- published: 22 Jan 2010
- views: 568404
- author: pacifistband
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- Abbas Tyabji
- Acharya Kripalani
- Adolf Hitler
- Afghanistan
- Agnes Macphail
- Ahimsa
- Ahimsa in Jainism
- Ahmadiyya
- Albert Einstein
- Albert Libertad
- Albert Schweitzer
- Albigensian Crusade
- Amish
- Ammon Hennacy
- Amparo Poch y Gascón
- Anabaptists
- Anarchism
- Anarcho-pacifism
- Ancient Greece
- Anti-imperialism
- Anti-nuclear
- Anti-war
- Anti-war film
- Anti-war movement
- Antimilitarism
- Antimilitarist
- Aparigraha
- Appeasement
- Arab Spring
- Argumentation
- Argumentation ethics
- Arms reduction
- Arun Manilal Gandhi
- Ashoka
- Ashram
- Athens
- Aung San Suu Kyi
- Autarchist
- Aztecs
- Bahá'u'lláh
- Bahá'í Faith
- Bahá'í laws
- Baptist
- Bardoli Satyagraha
- Benito Mussolini
- Benjamin Spock
- Bernard Bolzano
- Bertha von Suttner
- Bertrand Russell
- Bhagavad Gita
- Black bloc
- Boardman Robinson
- Bogomils
- Brian Orend
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- Buddha
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- Canadian pacifist
- Cannibalism
- Capitalism
- Carl von Ossietzky
- Cathars
- Charles Chatfield
- Chatham Islands
- Chauri Chaura
- Christian anarchism
- Christian pacifism
- Civil disobedience
- Civil resistance
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- Civilian service
- Clement Attlee
- Collective security
- Colm McKeogh
- Columbia University
- Comparative religion
- Conscription
- Consequentialism
- Consequentialist
- Constantine's Sword
- Coretta Scott King
- Cory Aquino
- Costa Rica
- Coup d'état
- Dada Dharmadhikari
- David Low Dodge
- De-escalation
- Decentralization
- Delegated
- Deontological
- Deontology
- Desiderius Erasmus
- Desmond Tutu
- Devdas Gandhi
- Die-in
- Disarmament
- Dorothy Day
- Dovish (inflation)
- Draft dodger
- Draft dodgers
- Economic sanctions
- El Salvador
- Ernest Bevin
- Ervin László
- Fall of Communism
- Fasting
- Franz Jägerstätter
- Gandhi Jayanti
- Gandhi Peace Prize
- Gandhi Smriti
- Gandhian economics
- Gandhigiri
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- Gene Sharp
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- George Lansbury
- Gerhard Schröder
- Germany
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- Gopalkrishna Gandhi
- Gordon Zahn
- Great Britain
- Greece
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- Gulags
- H. G. Wells
- Hamas
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- Harvey L. Dyck
- Hasidism
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- Hezbollah
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- Immanuel Kant
- Iraq War
- Islam
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- J. C. Kumarappa
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- Jainism
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- Jan Narveson
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- Kalinga war
- Kanyakumari
- Kasturba Gandhi
- Keith Robbins
- Khudai Khidmatgar
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- Labour Party (UK)
- Lambeth Conferences
- Lanza del Vasto
- League of Nations
- Leo Tolstoy
- Liberal democracies
- Linus Pauling
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- Mandaeans
- Manilal Gandhi
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- Mennonites
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- Minister of religion
- Mirabehn
- Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
- Mohandas Gandhi
- Mohandas K. Gandhi
- Mohanlal Pandya
- Mohist
- Morality
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- Myanmar
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- Napoleonic Wars
- Narhari Parikh
- Nazi Germany
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- North Island
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- Nunuku-whenua
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- Pacificism
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- Peloponnesian War
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- Philippines
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- Pope Benedict XV
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- Pope John Paul II
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- Pragmatism
- Princeton University
- Prison abolition
- Propaganda
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- Purna Swaraj
- Quakers
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- Quit India Movement
- Rabindranath Tagore
- Rafto Prize
- Rajmohan Gandhi
- Ramdas Gandhi
- Ravi Shankar Vyas
- Red Army
- Religious war
- Renaissance
- Richard B. Gregg
- Righteousness
- Riverside Church
- Robert LeFevre
- Roerich Pact
- Rongo
- Rowan Williams
- Rule of law
- Sakharov Prize
- Salt Satyagraha
- Sam Harris (author)
- Samaldas Gandhi
- Saracen
- Sarvodaya
- Satyagraha
- Second International
- Sedition Act of 1918
- Self-defense
- Semantic
- Seneca the Younger
- Sermon on the Mount
- Shoghi Effendi
- Shrimad Rajchandra
- Siddhartha Gautama
- Siddhattha Gotama
- Simone Weil
- Simple living
- Social defence
- Socialism
- Soviet Union
- Spanish Civil War
- Stafford Cripps
- Steve Biko
- Swadeshi movement
- Swaraj
- Taiping Jing
- Tank Man
- Taranaki Region
- Tax resistance
- Tax resisters
- Te Whiti-o-Rongomai
- Template Anti-war
- Thasos
- The End of Faith
- The Praise of Folly
- Thich Nhat Hanh
- Third Reich
- Thomas Merton
- Thomas Paul Socknat
- Time (magazine)
- Tolstoyan movement
- Turn the other cheek
- Tushar Gandhi
- United States
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- Vaikom Satyagraha
- Vallabhbhai Patel
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- Vegetarian
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Afghanistan
Afghanistan
i/æfˈɡænɨstæn/ (Persian/Pashto: افغانستان, Afġānistān), officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located in the centre of Asia, forming part of South Asia, Central Asia, and Greater Middle East, it is also considered to be part of a broader West Asia. With a population of about 29 million, it has an area of 647,500 km2 (250,001 sq mi), making it the 42nd most populous and 41st largest nation in the world. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and the east, Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast.
Afghanistan has been an ancient focal point of the Silk Road and human migration. Archaeologists have found evidence of human habitation from as far back as 50,000 BC. Urban civilization may have begun in the area as early as 3,000 to 2,000 BC. Sitting at an important geostrategic location that connects the Middle East with Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, the land has been home to various peoples through the ages and witnessed many military campaigns, notably by Alexander the Great, Genghis Khan, and in modern era Western forces. The land also served as a source from which the Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, Saffarids, Ghaznavids, Ghorids, Timurids, Mughals and many others have risen to form major empires.
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Columbia University
Columbia University in the City of New York, commonly referred to as Columbia University, is an American private Ivy League research university located in New York City, New York, United States. Columbia is the oldest institution of higher learning in the state of New York, the fifth oldest in the United States, and one of the country's nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution. Today the university operates seven Columbia Global Centers overseas in Amman, Beijing, Istanbul, Paris, Mumbai, Santiago and Nairobi.
The university was founded in 1754 as King's College by royal charter of George II of Great Britain. After the American Revolutionary War, King's College briefly became a state entity, and was renamed Columbia College in 1784. The University now operates under a 1787 charter that places the institution under a private board of trustees, and in 1896 it was further renamed Columbia University. That same year, the university's campus was moved from Madison Avenue to its location in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Manhattan, where it occupies more than six city blocks, or 32 acres (0.13 km2). The university encompasses twenty schools and is affiliated with numerous institutions, including Teachers College, Barnard College, and the Union Theological Seminary, with joint undergraduate programs available through the Jewish Theological Seminary of America as well as the Juilliard School.
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Costa Rica
Costa Rica is a country in Central America, bordered by Nicaragua to the north, Panama to the southeast, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and the Caribbean Sea to the east.
Costa Rica, which means "Rich Coast", constitutionally abolished its army permanently in 1949. It is the only Latin American country included in the list of the world's 22 older democracies. Costa Rica has consistently been among the top Latin American countries in the Human Development Index (HDI), ranked 69th in the world in 2011. Also was cited by the UNDP in 2010 as one of the countries that have attained much higher human development than other countries at the same income levels, and in 2011 was highlighted by UNDP for being a good performer on environmental sustainability, and better record on human development and inequality than the median of their region. It was also the only country to meet all five criteria established to measure environmental sustainability. The country is ranked fifth in the world, and first among the Americas, in terms of the 2012 Environmental Performance Index.
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El Salvador
El Salvadori/ɛl ˈsælvədɔr/ (Spanish: República de El Salvador, literally 'Republic of The Savior') is the smallest and the most densely populated country in Central America. The country's capital city and largest city is San Salvador; Santa Ana and San Miguel are also important cultural and commercial centers in the country as well as Central America. El Salvador borders the Pacific Ocean on the west, and the countries of Guatemala to the north and Honduras to the east. Its easternmost region lies on the coast of the Gulf of Fonseca, opposite Nicaragua. As of 2009, El Salvador had a population of approximately 5,744,113 people, composed predominantly of Mestizos.
The colón was the official currency of El Salvador from 1892 to 2001, when it adopted the U.S. Dollar.
In 2010 El Salvador ranked in the top 10 among Latin American countries in terms of the Human Development Index and in the top 3 in Central America (behind Costa Rica and Panama), due in part to ongoing rapid industrialization. In addition, tropical forests and overall forest cover has expanded by nearly 20 percent from the year 1992 to 2010. Making it one of the few countries experiencing reforestation.
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Gandhi Smriti
Gandhi Smriti formerly known as Birla House or Birla Bhavan, is a museum dedicated to Mahatma Gandhi, situated on Tees January Road, in New Delhi, India. It is the location where Mahatma Gandhi spent the last 144 days of his life and was assassinated on January 30, 1948. It was originally the house of the Indian business tycoons, the Birlas. It now houses the Eternal Gandhi Multimedia Museum established in 2005.
It was acquired by the Government of India in 1971 and opened for the public on August 15, 1973, renamed the Gandhi Smriti (or Gandhi Remembrance). The museum in the building houses a number of articles associated with Gandhi's life and death. Visitors can tour the building and grounds, viewing the preserved room where Gandhi lived and the place on the grounds where he was shot while holding his nightly public walk.
The Martyr's Column now marks the place where Gandhi, the "Father of the Nation" was assassinated.
The Gandhi Smriti or Birla House is located at 5 Tees January Marg, a couple of kilometres from the Connaught Place, one of the CBDs of New Delhi.
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Germany
Germany (i/ˈdʒɜrməni/), officially the Federal Republic of Germany (German: Bundesrepublik Deutschland, pronounced [ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant] (
listen)), is a federal parliamentary republic in Europe. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 km2 and has a largely temperate seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields.
A region named Germania, inhabited by several Germanic peoples, was documented before AD 100. During the Migration Period, the Germanic tribes expanded southward, and established successor kingdoms throughout much of Europe. Beginning in the 10th century, German territories formed a central part of the Holy Roman Empire. During the 16th century, northern German regions became the centre of the Protestant Reformation while southern and western parts remained dominated by Roman Catholic denominations, with the two factions clashing in the Thirty Years' War, marking the beginning of the Catholic–Protestant divide that has characterized German society ever since. Occupied during the Napoleonic Wars, the rise of Pan-Germanism inside the German Confederation resulted in the unification of most of the German states into the German Empire in 1871 which was Prussian dominated. After the German Revolution of 1918–1919 and the subsequent military surrender in World War I, the Empire was replaced by the Weimar Republic in 1918, and partitioned in the Treaty of Versailles. Amidst the Great Depression, the Third Reich was proclaimed in 1933. The latter period was marked by Fascism and World War II. After 1945, Germany was divided by allied occupation, and evolved into two states, East Germany and West Germany. In 1990 Germany was reunified.
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Glasgow
Coordinates: 55°51′29″N 4°15′32″W / 55.858°N 4.259°W / 55.858; -4.259
Glasgow (i/ˈɡlɑːzɡəʊ/, locally /ˈɡlazɡo/, GLAZ-goh; Scots: Glesga 
listen (help·info); Scottish Gaelic: Glaschu ([ˈkɫ̪as̪əxu] listen (help·info))) is the largest city in Scotland and third most populous in the United Kingdom. The city is situated on the River Clyde in the country's West Central Lowlands.
Glasgow grew from a small rural settlement on the River Clyde to become one of the largest seaports in Britain. Expanding from the medieval bishopric of Glasgow and the later establishment of the University of Glasgow in the 15th century, it became a major centre of the Scottish Enlightenment in the 18th century. From the 18th century the city also grew as one of Britain's main hubs of transatlantic trade with British North America and the British West Indies. With the Industrial Revolution, the city and surrounding region shifted to become one of the world's pre-eminent centres of heavy engineering, most notably in shipbuilding and marine engineering industry, which produced many innovative and famous vessels. Glasgow was known as the "Second City of the British Empire" for much of the Victorian era and Edwardian period. Today it is one of Europe's top ten financial centres and is home to many of Scotland's leading businesses. Glasgow is also ranked as the 57th most liveable city in the world.
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Great Britain
Great Britain or Britain (Welsh: Prydain Fawr, Scottish Gaelic: Breatainn Mhòr, Cornish: Breten Veur) is an island situated to the northwest of Continental Europe. It is the ninth largest island in the world, the largest European island, and the largest of the British Isles. With a population of about 60.0 million people in mid-2009, it is the third most populous island in the world, after Java and Honshū. Great Britain is surrounded by over 1,000 smaller islands and islets. The island of Ireland lies to its west. Politically, Great Britain may also refer to the island itself together with a number of surrounding islands which comprise the territory of England, Scotland and Wales.
All of the island is territory of the sovereign state of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and most of the United Kingdom's territory is in Great Britain. Most of England, Scotland, and Wales are on the island of Great Britain, as are their respective capital cities: London, Edinburgh, and Cardiff.
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Greece
Greecei/ˈɡriːs/ (Greek: Ελλάδα, Ellada, IPA: [eˈlaða] ( listen) historically in Katharevousa and Ancient Greek: Ἑλλάς, Hellas, IPA: [eˈlas] and [helːás] respectively), officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία, Elliniki Dimokratia, IPA: [eliniˈci ðimokraˈtia]), is a country in Southern Europe, politically considered part of Western Europe.Athens is the capital and the largest city in the country (its urban area also including Piraeus). The population of the country is around 11 million.
Greece has land borders with Albania, the Republic of Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to the east. The Aegean Sea lies to the east of mainland Greece, the Ionian Sea to the west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the south. Greece has the 11th longest coastline in the world at 13,676 km (8,498 mi) in length, featuring a vast number of islands (approximately 1,400, of which 227 are inhabited), including Crete, the Dodecanese, the Cyclades, and the Ionian Islands among others. Eighty percent of Greece consists of mountains, of which Mount Olympus is the highest at 2,917 m (9,570 ft).
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Italy
Italyi/ˈɪtəli/ (Italian: Italia [iˈtaːlja]), officially the Italian Republic or the Republic of Italy (Italian: Repubblica italiana), is a unitary parliamentary republic in south-central Europe. To the north, it borders France, Switzerland, Austria and Slovenia along the Alps. To the south, it consists of the entirety of the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, Sardinia–the two largest islands in the Mediterranean Sea–and many other smaller islands. The independent states of San Marino and the Vatican City are enclaves within Italy, while Campione d'Italia is an Italian exclave in Switzerland. The territory of Italy covers some 301,338 km2 (116,347 sq mi) and is influenced by a temperate seasonal climate. With 60.6 million inhabitants, it is the fifth most populous country in Europe, and the 23rd most populous in the world.
Rome, the capital of Italy, was for centuries a political and religious centre of Western civilisation as the capital of the Roman Empire and site of the Holy See. After the decline of the Roman Empire, Italy endured numerous invasions by foreign peoples, from Germanic tribes such as the Lombards and Ostrogoths, to the Byzantines and later, the Normans, among others. Centuries later, Italy became the birthplace of Maritime republics and the Renaissance, an immensely fruitful intellectual movement that would prove to be integral in shaping the subsequent course of European thought.
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Jamia Millia Islamia
Jamia Millia Islamia (Urdu: جامعہ ملیہ اسلامیہ, Hindi: जामिया मिलिया इस्लामिया, translation: National Islamic University[citation needed]) is an Indian Central University located in Delhi. It was established at Aligarh in United Provinces, India in 1920. It became a Central University by an act of the Indian Parliament in 1988. In Urdu and Arabic, Jamia means University[citation needed], and Millia means National[citation needed]. Coordinates: 28°33′41.79″N 77°16′48.54″E / 28.5616083°N 77.28015°E / 28.5616083; 77.28015
The university was established by nationalist Muslim leaders in 1920 prior to partition. Its campus is located in South Delhi. The university provides undergraduate, graduate, and postgraduate courses.
The Foundation Committee met on 29 October 1920. Its members were:
On 22 November 1920, Hakim Ajmal Khan was elected the first chancellor of Jamia. Mohamed Ali Jauhar became Jamia’s first Vice Chancellor, as Allama Iqbal could not accept the offer made through Mohandas K. Gandhi. It also elected a syndicate and created a syllabus subcommittee.The known freedom fighter and Muslim theologian, Maulana Mehmud Hasan, laid the foundation stone of Jamia Millia Islamia at Aligarh on Friday, 29 October 1920.
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Kanyakumari
Kanyakumari pronunciation (help·info) is a town in the state of Tamil Nadu in India. It was also referred to as Cape Comorin earlier. Located at the southernmost tip of India, it is the geographical end of the mainland. The district in Tamil Nadu where the town is located is called Kanyakumari District. The closest major cities are Nagercoil, the administrative headquarters of Kanyakumari District, (22 km (14 mi)) and Thiruvananthapuram, the capital of Kerala (85 km (53 mi)). The town is a popular tourist place in India.
Cape Comorin was the southern limit of Tamilakam (the ancient Tamil country).
Kanyakumari takes its name from the Kumari Amman or Kanyakumari Temple, situated in the town of it`s , on the sea-shore, the very confluence of the three water-bodies – the Arabian Sea, the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. In his work on ancient India, Ptolemy had identified Kanyakumari (Cape of Comorin) along with the Gulf of Mannar as a center for pearl fishery. He also identifies Korkai, a place to the east of Kanyakumari as an emporium of pearl trade, also Travancore Census 1931 says that Paravars ruled that Coast and built the temple for their reverence to [the] Sea Goddess.
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Nazi Germany
The Third Reich, also Nazi Germany, is the common name for Germany when it was a totalitarian state ruled by Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP). On 30 January 1933 Hitler became chancellor of Germany, quickly eliminating all opposition to rule as sole leader. The state idolized Hitler as its Führer ("leader"), centralizing all power in his hands. Historians have emphasized the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences, and of his eyes in small groups. Kessel writes, "Overwhelmingly...Germans speak with mystification of Hitler's 'hypnotic' appeal..." Under the "leader principle", the Führer's word was above all other laws. Top officials reported to Hitler and followed his policies, but they had considerable autonomy. The government was not a coordinated, cooperating body, but rather a collection of factions struggling to amass power and curry favor with the Führer. In the midst of the Great Depression, the Nazi government restored prosperity and ended mass unemployment using heavy military spending and a mixed economy of free-market and central-planning practices. Extensive public works were undertaken, including the construction of the Autobahns. The return to prosperity gave the regime enormous popularity; the suppression of all opposition made Hitler's rule mostly unchallenged.
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Netherlands
The Netherlands (
i/ˈnɛðərləndz/; Dutch: Nederland [ˈneːdə(r)lɑnt] or [ˈneɪ̯də(r)lɑnt] (
listen); West Frisian: Nederlân; Papiamento: Hulanda) is a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, located mainly in North-West Europe and with some islands in the Caribbean. Mainland Netherlands borders the North Sea to the north and west, Belgium to the south, and Germany to the east, and shares maritime borders with Belgium, Germany and the United Kingdom. It is a parliamentary democracy organised as a unitary state. The country capital is Amsterdam and the seat of government is The Hague. The Netherlands in its entirety is often referred to as Holland, although North and South Holland are actually only two of its twelve provinces (a case of pars pro toto; see terminology of "the Netherlands").
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New York City
New York is the most populous city in the United States and the center of the New York Metropolitan Area, one of the most populous metropolitan areas in the world. The city is referred to as New York City or The City of New York to distinguish it from the State of New York, of which it is a part. As a global power city, New York exerts a significant impact upon commerce, finance, media, art, fashion, research, technology, education, and entertainment. The home of the United Nations Headquarters, New York is an important center for international diplomacy and has been described as the cultural capital of the world.
Located on one of the world's largest natural harbors, New York City consists of five boroughs, each of which comprises a state county. The five boroughs—The Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, Queens, and Staten Island—were consolidated into a single city in 1898. With a Census-estimated 2011 population of 8,244,910 distributed over a land area of just 305 square miles (790 km2), New York is the most densely populated major city in the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. The New York City Metropolitan Area's population is the United States' largest, with 18.9 million people distributed over 6,720 square miles (17,400 km2), and is also part of the most populous combined statistical area in the United States, containing 22.1 million people as of the 2010 Census.
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New Zealand
New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa) is an island country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The country geographically comprises two main landmasses ‒ that of the North and South Islands ‒ as well as numerous smaller islands. New Zealand is situated some 1,500 kilometres (900 mi) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) south of the Pacific island nations of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. Because of its remoteness, it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans.
During its long isolation, New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of both animal and plant life. Most notable are the large number of unique bird species, many of which became extinct after the arrival of humans and introduced mammals. With a mild maritime climate, the land was mostly covered in forest. The country's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions caused by the Pacific and Indo-Australian Plates clashing beneath the earth's surface.
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Nobel Peace Prize
The Nobel Peace Prize (Norwegian and Swedish: Nobels fredspris) is one of the five Nobel Prizes bequeathed by the Swedish industrialist and inventor Alfred Nobel, along with the prizes in Chemistry, Physics, Physiology or Medicine, and Literature. It is awarded to those who have "done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses."
Per Alfred Nobel's will, the recipient is selected by the Norwegian Nobel Committee, a 5-member committee appointed by the Parliament of Norway. Since 1990, the prize is awarded in Oslo City Hall on 10 December each year. The prize was formerly awarded in the Atrium of the University of Oslo Faculty of Law (1947–89), the Norwegian Nobel Institute (1905–46) and the Parliament (1901–04).
According to Nobel's will, the Peace Prize shall be awarded to the person who "shall have done the most or the best work for fraternity between nations, for the abolition or reduction of standing armies and for the holding and promotion of peace congresses."
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North Island
The North Island (Māori: Te Ika-a-Māui) is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the slightly larger but much less populous South Island by Cook Strait. The island is 113,729 square kilometres (43,911 sq mi) in area, making it the world's 14th-largest island. It has a population of 3,366,100 (June 2011 estimate).
Twelve cities are in the North Island: Auckland, New Plymouth, Tauranga, Gisborne, Napier, Hamilton, Hastings, Palmerston North, Rotorua, Wanganui, Whangarei and Wellington, the capital, located at the southern extremity of the island. Approximately 76% of New Zealand's population lives in the North Island.
