, The Adventure Capitalist
- Jim Rogers and George Soros Started the Quantum Fund
- rediff.com: The Money Interview/Jim Rogers, investor, globetrotter
- Financial Sense Newshour's Ask The Expert: Jim Rogers:
- Riverside Conversations: a 3 Part TV Series with Marc Faber
- SCMP video interview, September 8, 2008.
- Investors Chronicle interview. - (on the decline of the US/Europe, emerging markets, commodities). - November 2008.
- Bloomberg Night Talk interview. - November 24, 2008.
- Jim Rogers on The Lew Rockwell Show:
- "The Crash of '08". - December 12, 2008. - (*.MP3 audio)
- "Economic Advice to My Children (and You)". - May 17, 2009. - (*.MP3 audio)
- Bloomberg TV Jim Rogers Special. - December 24, 2008.
- TIME Q&A: Jim Rogers:
- Interview from March 2009 on Channel 4
- Jim Rogers Sat 3 Interview German TV Sat 3
- Euro is not to blame for crisis, BBC News, 26 December 2011.
References[link]
- ^ a b Vetter, Jason (January 18, 1998). - "Adventurer from Marengo Wanders into the Big Money: Jim Rogers started out selling peanuts at Little League games, then made a bonanza on Wall Street". - Mobile Register.
- ^ Drobny, Steven (2006). "11: The Pioneer". Inside the House of Money: Top Hedge Fund Traders on Profiting in the Global Markets. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. p. 230. ISBN 978-0-471-79447-9.
- ^ accessdate=2011-06-23 "Jim Rogers: Schlarbaum Prize 2010". 2010-02-10. http://blog.mises.org/11649/jim-rogers-schlarbaum-prize-2010/ accessdate=2011-06-23.
- ^ NOTE: The reports of Rogers being born in Demopolis are an incorrect assumption. The Jim Rogers born in Wetumpka is a different Jim Rogers.
- ^ "James Rogers". streetstories.com. undated. http://www.streetstories.com/James_Rogers.htm. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
- ^ http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/0e676a08-d602-11de-b80f-00144feabdc0.html
- ^ Benjamin Scent, "Six more hard years tipped for subprime fallout", The Standard, November 19, 2007.
- ^ http://www.jimrogers.com/content/stories/articles/For_Whom_the_Closing_Bell_Tolls.html
- ^ http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchive&sid=a2udgQaBPhYc&refer=home
- ^ http://uk.reuters.com/article/2007/04/11/summit-rogers-idUKNOA12801320070411
- ^ "Rogers Joins Leopard Capital to Advise on Sri Lanka" FINalternatives, February 9, 2010.
- ^ "India". - JimRogers.com.
- ^ http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MK3aVikBUdM
- ^ "Bernanke ‘Doesn’t Understand’ Economics, Rogers Says" Bloomberg News, 11/5/2010.
- ^ "Commodities Bull Market is Still in Place: Rogers". CNBC. 27 February 2011. http://www.cnbc.com/id/41817789. Retrieved 2 March 2011.
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Rogers, Jim |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | |
| Date of birth | October 19, 1942 |
| Place of birth | Baltimore, Maryland, USA |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
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Coordinates: 19°41′33″N 98°50′37.68″W / 19.6925°N 98.8438°W / 19.6925; -98.8438
Teotihuacan – also written Teotihuacán, with a Spanish orthographic accent on the last syllable – is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, just 30 miles (48 km) northeast of Mexico City, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the pre-Columbian Americas. Apart from the pyramidal structures, Teotihuacan is also known for its large residential complexes, the Avenue of the Dead, and numerous colorful, well-preserved murals. Additionally, Teotihuacan produced a thin orange pottery style that spread through Mesoamerica.
The city is thought to have been established around 100 BC and continued to be built until about 250 AD. The city may have lasted until sometime between the 7th and 8th centuries AD. At its zenith, perhaps in the first half of the 1st millennium AD, Teotihuacan was the largest city in the pre-Columbian Americas, with a population of perhaps 125,000 or more, placing it among the largest cities of the world in this period. Teotihuacan began as a new religious center in the Mexican Highland around the first century AD. This city came to be the largest and most populated center in the New World. Teotihuacan was even home to multi-floor apartment compounds built to accommodate this large population. The civilization and cultural complex associated with the site is also referred to as Teotihuacan or Teotihuacano.