Although the island has been known as the North Island for many years, the New Zealand Geographic Board has found that, along with the South Island, it has no official name. The board intends to make North Island the island's official name, along with an alternative Māori name. Although several Māori names have been used, Maori Language Commissioner Erima Henare sees Te Ika-a-Māui as the most likely choice.
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Norway
Norwayi/ˈnɔrweɪ/ (Norwegian: Norge (Bokmål) or Noreg (Nynorsk)), officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Nordic unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard and the subantarctic Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometres (148,747 sq mi) and a population of about 5 million. It is the second least densely populated country in Europe. The majority of the country shares a border to the east with Sweden; its northernmost region is bordered by Finland to the south and Russia to the east; in its south Norway borders the Skagerrak Strait across from Denmark. The capital city of Norway is Oslo. Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords.
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Nuremberg Trials
Coordinates: 49°27.2603′N 11°02.9103′E / 49.4543383°N 11.048505°E / 49.4543383; 11.048505 The Nuremberg Trials were a series of military tribunals, held by the victorious Allied forces of World War II, most notable for the prosecution of prominent members of the political, military, and economic leadership of the defeated Nazi Germany. The trials were held in the city of Nuremberg, Bavaria, Germany, in 1945–46, at the Palace of Justice. The first and best known of these trials was the Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal (IMT), which tried 25 of the most important captured leaders of the Third Reich, though several key architects of the war (such as Adolf Hitler, Heinrich Himmler, and Joseph Goebbels) had committed suicide before the trials began.
The initial trials were held from November 20, 1945 to October 1, 1946. The second set of trials of lesser war criminals was conducted under Control Council Law No. 10 at the US Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT); among them included the Doctors' Trial and the Judges' Trial. This article primarily deals with the IMT; see the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials for details on those trials.
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Parihaka
Parihaka is a small community in Taranaki Region, New Zealand, located between Mount Taranaki and the Tasman Sea. In the 1870s and 1880s the settlement, then reputed to be the largest Māori village in New Zealand, became the centre of a major campaign of non-violent resistance to European occupation of confiscated land in the area.
The village was founded in 1867 by Māori prophets Te Whiti o Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi on land seized by the government during the post-war land confiscations of the 1860s. Recognising the destructive effects of war, Te Whiti and Tohu declared they would use spiritual powers rather than weapons to claim their right to live on land they had occupied for centuries. The population of the village grew to more than 2000, impressing European visitors with its cleanliness and industry, and its extensive cultivations producing cash crops as well as food sufficient to feed its inhabitants.
When an influx of European settlers in Taranaki created a demand for farmland that outstripped the availability, the Grey government stepped up efforts to secure title to land it had confiscated but subsequently not taken up for settlement. Māori near Parihaka and the Waimate Plains rejected their payments, however, and the government responded by drawing up plans to take the land by force. In late 1878 the government began surveying the land and offering it for sale. Te Whiti and Tohu responded with a series of non-violent campaigns in which they first ploughed settlers' farmland and later erected fences across roadways to impress upon the government their right to occupy the confiscated land to which they believed they still had rights. The campaigns sparked a series of arrests, resulting in more than 400 Māori being jailed in the South Island, where they remained without trial for as long as 16 months.
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Penn Treaty Park
Penn Treaty Park is a small park on the western bank of the Delaware river, in the Fishtown neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. It is located at the intersection of Delaware (Columbus) Avenue and Beach Street, just off Delaware Avenue.
The southern part of the park consists of a walkway surrounding an open green favored by dog walkers and lunchtime picnickers. A stand of mature trees shades the northern part of the park. At the river's edge, the park provides an unimpeded view of the full span of the Benjamin Franklin Bridge that connects Philadelphia to the city of Camden, New Jersey. Directly to the north is a power-generating station owned and operated by the Philadelphia Electric Company (PECO). Bordering the southern edge of the park there was a nightclub with part of its facilities built on a reclaimed pier that stretches out into the river, however this is gone and will soon become a condominium development. An iron and concrete fishing pier used to extend out into the river, but it was seriously damaged by an out-of-control barge, fenced off for a while and then eventually done away with.
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Philippines
The Philippinesi/ˈfɪlɨpiːnz/ FI-lə-peenz (Filipino: Pilipinas [ˌpɪlɪˈpinɐs]), officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (Filipino: Republika ng Pilipinas) is a sovereign country in Southeast Asia in the western Pacific Ocean. To its north across the Luzon Strait lies Taiwan. West across the South China Sea sits Vietnam. The Sulu Sea to the southwest lies between the country and the island of Borneo, and to the south the Celebes Sea separates it from other islands of Indonesia. It is bounded on the east by the Philippine Sea. Its location on the Pacific Ring of Fire and its tropical climate make the Philippines prone to earthquakes and typhoons but have also endowed the country with natural resources and made it one of the richest areas of biodiversity in the world. An archipelago comprising 7,107 islands, the Philippines is categorized broadly into three main geographical divisions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. Its capital city is Manila.
With an estimated population of about 98 million people, the Philippines is the 7th most populated Asian country and the 12th most populated country in the world. An additional 12.5 million Filipinos live overseas. Multiple ethnicities and cultures are found throughout the islands. In prehistoric times, Negritos were some of the archipelago's earliest inhabitants. They were followed by successive waves of Austronesian peoples who brought with them influences from Malay, Hindu, and Islamic societies. Trade introduced Chinese cultural influences which remain to this day.
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Pietermaritzburg
Pietermaritzburg is the capital and second largest city in the province of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. It was founded in 1838, and is currently governed by the Msunduzi Local Municipality. Its "purist" Zulu name is umGungundlovu, and this is the name used for the district municipality. Pietermaritzburg is popularly called Maritzburg in English and Zulu alike, and often informally abbreviated to PMB. It is a regionally important industrial hub, producing aluminium, timber and dairy products. It is home to many schools and tertiary education institutions, including a campus of the University of KwaZulu-Natal. It had a population of 228,549 in 1991; the estimated current population is around 500,000 (including neighbouring townships) and has one of the largest populations of Indian South Africans in South Africa.
The city was originally founded by the Voortrekkers, following the defeat of Dingane at the Battle of Blood River, and was the capital of the short-lived Boer republic, Natalia. Britain took over Pietermaritzburg in 1843 and it became the seat of the Natal Colony's administration with the first lieutenant-governor, Martin West, making it his home. Fort Napier, named after the governor of the Cape Colony, Sir George Thomas Napier, was built to house a garrison. In 1893 Natal received responsibility for their own government and an assembly building was built along with the city hall. In 1910, when the Union of South Africa was formed, Natal became a province of the union, and Pietermaritzburg remained the capital.
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Princeton University
Princeton University is a private research university located in Princeton, New Jersey, United States.
It is one of the eight universities of the Ivy League, and one of the nine Colonial Colleges founded before the American Revolution. Princeton provides undergraduate and graduate instruction in the humanities, social sciences, natural sciences and engineering. Princeton does not have schools of medicine, law, divinity, or business, but it does offer professional degrees through the Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs, the Princeton University School of Engineering and Applied Science and the School of Architecture.
Founded in 1746 in Elizabeth, New Jersey, as the College of New Jersey, the university moved to Newark in 1747, then to Princeton in 1756 and was renamed Princeton University in 1896. The present-day College of New Jersey in nearby Ewing, New Jersey, is an unrelated institution. Princeton was the fourth chartered institution of higher education in the American colonies. Princeton had close ties to the Presbyterian Church, but has never been affiliated with any denomination and today imposes no religious requirements on its students.
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Riverside Church
The Riverside Church in the City of New York is an interdenominational American Baptist and United Church of Christ church in New York City, famous for its elaborate Neo-Gothic architecture and its history of social justice. It was described by The New York Times in 2008 as "a stronghold of activism and political debate throughout its 75-year history ... influential on the nation’s religious and political landscapes." It has been a focal point of global and national activism since its inception.
The church was conceived by John D. Rockefeller and Harry Emerson Fosdick as a large, interdenominational church in a neighborhood important to the city, open to all who profess faith in Christ. Its congregation includes more than forty ethnic groups. As of 2007, the church had a $14 million annual operating budget and a paid staff of 130.
The Church's mission statement, adopted in 1992, is:
"...the worship of God, known in Jesus, the Christ, through the inspiration of the Holy Spirit ... to serve God through word and witness, to treat all human beings as sisters and brothers; and to foster responsible stewardship of God's creation ... The church pledges itself to education, reflection, and action for peace and justice and the realization of the vision of the heavenly banquet where all are loved and blessed."
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Soviet Union
The Soviet Union (Russian: Советский Союз, tr. Sovetsky Soyuz), officially the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR; Russian: Сою́з Сове́тских Социалисти́ческих Респу́блик, tr. Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik; IPA: [sɐˈjus sɐˈvʲetskʲɪx sətsɨəlʲɪˈstʲitɕɪskʲɪx rʲɪsˈpublʲɪk] ( listen); abbreviated СССР, SSSR), was a constitutionally socialist state that existed in Eurasia between 1922 and 1991.
The Soviet Union was a single-party state ruled by the Communist Party from its foundation until 1990. A union of 15 subnational Soviet republics, the Soviet state was structured under a highly centralized government and economy.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 caused the downfall of the Russian Empire. Following the Russian Revolution, there was a struggle for power between the Bolshevik party, led by Vladimir Lenin, and the anti-communist White movement. In December 1922, the Bolsheviks won the civil war, and the Soviet Union was formed with the merger of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic and the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic.
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Tank Man
Tank Man, or the Unknown Rebel, is the nickname of an anonymous man who stood in front of a column of Chinese Type 59 tanks the morning after the Chinese military forcibly removed protestors from in and around Beijing's Tiananmen Square on June 5, 1989. The man achieved widespread international recognition due to the videotape and photographs taken of the incident. Despite his anonymity, he is commonly (though not necessarily correctly) referred to in Chinese as Wang Weilin (王維林), as dubbed by a Sunday Express article.
The incident took place near Tiananmen on Chang'an Avenue, which runs east-west along the south end of the Forbidden City in Beijing, on June 5, 1989, one day after the Chinese government's violent crackdown on the Tiananmen protests. The man placed himself alone in the middle of the street as the tanks approached, directly in the path of the armored vehicles (39°54′23.5″N 116°23′59.8″E / 39.906528°N 116.399944°E / 39.906528; 116.399944). He held two shopping bags, one in each hand. As the tanks came to a stop, the man gestured towards the tanks with his bags. In response, the lead tank attempted to drive around the man, but the man repeatedly stepped into the path of the tank in a show of nonviolent action. After repeatedly attempting to go around rather than crush the man, the lead tank stopped its engines, and the armored vehicles behind it seemed to follow suit. There was a short pause with the man and the tanks having reached a quiet, still impasse.
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Taranaki Region
Taranaki is a region in the west of New Zealand's North Island and is the 10th largest region of New Zealand by population. It is named for the region's main geographical feature, Mount Taranaki.
The main centre of the Taranaki region is the city of New Plymouth which has been voted the "Top City" in New Zealand. The New Plymouth District has over 60% of the entire population of Taranaki. New Plymouth is located in North Taranaki along with Inglewood and Waitara. South Taranaki towns include Hawera, Stratford and Eltham.
Since 2005, Taranaki has used the promotional brand "Like no other".
Taranaki is situated on the west coast of the North Island, surrounding the volcanic peak. The large bays north-west and south-west of Cape Egmont are prosaically named the North Taranaki Bight and the South Taranaki Bight.
Mount Taranaki, or Mount Egmont—Te Maunga O Taranaki in Māori—is the dominant feature of the region, second-tallest mountain in the North Island. Māori legend says that Taranaki previously lived with the Tongariro, Ngauruhoe and Ruapehu mountains of the central North Island but fled to its current location after a battle with Tongariro.
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Thasos
Thasos or Thassos (Greek: Θάσος) is a Greek island in the northern Aegean Sea, close to the coast of Thrace and the plain of the river Nestos but geographically part of Macedonia. It is the northernmost Greek island, and 12th largest by area. Thasos is also the name of the largest town of the island (also known as Limenas Thasou, "Harbour of Thasos"), situated at the northern side, opposite the mainland and about 10 kilometres (6 mi) from Keramoti.
Lying close to the coast of Eastern Macedonia, Thasos was inhabited from the Palaeolithic period onwards, but the earliest settlement to have been explored in detail is that at Limenaria where Middle and Late Neolithic remains have been found that relate closely to those of the Drama Plain. In contrast, the remains of the Early Bronze Age on the island align it with the culture that developed in the Cyclades and Sporades to the south in the Aegean. At Skala Sotiros for example, a small settlement was encircled by a strongly built defensive wall. Even earlier activity is demonstrated by the presence of large pieces of 'megalithic' anthropomorphic stelai built into these walls, which, so far, have no parallels in the Aegean area.
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United States
The United States of America (commonly abbreviated to the United States, the U.S., the USA, America, and the States) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west, across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Pacific and Caribbean.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with over 312 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and the third largest by both land area and population. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S. economy is the world's largest national economy, with an estimated 2011 GDP of $15.1 trillion (22% of nominal global GDP and over 19% of global GDP at purchasing-power parity). Per capita income is the world's sixth-highest.
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World government
World government is the notion of a single common political authority for all of humanity. Its modern conception is rooted in European history, particularly in the philosophy of ancient Greece, in the political formation of the Roman Empire, and in the subsequent struggle between secular authority, represented by the Holy Roman Emperor, and ecclesiastical authority, represented by the Pope. The seminal work on the subject was written by Dante Alighieri, titled in Latin, De Monarchia, which in English translates literally as "On Monarchy". Dante's work was published in 1329, but the date of its authorship is disputed.
As of 2012[update], there is no functioning global international military, executive, legislature, judiciary, or constitution, with jurisdiction over the entire planet. While the United Nations exists, its authority is limited to a mostly advisory role, and its stated purpose is to foster cooperation between existing national governments, rather than authority over them.
De jure belli ac pacis (On the Law of War and Peace) is a 1625 book in Latin, written by Hugo Grotius and published in Paris, on the legal status of war. It is now regarded as a foundational work in international law. Grotius was born April 10, 1583. He was a philosopher, theologian, play writer, and poet. Grotius is known for coming up with the idea of having an international law, and is still acknowledged today by the American society of International Law. Hugo was the first child of Jan de Groot and Alida van Overschie. He was exiled from many countries, though many people had great respect for him.
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14th Dalai Lama
The 14th Dalai Lama (religious name: Tenzin Gyatso, shortened from Jetsun Jamphel Ngawang Lobsang Yeshe Tenzin Gyatso, born Lhamo Dondrub, 6 July 1935) is the 14th and current Dalai Lama, as well as the longest lived incumbent. Dalai Lamas are the most influential figures in the Gelugpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism, although the 14th has consolidated control over the other lineages in recent years. He won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989, and is also well known for his lifelong advocacy for Tibetans inside and outside Tibet. Tibetans traditionally believe him to be the reincarnation of his predecessors and a manifestation of the Bodhisattva of Compassion.
The Dalai Lama was born in Taktser, Qinghai (also known to Tibetans as Amdo), and was selected as the rebirth of the 13th Dalai Lama two years later, although he was only formally recognized as the 14th Dalai Lama on 17 November 1950, at the age of 15. He inherited control over a government controlling an area roughly corresponding to the Tibet Autonomous Region just as the nascent People's Republic of China wished to assert central control over it. There is a dispute over whether the respective governments reached an agreement for a joint Chinese-Tibetan administration.
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Abbas Tyabji
Abbas Tyabji (Gujarati: અબ્બાસ તૈયબજી, Hindi: अब्बास तैयबजी; 1853 – June 9, 1936) was an Indian freedom fighter from Gujarat, who once served as the Chief Justice of the (Baroda) Gujarat High Court. Mahatma Gandhi appointed Tyabji, at age seventy-six, to replace him as leader of the Salt Satyagraha in May, 1930 after Gandhi’s arrest. Tyabji was arrested soon afterward and imprisoned by the British Indian Government. Gandhi and others respectfully called Tyabji the "Grand Old Man of Gujarat".
A Sulaimani Bohra Muslim and grandson of the merchant prince Mullah Tyab Ali Bhai Mian, Abbas Tyabji was educated in England, where he lived for eleven years. He was an early proponent of women’s rights, supporting women’s education and social reform. He broke with the prevailing custom of the times by disregarding purdah restrictions and sending his daughters to school.
His nephew, Salim Ali, states that before 1919 Tyabji:
Though a moderate nationalist at heart, he would stand no adverse criticism of the British as a people, or of the Raj, and even a mildly disparaging remark about the King-Emperor or the royal family was anathema to him. . . If he had any strong sentiments about Swadeshi he certainly didn't show it by precept or example. . . This being so, he naturally disagreed vehemently with Gandhiji and his methods of political mass agitation. . . In other respects his moderate but simmering nationalism and his absolute integrity and fairness as a judge were widely recognized and lauded, even by leftist Congressmen and anti-British extremists.
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Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler (German: [ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ] ( listen); 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers Party (German: Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (NSDAP), commonly referred to as the Nazi Party). He was chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler is commonly associated with the rise of fascism in Europe, World War II, and the Holocaust.
A decorated veteran of World War I, Hitler joined the German Workers' Party, precursor of the Nazi Party, in 1919, and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921. In 1923, he attempted a coup d'état, known as the Beer Hall Putsch, in Munich. The failed coup resulted in Hitler's imprisonment, during which time he wrote his memoir, Mein Kampf (My Struggle). After his release in 1924, Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan-Germanism, antisemitism, and anticommunism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda. After his appointment as chancellor in 1933, he transformed the Weimar Republic into the Third Reich, a single-party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of Nazism. His aim was to establish a New Order of absolute Nazi German hegemony in continental Europe.
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Agnes Macphail
Agnes Campbell Macphail (March 24, 1890 – February 13, 1954) was the first woman to be elected to the Canadian House of Commons, and one of the first two women elected to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. Active throughout her life in progressive Canadian politics, Macphail worked for two separate parties and promoted her ideas through column-writing, activist organizing, and legislation.
Agnes Macphail was born to Dougald McPhail and Henrietta Campbell in Proton Township, Grey County, Ontario on March 24, 1890. (Although her surname was spelled "McPhail" at birth, she discovered during a trip to Scotland that her family's surname had been "Macphail" and changed her name to reflect this.) She was raised as a member of the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, a church within the Latter Day Saint movement.
Following her schooling at Owen Sound Collegiate and Vocational Institute she attended the teachers college in Stratford, and afterwards taught in schools in southwest Ontario. While working in Sharon, Macphail became active politically, joining the United Farmers of Ontario (UFO) and its women's organization, the United Farm Women of Ontario. She also became a columnist for the Farmers' Sun around this time.
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Albert Einstein
Albert Einstein ( /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German theoretical physicist who developed the theory of general relativity, effecting a revolution in physics. For this achievement, Einstein is often regarded as the father of modern physics. While best known for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc2 (which has been dubbed "the world's most famous equation"), he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics "for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect". The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory within physics.
Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole.
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Albert Libertad
Joseph Albert (known as Albert Libertad or Libertad) (24 November 1875 — 12 November 1908) was an individualist anarchist militant and writer from France who edited the influential anarchist publication L’Anarchie.
He was born in Bordeaux, and died in Paris. Abandoned by his parents as a baby, Libertad was a child of the Public Assistance in Bordeaux. As a result of a childhood illness, he lost the use of his legs, but he put his handicap to good use: he used his crutches as weapons against the police. He moved to Paris at 21, where he immediately was active in anarchist circles, going so far as to live in the offices of the journal “Le Libertaire.” Member of various anarchist groups, and a supporter of “propaganda by the deed,” he was nevertheless an abstentionist candidate in Paris’s 11th arrondissement in 1902 and 1904, seeing his candidacy as a means of spreading anarchist ideas. During the Dreyfus affair, he founded the Anti-Militarist League (1902) "and, along with Paraf-Javal, founded the “Causeries populaires”, public discussions that met with great interest throughout the country, contributing to the opening of a bookstore and various clubs in different quarters of Paris".
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Albert Schweitzer
Albert Schweitzer OM (14 January 1875 – 4 September 1965) was a German and then French theologian, organist, philosopher, physician, and medical missionary. He was born in Kaysersberg in the province of Alsace-Lorraine, at that time part of the German Empire. Schweitzer, a Lutheran, challenged both the secular view of Jesus as depicted by historical-critical methodology current at his time in certain academic circles, as well as the traditional Christian view. He depicted Jesus as one who literally believed the end of the world was coming in his own lifetime and believed himself to be a world savior. He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of "Reverence for Life", expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Albert Schweitzer Hospital in Lambaréné, now in Gabon, west central Africa (then French Equatorial Africa). As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ reform movement (Orgelbewegung).
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Amish
The Amish ( /ˈɑːmɪʃ/ AH-mish; Pennsylvania Dutch: Amisch, German: Amische), sometimes referred to as Amish Mennonites, are a group of Christian church fellowships that form a subgroup of the Mennonite churches. The Amish are known for simple living, plain dress, and reluctance to adopt many conveniences of modern technology. The history of the Amish church began with a schism in Switzerland within a group of Swiss and Alsatian Anabaptists in 1693 led by Jakob Ammann. Those who followed Ammann became known as Amish.
In the early 18th century, many Amish and Mennonites emigrated to Pennsylvania for a variety of reasons. Today, the most traditional descendants of the Amish continue to speak Pennsylvania German, also known as Pennsylvania Dutch. However, a dialect of Swiss German predominates in some Old Order Amish communities, especially in the American state of Indiana. As of 2000, over 165,000 Old Order Amish live in the United States and approximately 1500 live in Canada. A 2008 study suggested their numbers have increased to 227,000, and in 2010 a study suggested their population had grown by 10% in the past two years to 249,000, with increasing movement to the West.
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Ammon Hennacy
Ammon Ashford Hennacy (July 24, 1893 – January 14, 1970) was an Irish American pacifist, Christian anarchist, social activist, member of the Catholic Worker Movement and a Wobbly. He established the "Joe Hill House of Hospitality" in Salt Lake City, Utah and practiced tax resistance.
Hennacy was born in Negley, Ohio to Quaker parents, Benjamin Frankin Hennacy and Eliza Eunice Fitz Randolph, and grew up as a Baptist. On hearing Billy Sunday preach in 1909 he became an atheist and shortly afterward became a socialist and an IWW member.[citation needed] He studied at three different institutions, (a year at each one): Hiram College in Ohio in 1913, University of Wisconsin–Madison in 1914, and The Ohio State University in 1915. During this time Hennacy was a card-carrying member of the Socialist Party of America and in his words "took military drills in order to learn how to kill capitalists." At the outbreak of World War I Hennacy was imprisoned for two years in Atlanta, Georgia for resisting conscription. While in prison the only book he was allowed was the Bible. This inspired him to radically depart from his earlier beliefs; he became a Christian pacifist and a self-proclaimed "Christian anarchist". He led a hunger strike and was punished with eight months in solitary confinement. Hennacy believed that adherence to Christianity required being a pacifist and, because governments constantly threaten or use force to resolve conflicts, this meant being an anarchist.
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Amparo Poch y Gascón
Amparo Poch y Gascón was a Spanish anarchist, doctor, and activist in the years leading up to and during the Spanish Civil War, was one of the founding members of the Mujeres Libres and was appointed director of social assistance at the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance by Federica Montseny. She was responsible for organizing the Mujeres Libres in Barcelona and used her government position to promote the establishment of liberatorios de prostitución (liberation homes for prostitutes, where prostitutes could receive health care, psychotherapy and professional training to enable them to acquire economic independence through socially acceptable means).
She worked to promote awareness about women's sexuality and advocated for sexual freedom and against monogamy and the sexual double standard. Unlike her co-founders in the Mujeres Libres, Lucía Sánchez Saornil and Mercedes Comaposada, she had been a member of the reformist treintista CNT before the war. She held a more essentialist view of women's nature, appealing to women as mothers and embracing motherhood as a natural, feminine state. She wrote extensively on the topic of motherhood, promoting an anarchist approach to child rearing.
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Arun Manilal Gandhi
Arun Manilal Gandhi (born April 14, 1934) is the fifth grandson of Mohandas Gandhi through his second son Manilal. Following the footsteps of his grandfather, he is also a socio-political activist, although he eschews the ascetic lifestyle of his grandfather.
Born in Durban, South Africa on April 14, 1934 to Sushila and Manilal Gandhi, Arun's childhood days under South Africa's apartheid for someone of Indian heritage was difficult. Like many Indians, he was demeaned by Europeans for not being white, ostracized by Africans for not being black, and subject to racially motivated violence from extremists in both groups.
While living with his grandfather Mahatma Gandhi from 1946 until his assassination in 1948, Arun experienced the most tumultuous period in India's struggle to free itself from British rule. He saw the first-hand effects of a national campaign for liberation which was carried out through both violent and nonviolent means. Both the events and Mahatma Gandhi's teachings strongly influenced Arun.
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Ashoka
Ashoka (Devanāgarī: अशोक, IAST: Aśoka, IPA: [aˈɕoːkə], ca. 304–232 BC), also known as Ashoka the Great, was an Indian emperor of the Maurya Dynasty who ruled almost all of the Indian subcontinent from ca. 269 BC to 232 BC. One of India's greatest emperors, Ashoka reigned over most of present-day India after a number of military conquests. His empire stretched from present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan in the west, to the present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of Assam in the east, and as far south as northern Kerala and Andhra Pradesh. He conquered the kingdom named Kalinga, which none of his ancestors had conquered starting from Chandragupta Maurya. His reign was headquartered in Magadha (present-day Bihar). He embraced Buddhism after witnessing the mass deaths of the Kalinga War, which he himself had waged out of a desire for conquest. He was later dedicated to the propagation of Buddhism across Asia and established monuments marking several significant sites in the life of Gautama Buddha. Ashoka was a devotee of ahimsa (nonviolence), love, truth, tolerance and vegetarianism. Ashoka is remembered in history as a philanthropic administrator. In the history of India, Ashoka is referred to as Samraat Chakravartin Ashoka – the "Emperor of Emperors Ashoka".
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Aung San Suu Kyi
Aung San Suu Kyi MP AC (Burmese:
; MLCTS: aung hcan: cu. krany, IPA: [ʔàʊɴ sʰáɴ sṵ tɕì]; born 19 June 1945) is a Burmese opposition politician and General Secretary of the National League for Democracy (NLD) in Burma. In the 1990 general election, the NLD won 59% of the national votes and 81% (392 of 485) of the seats in Parliament. She had, however, already been detained under house arrest before the elections. She remained under house arrest in Burma for almost 15 of the 21 years from 20 July 1989 until her most recent release on 13 November 2010, becoming one of the world's most prominent (now former) political prisoners.
Suu Kyi received the Rafto Prize and the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought in 1990 and the Nobel Peace Prize in 1991. In 1992 she was awarded the Jawaharlal Nehru Award for International Understanding by the government of India and the International Simón Bolívar Prize from the government of Venezuela. In 2007, the Government of Canada made her an honorary citizen of that country; at the time, she was one of only four people ever to receive the honor. In 2011, she was awarded the Wallenberg Medal.
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Benito Mussolini
Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (Italian pronunciation: [beˈniːto musːoˈliːni]; 29 July 1883 – 28 April 1945) was an Italian politician who led the National Fascist Party, ruling the country from 1922 to his ousting in 1943, and is credited with being one of the key figures in the creation of fascism.
Originally a member of the Italian Socialist Party and editor of the Avanti! from 1912 to 1914, Mussolini fought in World War I as an ardent nationalist and created the Fasci di Combattimento in 1919, catalyzing his nationalist and socialist beliefs in the Fascist Manifesto, published in 1921. Following the March on Rome in October 1922 he became the 27th Prime Minister of Italy and began using the title Il Duce by 1925, about which time he had established dictatorial authority by both legal and extraordinary means, aspiring to create a totalitarian state. After 1936, his official title was Sua Eccellenza Benito Mussolini, Capo del Governo, Duce del Fascismo e Fondatore dell'Impero ("His Excellency Benito Mussolini, Head of Government, Duce of Fascism, and Founder of the Empire") Mussolini also created and held the supreme military rank of First Marshal of the Empire along with King Victor Emmanuel III, which gave him and the King joint supreme control over the military of Italy. Mussolini remained in power until he was replaced in 1943; for a short period after this until his death, he was the leader of the Italian Social Republic.
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Benjamin Spock
Benjamin McLane Spock (May 2, 1903 – March 15, 1998) was an American pediatrician whose book Baby and Child Care, published in 1946, is one of the biggest best-sellers of all time. Throughout its first 52-years, Baby and Child Care was the second-best-selling book, next to the Bible. Its message to mothers is that "you know more than you think you do."
Spock was the first pediatrician to study psychoanalysis to try to understand children's needs and family dynamics. His ideas about childcare influenced several generations of parents to be more flexible and affectionate with their children, and to treat them as individuals. In addition to his pediatric work, Spock was an activist in the New Left and anti Vietnam War movements during the 1960s and early 1970s. At the time his books were criticized by Vietnam War supporters for allegedly propagating permissiveness and an expectation of instant gratifications that led young people to join these movements, a charge Spock denied. Spock also won an Olympic gold medal in rowing in 1924 while attending Yale University.
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Bernard Bolzano
Bernhard Placidus Johann Nepomuk Bolzano ((1781-10-05)October 5, 1781 – December 18, 1848), Bernard Bolzano in English, was a Bohemian mathematician, logician, philosopher, theologian, Catholic priest and antimilitarist of German mother tongue.
Bolzano was the son of two pious Catholics. His father, Bernard Pompeius Bolzano, was born in northern Italy and moved to Prague, where he married Maria Cecilia Maurer, the (German-speaking) daughter of a Prague merchant. Only two of their twelve children lived to adulthood.
Bolzano entered the University of Prague in 1796 and studied mathematics, philosophy and physics. Starting in 1800, he also began studying theology, becoming a Catholic priest in 1804. He was appointed to the then newly created chair of philosophy of religion in 1805. He proved to be a popular lecturer not just in religion but also in philosophy, and was elected head of the philosophy department in 1818. Bolzano alienated many faculty and church leaders with his teachings of the social waste of militarism and the needlessness of war. He urged a total reform of the educational, social, and economic systems that would direct the nation's interests toward peace rather than toward armed conflict between nations. Upon his refusal to recant his beliefs, Bolzano was dismissed from the university in 1819. His political convictions (which he was inclined to share with others with some frequency) eventually proved to be too liberal for the Austrian authorities. He was exiled to the countryside and at that point devoted his energies to his writings on social, religious, philosophical, and mathematical matters. Although forbidden to publish in mainstream journals as a condition of his exile, Bolzano continued to develop his ideas and publish them either on his own or in obscure Eastern European journals. In 1842 he moved back to Prague, where he died in 1848.
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Bertha von Suttner
Bertha Felicitas Sophie Freifrau von Suttner (Baroness Bertha von Suttner, Gräfin (Countess) Kinsky von Wchinitz und Tettau; 9 June 1843 – 21 June 1914) was an Austrian novelist, radical (organizational) pacifist, and the first woman to be a Nobel Peace Prize laureate.
Suttner was born in Prague, Bohemia, the daughter of an impoverished Austrian Field Marshal, Franz-Josef Graf Kinsky von Wchinitz und Tettau, and wife Sophie von Körner, and governess to the wealthy Suttner family from 1873. She had an older brother, Arthur Franz Graf Kinsky von Wchinitz und Tettau. She became engaged to engineer and novelist Arthur Gundaccar Freiherr von Suttner (who died on 10 December 1902), but his family opposed the match, and she answered an advertisement from Alfred Nobel in 1876 to become his secretary-housekeeper at his Paris residence. She only remained a week before returning to Vienna and secretly marrying Arthur on 12 June 1876.
Suttner became a leading figure in the peace movement with the publication of her novel, Die Waffen nieder! ("Lay Down Your Arms!") in 1889 and founded an Austrian pacifist organization in 1891. She gained international repute as editor of the international pacifist journal Die Waffen nieder!, named after her book, from 1892 to 1899. Her pacifism was influenced by the writings of Immanuel Kant, Henry Thomas Buckle, Herbert Spencer, Charles Darwin and Leo Tolstoy (Tolstoy praised Die Waffen nieder!). Suttner was also a journalist, with one historian stating her work revealed her as "a most perceptive and adept political commentator". Though her personal contact with Alfred Nobel had been brief, she corresponded with him until his death in 1896, and it is believed that she was a major influence in his decision to include a peace prize among those prizes provided in his will, which she won in 1905.
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Bertrand Russell
Bertrand Arthur William Russell, 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970) was a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. At various points in his life he considered himself a liberal, a socialist, and a pacifist, but he also admitted that he had never been any of these in any profound sense. He was born in Monmouthshire, into one of the most prominent aristocratic families in Britain.
Russell led the British "revolt against idealism" in the early 20th century. He is considered one of the founders of analytic philosophy along with his predecessor Gottlob Frege and his friend Ludwig Wittgenstein, and is widely held to be one of the 20th century's premier logicians. He co-authored, with A. N. Whitehead, Principia Mathematica, an attempt to ground mathematics on logic. His philosophical essay "On Denoting" has been considered a "paradigm of philosophy." His work has had a considerable influence on logic, mathematics, set theory, linguistics, computer science (see type theory and type system), and philosophy, especially philosophy of language, epistemology, and metaphysics.
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Boardman Robinson
Boardman Robinson (1876–1952) was a Canadian-American artist, illustrator and cartoonist.
Boardman Robinson was born September 6, 1876 in Nova Scotia, Canada. He spent his childhood in England and Canada, before coming to Boston in the first half of the 1890s. Robinson worked his way through normal school, following a program to learn mechanical drafting.
Robinson first studied art at the Massachusetts College of Art in Boston. He would later go on to study at the Académie Colarossi and the École des Beaux-Arts, both in Paris, where he was influenced by the political cartooning of Honoré Daumier, as well as Forain and Steinlen.
In 1903, Robinson married Sarah Senter Whitney. The couple moved to Paris where Robinson briefly worked as art editor for Vogue, before returning to the United States in 1904.
Upon returning to the United States, Robinson worked as an illustrator, drawing cartoons and theater illustrations for the New York Morning Telegraph. He freelanced for a wide range of other popular publications, including Pearson's magazine, Scribner's Magazine, Collier's, Harper's Weekly, and others.
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Brian Orend
Brian Orend is the Director of International Studies and a professor of Philosophy at the University of Waterloo in Waterloo, Ontario.
Orend's works focus on just war theory and human rights. He is most well known for his discussions of jus post bellum (justice after war), which deals with the termination phase of war.
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Carl von Ossietzky
Carl von Ossietzky (3 October 1889 – 4 May 1938) was a German pacifist and the recipient of the 1935 Nobel Peace Prize. He was convicted of high treason and espionage in 1931 after publishing details of Germany's alleged violation of the Treaty of Versailles by rebuilding an air force, the predecessor of the Luftwaffe, and training pilots in the Soviet Union. In 1990 his daughter, Rosalinde von Ossietzky-Palm, called for a resumption of proceedings, but the verdict was upheld by the Federal Court of Justice in 1992.[citation needed]
Ossietzky was born in Hamburg, the son of Carl Ignatius von Ossietzky (1848–1891), a Protestant from Upper Silesia, and Rosalie (née Pratzka), a devout Catholic who wished for Carl to become a monk. His father worked as a stenographer in the office of a lawyer and senator, but died when Carl was two years old. Ossietzky was baptized in the Catholic Church Kleine Michel in Hamburg on 10 November 1889, and confirmed in the Lutheran Hauptkirche St. Michaelis on 23 March 1904.
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Clement Attlee
Clement Richard Attlee, 1st Earl Attlee, KG, OM, CH, PC, FRS (3 January 1883 – 8 October 1967) was a British Labour politician who served as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1945 to 1951, and as the Leader of the Labour Party from 1935 to 1955. He was also the first person to hold the office of Deputy Prime Minister, under Winston Churchill in the wartime coalition government, before leading the Labour Party to a landslide election victory over Churchill's Conservative Party in 1945. He was the first Labour Prime Minister to serve a full Parliamentary term, and the first to command a Labour majority in Parliament.
The government he led put in place the post-war settlement, based upon the assumption that full employment would be maintained by Keynesian policies, and that a greatly enlarged system of social services would be created – aspirations that had been outlined in the wartime Beveridge Report. Within this context, his government undertook the nationalisation of major industries and public utilities as well as the creation of the National Health Service. After initial Conservative opposition to Keynesian fiscal policy, this settlement was broadly accepted by all parties until Margaret Thatcher became Prime Minister in 1979.
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Coretta Scott King
Coretta Scott King (April 27, 1927 – January 30, 2006) was an American author, activist, and civil rights leader. The widow of Martin Luther King, Jr., Coretta Scott King helped lead the African-American Civil Rights Movement in the 1960s.
Mrs. King's most prominent role may have been in the years after her husband's 1968 assassination when she took on the leadership of the struggle for racial equality herself and became active in the Women's Movement.
Coretta Scott King was the third of four children born to Obadiah "Obe" Scott (1899–1998) and Bernice McMurray Scott (1904–1996) in Marion, Alabama. She had an older sister named Edythe Scott Bagley (1924–2011) an older sister named Eunice who did not survive childhood, and a younger brother named Obadiah Leonard, born in 1930. The Scott family had owned a farm since the American Civil War, but were not particularly wealthy. During the Great Depression the Scott children picked cotton to help earn money. Obe was the first black person in their neighborhood to own a truck. He had a barber shop in their home. He also owned a lumber mill, which was burned down by white neighbors.
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Dada Dharmadhikari
Shankar Trimbak Dharmadhikari (June 18, 1899 – December 1, 1985), better known throughout the world as Acharya Dada Dharmadhikari was an Indian freedom fighter, and a leader of social reform movements in India. He was one of the strongest adherents of Mahatma Gandhi's principles.
Born on June 18, 1899 at Multapi, district Baitul, Madhya Pradesh, Dada's family was known for its learning and scholarship as also for the study of Vedanta. His father Shri T. D. Dharmadhikari was a district and sessions judge, highly-regarded for his integrity and professional acumen.
Dada studied at the Indore Christian College and later at Morris College in Nagpur. But left his studies half way to join the freedom struggle under Mahatma Gandhi. He however spent a year in studying Vedantic works of Adi Shankaracharya.
He married his wife, Damayantibai, early in life and she was his companion in the Quit India movement and in jail too. She was his partner in his work, and shared his beliefs and lifestyle.
Dada's life-long passions were human relationship, enlightenment of youth, women and total transformation of society. He lectured every section of society in Gandhian concepts of truth, love, nonviolence, trusteeship. Jaya Prakash Narayan saw him as the most outstanding commentator, crusader of his vision of revolution.
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David Low Dodge
David Low Dodge (June 14, 1774 - April 23, 1852) helped to establish the New York Peace Society and was a founder of the New York Bible Society and the New York Tract Society.
David Low Dodge was born in Brooklyn, Connecticut on June 14, 1774. His parents were David Earl Dodge and Mary Stuart. David Dodge was of English and Welsh colonial stock. His mother is said to have been the daughter of a Scottish nobleman. From the age of seven to fourteen, except two months of district school in winter, he was working on a farm in Hampton, Connecticut.
He was a teacher at the age of nineteen, first in community schools then in private ones. He later began selling dry goods in Hartford, Connecticut. He also managed the first cotton factory built in Connecticut, near the town of Norwich. In the early 19th century he relocated to New York City.
On June 7, 1798, he married Sarah, the daughter of Rev. Aaron Cleveland. He was the father of William E. Dodge and Elizabeth Clementine Stedman and great-grandfather of Grace Hoadley Dodge.
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Desiderius Erasmus
Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus (October 28, 1466? – July 12, 1536), known as Erasmus of Rotterdam, was a Dutch Renaissance humanist, Catholic priest, social critic, teacher, and theologian.
Erasmus was a classical scholar who wrote in a pure Latin style. He was an early proponent of religious toleration, and enjoyed the sobriquet "Prince of the Humanists"; he has been called "the crowning glory of the Christian humanists." Using humanist techniques for working on texts, he prepared important new Latin and Greek editions of the New Testament. These raised questions that would be influential in the Protestant Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation. He also wrote The Praise of Folly, Handbook of a Christian Knight, On Civility in Children, Copia: Foundations of the Abundant Style, Julius Exclusus, and many other works.
Erasmus lived through the Reformation period, but while he was critical of the Church, he did not join the cause of the Reformers. In relation to clerical abuses in the Church, Erasmus remained committed to reforming the Church from within. He also held to Catholic doctrines such as that of free will, which some Reformers rejected in favor of the doctrine of predestination. His middle road approach disappointed and even angered scholars in both camps.
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Desmond Tutu
Desmond Mpilo Tutu (born 7 October 1931) is a South African activist and retired Anglican bishop who rose to worldwide fame during the 1980s as an opponent of apartheid. He was the first black South African Archbishop of Cape Town, South Africa, and primate of the Church of the Province of Southern Africa (now the Anglican Church of Southern Africa).
Tutu has been active in the defense of human rights and uses his high profile to campaign for the oppressed. He has campaigned to fight AIDS, tuberculosis, poverty, racism, sexism, homophobia, and transphobia. Tutu received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984; the Albert Schweitzer Prize for Humanitarianism in 1986; the Pacem in Terris Award in 1987; the Sydney Peace Prize in 1999; the Gandhi Peace Prize in 2005; and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2009. Tutu has also compiled several books of his speeches and sayings.
Desmond Mpilo Tutu was born in Klerksdorp, Transvaal, the second of the three children of Zacheriah Zililo Tutu and his wife, Aletta, and the only son. Tutu's family moved to Johannesburg when he was twelve. His father was a teacher and his mother was a cleaner and cook at a school for the blind. Here he met Trevor Huddleston who was a parish priest in the black slum of Sophiatown. "One day," said Tutu, "I was standing in the street with my mother when a white man in a priest's clothing walked past. As he passed us he took off his hat to my mother. I couldn't believe my eyes – a white man who greeted a black working class woman!"
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Devdas Gandhi
Devdas Gandhi (Hindi: देवदास गाँधी) (1900–1957) was the fourth and youngest son of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He was born in South Africa on the 2.October and returned to India with his parents as a young man. He became active in his father's movement, spending many terms in jail. He spent a lot of time with his father. He also became a prominent journalist, serving as editor of Hindustan Times.
Devdas fell in love with Lakshmi, the daughter of Rajaji, Devdas's father's associate in the Indian independence struggle. Due to Lakshmi's age at that time – she was only fifteen, whereas Devdas was twenty eight years – both Devdas's father and Rajaji asked the couple to wait for five years without seeing each other. After five years had passed, they were married with their fathers' permissions in 1933. Devdas and Lakshmi had four children, Rajmohan Gandhi, Gopalkrishna Gandhi, Ramchandra Gandhi and Tara (Bhattacharya).
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Dorothy Day
Dorothy Day, Obl.S.B., (8 November 1897 – 29 November 1980) was an American journalist, social activist and devout Catholic convert; she advocated the Catholic economic theory of Distributism. She was also considered to be an anarchist, and did not hesitate to use the term. In the 1930s, Day worked closely with fellow activist Peter Maurin to establish the Catholic Worker movement, a nonviolent, pacifist movement that continues to combine direct aid for the poor and homeless with nonviolent direct action on their behalf.
The cause for Day's canonization is open in the Catholic Church.
Dorothy Day was born in the Brooklyn Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn, New York, and raised in San Francisco and Chicago. She was born into a family described by one biographer as "solid, patriotic, and middle class". Her father, John Day, was a Tennessee native of Scotch-Irish heritage, while her mother, Grace Satterlee, a native of upstate New York, was of English ancestry. Her parents were married in an Episcopalian church located in Greenwich Village, a neighborhood where Day would spend much of her young adulthood.
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Ernest Bevin
Ernest Bevin (9 March 1881 – 14 April 1951) was a British trade union leader and Labour politician. He co-founded and served as general secretary of the powerful Transport and General Workers' Union from 1922 to 1940, as Minister of Labour in the war-time coalition government, and as Foreign Secretary in the post-war Labour Government he supported the creation of NATO.
Bevin was born in the village of Winsford in Somerset, England, to Diana Bevin who, since 1877, had described herself as a widow. His father is unknown. After his mother's death in 1889, the young Bevin lived with his half-sister's family, moving to Morchard Bishop in Devon. He had little formal education, having briefly attended two village schools and then Hayward's School, Crediton, starting in 1890 and leaving in 1892. He later recalled being asked as a child to read the newspaper aloud for the benefit of adults in his family who were illiterate. At the age of eleven, he went to work as a labourer, then as a lorry driver in Bristol, where he joined the Bristol Socialist Society. In 1910 he became secretary of the Bristol branch of the Dockers' Union, and in 1914 he became a national organiser for the union.
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Ervin László
Ervin László (born 12 May 1932 in Budapest, Hungary) is a Hungarian philosopher of science, systems theorist, integral theorist, originally a classical pianist. He has published about 75 books and over 400 papers, and is editor of World Futures: The Journal of General Evolution. He underscores the importance of developing a holistic perspective on the world and man, an outlook he refers to as "quantum consciousness". In addition to his many writings, Laszlo has also recorded several piano concertos.
László, son of a shoe manufacturer and a mother who played the piano, started playing the piano when he was five years old, and gave his first piano concert with the Budapest Symphony Orchestra at the age of nine. At the end of the war he came to the United States.
László married Carita Jägerhorn af Spurila 16 November 1956. One of their two sons is Alexander Laszlo.
In 1984, he was co-founder with Béla H. Bánáthy, Riane Eisler, John Corliss, Francisco Varela, Vilmos Csanyi, Gyorgy Kampis, David Loye, Jonathan Schull and Eric Chaisson of the initially secret General Evolutionary Research Group. Meeting behind the Iron Curtain, the group of scientists and thinkers from a variety of disciplines met in secret. Given the mounting threat to the human species caused by rapid proliferation of nuclear weapons and potential overkill, their goal was to explore whether it might be possible to use the chaos theory to identify a new general theory of evolution that might serve as a path to a better world.
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Franz Jägerstätter
Blessed Franz Jägerstätter, O.F.S., (in English also spelt Jaegerstaetter) (May 20, 1907 — 9 August 1943) (born as Franz Huber) was an Austrian conscientious objector during World War II. Jägerstätter was sentenced to death and executed. He was later declared a martyr and beatified by the Catholic Church.
Jägerstätter was born in Sankt Radegund, Upper Austria, a small village between Salzburg and Braunau am Inn. He was the illegitimate child of Rosalia Huber, a chambermaid, and Franz Bachmeier, a farmer. He was first cared for by his paternal grandmother, Elisabeth Huber. Franz's natural father was killed in World War I when he was still a child, and when his mother married in 1917, Franz was adopted by her husband, Heinrich Jägerstätter.
In his youth, Franz gained a reputation for being a wild fellow, but, in general, his daily life was like that of most Austrian peasants. He worked as a farmhand and also as a miner, until in 1933 he inherited the farmstead of his foster father. In that same year, he fathered an out-of-wedlock daughter, Hildegard Auer. On Maundy Thursday of 1936, he married Franziska Schwaninger, a deeply religious woman. After the ceremony, the bridal couple proceeded on a pilgrimage to Rome. The marriage produced three daughters.
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Gene Sharp
Gene Sharp (born January 21, 1928) is Professor Emeritus of political science at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth. He is known for his extensive writings on nonviolent struggle, which have influenced numerous anti-government resistance movements around the world.
Sharp was born in North Baltimore, Ohio, the son of an itinerant Protestant minister. He received a Bachelor of Arts in Social Sciences in 1949 from Ohio State University, where he also received his Master of Arts in Sociology in 1951. In 1953-54, Sharp was jailed for nine months after protesting the conscription of soldiers for the Korean War. In 1968, he received a Doctor of Philosophy in political theory from Oxford University.
Sharp has been a professor of political science at the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth since 1972. He simultaneously held research appointments at Harvard University’s Center for International Affairs since 1965. In 1983 he founded the Albert Einstein Institution, a non-profit organization devoted to studies and promotion of the use of nonviolent action in conflicts worldwide.
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George Bellows
George Wesley Bellows (August 12 or August 19, 1882 - January 8, 1925) was an American realist painter, known for his bold depictions of urban life in New York City, becoming, according to the Columbus Museum of Art, "the most acclaimed American artist of his generation".
George Bellows was born and raised in Columbus, Ohio. He was an only child, born four years after his parents married, at the ages of fifty and forty respectively. His mother, Anna Wilhelmina Smith, was the daughter of a whaling captain.
Bellows attended The Ohio State University from 1901 until 1904. There he played for the baseball and basketball teams, and provided illustrations for the Makio, the school's student yearbook. He was encouraged to become a professional baseball player, and he worked as a commercial illustrator while a student and he continued to accept magazine assignments throughout his life. Despite these opportunities in athletics and commercial art, Bellows desired success as a painter. He left Ohio State in 1904 just before he was to graduate and moved to New York City to study art.
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George Lansbury
George Lansbury (21 February 1859 – 7 May 1940) was a British politician, socialist, Christian pacifist and newspaper editor. He was a Member of Parliament (MP) from 1910 to 1912 and from 1922 to 1940, and leader of the Labour Party from 1932 to 1935.
He was a campaigner for social justice and improved living and employment conditions for the working class, especially in London's East End.
His earliest political involvement was with the Liberal Party, which he joined in 1886. He acted as electoral agent for Samuel Montagu in Whitechapel at the General Election of 1886, and for Jane Cobden, who stood for election to the London County Council as a Liberal candidate in 1889. That year Lansbury took up the issue of pressing for a legal eight-hour day, but after failing to secure the support of the National Liberal Federation at their 1889 conference he became increasingly disillusioned by the Liberals. He came into contact with the Social Democratic Federation and, in support of the famous 1889 Dock Strike, joined the recently formed Gas Workers' and General Labourers' Union.
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Gerhard Schröder
Gerhard Fritz Kurt Schröder (commonly rendered Schroeder)([ˈɡɛɐ̯haɐ̯t fʁɪts kʊʁt ˈʃʁøːdɐ] ( listen); born 7 April 1944) is a German politician, and was Chancellor of Germany from 1998 to 2005. A member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), he led a coalition government of the SPD and the Greens. Before becoming a full-time politician, he was a lawyer, and before becoming Chancellor he served as Premier of Lower Saxony (1990–1998). Following the 2005 federal election, which his party lost, after three weeks of negotiations he stood down as Chancellor in favour of Angela Merkel of the rival Christian Democratic Union. He is currently the chairman of the board of Nord Stream AG, after having been hired as a global manager by investment bank Rothschild.
Schröder was born in Mossenberg, today an outlying centre of Blomberg, in what is now North Rhine-Westphalia. His father, Fritz Schröder, a lance corporal in the Wehrmacht, was killed in action in World War II in Romania on 4 October 1944, a few months after Gerhard's birth. His mother Erika worked as an agricultural laborer so that she could support herself and her two sons.
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Gopalkrishna Gandhi
Gopalkrishna Gandhi (Bengali: গোপালকৃষ্ণ গান্ধী Gopalkrishno Gandhi; born April 22, 1945) was the Governor of West Bengal serving from 2004 to 2009. He is the grandson of Mahatma Gandhi, and son of Devadas Gandhi and Lakshmi Gandhi. His maternal grandfather was C. Rajagopalachari (Rajaji). Gopalkrishna Gandhi is the younger brother of Rajmohan Gandhi, and the late Ramchandra Gandhi, and Smt. Tara Bhattacharjee (Gandhi), all of whom are distinguished in their own right.
As a former member of the Indian Administrative Service, he served as Secretary to the President of India and as High Commissioner to South Africa and Sri Lanka, among other administrative and diplomatic posts.
Gandhi graduated with a master's degree in Literature from St. Stephen's College of Delhi University. He has authored one novel (Saranam - "Refuge" in English) and a play in verse (Dara Shukoh).His other books are - "Gandhi and South Africa", "Koi Acchha Sa Ladka" (translation into Hindustani of Vikram Seth's novel 'A Suitable Boy'), "Gandhi and Sri Lanka", "Nehru and Sri Lanka", "India House, Colombo - Portrait of a Residence", "Gandhi Is Gone. Who Will Guide Us Now?" (edited), "A Frank Friendship/ Gandhi and Bengal: A Descriptive Chronology" (compiled and edited).
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Gordon Zahn
Gordon Zahn (born Gordon Charles Paul Roach 7 August 1918 in Milwaukee, Wisconsin – 9 December 2007 in Wauwatosa, Wisconsin) was an American sociologist, pacifist, professor, and author.
Born out of wedlock, Zahn took his stepfather's last name. During World War II, he was a conscientious objector, and served in a Civilian Public Service camp established by the Catholic Worker Movement. Zahn later transferred to Rosewood State Training School in Maryland, a school for the developmentally disabled. He worked there as a conscientious objector until April, 1946. His experiences at Rosewood were published in the Catholic Worker in the July and October 1946 issues, as a continuation of his attempt to reform Rosewood.
Gallagher describes Zahn's career in detail. In 1946 Zahn and a friend went to Saint John's University in Collegeville, Minnesota. There they met Eugene McCarthy, who hired them when he became a U.S. Senator. Zahn got a PhD from The Catholic University of America and then a job at Loyola University Chicago. According to Gallagher, Cardinal Bea pressured Loyola and a German publisher to stop Zahn's book German Catholics and Hitler's Wars, but it did not work. Zahn was later hired away by the University of Massachusetts.
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Harilal Gandhi
Harilal Mohandas Gandhi (Devanagari: हरीलाल गांधी), (1888 – 18 June 1948) was the first son of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.
Harilal for higher studies and hoped to become a barrister as his father had once been. His father firmly opposed this, believing that a Western-style education would not be helpful in the struggle against British rule over India. Eventually rebelling against his father's decision, in 1911 Harilal renounced all family ties.
He converted to Islam but later reverted back to Hinduism. That did not bother his father, who believed that all religions were to be respected. His mother felt he should not be publicly displaying this back-and-forth type of behavior.
Harilal was married to Gulab Gandhi. They had five children, two of whom died at an early age. Nilam Parikh, the daughter of Ramibehn, who was the eldest of Harilal's children has written a biography on him, titled Gandhiji's Lost Jewel: Harilal Gandhi.
He appeared at his father's funeral in such derelict condition that few recognized him. He died from liver disease on 18 June 1948 in a municipal hospital in Bombay, Union of India.
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Hegetorides
Hegetorides was a citizen of the Greek island of Thasos during the Peloponnesian War between Athens and Sparta (431-404 BC), mentioned by the 2nd century historian Polyaenus.Lemprière's Classical Dictionary claims that when Hegetorides saw that his city was besieged by Athenian forces and that there was a law declaring death to anyone who spoke of peace, he went into the agora with a rope tied around his neck. He told his fellow citizens to do whatever they wished with him, provided that they saved the city from the starvation and death that the continued war promised. The Thasians were shocked from their determination, sued for peace, and pardoned Hegetorides.
The main classical authority on the Peloponnesian War, Thucydides, does not mention Hegetorides at all, and appears to mention Thasos itself only once, in the context of Galepsus, a colony of Thasos (Book V of his History of the Pelponnesian War). It is possible that the story of Hegetorides originates prior to the Peloponnesian War, as Thasos revolted from the Athenian alliance around 463 BC and was attacked by Athens. Unfortunately, as respects the legitimacy of the tale, the Thasians do not appear to have sued for peace. When, in 411 BC, Thasos revolted again during the Peloponnesian War, a Spartan governor assumed power on the island, suggesting the Thasians, rather than suing for peace, prevailed over Athens.
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Henri Nouwen
Henri Jozef Machiel Nouwen (Nouen), (Nijkerk, January 24, 1932 – Hilversum, September 21, 1996) was a Dutch-born Catholic priest and writer who authored 40 books about spirituality.
Nouwen's books are still being read today. His books include The Wounded Healer, In the Name of Jesus, Clowning in Rome, The Life of the Beloved and The Way of the Heart. After nearly two decades of teaching at the Menninger Foundation Clinic in Topeka, Kansas, and at the University of Notre Dame, Yale University and Harvard University, he went to work with mentally challenged people at the L'Arche community of Daybreak in Toronto, Canada.
While visiting the community, he saw a photograph of Rembrandt's "The return of the prodigal son", that caused him a deep impression. He decided to see the paintig personally and traveled to San Petersburg (Leningrad at those times) to visit the Hermitage Museum where it is kept. This resulted in a several day contemplation of the painting, and the book of the same name, probably his most famous.
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Henry David Thoreau
Henry David Thoreau (July 12, 1817 – May 6, 1862) was an American author, poet, philosopher, abolitionist, naturalist, tax resister, development critic, surveyor, historian, and leading transcendentalist. He is best known for his book Walden, a reflection upon simple living in natural surroundings, and his essay Civil Disobedience, an argument for individual resistance to civil government in moral opposition to an unjust state.
Thoreau's books, articles, essays, journals, and poetry total over 20 volumes. Among his lasting contributions were his writings on natural history and philosophy, where he anticipated the methods and findings of ecology and environmental history, two sources of modern day environmentalism. His literary style interweaves close natural observation, personal experience, pointed rhetoric, symbolic meanings, and historical lore, while displaying a poetic sensibility, philosophical austerity, and "Yankee" love of practical detail. He was also deeply interested in the idea of survival in the face of hostile elements, historical change, and natural decay; at the same time he advocated abandoning waste and illusion in order to discover life's true essential needs.
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Hermann Göring
Hermann Wilhelm Göring, (or Goering;German pronunciation: [ˈɡøːʁɪŋ] ( listen); 12 January 1893 – 15 October 1946) was a German politician, military leader, and leading member of the Nazi Party (NSDAP). A veteran of World War I as an ace fighter pilot, he was a recipient of the coveted Pour le Mérite, also known as "the Blue Max". He was the last commander of Jagdgeschwader 1, the fighter wing once led by Manfred von Richthofen, "the Red Baron".
A member of the NSDAP from its early days, Göring was wounded in 1923 during the failed coup known as the Beer Hall Putsch. He suffered from a lifelong addiction to morphine after being treated with the drug for his injuries. He founded the Gestapo in 1933. Göring was appointed commander-in-chief of the Luftwaffe (air force) in 1935, a position he held until the final days of World War II. By 1940 he was at the peak of his power and influence; as minister in charge of the Four Year Plan, he was responsible for much of the functioning of the German economy in the build-up to World War II. Adolf Hitler promoted him to the rank of Reichsmarschall, a rank senior to all other Wehrmacht commanders, and in 1941 Hitler designated him as his successor and deputy in all his offices.
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Hermann Kallenbach
Hermann Kallenbach (1871–1945) was a German born Jewish South African architect who was one of the foremost friends and associates of Mahatma Gandhi. Kallenbach was introduced to the young Mohandas Gandhi while they were both working in South Africa and after a series of discussions they developed an intimate and long lasting friendship.
Kallenbach was born in 1871 in East Prussia as the third eldest out of seven children of a German-Jewish family.. His father Kalman Leib Kallenbach was a Hebrew teacher and, later, a timber merchant. Hermann's childhood centered round education, sports and friendships with the village youth and later he studied architecture in Stuttgart and Munich.[citation needed] In 1896, he went to South Africa to join his uncles in Johannesburg, where he practiced as an architect and became a South African citizen. A skilled ice-skater, swimmer, cyclist and gymnast, and a successful architect, Kallenbach acquired considerable property in South Africa.[citation needed] Yet a major transformation in his life took place after he met Mahatma Gandhi.
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Hugh Dalton
Edward Hugh John Neale Dalton, Baron Dalton PC (16 August 1887 – 13 February 1962) was a British Labour Party politician who served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from 1945 to 1947, when he was implicated in a political scandal involving budget leaks.
Born in Neath, in Wales, his father, John Neale Dalton, was chaplain to Queen Victoria and tutor to the future King.
Dalton was educated at Summer Fields School in Summertown, a suburb of Oxford, and then at Eton College, in the small town of Eton in Berkshire, where he was head of his house, but was disappointed not to be elected to "Pop". After leaving school he went up to King's College, Cambridge, where his socialist views, then very rare amongst undergraduates, earned him the nickname "Comrade Hugh". Whilst there, he made three unsuccessful attempts to be elected Secretary of the Cambridge Union.
He went on to study at the London School of Economics and the Middle Temple. During the First World War, he was called up into the Army Service Corps, later transferring to the Royal Artillery. He served as a Lieutenant on the French and Italian Fronts, where he was awarded the Italian decoration, the Medaglia di Bronzo al Valor Militare, in recognition of his 'contempt for danger' during the retreat from Caporetto; he later wrote a memoir of the war called With British Guns in Italy. Following demobilisation, he returned to the LSE and the University of London as a lecturer, where he was awarded a PhD for a thesis on the principles of public finance in 1920.
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Hélder Câmara
Dom Hélder Pessoa Câmara (February 7, 1909, Fortaleza, Ceará, North East Brazil – August 27, 1999 Recife) was Roman Catholic Archbishop of Olinda and Recife.
He was known as the 'Bishop of Corum' and took a clear position with the urban poor.
In 1959 he founded Banco da Providência in Rio de Janeiro, a philanthropic organization that still exists fighting poverty and social injustices.
He is famous for stating, "When I give food to the poor, they call me a saint. When I ask why they are poor, they call me a communist."
Camara's short tract, Spiral of Violence (1971), was written at the time of the Vietnam War. It is distinctive not just for the manner in which it links structural injustice (Level 1 violence) with escalating rebellion (Level 2 violence) and repressive reaction (Level 3 violence), but also for the way in which Camara calls upon the youth of the world to take steps for breaking the spiral to which their elders are often addicted. This book has been out of print for about 20 years (in the UK), but a scanned version is now available on the web at the link given below.
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Immanuel Kant
Immanuel Kant (German pronunciation: [ɪˈmaːnu̯eːl ˈkant]; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher from Königsberg (today Kaliningrad of Russia), who researched, lectured, and wrote on philosophy and anthropology during the Enlightenment at the end of the 18th century. At the time, there were major successes and advances in the sciences (for example, Isaac Newton, Carl Friedrich Gauss, and Robert Boyle) applying reason and logic.
Kant’s major work, the Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft, 1781), aimed to unite reason with experience to move beyond what he took to be failures of traditional philosophy and metaphysics. He hoped to end an age of speculation where objects outside experience were used to support what he saw as futile theories, while opposing the skepticism of thinkers such as Descartes, Berkeley and Hume.
He stated:
Kant proposed a ‘Copernican Revolution’ in reverse, saying that:
Kant published other important works on ethics, religion, law, aesthetics, astronomy, and history. These included the Critique of Practical Reason (Kritik der praktischen Vernunft, 1788) and the Metaphysics of Morals (Die Metaphysik der Sitten, 1797), which dealt with ethics. And the Critique of Judgment (Kritik der Urteilskraft, 1790), which looks at aesthetics and teleology. He aimed to resolve disputes between empirical and rationalist approaches. The former asserted that all knowledge comes through experience; the latter maintained that reason and innate ideas were prior. Kant argued that experience is purely subjective without first being processed by pure reason. He also said that using reason without applying it to experience only leads to theoretical illusions. The free and proper exercise of reason by the individual was both a theme of the Enlightenment, and of Kant's approaches to the various problems of philosophy.
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James Bevel
James L. Bevel (October 19, 1936 – December 19, 2008) was an American minister and leader of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement who, as the Director of Direct Action and Director of Nonviolent Education of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) initiated, strategized, directed, and developed SCLC's three major successes of the era: the 1963 Birmingham Children's Crusade, the 1965 Selma Voting Rights Movement, and the 1966 Chicago Open Housing Movement. James Bevel also called for and initially organized the 1963 March on Washington and initiated and strategized the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches, SCLC's two main public gatherings of the era. For his work in the 1960s he has been referred to as the "Father of Voting Rights", the "Strategist and Architect of the 1960s Civil Rights Movement", and as half of the Bevel/King team that formulated and communicated the actions, issues, and dialogues which created the historical changes of the era.
Prior to his time with SCLC, Bevel worked in the Nashville Student Movement, where he participated in the 1960 Nashville Sit-In movement, directed the 1961 Open Theater Movement, chose the riders for the 1961 Nashville Student Movement continuation of the Freedom Rides, and initiated and directed the Mississippi Voting Rights Movement. Later, in 1967, he took a leave from SCLC to direct the Anti-Vietnam War Movement, and in 1995 co-initiated the Day of Atonement/Million Man March.
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Jan Narveson
Jan Narveson, OC (born 1936) is professor of philosophy emeritus at the University of Waterloo, in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. An anarcho-capitalist and contractarian, Narveson's form of libertarian anarchism is deeply influenced by the thought of Robert Nozick and David Gauthier.
Narveson was born in Erskine, Minnesota, United States. He studied at the University of Chicago where he obtained a B.A. in political science and in philosophy; he then spent a year at the University of Oxford on a traveling fellowship before earning a PhD at Harvard University in 1961. His libertarian views have evolved from dissatisfaction with utilitarianism.[citation needed]
A prolific author, Narveson has written hundreds of essays, reviews and articles for publication. Despite his distinguished academic background, his writing style is often informal and humorous, broadening his potential appeal to the general public. A fierce critic of Marxism, he is also known in the University of Waterloo for taking part in many on-campus debates. In 2002 he published Respecting Persons in Theory and Practice (2002), a collection of his most influential essays spanning the length of his career. His most recent work is You and the State: A Short Introduction to Political Philosophy. Narveson is a long-time member of the Ontario Libertarian Party, and currently sits on its Ethics Committee.
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Jane Addams
Jane Addams (September 6, 1860 – May 21, 1935) was a pioneer settlement worker, founder of Hull House in Chicago, public philosopher, sociologist, author, and leader in woman suffrage and world peace. Beside presidents such as Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wilson, she was the most prominent reformer of the Progressive Era and helped turn the nation to issues of concern to mothers, such as the needs of children, public health, and world peace. She said that if women were to be responsible for cleaning up their communities and making them better places to live, they needed the vote to be effective in doing so. Addams became a role model for middle-class women who volunteered to uplift their communities. She is increasingly recognized as a member of the American pragmatist school of philosophy. In 1931 she became the first American woman to be awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.
Born in Cedarville, Illinois, Jane Addams was the youngest of eight children born into a prosperous northern Illinois family; her father was politically prominent. Three of her siblings died in infancy, and another died at sixteen, leaving only four by the time Addams was age eight. Her mother, Sarah Addams (née Weber), died in childbirth when Jane was two years old.
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Jean Jaurès
Jean Léon Jaurès (French pronunciation: [ʒɑ̃ ʒɔ.ʁɛs]; full name Auguste Marie Joseph Jean Léon Jaurès; 3 September 1859 – 31 July 1914) was a French Socialist leader. Initially an Opportunist Republican, he evolved into one of the first social democrats, becoming the leader, in 1902, of the French Socialist Party, which opposed Jules Guesde's revolutionary Socialist Party of France. The two parties merged in 1905 in the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO). An antimilitarist, Jaurès was assassinated at the outbreak of World War I, and remains one of the main historical figures of the French Left.
The son of an unsuccessful businessman and farmer, Jean Jaurès was born in Castres (Tarn), in a modest French provincial bourgeois family. He was the first cousin once removed of the admiral and senator Benjamin Jaurès, who was named Minister of the Navy and Colonies in 1889, and of the admiral Charles Jaurès. His younger brother, Louis, also became an admiral and a Republican-Socialist deputy.
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Jenny Teichman
Jenny Teichman is an Australian/British philosopher, writing mostly on ethics. She was born in Melbourne, Australia in 1930 and has taught mostly at Murray Edwards College, Cambridge, formerly known as New Hall, where she is now an Emeritus Fellow. She taught for shorter periods in Australia, Canada and the USA.
She has edited two anthologies:
J. Teichman, Review of Aurel Kolnai's Sexual Ethics
J. Teichman, 'Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde' (on Peter Singer)
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Jesus
Jesus ( /ˈdʒiːzəs/; Greek: Ἰησοῦς; 7–2 BC/BCE to 30–36 AD/CE), also referred to as Jesus Christ or simply Christ, is the central figure of Christianity and most Christian denominations venerate him as God the Son incarnated. In Islam, Jesus (in Arabic: عيسى in Islamic usage, commonly transliterated as Isa) is considered one of God's important prophets.
Most modern historians agree that Jesus existed and was a Jewish teacher from Galilee in Roman Judaea, who was baptized by John the Baptist, and was crucified in Jerusalem on the orders of the Roman Prefect, Pontius Pilate. Scholars have offered competing descriptions and portraits of Jesus, which at times share a number of overlapping attributes, such as a rabbi, a charismatic healer, the leader of an apocalyptic movement, a self-described Messiah, a sage and philosopher, or a social reformer who preached of the "Kingdom of God" as a means for personal and egalitarian social transformation. Scholars have correlated the New Testament accounts with non-Christian historical records to arrive at an estimated chronology of Jesus' life.
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Jill Liddington
Jill Liddington (born in Manchester, 1946) is a British writer and academic who specialises in women's history.
She joined the Department of External Studies at Leeds University in 1982 and became a Reader in Gender History, School of Continuing Education, until her transfer to CIGS, where she is currently Honorary Research Fellow.
Liddington stood as a Labour Party candidate in the Sowerby Bridge ward in the Calderdale Council election, 2004 - largely to prevent more BNP councillors being elected.
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John Bellers
John Bellers (1654 – 8 February 1725) was an English educational theorist and Quaker, author of Proposals for Raising a College of Industry of All Useful Trades and Husbandry (1695).
Bellers was born in London, the son of the Quaker Francis Bellers and Mary Read. Unable to attend University or join a profession as a result of his religion, John was undoubtedly educated as an apprentice cloth merchant. He rapidly became active in Meetings and in the Quaker community as a whole, purchasing 10,000 acres (40 km2) of land in Pennsylvania in 1685 for Hugenot refugees for example. William Penn was a close friend. He married a fellow Quaker, Frances Fettiplace, in 1686, and they had six children between 1687 and 1695, although one died shortly after birth. From 1695 to his death in 1725, he was continually involved in writing innovative tracts on social issues, including education, health provision, care for the poor, support for refugees, a plan for a European State, and an argument for the abolition of capital punishment, making him "the first European advocate of the abolition of capital punishment". He became a Fellow of the Royal Society in February, 1719.
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John Howard Yoder
John Howard Yoder (December 29, 1927 – December 30, 1997) was an American Mennonite theologian and ethicist best known for his defense of Christian pacifism. His most influential book is The Politics of Jesus, first published in 1972.
Yoder earned his undergraduate degree from Goshen College where he studied under the influence of Mennonite theologian Harold S. Bender. He completed his Th.D. at the University of Basel, Switzerland, studying under Karl Barth, Oscar Cullman, Walther Eichrodt, and Karl Jaspers. Anecdotally true to form, the night before he was to defend his dissertation on Anabaptism and Reformation in Switzerland, Yoder visited Barth's office to deliver an entirely different document: a thorough critique of Barth's position on war which he had written in the meantime called Karl Barth and the Problem of War.[citation needed]
After World War II, Yoder traveled to Europe to direct relief efforts for the Mennonite Central Committee. Yoder was instrumental in reviving European Mennonites following World War II. Upon returning to the United States, he spent a year working at his father's greenhouse business in Wooster, Ohio.
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John Ruskin
John Ruskin (8 February 1819 – 20 January 1900) was the leading English art critic of the Victorian era, also an art patron, draughtsman, watercolourist, a prominent social thinker and philanthropist. He wrote on subjects ranging from geology to architecture, myth to ornithology, literature to education, and botany to political economy. His writing styles and literary forms were equally varied. Ruskin penned essays and treatises, poetry and lectures, travel guides and manuals, letters and even a fairy tale. The elaborate style that characterised his earliest writing on art was later superseded by a preference for plainer language designed to communicate his ideas more effectively. In all of his writing, he emphasised the connections between nature, art and society. He also made detailed sketches and paintings of rocks, plants, birds, landscapes, and architectural structures and ornamentation.
He was hugely influential in the latter half of the 19th century up to the First World War. After a period of relative decline, his reputation has steadily improved since the 1960s with the publication of numerous academic studies of his work. Today, his ideas and concerns are widely recognised as having anticipated interest in environmentalism, sustainability and craft.
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Joseph Stalin
Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Сталин; born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili, Russian: Иосиф Виссарионович Джугашвили; 18 December 1878 – 5 March 1953) was the Premier of the Soviet Union from 6 May 1941 to 5 March 1953. He was among the Bolshevik revolutionaries who brought about the October Revolution in Russia in 1917 and later held the position of General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union's Central Committee from 1922 until his death in 1953. While the office of the General Secretary was officially elective and not initially regarded as the top position in the Soviet state, Stalin managed to use it to consolidate more and more power in his hands after the death of Vladimir Lenin in 1924 and gradually put down all opposition groups within the Communist Party. This included Leon Trotsky, a socialist theorist and the principal critic of Stalin among the early Soviet leaders, who was exiled from the Soviet Union in 1929. Whereas Trotsky was an exponent of permanent revolution, it was Stalin's concept of socialism in one country that became the primary focus of Soviet politics.
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José Brocca
José Brocca (Professor José Brocca Ramón), 1891–1950, was a pacifist and humanitarian of the Spanish Civil War, who allied himself with the Republicans but sought non-violent ways of resisting fascism.
His parents were Spanish and Italian. He was born in Almería, Andalucia in 1891. His father, originally from Milan, was stationed there as the Italian Consul.
Many people's perception of the Spanish Civil War is one of two monolithic 'sides': a war of democracy against fascism. In fact it was by no means as simple as that, and although it was the Republican cause that was more seriously undermined by internal power struggles, there were many factions and sub-groups within both the main groupings. Almost completely overlooked by mainstream historians, there was also a vigorous element of pacifism, and the work of the Spanish arm of the organisation War Resisters' International (WRI) is almost totally forgotten in popular history and neglected by academics. Similarly, and perhaps inevitably, the history of military assistance, particularly through the International Brigades, is far better documented than the role of people dedicated to non-violence, civilian initiatives and what today we would call non-governmental organisations.
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José Figueres Ferrer
José María Hipólito Figueres Ferrer (25 September 1906 – 8 June 1990), served as President of Costa Rica on three occasions: 1948–1949, 1953–1958, and 1970–1974.
During his first term in office, he abolished the country's army, nationalized its banking sector, and granted women and blacks the right to vote.
Figueres was born on 25 September 1906 in San Ramón in Alajuela province. The locations are significant, according to his best biographer, because his parents came from a world of wide ambition that most Costa Ricans envied, and he was born in a nation that put a high value on his impeccable Spanish background. Figueres was the eldest of the four children of a Catalan doctor and his wife, a teacher, who had recently immigrated from Catalonia to San Ramón in west-central Costa Rica.
Figueres first language was Catalan, as he talked to his parents in this language.
Figueres returned to the country in 1928 and bought a farm in Tarrazú. He named the farm, with a certain degree of foresight, La Lucha sin Fin (the struggle without an end).10
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Kasturba Gandhi
Kastürbā Gāndhi (born Kasturba Makhanji) (Gujarati: કસ્તુરબા ગાંધી, Hindi: कस्तूरबा गाँधी) (11 April 1869 – 22 February 1944) was the wife of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, marrying him in an arranged marriage in 1882.
Born to wealthy businessman Gokuladas Kapadia of Porbandar, Kasturba was arranged to be married to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. Both were thirteen years old at their wedding. When Gandhi left to study in London in 1888, she remained in India to raise their newborn son Harilal. She had three more sons: Manilal (1892), Ramdas (1897), and Devdas (1900).
Working closely with her husband, Kasturba Gandhi became a political activist fighting for civil rights and Indian independence from the British. After Gandhi moved to South Africa to practice law, she traveled to South Africa in 1897 to be with her husband. From 1904 to 1914, she was active in the Phoenix Settlement near Durban. During the 1913 protest against working conditions for Indians in South Africa, Kasturba was arrested and sentenced to three months in a hard labor prison. Later, in India, she sometimes took her husband's place when he was under arrest. In 1915, when Gandhi returned to India to support indigo planters, Kasturba accompanied him. She taught hygiene, discipline, reading and writing.
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Keith Robbins
Professor Keith Gilbert Robbins DLitt FRSE FRHistS FLSW (born 9 April 1940) is a historian and former Vice-Chancellor of the University of Wales, Lampeter. Robbins was educated at Bristol Grammar School, and Magdalen and St Antony’s Colleges, Oxford.
His academic career began in 1963 as Assistant Lecturer in History at the University of York where he subsequently became Lecturer. He moved to the University College of North Wales, Bangor, in 1971, as Professor of History and was later appointed Dean of the Faculty of Arts. In 1980 he moved to the University of Glasgow as Professor of Modern History.
His final academic post was as Vice-Chancellor of the University of Wales, Lampeter, between 1992 until 2003, when he was succeeded by Professor Robert A Pearce. During his time as Vice-Chancellor at Lampeter, he also served as Senior Vice-Chancellor of the federal University of Wales between 1995 and 2001. He was also a Welsh Supernumerary Fellow of Jesus College, Oxford for the academic years 1996/7 and 2002/3.
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Lanza del Vasto
Lanza del Vasto, (Giuseppe Giovanni Luigi Enrico Lanza di Trabia), (September 29, 1901 – January 5, 1981) was a philosopher, poet, artist, catholic and nonviolent activist.
He was born in San Vito dei Normanni, Italy and died in Elche de la Sierra, Spain.
A western disciple of Mohandas K. Gandhi, he worked for inter-religious dialogue, spiritual renewal, ecological activism and nonviolence.
In December 1936, Lanza went to India, joining the movement for Indian independence led by Gandhi. He knew of Gandhi through a book by Romain Rolland. He spent six months with the Mahatma, then in June 1937, went to the source of the Ganges river in the Himalayas, a famous pilgrimage site. There he saw a vision who told him "Go back and found!"
He left then India and went back to Europe. In 1938, he went to Palestine, then in the midst of civil war, to Jerusalem and Bethlehem, "between two lines of tanks".
He came back to Paris at the time when the Second World War started. He wrote some poetry books and in 1943 he published the story of his trip to India, Return to the Source, which became a huge success.
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Leo Tolstoy
Lev Nikolayevich Tolstoy (Russian: Лев Никола́евич Толсто́й, pronounced [lʲev nʲɪkɐˈlaɪvʲɪtɕ tɐlˈstoj] ( listen); known in the Anglosphere as Leo Tolstoy) (September 9, 1828 – November 20, 1910) was a Russian writer who primarily wrote novels and short stories. Later in life, he also wrote plays and essays. His two most famous works, the novels War and Peace and Anna Karenina, are acknowledged as two of the greatest novels of all time and a pinnacle of realist fiction. Many consider Tolstoy to have been one of the world's greatest novelists. Tolstoy is equally known for his complicated and paradoxical persona and for his extreme moralistic and ascetic views, which he adopted after a moral crisis and spiritual awakening in the 1870s, after which he also became noted as a moral thinker and social reformer.
His literal interpretation of the ethical teachings of Jesus, centering on the Sermon on the Mount, caused him in later life to become a fervent Christian anarchist and anarcho-pacifist. His ideas on nonviolent resistance, expressed in such works as The Kingdom of God Is Within You, were to have a profound impact on such pivotal twentieth-century figures as Mohandas Gandhi and Martin Luther King, Jr.
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Linus Pauling
Linus Carl Pauling (February 28, 1901 – August 19, 1994) was an American chemist, biochemist, peace activist, author, and educator. He was one of the most influential chemists in history and ranks among the most important scientists of the 20th century. Pauling was among the first scientists to work in the fields of quantum chemistry and molecular biology.
Pauling is one of only four individuals to have won more than one Nobel Prize. He is one of only two people awarded Nobel Prizes in different fields (the Chemistry and Peace prizes), the other being Marie Curie (the Chemistry and Physics prizes), and the only person awarded two unshared prizes.
Pauling was born in Portland, Oregon, as the first-born child of Herman Henry William Pauling (1876–1910) and Lucy Isabelle "Belle" Darling (1881–1926). He was named "Linus Carl," in honor of Lucy's father, Linus, and Herman's father, Carl. Herman and Lucy – then 23 and 18 years old, respectively – had met at a dinner party in Condon. Six months later, the two were married.
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Mahadev Desai
Mahadev Desai (January 1, 1892 – August 15, 1942) was an Indian independence activist and nationalist writer; he was most famously known for being the personal secretary of Mahatma Gandhi.
Desai was a young lawyer in Ahmedabad when he decided to join Gandhi along with Narhari Parikh, Mohanlal Pandya and Ravi Shankar Vyas, and became his most devoted secretary for 25 years, from 1917 to 1942. The four were the earliest supporters of Gandhi.
Mahadev Desai was arrested with Gandhi during all the nationalist revolts. The chief period of interest is the time Gandhi was incarcerated in the Yeravda Jail near Pune, Maharashtra from 1931 to 1934. Desai wrote most of his important works on Gandhi during this period. He was arrested on the morning of August 9 after Gandhi's call to the British to Quit India and sent to the Aga Khan Palace for imprisonment. On August 15, 1942, Mahadev Desai died of a massive heart-attack at the age of 51.
Gandhi was devastated by Desai's death at a young age. Both Gandhi and his wife Kasturba Gandhi had seen him as their son, and his death was mourned by Gandhi's supporters across the country.
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Mahavira
Mahāvīra (Sanskrit: महावीर "Great Hero", Kannada: ಮಹಾವೀರ Mahāvīra, Malayalam: മഹാവീരൻ Mahāvīran and Tamil: அருகன் Arukaṉ) is the name most commonly used to refer to the Indian sage Vardhamāna (Sanskrit: वर्धमान; traditionally 599–527 BCE) who established what are today considered to be the central tenets of Jainism. According to Jain tradition, he was the 24th and the last Tirthankara. In Tamil, he is referred to as Arukaṉ or Arukadevan. He is also known in texts as Vira or Viraprabhu, Sanmati, Ativira,and Gnatputra. In the Buddhist Pali Canon, he is referred to as Nigantha Nātaputta and Gyatra Putta.
In a place called Kundalagrama (Vaishali district) situated close to Besadha Patti, 27 miles from Patna in modern day Bihar, India, Mahavira was born in a royal family to King Siddartha and Queen Trishala on the 13th day under the rising moon of Chaitra (12 April according to the Gregorian calendar). While still in his mother's womb it is believed he brought wealth and prosperity to the entire kingdom, which is why he was named Vardhaman. An increase of all good things, like the abundant bloom of beautiful flowers, was noticed in the kingdom after his conception. Trishala had a number of auspicious dreams before giving birth to Vardhaman (14 according to the Svetambaras and 16 according to the Digambaras), signs foretelling the advent of a great soul.He found "Nirvana" at the age of 72 in 527 BC near Rajgir, Bihar .Vardhaman's birthday is celebrated as Mahavir Jayanti, the most important religious holiday of Jains around the world.
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Mandaeans
Mandaeism or Mandaeanism (Modern Mandaic: Mandaʻiūtā (מנדעיותא); Arabic: مندائية Mandāʼīyah/Mandāʾiyyah; Persian: مندائیان Mandâ'iyân) is a gnostic religion[citation needed] (Aramaic manda means "knowledge", as does Greek gnosis) with a strongly dualistic worldview.
Its adherents, the Mandaeans, revere Adam, Abel, Seth, Enosh, Noah, Shem, Aram and especially John the Baptist, but reject Jesus of Nazareth and are hostile to Christianity. They are sometimes identified with mentions in the Quran of the Sabian religion, particularly in an Arabian context, but the Sabian religious community is extinct today.
According to most scholars, Mandaeans migrated from the Southern Levant to Mesopotamia in the first centuries CE and are certainly of pre-Arab and pre-Islamic origin. They are Semites and speak a dialect of Eastern Aramaic known as Mandaic. They may well be related to the "Nabateans of Iraq" who were pagan, Aramaic speaking indigenous pre-Arab and pre-Islamic inhabitants of southern Iraq.
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Manilal Gandhi
Manilal Mohandas Gandhi (28 October 1892 – 4 April 1956) was the second of four sons of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi and Kasturba Gandhi. Manilal was born in Rajkot, India. In 1897 Manilal traveled to South Africa for the first time, where he spent time working at the Phoenix Ashram near Durban. After a brief visit to India, in 1917 Manilal returned to South Africa to assist in printing the Indian Opinion a Gujarati-English weekly publication, at Phoenix, Durban. By 1918, Manilal was doing most of the work for the press and took over in 1920 as editor. Like his father, Manilal was also sent to jail several times by the British colonial government after protesting against unjust laws. He remained editor until 1956, the year of his death. Manilal died from a cerebral thrombosis following a stroke.
In 1927, Manilal married Sushila Mashruwala, and had two daughters, Sita (1928) and Ela (1940), and one son, Arun (1934). Arun and Ela are also social-political activists. Uma D. Mesthrie, Manilal's Granddaughter (Sita's daughter), recently published a biography on Manilal.
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Mirabehn
Madeleine Slade (Mirabehn) (November 22, 1892 – July 20, 1982), daughter of the British Rear-Admiral Sir Edmond Slade, was a British woman who left her home in England to live and work with Mohandas Gandhi, the leader of the Indian independence movement. She devoted her life to human development, the advancement of Gandhi's principles and the freedom struggle in India. In doing so, Gandhi gave her the name, Mirabehn, after Meera Bai, the great devotee of Lord Krishna.
Mirabehn during her stay in India once went to Gurukul Kangri to learn Hindi. Thereafter she went to Bhagwat Bhakti Ashram of Rewari established by Swami Parmanand Maharaj in order to be blessed by him. She also wrote to Mahatma Gandhi about her experiences there in Bhagwat Bhakti Ashram.
She was awarded India's second highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan in 1982.
Actress Geraldine James portrayed her in Richard Attenborough's film, Gandhi, which premiered several months after Madeleine Slade's death in 1982.
With Gandhi at Darwen.
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Mirza Ghulam Ahmad
Mīrzā Ghulām Aḥmad (Arabic: ميرزا غلام أحمد; Urdu: مرزا غلام احمد; 13 February 1835 – 26 May 1908 CE, or Shawal 14, 1250 – Rabi' al-thani 24, 1326 AH) was a religious figure from India and the founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community.
He claimed to be the Mujaddid of the fourteenth Islamic century, the Promised Messiah (Second Coming of Christ), and the Mahdi awaited by the Muslims in the end days. He declared that Jesus (Isa) had in fact survived the crucifixion and later died a natural death after having migrated towards Kashmir, and that he had appeared in the spirit and power of Jesus.
He travelled extensively across the subcontinent of India preaching his religious ideas and ideals and won substantial following within his lifetime. He is known to have engaged in numerous debates and dialogues with the Muslim, Christian and Hindu priesthood and leadership. Ghulam Ahmad founded the Ahmadiyya Movement in Islam on 23 March 1889. The mission of the movement, according to him, was the propagation of Islam in its pristine form.
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Mohanlal Pandya
Mohanlal Pandya was an Indian freedom fighter, social reformer and one of the earliest followers of Mahatma Gandhi. Along with fellow Gandhians like Narhari Parikh and Ravi Shankar Vyas, Pandya was a key organizer of nationalist revolts in Gujarat, and a leading figure in the fight against alcoholism, illiteracy, untouchability, and a major proponent of women's freedoms and Gandhian values.
Pandya was a close associate of both Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel during the Indian Independence Movement.
Mohanlal Pandya was nicknamed as Onion Thief'''' (Dungli Chor)'' by Gandhiji because he has harvested onion from the land which was taken away by the British Government.
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Māori people
The Māori (Māori pronunciation: [ˈmaːɔɾi], English: /ˈmaʊəri/) are the indigenous Polynesian people of New Zealand. The Māori originated with settlers from eastern Polynesia, who arrived in New Zealand in several waves of canoe voyages at some time before 1300 CE. Over several centuries in isolation, the Polynesian settlers developed a unique culture that became known as the "Māori", with their own language, a rich mythology, distinctive crafts and performing arts. Early Māori formed tribal groups, based on eastern Polynesian social customs and organisation. Horticulture flourished using plants they introduced, and later a prominent warrior culture emerged.
The arrival of Europeans to New Zealand starting from the 17th century brought enormous change to the Māori way of life. Māori people gradually adopted many aspects of Western society and culture. Initial relations between Māori and Europeans were largely amicable, and with the signing of the Treaty of Waitangi in 1840 the two cultures coexisted as part of a new British colony. Rising tensions over disputed land sales led to conflict in the 1860s. Social upheaval, decades of conflict and epidemics of introduced disease took a devastating toll on the Māori population, which went into a dramatic decline. But by the start of the 20th century the Māori population had begun to recover, and efforts were made to increase their standing in wider New Zealand society. Traditional Māori culture has enjoyed a revival, and a protest movement emerged in the 1960s advocating Māori issues.
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Narhari Parikh
Narhari Parikh was an Indian freedom fighter and social reformer, who was a close associate of Mahatma Gandhi and the chief architect of the Indian Independence Movement in Gujarat.[citation needed]
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Nelson Mandela
Nelson Rolihlahla Mandela (Xhosa pronunciation: [xoˈliːɬaɬa manˈdeːla]; born 18 July 1918) is a South African politician who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999, the first ever to be elected in a fully representative democratic election. Before being elected President, Mandela was a militant anti-apartheid activist, and the leader and co-founder of Umkhonto we Sizwe, the armed wing of the African National Congress (ANC). In 1962 he was arrested and convicted of sabotage and other charges, and sentenced to life imprisonment. Mandela went on to serve 27 years in prison, spending many of these years on Robben Island. Following his release from prison on 11 February 1990, Mandela led his party in the negotiations that led to the establishment of democracy in 1994. As President, he frequently gave priority to reconciliation, while introducing policies aimed at combating poverty and inequality in South Africa.
In South Africa, Mandela is often known as Madiba, his Xhosa clan name; or as tata (Xhosa: father). Mandela has received more than 250 awards over four decades.
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Neville Chamberlain
Arthur Neville Chamberlain FRS (18 March 1869 – 9 November 1940) was a British Conservative politician who served as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from May 1937 to May 1940. Chamberlain is best known for his appeasement foreign policy, and in particular for his signing of the Munich Agreement in 1938, conceding the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia to Germany. When Adolf Hitler continued his aggression by invading Poland, Britain declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939, and Chamberlain led Britain through the first eight months of the Second World War.
After working in business and local government and after a short spell as Director of National Service in 1916 and 1917, Chamberlain followed his father and older half-brother in becoming a Member of Parliament in the 1918 general election at age 49. He declined a junior ministerial position, remaining a backbencher until 1922. He was rapidly promoted in 1923 to Minister of Health and then Chancellor of the Exchequer. After a short Labour-led government, he returned as Minister of Health, introducing a range of reform measures from 1924 to 1929. He was appointed Chancellor of the Exchequer in the National Government in 1931.
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Olaf Kullmann
Olaf Bryn Kullmann (2 July 1892 – 9 July 1942) was a Norwegian naval officer and peace activist.
He was born in Stord in the county of Hordaland, Norway. He was a son of vicar and school manager Jakob Kullmann (1852–1910) and Ingeleiv Kristine Mæland (1864–1951). He studied at the Norwegian Naval Academy, and served on a torpedo boat with the rank of Premier Lieutenant from 1916. He later studied law, graduated with the Candidate of Law degree in 1923, served as a deputy in Vestfold, and from 1925 was an attorney in Bergen. From 1925 to 1930 he worked in Oslo. He then returned to the navy, from 1929 with the rank of Captain. He had responsibility for the torpedo battery at Oscarsborg Fortress.
Kullmann eventually turned against the ideas of the existing military. He had been an adviser for the Norwegian Labour Party when in 1932 it proposed to replace the entire armed forces with a semi-armed "civil guard", and was a member of the party for some time. In the summer of 1932 he participated on an anti-war congress in Amsterdam. For his agitation, Kullmann was suspended and legally relieved of his naval engagements. The campaign was spearheaded by then-Minister of Defence Vidkun Quisling, and a support campaign for Kullmann was spearheaded by the Labour Party. Kullmann also formed a short-lived Peace Party.
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Peter Brock
Peter Geoffrey Brock, AM (26 February 1945 – 8 September 2006) otherwise known as "Peter Perfect", "The King of the Mountain" or simply as "Brocky" was one of Australia's best-known and most successful motor racing drivers. Brock was most often associated with Holden for almost 40 years, although he raced vehicles of other manufacturers including BMW, Ford, Volvo, Porsche and Peugeot. He won the Bathurst 1000 endurance race nine times, the Sandown 500 touring car race nine times, the Australian Touring Car Championship three times, the Bathurst 24 Hour once and was inducted into the V8 Supercar Hall of Fame in 2001. Brock's business activities included the Holden Dealer Team (HDT) that produced Brock's racing machines as well as a number of modified high-performance road versions of his racing cars.
Brock was born at the Epworth Hospital, Richmond, Victoria. Brock's parents were Geoff Brock and Ruth Brock (née Laidlay). The family lived in the country town of Hurstbridge (now an outer suburb of Melbourne) and Brock continued to live there throughout his life. He attended Eltham High School in Eltham Victoria His first car was an Austin 7 that he bought for £5 (A$10). His driving skill improved greatly at this point of his life because the car didn't have brakes (or a body, which was removed with his father's axe). He ended up trying to stop the car by sliding and anticipating the line.
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Peter Carnley
Peter Frederick Carnley AC (born 17 October 1937) is a retired Australian Anglican bishop and author. He was the Archbishop of Perth from 1981 to 2005 and was Primate of the Anglican Church of Australia from 2000 until July 2005 and ordained the first women Australian priests. In the 2007 Queen's Birthday Honours list, he was appointed a Companion of the Order of Australia. He is married to Ann Carnley.
Carnley was born in New Lambton, New South Wales. He studied in Australia at Trinity College, Melbourne and in England at St John's College, Cambridge and became warden of St John's College at the University of Queensland, as well as lecturer in theology at the University of Queensland, before becoming a bishop. As a lecturer in the 1970s he experimented with Process Theology.
In the 1980s Carnley supported the ordination of women and on 7 March 1992, he ordained the first women priests in the Anglican Church of Australia in St George's Cathedral, Perth. His sermon on the occasion took as its reference an autobiographical piece by Charlotte Perkins Gilman entitled The Yellow Wallpaper. Carnley used Gilman's account of the self-destruction consequent on a "benignly prescribed, submissive, middle-class role" demanded of women in the 19th century to consider the "implications of the philosophy that women should "stay in their place, maintaining silence, concealing problems and repressing creativity". The yellow wallpaper of the title is what the imprisoned protagonist in Gilman's story peels off the walls as she goes mad. Carnley used it as a metaphor for the situation of the women who had been waiting to be allowed to become priests, saying: "Today, we are peeling away the sickly yellow, faded, silverfish-ridden wallpaper with which the church has surrounded itself and imprisoned women for centuries past in its benign and perhaps well-meaning determination to confine them by role."
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Pierre de Castelnau
Pierre de Castelnau (died 15 January 1208), French ecclesiastic, was born in the diocese of Montpellier.
In 1199 he was archdeacon of Maguelonne, and was appointed by Pope Innocent III as one of the legates for the suppression of the Cathar heresy in Languedoc.
In 1202, when a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Fontfroide, Narbonne, he was designated to similar work, first in Toulouse, and afterwards at Viviers and Montpellier.
In 1207 he was in the Rhone valley and in Provence, where he became involved in the strife between the count of Baux and Raymond, count of Toulouse. Castelnau was assassinated on 15 January 1208, quite possibly by an agent of Raymond. His murder was the immediate cause of Raymond'e excommunication and the start of the Albigensian Crusade.
He was beatified in the year of his death by Pope Innocent III, who held Raymond responsible.
His death is also portrayed in Elizabeth Chadwick's work of historical fiction, "Daughters of the Grail".
The relics of Pierre de Castelnau are interred in the church of the ancient Abbey of St-Gilles.
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Pope Benedict XV
Pope Benedict XV (Latin: Benedictus PP. XV, Italian: Benedetto XV; 21 November 1854 – 22 January 1922), born Giacomo Paolo Giovanni Battista della Chiesa, reigned as Pope from 3 September 1914 to 22 January 1922. His pontificate was largely overshadowed by World War I and its political, social and humanitarian consequences in Europe.
Between 1846 and 1903, the Church experienced its two longest pontificates in history up to that point. Together Pius IX and Leo XIII ruled for 57 years. In 1914, the Cardinals choose Della Chiesa at the age of 59, indicating their desire for another long-lasting pontificate at the outbreak of World War I, which he labeled “the suicide of civilized Europe.” The war and its consequences were the main focus of Benedict. He declared the neutrality of the Holy See and attempted from that perspective to mediate peace in 1916 and 1917. Both sides rejected his initiatives. German Protestants rejected any “Papal Peace” as insulting. French politician Georges Clemenceau regarded the Vatican initiative as anti-French.
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Pope Benedict XVI
Benedict XVI (Latin: Benedictus PP. XVI; Italian: Benedetto XVI; German: Benedikt XVI.; born Joseph Aloisius Ratzinger on 16 April 1927) is the 265th Pope, a position in which he serves dual roles as Sovereign of the Vatican City State and leader of the Catholic Church. As pope he is regarded as the successor of Saint Peter. Benedict XVI was elected on 19 April 2005 in a papal conclave, celebrated his Papal Inauguration Mass on 24 April 2005, and took possession of his cathedral, the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, on 7 May 2005. A native of Bavaria, Pope Benedict XVI has both German and Vatican citizenship.
After a long career as an academic, serving as a professor of theology at various German universities—the last being the University of Regensburg—he was appointed Archbishop of Munich and Freising and cardinal by Pope Paul VI in 1977. In 1981, he settled in Rome when he became Prefect of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith, one of the most important dicasteries of the Roman Curia. From 2002 until his election as Pope, he was also Dean of the College of Cardinals, and as such the primus inter pares among the cardinals. Prior to becoming Pope, he was "a major figure on the Vatican stage for a quarter of a century" as "one of the most respected, influential and controversial members of the College of Cardinals"; he had an influence "second to none when it came to setting church priorities and directions" as one of Pope John Paul II's closest confidants.
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Pope John Paul II
Blessed Pope John Paul II (Latin: Ioannes Paulus PP. II, Italian: Giovanni Paolo II, Polish: Jan Paweł II), born Karol Józef Wojtyła (Polish: [ˈkarɔl ˈjuzɛf vɔjˈtɨwa]; 18 May 1920, Wadowice, Republic of Poland – 2 April 2005, Apostolic Palace, Vatican City), reigned as Pope of the Catholic Church from 1978 until his death in 2005. He was the second-longest serving Pope in history and the first non-Italian since 1523.
John Paul II was acclaimed as one of the most influential leaders of the 20th century. He was instrumental in ending communism in his native Poland and eventually all of Europe. John Paul II significantly improved the Catholic Church's relations with Judaism, Islam, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. Though criticised by progressives for upholding the Church's teachings against artificial contraception and the ordination of women, and by traditionalists for his support of the Church's Second Vatican Council and its reform, he was also widely praised for his firm, orthodox Catholic stances.
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Pope John XXIII
Blessed Pope John XXIII (Latin: Ioannes PP. XXIII; Italian: Giovanni XXIII), born Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli (25 November 1881 – 3 June 1963), headed the Catholic Church and ruled Vatican City from 1958 until his death.
Pope John was elected on 28 October 1958. He called the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) but did not live to see it to completion. He died in 1963, only four-and-a-half years after his election, and two months after the completion of his final encyclical, Pacem in Terris. He was beatified, along with Pope Pius IX, on 3 September 2000.
Angelo Giuseppe Roncalli was born in Sotto il Monte, a small country village in the Bergamo province of the Lombardy region of Italy. He was the first-born son of Giovanni Battista Roncalli (1854–1935) and his wife Marianna Giulia Mazzolla (1854–1939), and fourth in a family of 13, including: Angelo Giuseppe, Alfredo (1889–??), Maria Caterina (1877–1883), Teresa (1879–1954), Ancilla (1880–1953), Domenico Giuseppe (22 February 1888 – 14 March 1888), Francesco Zaverio (1883–1976), Maria Elisa (1884–1955), Assunta Casilda (1886–??), Giovanni Francesco (1891–1956), Enrica (1893–1918), Giuseppe Luigi (1894–??) and Luigi (1896–1898). His family worked as sharecroppers as did most of the people of Sotto il Monte – a striking contrast to that of his predecessor, Eugenio Pacelli (Pope Pius XII), who came from an ancient aristocratic family, long connected to the Papacy. However, he was still a descendant of an Italian noble family, from a secondary and impoverished branch.
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Rabindranath Tagore
Rabindranath Tagore (Bengali: রবীন্দ্রনাথ ঠাকুর; 7 May 1861 – 7 August 1941), sobriquet Gurudev, was a Bengali polymath who reshaped his region's literature and music. Author of Gitanjali and its "profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful verse", he became the first non-European to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913. In translation his poetry was viewed as spiritual and mercurial; his seemingly mesmeric personality, flowing hair, and other-worldly dress earned him a prophet-like reputation in the West. His "elegant prose and magical poetry" remain largely unknown outside Bengal. Tagore introduced new prose and verse forms and the use of colloquial language into Bengali literature, thereby freeing it from traditional models based on classical Sanskrit. He was highly influential in introducing the best of Indian culture to the West and vice versa, and he is generally regarded as the outstanding creative artist of modern India.
A Pirali Brahmin from Calcutta, Tagore wrote poetry as an eight-year-old. At age sixteen, he released his first substantial poems under the pseudonym Bhānusiṃha ("Sun Lion"), which were seized upon by literary authorities as long-lost classics. He graduated to his first short stories and dramas—and the aegis of his birth name—by 1877. As a humanist, universalist internationalist, and strident anti-nationalist he denounced the Raj and advocated independence from Britain. As an exponent of the Bengal Renaissance, he advanced a vast canon that comprised paintings, sketches and doodles, hundreds of texts, and some two thousand songs; his legacy endures also in the institution he founded, Visva-Bharati University.
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Rajmohan Gandhi
Rajmohan Gandhi (born 1935, New Delhi, India) is a biographer and grandson of Mahatma Gandhi, and a research professor at the Center for South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, USA.
Gandhi's maternal grandfather was C. Rajagopalachari, free India's first Head of State, the first Indian Governor General of independent India and one of the foremost fighters for Indian independence. His father was Devdas Gandhi, who was the Managing Editor of the Daily Hindustan Times. He attended St. Stephen's College, New Delhi, India. Associated from 1956 with Initiatives of Change (formerly known as Moral Re-Armament), Rajmohan Gandhi has been engaged for half a century in efforts for trust-building, reconciliation and democracy and in battles against corruption and inequalities. These efforts, made in India and across the world, have involved writing, speaking, public interventions, and organizing dialogues.
In the 1960s and early 1970s, he played a leading role in establishing Asia Plateau, the 80-acre (320,000 m2) conference centre of Initiatives of Change in the mountains of western India. Asia Plateau has been recognized in the Indian subcontinent for its ecological contribution. During the 1975-77 Emergency in India, he was active for democratic rights personally and through his weekly journal Himmat, published in Bombay from 1964 to 1981. He contested the Lok Sabha elections in 1989 but was defeated. He served (1990-92) in the Rajya Sabha (the upper house of the Indian Parliament) and led the Indian delegation to the UN Human Rights Commission in Geneva in 1990. In the Indian Parliament he was the convener of the all-party joint committee of both houses addressing the condition of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
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Ramdas Gandhi
Ramdas Gandhi (1896–1969) was the third son of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi. He was born in South Africa. He outlived his parents and all of his brothers. He and his wife Nirmal had three children; Sumitra Gandhi, Kanu Gandhi and Usha Gandhi. He was active in his father's Indian independence movement.
He had no taste for asceticism, yet participated in the grueling civil protests of the 1930s. Numerous jailings had serious effects on his health. Born and raised in South Africa, he never adjusted to the idealistic poverty imposed by his father. He had a taste for hunting. He died in the year of his father's centenary. At his fathers funeral, Ramdas Gandhi was the one who lit the fire to start the cremation, as Mahatma had wished for. He was joined by his younger brother Devdas Gandhi at the funeral.
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Ravi Shankar Vyas
Ravi Shankar Vyas (1884–1984) was an Indian freedom fighter and social reformer, hailing from and working in the state of Gujarat. He was one of the earliest and closest associates of Mahatma Gandhi and Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, and along with Narhari Parikh and Mohanlal Pandya, the chief organizer of nationalist revolts in Gujarat in the 1920s and 1930s. Jhaverchand Meghani wrote a novel Maansaee na deeva about the social upliftment work done by Ravi Shankar Maharaj. The novel was very well received by Gujarati readers.
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Robert LeFevre
Robert LeFevre (13 October 1911 – 13 May 1986) was an American libertarian businessman, radio personality, and primary theorist of autarchism.
LeFevre was born in Gooding, Idaho in 1911, but when he was a child LeFevre's family moved to Minneapolis, Minnesota. LeFevre attended Hamline University studying English and drama. He then worked at a variety of jobs during the Great Depression, such as acting and radio announcing. During World War II, LeFevre served as an officer in the education and orientation division of the Army Air Corps before being discharged in 1945 after spending a year in Europe and being injured in an accident. After the War, LeFevre went to California and worked in the real estate business and ran unsuccessfully for Congress in 1950. He then became radio and television broadcaster becoming involved in anti-communist causes.
In 1956, LeFevre founded the Freedom School, which he ran until 1973, in Colorado Springs, Colorado. In 1965, after a flood devastated the campus, the school and college moved to Santa Ana, California. The Freedom School was designed to educate people in LeFevre's philosophy about the meaning of freedom and free-market economic policy. LeFevre added Rampart College, an unaccredited four-year school, in 1963. Both institutions shared the same campus, and had a press, The Pine Tree Press, which published works for both, including a newsletter for the Freedom School, the Rampart Journal of Individualist Thought (1965–68), and a tabloid for the Press itself.
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Rowan Williams
Rowan Douglas Williams FBA, FRSL, FLSW (born 14 June 1950) is an Anglican bishop, poet and theologian. He is the 104th and current Archbishop of Canterbury, Metropolitan of the Province of Canterbury and Primate of All England, offices he has held since early 2003.
Williams was previously Bishop of Monmouth and Archbishop of Wales (making him the first Archbishop of Canterbury in modern times not to be appointed from within the Church of England) and had spent much of his earlier career as an academic at the Universities of Cambridge and Oxford successively. His primacy has been marked by much speculation that the Anglican Communion (in which the Archbishop of Canterbury is the leading figure) is on the verge of fragmentation and by Williams's attempts to keep all sides talking to one another. On 16 March 2012, it was announced that he has accepted the position of Master of Magdalene College at Cambridge University, beginning in January 2013. He is expected to stand down as Archbishop of Canterbury in December 2012.
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Samaldas Gandhi
Samaldas Gandhi was an Indian freedom fighter who headed the Aarzi Hukumat or Temporary Government of the erstwhile princely state of Junagadh.
Samaldas was a relative and close follower of Mahatma Gandhi, the leader of the Indian independence movement.
When the Nawab of Junagadh acceded his state to Pakistan in 1947, Samaldas headed a government-in-exile created by citizens of Junagadh to reflect the wishes of its majority population who wished the state to become part of India instead.
When Indian forces entered Junagadh and its principalities, Mangrol and Manavadar, at the invitation of the Nawab's dewan, Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, Samaldas was invited to accept the reins of the state but deferred to the Government of India.
Samaldas Gandhi is widely remembered in Junagadh and the state of Gujarat today as a hero and patriot. There are several schools, public foundations and hospitals named after him.
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Saracen
Saracen is an historical term for a certain group of people but the meaning changed during its history. In the early centuries AD in Greek and Latin it referred to a people who lived in desert areas in and near the Roman province of Arabia, and who were specifically distinguished from Arabs. In Europe during the Early Middle Ages, the term began to be used to describe Arab tribes. By the 12th century, "Saracen" had become synonymous with "Muslim" in Medieval Latin literature. This expansion of the meaning had begun centuries earlier among the Byzantine Greeks, as evidenced in Byzantine Greek documents from the era of the Muslim Umayyad Caliphate.
Ptolemy's Geography from the second century CE describes Sarakene as a region in the northern Sinai peninsula. Ptolemy also mentions a people called the Sarakenoi living in north-western Arabia (near neighbor to the Sinai).Eusebius of Caesarea references Saracens in his Ecclesiastical history, in which he narrates an account wherein Dionysus, Bishop of Alexandria mentions Saracens in a letter while describing the Roman emperor Decius' persecution: "Many were, in the Arabian mountain, enslaved by the barbarous sarkenoi." The Historia Augusta also refers to an attack by Saraceni on Pescennius Niger's army in Egypt in 193 CE but provides little information on who they might have been.
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Seneca the Younger
Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca; ca. 4 BC – AD 65) was a Roman Stoic philosopher, statesman, dramatist, and in one work humorist, of the Silver Age of Latin literature. He was tutor and later advisor to emperor Nero. While he was later forced to commit suicide for alleged complicity in the Pisonian conspiracy to assassinate Nero, the last of the Julio-Claudian emperors, he may have been innocent. His father was Seneca the Elder and his elder brother was Gallio.
Lucius Annaeus Seneca was born in Cordoba, in the Baetica, the southern highly romanized province of Spain. One of his revisionist modern biographers, however, Miriam Griffin says in her biography of Seneca that "the evidence for Seneca's life before his exile in 41 is so slight, and the potential interest of these years, for social history as well as for biography, is so great that few writers on Seneca have resisted the temptation to eke out knowledge with imagination." Griffin also states, apparently inferring from ancient sources, that Seneca was born in either 8, 4, or 1 BC. She thinks he was born between 4 and 1 BC and was a resident in Rome by AD 5. Seneca says that he was carried to Rome in the arms of his mother's stepsister. Griffin says that, allowing for rhetorical exaggeration, means "it is fair to conclude that Seneca was in Rome as a very small boy." Be that as it may, it is clear that he was in Rome at a relatively early stage in his life.
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Shoghi Effendi
Shoghí Effendí Rabbání (March 1, 1897 – November 4, 1957), better known as Shoghi Effendi, was the Guardian and appointed head of the Bahá'í Faith from 1921 until his death in 1957. After the death of `Abdu'l-Bahá in 1921, the leadership of the Bahá'í community entered a new phase, evolving from that of a single individual to an administrative order with executive and legislative branches, the head of each being the Guardianship and the Universal House of Justice. Shoghi Effendi was referred to as the Guardian, and held the explicit authority to interpret the writings of the three central figures of the religion and define the sphere of legislative authority. His writings are effectively limited to commentaries on the works of the central figures, and broad directives for the future.
Future hereditary Guardians were permitted in the Bahá'í scripture by appointment from one to the next, but a prerequisite that appointees be male descendants of Bahá'u'lláh left no suitable living candidates, and Shoghi Effendi died without making an appointment. The Universal House of Justice, the only institution authorized to adjudicate on situations not covered in scripture, later announced that it could not legislate to make possible the appointment of a successor to Shoghi Effendi. To Bahá'ís he is the first and last Guardian.
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Shrimad Rajchandra
Raychandbhai Ravajibhai Mehta, popularly known as Shrimad Rajchandra by his followers, was a prominent Jain philosopher. He is highly respected for His remarkable exposition of Bhagwan Mahavira’s teachings, great spiritual state, extraordinary personality and literary genius. He was born on November 9, 1867 in Vavania Bandar, India, and left His body on April 9, 1901 in Rajkot, India. He is especially notable for being "a guide and helper" to Mahatma Gandhi. Shrimad was also one of Gandhi's best friends, and they exchanged a series of letters about religion and philosophy until the end of Shrimad's life.
At the age of seven, on witnessing the burning pyre of a recently deceased acquaintance, He underwent unprecedented mental churning and reportedly attained 'Jatismaran jnan' (a recollection of several past lives) at the cremation ground itself. This vivid recollection of the past reportedly established continuity with his previously attained state of knowledge, meditation and penance. As a result of this purification of his consciousness, many unusual mnemonic and psychic powers reportedly manifested in him, but he chose to ignore them, focusing solely on self-realization.
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Simone Weil
Simone Weil (French pronunciation: [simɔn vɛj]; 3 February 1909 in Paris, France – 24 August 1943 in Ashford, Kent, England) was a French philosopher, Christian mystic, and social activist.
Weil's whole life was marked by an exceptional compassion for the suffering of others; at the age of five, she refused to eat sugar after she heard that soldiers fighting WWI had to go without. She died from malnutrition during WWII after refusing to eat more than the minimal rations she believed were available to soldiers at the time. After completing her education Weil became a professor. She taught intermittently throughout the 1930s - she took several breaks due to poor health and to devote herself to political activism. Weil was politically active from early childhood: her activism included helping unions to organise and work together collaboratively, involvement with Marxists and Anarchists, fighting in the Spanish Civil War, and spending more than a year working as a labourer so she could better understand the working class. She sometimes gave away almost her entire income and lived in the most frugal of circumstances, though she did occasionally allow herself foreign holidays.
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Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict fought in Spain from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939. The war began after a pronunciamiento (declaration of opposition) by a group of generals under the leadership of José Sanjurjo against the elected government of the Second Spanish Republic, at the time under the leadership of President Manuel Azaña. The rebel coup was supported by a number of conservative groups including the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right, monarchists such as the religious conservative Carlists, and the Fascist Falange. The uprising was authoritarian and anti-separatist in inspiration; anti-Basque and anti-Catalan feeling marked the Nationalist zone.
Following the only partially successful coup, Spain was left militarily and politically divided. From that moment onwards, general Francisco Franco began a protracted war of attrition against the established government for the control of the country. The rebel forces received the support of Nazi Germany and the Kingdom of Italy, as well as neighbouring Portugal, while the Soviet Union and Mexico intervened in support of the Republican government or loyalist side.
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Stafford Cripps
Sir Richard Stafford Cripps (24 April 1889 – 21 April 1952) was a British Labour politician of the first half of the 20th century. During World War II he served in a number of positions in the wartime coalition, including Ambassador to the Soviet Union and Minister of Aircraft Production. After the war he served in the Attlee Ministry, firstly as President of the Board of Trade and between 1947 and 1950 as Chancellor of the Exchequer. In the latter position, Cripps was responsible for laying the foundations of Britain’s post-war economic prosperity, and was, according to the historian Eric Shaw, “the real architect of the rapidly improving economic picture and growing affluence from 1952 onwards.”
Cripps was born in London. His father was a Conservative member of the House of Commons who late in life, as Lord Parmoor, joined the Labour Party. His mother, the former Theresa Potter, was the sister of Beatrice Webb. Cripps grew up in a wealthy family and was educated at Winchester College and at University College London, where he studied chemistry. He left science for the law, and in 1912 was called to the bar as a barrister. He served in the First World War as an ambulance driver in France, and managed a factory producing armaments. He remained a barrister during the 1920s, where he specialised in patent cases, and was reported to be the highest paid lawyer in the country.
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Steve Biko
Stephen Biko (18 December 1946 – 12 September 1977) was an anti-apartheid activist in South Africa in the 1960s and 1970s.
A student leader, he later founded the Black Consciousness Movement which would empower and mobilize much of the urban black population. Since his death in police custody, he has been called a martyr of the anti-apartheid movement. While living, his writings and activism attempted to empower black people, and he was famous for his slogan "black is beautiful", which he described as meaning: "man, you are okay as you are, begin to look upon yourself as a human being".
Despite friction between the African National Congress and Biko throughout the 1970s[Need quotation to verify] the ANC has included Biko in the pantheon of struggle heroes, going as far as using his image for campaign posters in South Africa's first non-racial elections in 1994.
Biko was born in King William's Town, in the present-day Eastern Cape province of South Africa. He studied to be a doctor at the University of Natal Medical School. Biko was a Xhosa. In addition to Xhosa, he spoke fluent English and fairly fluent Afrikaans.
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Tank Man
Tank Man, or the Unknown Rebel, is the nickname of an anonymous man who stood in front of a column of Chinese Type 59 tanks the morning after the Chinese military forcibly removed protestors from in and around Beijing's Tiananmen Square on June 5, 1989. The man achieved widespread international recognition due to the videotape and photographs taken of the incident. Despite his anonymity, he is commonly (though not necessarily correctly) referred to in Chinese as Wang Weilin (王維林), as dubbed by a Sunday Express article.
The incident took place near Tiananmen on Chang'an Avenue, which runs east-west along the south end of the Forbidden City in Beijing, on June 5, 1989, one day after the Chinese government's violent crackdown on the Tiananmen protests. The man placed himself alone in the middle of the street as the tanks approached, directly in the path of the armored vehicles (39°54′23.5″N 116°23′59.8″E / 39.906528°N 116.399944°E / 39.906528; 116.399944). He held two shopping bags, one in each hand. As the tanks came to a stop, the man gestured towards the tanks with his bags. In response, the lead tank attempted to drive around the man, but the man repeatedly stepped into the path of the tank in a show of nonviolent action. After repeatedly attempting to go around rather than crush the man, the lead tank stopped its engines, and the armored vehicles behind it seemed to follow suit. There was a short pause with the man and the tanks having reached a quiet, still impasse.
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Thich Nhat Hanh
Thích Nhất Hạnh ( listen; born October 11, 1926) is a Vietnamese Buddhist monk, teacher, author, poet and peace activist who now lives in France where he was in exile for many years. Born Nguyễn Xuân Bảo, Thích Nhất Hạnh joined a Zen (Vietnamese: Thiền) monastery at the age of 16, and studied Buddhism as a novitiate. Upon his ordination as a monk in 1949, he assumed the Dharma name Thích Nhất Hạnh. Thích is an honorary family name used by all Vietnamese monks and nuns, meaning that they are part of the Shakya (Shakyamuni Buddha) clan. He is often considered the most influential living figure in the lineage of Lâm Tế (Vietnamese Rinzai) Thiền, and perhaps also in Zen Buddhism as a whole.
In the early 1960s, he founded the School of Youth for Social Services (SYSS) in Saigon. This grassroots relief organization rebuilt bombed villages, set up schools, established medical centers, and resettled families left homeless during the Vietnam War. He traveled to the U.S. to study at Princeton University, and later to lecture at Cornell University and Columbia University. His focus at the time was to urge the U.S. government to withdraw from Vietnam. He urged Martin Luther King, Jr. to publicly oppose the Vietnam War; King nominated Hanh for the Nobel Peace Prize in January 1967. He created the Order of Interbeing in 1966, establishing monastic and practice centers around the world. In 1973, the Vietnamese government denied Nhat Hanh permission to return to Vietnam and he went into exile in France. From 1976 to 1977 he led efforts to rescue Vietnamese boat people in the Gulf of Siam.
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Thomas Merton
Thomas Merton, O.C.S.O. (January 31, 1915 – December 10, 1968) was an Anglo-American Catholic writer and mystic. A Trappist monk of the Abbey of Gethsemani, Kentucky, he was a poet, social activist, and student of comparative religion. In 1949, he was ordained to the priesthood and given the name Father Louis.
Merton wrote more than 70 books, mostly on spirituality, social justice and a quiet pacifism, as well as scores of essays and reviews, including his best-selling autobiography, The Seven Storey Mountain (1948), which sent scores of World War II veterans, students, and even teen-agers flocking to monasteries across the US, and was also featured in National Review's list of the 100 best non-fiction books of the century. Merton was a keen proponent of interfaith understanding. He pioneered dialogue with prominent Asian spiritual figures, including the Dalai Lama, the Japanese writer D.T. Suzuki, and the Vietnamese monk Thich Nhat Hanh. Merton has also been the subject of several biographies.
wn.com/Thomas_Merton -
Tushar Gandhi
Tushar Arun Gandhi (तुषार गांधी) (born 17 January 1960 near Mumbai, India) is a great-grandson of Mahatma Gandhi, and the son of journalist Arun Manilal Gandhi.
Born on a train between Mumbai and Kolkata, he was raised in the Mumbai suburb of Santa Cruz. He holds a degree in painting from Mithibai College.
In December 2001 he negotiated with American marketing firm CMG Worldwide to use the Mahatma’s image in an advertisement for a credit card company. The public outcry forced him to cancel the deal.
In his book Let’s Kill Gandhi, he blames Brahmins for assassinating Mahatma. Critics have claimed that the book defames all Brahmins. Gandhi has stressed that his claims relate only to "a certain group of Brahmins from Pune [who] were continuously attempting on the life of my great grandfather" rather than to Brahmins in general.
In March 2005, he led the 75th anniversary re-enactment of the Dandi March.[citation needed]
In 2006, he was appointed as a Goodwill Ambassador of the Intergovernmental Institution for the use of Micro-algae Spirulina Against Malnutrition, IIMSAM that strives and advocates to make Spirulina a key driver to eradicate malnutrition, achieve food security and to bridge the health divide with special priority for the developing and the least developed countries.
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Vallabhbhai Patel
Sardar Vallabhbhai Jhaverbhai Patel (Hindi pronunciation: [ʋəlləbˈbʱaːi pəˈʈeːl] ( listen)) (31 October 1875 – 15 December 1950) was an Indian barrister and statesman, one of the leaders of the Indian National Congress and one of the founding fathers of India. He is known to be a social leader of India who played an unparalleled role in the country's struggle for independence and guided its integration into a united, independent nation.Therefore he is also regarded as "Bismarck of India". He was known as the "Iron Man of India". In India and across the world, he was often addressed as Sardar, which means Chief in Hindi, Urdu, and Persian.
He was raised in the countryside of Gujarat in a family of Gurjar Leva-Patidars Vallabhbhai Patel was employed in successful practice as a lawyer when he was first inspired by the work and philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. Patel subsequently organised the peasants of Kheda, Borsad, and Bardoli in Gujarat in non-violent civil disobedience against oppressive policies imposed by the British Raj; in this role, he became one of the most influential leaders in Gujarat. He rose to the leadership of the Indian National Congress and was at the forefront of rebellions and political events, organising the party for elections in 1934 and 1937, and promoting the Quit India movement.
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Vasily Vereshchagin
Vasily Vasilyevich Vereshchagin (Russian: Васи́лий Васи́льевич Вереща́гин, October 26, 1842 – April 13, 1904) was one of the most famous Russian battle painters and one of the first Russian artists to be widely recognized abroad. The graphic nature of his realist scenes led many of them to never be printed or exhibited.[citation needed]
Vereshchagin was born at Cherepovets, Novgorod Governorate, Russia in 1842 as the middle of three brothers. His father was a landowner of noble birth. When he was eight years old he was sent to Tsarskoe Selo to enter the Alexander Cadet Corps, and three years later he entered the Sea Cadet Corps at St Petersburg, making his first voyage in 1858. He served on the frigate Kamchatka, which sailed to Denmark, France and Egypt.
Vereshchagin graduated first in the list at the naval school, but left the service immediately to begin the study of drawing in earnest. He won a medal two years later, in 1863, from the St Petersburg Academy for his Ulysses Slaying the Suitors. In 1864 he proceeded to Paris, where he studied under Jean-Léon Gérôme, though he dissented widely from his master's methods.
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Vinoba Bhave
Vinoba Bhave (Marathi: विनोबा भावे),Vinayak Narahari Bhave (September 11, 1895 - November 15, 1982) often called Acharya (Sanskrit for teacher), was an Indian advocate of nonviolence and human rights. He is best known for the Bhoodan Andolan. He is considered as a National Teacher of India and the spiritual successor of Mahatma Gandhi.
He was born in Gagode village in Colaba (now Raigad District of Mumbai State, Maharashtra) on September 11, 1895 into a pious family of the Chitpavan Brahmin clan. He was brought-up in Baroda. He was highly inspired after reading the Bhagavad Gita, Mahabharat, Ramayan at a very early age. His father, Naraharishumbhurao Bhave was a devout Hindu and his mother, Rukmini Devi who died in 1918, was a great influence on him. In his memoir, Bhave states that, "there is nothing to equal the part my mother played in shaping my mind". Specifically, her devotion and spirituality.
His two brothers, Balkoba Bhave and Shivaji Bhave, were also bachelors devoted to social work.
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War hawk
A war hawk, or simply hawk for short, is a term used in politics for someone favoring war in a debate over whether to go to war. War hawks are the opposite of war doves. The terms are derived through analogy with the birds of the same name: hawks are predators which attack and feed on other animals, whereas doves mostly eat seeds and fruit, and are historically a symbol of peace.
The term originated with a historical group known as the War Hawks, consisting of Democratic-Republicans and were primarily from southern and western states. (The American West then consisted of Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio, as well as territories in the Old Northwest that did not yet have votes in Congress.) Largely from the older block of the Congress and encompassing most Republicans, the War Hawks advocated going to war against Britain for reasons related to the interference of the Royal Navy in American shipping, which the War Hawks believed hurt the American economy and injured American prestige. War Hawks from the western states also believed that the British were instigating American Indians on the frontier to attack American settlements, and so the War Hawks called for an invasion of British Canada to punish the British and end this threat.
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Ward Churchill
Ward LeRoy Churchill (born October 2, 1947) is an author and political activist. He was a professor of ethnic studies at the University of Colorado at Boulder from 1990 to 2007. The primary focus of his work is on the historical treatment of political dissenters and Native Americans by the United States government. His work features controversial and provocative views, written in a direct, often confrontational style.
In January 2005, Churchill's work attracted publicity because of the widespread circulation of a 2001 essay, "On the Justice of Roosting Chickens". In the essay, he claimed that the September 11, 2001 attacks were a natural and unavoidable consequence of what he views as unlawful US policy, and he referred to the "technocratic corps" working in the World Trade Center as "little Eichmanns".
In March 2005 the University of Colorado began investigating allegations that Churchill had engaged in research misconduct; it reported in June 2006 that he had done so. Churchill was fired on July 24, 2007, leading to a claim by some scholars that he was fired over the ideas he expressed. Churchill filed a lawsuit against the University of Colorado for unlawful termination of employment. In April 2009 a Denver jury found that Churchill was wrongly fired, awarding him $1 in damages. In July, 2009, a District Court judge vacated the monetary award and declined Churchill's request to order his reinstatement, deciding the university has "quasi-judicial immunity". In February, 2010, Churchill appealed the judge's decision. In November 2010, the Colorado Court of Appeals upheld a lower-court's ruling that the University of Colorado officials sued by Ward Churchill were immune from his lawsuit accusing them of violating his First Amendment rights when they dismissed him as a tenured ethnic-studies professor. Churchill has appealed that decision to the Colorado Supreme Court, which agreed in May 2011 to hear his case.
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William Penn
William Penn (October 14, 1644 – July 30, 1718) was an English real estate entrepreneur, philosopher, and founder of the Province of Pennsylvania, the English North American colony and the future Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. He was an early champion of democracy and religious freedom, notable for his good relations and successful treaties with the Lenape Indians. Under his direction, the city of Philadelphia was planned and developed.
In 1681, King Charles II handed over a large piece of his American land holdings to William Penn to satisfy a debt the king owed to Penn's father. This land included present-day Pennsylvania and Delaware. Penn immediately sailed to America and his first step on American soil took place in New Castle in 1682. On this occasion, the colonists pledged allegiance to Penn as their new Proprietor, and the first general assembly was held in the colony. Afterwards, Penn journeyed up river and founded Philadelphia. However, Penn's Quaker government was not viewed favorably by the Dutch, Swedish, and English settlers in what is now Delaware. They had no "historical" allegiance to Pennsylvania, so they almost immediately began petitioning for their own Assembly. In 1704 they achieved their goal when the three southernmost counties of Pennsylvania were permitted to split off and become the new semi-autonomous colony of Lower Delaware. As the most prominent, prosperous and influential "city" in the new colony, New Castle became the capital.
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World War I
World War I (WWI), which was predominantly called the World War or the Great War from its occurrence until 1939 (World War II), and the First World War or World War I thereafter, was a major war centred in Europe that began on 28 July 1914 and lasted until 11 November 1918. It involved all the world's great powers, which were assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the Triple Entente of the United Kingdom, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (originally centred around the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy; but, as Austria–Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did not enter into the war). These alliances both reorganised (Italy fought for the Allies), and expanded as more nations entered the war. Ultimately more than 70 million military personnel, including 60 million Europeans, were mobilised in one of the largest wars in history. More than 9 million combatants were killed, largely because of enormous increases in lethality of weapons, thanks to new technology, without corresponding improvements in protection or mobility. It was the sixth-deadliest conflict in world history, subsequently paving the way for various political changes such as revolutions in the nations involved.
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Émeric Crucé
Émeric Crucé (1590–1648) was a French political writer, known for the Nouveau Cynée (1623), a pioneer work on international relations.
Little specific is known about him. He taught in a college in Paris, and is said to have been a monk, supposed to have been from a humble background..
The Nouveau Cynée ou Discours d'Estat représentant les occasions et moyens d'establir une paix générale et la liberté de commerce pour tout le monde takes its name from Cyneas, a diplomat-statesman of the ancient world, active around 300 BC, and known for his emphasis on peace. Crucé made peace central to his philosophical and political thought.
He is pacifist in tone, and envisages an international body to maintain peace. It should be a permanent gathering princes, or their representatives, in session at Venice; its task would be to resolve disputes. Radically, the suggestion is that the Islamic powers would participate, in this permanent peace congress; Crucé's thinking runs along the lines of a common humanity.
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Émile Armand
Émile Armand (pseudonym of Ernest-Lucien Juin Armand; 26 March 1872 – 19 February 1963) was the most influential French individualist anarchist at the beginning of the 20th century and also a dedicated free love/polyamory, intentional community, and pacifist/antimilitarist writer, propagandist and activist. He wrote for and edited the anarchist publications L’Ère nouvelle (1901–1911), L’Anarchie, L'EnDehors (1922–1939) and L’Unique (1945–1953).
Armand was born in Paris on March 26, 1872. He was a son of a participant of the Paris Commune. At first he embraced Christianity. Around 1895-1896, Armand discovered anarchism through coming into contact with the magazine Les Temps nouveaux which was edited by Jean Grave. Later he wrote articles under the pseudonyms of Junius and in the magazine Le Libertaire de Sébastien Faure. Important influences in his writing were Leo Tolstoy, Benjamin Tucker, Walt Whitman and Ralph Waldo Emerson.
Armand later collaborated in other anarchist and pacifist journals such as La Misère, L'Universel and Le Cri de révolte. In 1901, he established with Marie Kugel, (his companion until 1906), the journal L'Ère nouvelle which initially adhered to Christian anarchism, later embraced anarcho-communism and in 1911 finally adhered to individualist anarchism. He founded "Ligue antimilitariste" in 1902 with Albert Libertad and George Mathias Paraf-Javal, another intransigent individualist. These principles he sought to apply within the social experimental spaces, events and communes that anarchist groups in the France of the time called milieux libres.
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Émile Arnaud
Émile Arnaud (1864—1921) was a French lawyer, notary, and writer noted for his anti-war rhetoric and for coining the term "pacifism". Arnaud founded the "Ligue Internationale de la Paix et de la Liberté" (International League for Peace and Freedom) in 1861 and was elected its first president. In 1901, he codified his beliefs into a treatise entitled the Code de la Paix, outlining and defining the goals, political positions and methodology of the Peace movement in general. He described this new political movement as "pacifism", setting it up as a counterbalance to the belligerence of emerging political ideologies such as Socialism and Anarchism. He advocated for humanism, for charity and tolerance, for non-violent conflict resolution and for reaching mutually beneficial political solutions through establishing consensus.
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Pacifist - Happiness (Music Video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:48
- Updated: 18 Jan 2013
Music video for HAPPINESS off the EP "Everybody Loves Fun". Check out Pacifist at www.pacifistsucks.com Video made by KOTK Productions www.myspace.com/kotkpro
http://wn.com/Pacifist_Happiness_Music_Video
Music video for HAPPINESS off the EP "Everybody Loves Fun". Check out Pacifist at www.pacifistsucks.com Video made by KOTK Productions www.myspace.com/kotkpro
PACIFIST - Pessimistic (official video)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:19
- Updated: 18 Jan 2013
*Pacifist* Pessimistic from the EP (Everybody Loves Fun) www.myspace.com/pacifistmusic KOTK Productions www.myspace.com/kotkpro
http://wn.com/PACIFIST_Pessimistic_official_video
*Pacifist* Pessimistic from the EP (Everybody Loves Fun) www.myspace.com/pacifistmusic KOTK Productions www.myspace.com/kotkpro
- published: 29 Jul 2010
- views: 22972
- author: J Beasley
Muhammad Ali on the Vietnam War-Draft
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:37
- Updated: 18 Jan 2013
"My conscious won't let me go shoot my brother, or some darker people, or some poor hungry people in the mud for big powerful America. And shoot them for what? They never called me nigger, they never lynched me, they didn't put no dogs on me, they didn't rob me of my nationality, rape and kill my mother and father... Shoot them for what? ...How can I shoot them poor people, Just take me to jail."
http://wn.com/Muhammad_Ali_on_the_Vietnam_War-Draft
"My conscious won't let me go shoot my brother, or some darker people, or some poor hungry people in the mud for big powerful America. And shoot them for what? They never called me nigger, they never lynched me, they didn't put no dogs on me, they didn't rob me of my nationality, rape and kill my mother and father... Shoot them for what? ...How can I shoot them poor people, Just take me to jail."
- published: 21 Feb 2011
- views: 40832
- author: kaotikkalm
Pacifist - Pessimistic
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:19
- Updated: 16 Jan 2013
Pessimistic from Pacifist EP (Everybody Loves Fun) www.myspace.com/pacifistmusic video made by KOTK Productions www.myspace.com/kotkpro
http://wn.com/Pacifist_Pessimistic
Pessimistic from Pacifist EP (Everybody Loves Fun) www.myspace.com/pacifistmusic video made by KOTK Productions www.myspace.com/kotkpro
- published: 30 Jul 2010
- views: 85042
- author: pacifistband
Felix the Peaceful Monk #1 - Good Guy Felix
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:00
- Updated: 17 Jan 2013
Felix the Peaceful Monk is a pretty cool guy. He calms saber-tooths and doesn't kill anything.
http://wn.com/Felix_the_Peaceful_Monk_1_Good_Guy_Felix
Felix the Peaceful Monk is a pretty cool guy. He calms saber-tooths and doesn't kill anything.
- published: 06 Dec 2011
- views: 353819
- author: WestSideLuigi
3D Dialogue: Ursula Franklin and Pacifism
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 21:43
- Updated: 20 Jul 2012
Jesse Hirsh, host of 3D Dialogue, interviews Professor Ursula Franklin regarding her latest book, The Ursula Franklin Reader: Pacifism as a Map. Dr. Franklin is a distinguished author, scientist, feminist, activist, and Quaker, who has written extensively on the role of technology in society. In this interview, we deal with the rise of techno-fascism and the need for feminism and social justice in drafting a map for us to use in moving towards a society of peace, instead of one based on war. Dr. Franklin is frail, and her voice soft, yet this interview is worth watching, as her ideas are sharp, her criticism cutting, and listening to her inspires action, so please share this discussion with your friends and colleagues. More on her latest book can be found via: www.btlbooks.com
http://wn.com/3D_Dialogue_Ursula_Franklin_and_Pacifism
Jesse Hirsh, host of 3D Dialogue, interviews Professor Ursula Franklin regarding her latest book, The Ursula Franklin Reader: Pacifism as a Map. Dr. Franklin is a distinguished author, scientist, feminist, activist, and Quaker, who has written extensively on the role of technology in society. In this interview, we deal with the rise of techno-fascism and the need for feminism and social justice in drafting a map for us to use in moving towards a society of peace, instead of one based on war. Dr. Franklin is frail, and her voice soft, yet this interview is worth watching, as her ideas are sharp, her criticism cutting, and listening to her inspires action, so please share this discussion with your friends and colleagues. More on her latest book can be found via: www.btlbooks.com
- published: 02 Jan 2008
- views: 4074
- author: Jesse Hirsh
Battlefield BC 2 Fun Tactics- Pacifist UAV
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:52
- Updated: 16 Jan 2013
This is episode 15 of my series entitled Fun Tactics.
http://wn.com/Battlefield_BC_2_Fun_Tactics_Pacifist_UAV
This is episode 15 of my series entitled Fun Tactics.
- published: 31 Mar 2010
- views: 117264
- author: penguinz0
'Pacifist' & 'Assassination Czar': Obama's picks spark senate approval battle fears
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:20
- Updated: 15 Jan 2013
A pacifist accused of being anti-Israeli in charge of the military; and an apparent supporter of harsh interrogation methods in charge of intelligence. They're President Obama's recommendations to run The Pentagon and the CIA. Our Washington correspondent Gayane Chichakyan profiles the nominees. RT LIVE rt.com Subscribe to RT! www.youtube.com Like us on Facebook www.facebook.com Follow us on Twitter twitter.com Follow us on Google+ plus.google.com RT (Russia Today) is a global news network broadcasting from Moscow and Washington studios. RT is the first news channel to break the 500 million YouTube views benchmark.
http://wn.com/'Pacifist'_'Assassination_Czar'_Obama's_picks_spark_senate_approval_battle_fears
A pacifist accused of being anti-Israeli in charge of the military; and an apparent supporter of harsh interrogation methods in charge of intelligence. They're President Obama's recommendations to run The Pentagon and the CIA. Our Washington correspondent Gayane Chichakyan profiles the nominees. RT LIVE rt.com Subscribe to RT! www.youtube.com Like us on Facebook www.facebook.com Follow us on Twitter twitter.com Follow us on Google+ plus.google.com RT (Russia Today) is a global news network broadcasting from Moscow and Washington studios. RT is the first news channel to break the 500 million YouTube views benchmark.
- published: 08 Jan 2013
- views: 5620
- author: RussiaToday
Christopher Hitchens on Pacifism and Nicholson Baker
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:00
- Updated: 11 Jan 2013
Christopher Hitchens reviews Nicholson Baker's pacifist book about WWII "Human Smoke" from 2008. Audio excerpt from Hitchens latest essay collection "Arguably". Read by Simon Prebble.
http://wn.com/Christopher_Hitchens_on_Pacifism_and_Nicholson_Baker
Christopher Hitchens reviews Nicholson Baker's pacifist book about WWII "Human Smoke" from 2008. Audio excerpt from Hitchens latest essay collection "Arguably". Read by Simon Prebble.
- published: 08 Oct 2011
- views: 3605
- author: TheStevenBlue
Deus Ex: Human Revolution - Foxiest / Pacifist Playthrough (Panchaea-2)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:35
- Updated: 18 Dec 2012
The finale of my Foxiest / Pacifist Playthrough. From finding David Sarif to sneaking to the finale, and finishing the game.
http://wn.com/Deus_Ex_Human_Revolution_Foxiest_Pacifist_Playthrough_Panchaea-2
The finale of my Foxiest / Pacifist Playthrough. From finding David Sarif to sneaking to the finale, and finishing the game.
- published: 04 Sep 2011
- views: 6488
- author: rotblitzkrieg
Reactions of a Pacifist El 'Tano' Pasman(English translation)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:01
- Updated: 03 Jan 2013
Original : www.youtube.com An angry fan rants as his team (RIVER PLATE) descends into the second category of argentinian footbal . The midfield hooligan incident : www.youtube.com And a news story for more context: soccernet.espn.go.com
http://wn.com/Reactions_of_a_Pacifist_El_'Tano'_PasmanEnglish_translation
Original : www.youtube.com An angry fan rants as his team (RIVER PLATE) descends into the second category of argentinian footbal . The midfield hooligan incident : www.youtube.com And a news story for more context: soccernet.espn.go.com
- published: 19 Jul 2011
- views: 37402
- author: Angie Valderrama
Deus Ex: Human Revolution - Hardest Difficulty & Pacifist Achievement Walkthrough - Part 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:46
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
Hey guys, Lazy here and were knocking out a BIG walkthrough with an insanely hard achievement to get, Pacifist. You cannot kill ANYONE through out the whole game with the exception of bosses. Along with this walkthrough will be the "Foxiest of the Hounds" & "Legend" achievements. This walkthrough is gonna be tough so I hope you guys enjoy =D - Lazy
http://wn.com/Deus_Ex_Human_Revolution_Hardest_Difficulty_Pacifist_Achievement_Walkthrough_Part_1
Hey guys, Lazy here and were knocking out a BIG walkthrough with an insanely hard achievement to get, Pacifist. You cannot kill ANYONE through out the whole game with the exception of bosses. Along with this walkthrough will be the "Foxiest of the Hounds" & "Legend" achievements. This walkthrough is gonna be tough so I hope you guys enjoy =D - Lazy
- published: 24 Aug 2011
- views: 14634
- author: Lazysgames
System shock 2 Pacifist's approach - Episode 1
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:24
- Updated: 08 Nov 2012
First from a series of episodes about surviving System shock 2 without using any weaponry at all. Goal : Achive 'Crystal shard' run (Get to Ops where Crystal shard is, not firing a single bullet nor swinging the wrench at any occasion) This is my second run - I do not prepare anything before recording so I might get lost from time to time - sorry for that :P
http://wn.com/System_shock_2_Pacifist's_approach_Episode_1
First from a series of episodes about surviving System shock 2 without using any weaponry at all. Goal : Achive 'Crystal shard' run (Get to Ops where Crystal shard is, not firing a single bullet nor swinging the wrench at any occasion) This is my second run - I do not prepare anything before recording so I might get lost from time to time - sorry for that :P
- published: 21 May 2008
- views: 14616
- author: ShephardReborn
Dj Vadim feat. Yarah Bravo - The Pacifist
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:40
- Updated: 15 Dec 2012
USSR The Art Of Listening. UK
http://wn.com/Dj_Vadim_feat_Yarah_Bravo_The_Pacifist
Pacifist's Anthem - The Sunparlour Players
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 6:31
- Updated: 16 Jan 2013
Another beautiful song by the SPP. :o) Live at the Black Sheep Inn, Wakefield, QC Oct. 31, 2008 Lyrics: I dont fight and I dont steal I might believe in things you dont think are real I know my wrong and I can learn to fight I keep my heart on the outside so it can see more light I killed for the rich and I bled for gold I ignored all the babies and the sick, the weak and the old And I lost touch with a friend But please believe in the end I can always depend on him I woke in a field beside a ditch And the sun came up and the Earth turned on its switch And I came to a fork and I made a choice So I got into that ditch and I followed wherever I heard a voice So I came to that door and I rung that bell And I saw that friend that Id lost and we sat down for a spell Wade in that water, learn to swim Either Ill sink or Ill float thats a good way to begin
http://wn.com/Pacifist's_Anthem_The_Sunparlour_Players
Another beautiful song by the SPP. :o) Live at the Black Sheep Inn, Wakefield, QC Oct. 31, 2008 Lyrics: I dont fight and I dont steal I might believe in things you dont think are real I know my wrong and I can learn to fight I keep my heart on the outside so it can see more light I killed for the rich and I bled for gold I ignored all the babies and the sick, the weak and the old And I lost touch with a friend But please believe in the end I can always depend on him I woke in a field beside a ditch And the sun came up and the Earth turned on its switch And I came to a fork and I made a choice So I got into that ditch and I followed wherever I heard a voice So I came to that door and I rung that bell And I saw that friend that Id lost and we sat down for a spell Wade in that water, learn to swim Either Ill sink or Ill float thats a good way to begin
- published: 19 Nov 2008
- views: 21188
- author: eniko76
KotOR 2: HK-47 Gets a Protocol Pacifist Package
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:05
- Updated: 16 Jan 2013
What would happen if you gave HK-47 an upgrade that made him a bit more like C-3PO?
http://wn.com/KotOR_2_HK-47_Gets_a_Protocol_Pacifist_Package
What would happen if you gave HK-47 an upgrade that made him a bit more like C-3PO?
- published: 27 May 2008
- views: 71141
- author: tehPrincessJ
Deus Ex 3 - Foxy Pacifist Walkthrough - Prologue mission
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:59
- Updated: 08 Jan 2013
A walkthrough demonstrating the "Foxiest of the Hounds" and "Pacifist" achievements on the hardest difficulty (Give Me Deus Ex). I'll mostly be playing Mr. Nice Guy unless doing otherwise results in more dialogue. I'll be hacking as many computers as possible for the emails' story value, but won't be backtracking very much just to sell items for credits. I skipped the introductory movie and cut-scene, as there are already enough of them on YouTube. The next video may take a while to make, as I must begin some long-term planning. -- FAQ -- Q: Does the walkthrough include the Doctorate achievement? A: I intentionally miss one of the eBooks, and I've added an annotation where that occurs. Q: Why didn't you explore [insert description of an area] or pick up [insert item here]? A: Since this game has stealth bonuses and so many items littered around the world, I had to balance between completionism and ease, so I'm trying to only explore or pick up things that are very valuable or conveniently along the way. Q: Computer specs? A: i5 750, Radeon HD 5750, 4 GB DDR2 Q: How are you capturing and encoding the video? A: I capture with Fraps and then encode with AviSynth & MeGUI. The basic specs are x264 2-pass 4096kbps (turbo), Nero AAC 192kbps ABR. Please don't ask me to teach you how to use them. Q: "Jump" is bound to 'A'? What kind of messed-up config are you using? A: A unique one that I came up with while playing Duke Nukem as a child. It's confused every single person I've ...
http://wn.com/Deus_Ex_3_Foxy_Pacifist_Walkthrough_Prologue_mission
A walkthrough demonstrating the "Foxiest of the Hounds" and "Pacifist" achievements on the hardest difficulty (Give Me Deus Ex). I'll mostly be playing Mr. Nice Guy unless doing otherwise results in more dialogue. I'll be hacking as many computers as possible for the emails' story value, but won't be backtracking very much just to sell items for credits. I skipped the introductory movie and cut-scene, as there are already enough of them on YouTube. The next video may take a while to make, as I must begin some long-term planning. -- FAQ -- Q: Does the walkthrough include the Doctorate achievement? A: I intentionally miss one of the eBooks, and I've added an annotation where that occurs. Q: Why didn't you explore [insert description of an area] or pick up [insert item here]? A: Since this game has stealth bonuses and so many items littered around the world, I had to balance between completionism and ease, so I'm trying to only explore or pick up things that are very valuable or conveniently along the way. Q: Computer specs? A: i5 750, Radeon HD 5750, 4 GB DDR2 Q: How are you capturing and encoding the video? A: I capture with Fraps and then encode with AviSynth & MeGUI. The basic specs are x264 2-pass 4096kbps (turbo), Nero AAC 192kbps ABR. Please don't ask me to teach you how to use them. Q: "Jump" is bound to 'A'? What kind of messed-up config are you using? A: A unique one that I came up with while playing Duke Nukem as a child. It's confused every single person I've ...
- published: 26 Aug 2011
- views: 10917
- author: shido534
Skyrim Builds: Pacifist
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:26
- Updated: 16 Jan 2013
A build for all you hippies out there! My Steam Group: steamcommunity.com
http://wn.com/Skyrim_Builds_Pacifist
A build for all you hippies out there! My Steam Group: steamcommunity.com
- published: 07 Apr 2012
- views: 20718
- author: MisterShizno
Deus Ex: Human Revolution - Hardest Difficulty & Pacifist Achievement Walkthrough - Part 2
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 10:28
- Updated: 07 Jan 2013
Part 2 Deus Ex: Human Revolution - Hardest Difficulty & Pacifist Walkthrough Lazysgames
http://wn.com/Deus_Ex_Human_Revolution_Hardest_Difficulty_Pacifist_Achievement_Walkthrough_Part_2
Part 2 Deus Ex: Human Revolution - Hardest Difficulty & Pacifist Walkthrough Lazysgames
- published: 25 Aug 2011
- views: 8071
- author: Lazysgames
Modern Warfare 3 Griefing- The Pacifist Team Killer
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:30
- Updated: 14 Jan 2013
In this video, I act like a pacifist to annoy my team mates. I say that I'm preventing innocent people from being killed. Angry reactions follow. Along with an Angry, Racist Scottish guy. My gameplay channel, 'MichaelTheKarrit': www.youtube.com Intro By: www.youtube.com FaceBook: www.facebook.com Twitter: www.twitter.com
http://wn.com/Modern_Warfare_3_Griefing_The_Pacifist_Team_Killer
In this video, I act like a pacifist to annoy my team mates. I say that I'm preventing innocent people from being killed. Angry reactions follow. Along with an Angry, Racist Scottish guy. My gameplay channel, 'MichaelTheKarrit': www.youtube.com Intro By: www.youtube.com FaceBook: www.facebook.com Twitter: www.twitter.com
- published: 22 Nov 2011
- views: 15675
- author: KillerKarrit
Deus Ex - Part 1 - Prologue - Legend / Doctorate / Pacifist / Foxiest Full Walkthrough
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 7:25
- Updated: 29 Dec 2012
Full text and video guides for top games: www.gameguidecentral.com Follow us for updates twitter.com Deus Ex: Human Revolution - Legend / Doctorate / Pacifist / Foxiest Full Walkthrough This is the Prologue 0 ebooks Achievements acquire: Old School Gamer
http://wn.com/Deus_Ex_Part_1_Prologue_Legend_Doctorate_Pacifist_Foxiest_Full_Walkthrough
Full text and video guides for top games: www.gameguidecentral.com Follow us for updates twitter.com Deus Ex: Human Revolution - Legend / Doctorate / Pacifist / Foxiest Full Walkthrough This is the Prologue 0 ebooks Achievements acquire: Old School Gamer
- published: 27 Aug 2011
- views: 9473
- author: savgcom
★ The Epic Adventures of Pacifist Heavy: Ep. 1: Credit to team - Herbalisti - WAY➚
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:34
- Updated: 18 Jan 2013
Ep. 1 - Credit to team First adventure of Pacifist Heavy Hope you like it! Click "Like" and "Add to... Favorite" if you like this video. Helps us make more! Tell us what you think in the comments below. _______________________________________ Herbalisti on YouTube ➜ www.youtube.com ➜ www.youtube.com _______________________________________ WAY? (We Are You) ➜ tgn.tv _______________________________________ YouTube Handbook -- How to get more views! ➜ tgn.tv _______________________________________ Livestream handbook -- How to get more views! ➜ tgn.tv _______________________________________ TGN Finnish Facebook ➜ facebook.com TGN Finnish Twitter ➜ twitter.com TGN Finnish Steam ➜ steamcommunity.com TGN Finnish IRC (Webchat) ➜ webchat.quakenet.org _______________________________________ Stay up-to-date on everything TGN! ➜ tgn.tv _______________________________________ Get more TGN! ➜ tgn.tv
http://wn.com/★_The_Epic_Adventures_of_Pacifist_Heavy_Ep_1_Credit_to_team_Herbalisti_WAY➚
Ep. 1 - Credit to team First adventure of Pacifist Heavy Hope you like it! Click "Like" and "Add to... Favorite" if you like this video. Helps us make more! Tell us what you think in the comments below. _______________________________________ Herbalisti on YouTube ➜ www.youtube.com ➜ www.youtube.com _______________________________________ WAY? (We Are You) ➜ tgn.tv _______________________________________ YouTube Handbook -- How to get more views! ➜ tgn.tv _______________________________________ Livestream handbook -- How to get more views! ➜ tgn.tv _______________________________________ TGN Finnish Facebook ➜ facebook.com TGN Finnish Twitter ➜ twitter.com TGN Finnish Steam ➜ steamcommunity.com TGN Finnish IRC (Webchat) ➜ webchat.quakenet.org _______________________________________ Stay up-to-date on everything TGN! ➜ tgn.tv _______________________________________ Get more TGN! ➜ tgn.tv
- published: 14 Mar 2012
- views: 50360
- author: tgnFinnish
★ WhiteSword - Deus Ex: Human Revolution: Let's Play Pacifist Achievements #7
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 16:43
- Updated: 08 Jan 2013
Video Marathon of Madness Day 6 of 30 www.facebook.com steamcommunity.com
http://wn.com/★_WhiteSword_Deus_Ex_Human_Revolution_Let's_Play_Pacifist_Achievements_7
Video Marathon of Madness Day 6 of 30 www.facebook.com steamcommunity.com
- published: 06 Jun 2012
- views: 169
- author: WhiteSword
photo: Creative Commons / INABA Tomoaki
16 Jan 2013
YURI KAGEYAMA. AP Business Writers= TOKYO (AP) — Boeing Co.'s 787 planes were grounded for safety checks Wednesday by two major Japanese airlines after one was forced to make an emergency landing in the latest blow for the new jet ... The 787, known as the Dreamliner, is Boeing's newest and most technologically advanced jet, and the company is counting heavily on its success ... The grounding was done voluntarily by the airlines ... The U.S ... U.S....(size: 11.1Kb)
photo: White House / Pete Souza
17 Jan 2013
AMY TEIBEL. Associated Press= JERUSALEM (AP) — Israel's premier on Wednesday dismissed President Barack Obama's reported displeasure with his hard-line policies toward the Palestinians, a sisgn that the two could be headed for a showdown. Polls suggest Benjamin Netanyahu is poised to win Israel's elections next week and continue in office ... could suffer in unprecedented ways if the Israeli government doesn't change its policies....(size: 10.2Kb)
photo: GFDL
17 Jan 2013
TOKYO. Aviation regulators on Thursday grounded most of the world's 787 Dreamliner fleet until a fire risk linked to the plane's batteries can been fixed, deepening a crisis for its US manufacturer Boeing. Regulators in Japan, India and Chile followed the lead of the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) in ordering an indefinite halt to all operations, after a Japanese Dreamliner on Wednesday was forced into an emergency landing ... ....(size: 4.5Kb)
photo: US Army / Staff Sgt. Michael R. Noggle
18 Jan 2013
“For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction” is Newton’s third law of physics. Its counterpart in geopolitics is “blowback,” when military action in one sphere produces an unintended and undesirable consequence in another. September 11, 2001, was blowback. George H.W. Bush had sent an army of half a million to hurl Saddam Hussein out of Kuwait, a triumph ... bases in Saudi Arabia ... Patrick J....(size: 5.8Kb)
photo: French MoD photo
16 Jan 2013
BAMAKO, Mali -- After a punishing bombing campaign failed to halt the advance of al-Qaida-linked fighters, France pledged Tuesday to triple the size of its force in Mali, sending in hundreds more troops as it prepared for a land assault to dislodge the militants occupying the country's northern half ... On Tuesday, France announced that it was increasing the number of troops from 800 to 2,500 ... "We have one objective ... On Tuesday, U.S ... ....(size: 3.6Kb)
Jakarta Post
19 Jan 2013
Paper Edition . Page. 7. Forty years ago, in 1973, a nascent ASEAN comprising the association’s five founding members met with Japan to iron out issues relating to synthetic rubber production. It was an important undertaking. The ASEAN countries represented latex producers and Japan was the largest producer of synthetic rubber ... destiny ... The country’s pacifist constitution, however, prevented Tokyo from fulfilling this expectation ... ....(size: 6.3Kb)
China Daily
18 Jan 2013
Beijing on Friday played down the possibility of a conflict between China and Japan over the Diaoyu Islands, urging Tokyo to show restraint and solve problems through talks ... Yamaguchi's party is part of Japan's coalition government ... "Despite its close relationship with the ruling party, the New Komeito Party maintains a friendly relationship with China and opposes revising the pacifist constitution as proposed by Abe," Feng said....(size: 3.2Kb)
The Hindu
18 Jan 2013
This obscure corner of India is currently in the news for the brutal killing of two soldiers on the Indian side and one dead on the Pakistani side, suspending hopes, faint as they were, of the likes of Begum Jaan being reunited with family on the other side of the border. The incident that led to the suspension of cross-LoC trade and bus service has left several divided families and pacifists on both sides deeply disturbed ... Keywords....(size: 4.8Kb)
Deccan Herald
18 Jan 2013
Building ever more destructive weapons simply increases the horror of war, not the certainty of ending it ... Shultz and Henry A Kissinger, the former defence secretary William Perry and the former senator Sam Nunn — called for “a world free of nuclear weapons,” giving new momentum to an idea that had moved from the sidelines of pacifist idealism to the centre of foreign policy debate ... America’s decision ... ....(size: 5.2Kb)
Reuters
18 Jan 2013
TOKYO (Reuters) - Decades of deep business ties between Boeing Co and Japan and the thousands of jobs that depend on them mean Japan will likely keep rewarding U.S ... BOEING'S BEST CUSTOMERS ... defense contractors including Lockheed Martin and Raytheon Co remain in pole position for military contracts from a nation that will spend $52 billion on its military in the year to March - despite the restraints of a pacifist constitution....(size: 6.1Kb)
The Guardian
18 Jan 2013
By Tim Kelly. TOKYO (Reuters) - Decades of deep business ties between Boeing Co and Japan and the thousands of jobs that depend on them mean Japan will likely keep rewarding U.S ... defence contractors including Lockheed Martin and Raytheon Co remain in pole position for military contracts from a nation that will spend $52 billion (32 billion pounds) on its military in the year to March - despite the restraints of a pacifist constitution....(size: 19.5Kb)
CNN
18 Jan 2013
January 18, 2013 -- Updated 1040 GMT (1840 HKT). Bamako, Mali (CNN) -- French warplanes pounded Islamist militant targets in Mali Thursday as international efforts to help the African nation's government fight insurgents gained momentum ... "People are desperate to get out," said Ibrahim Toure, a civilian who left Diabaly on Thursday ... Is al Qaeda close to calling Mali home?. French 'liberators' welcomed in Mali ... 0 ... French are "not pacifists"....(size: 9.4Kb)
The Guardian
18 Jan 2013
John Graham has been setting crosswords for half a century. Last week, he used one to reveal he has cancer. Here he talks about the art of setting and what makes his solvers so loyal ... Photograph. David Sillitoe for the Guardian ... A colleague, who did the crossword with her daughter, said ... I hung around for a bit, and then I thought, I don't think I really like this war – for a couple of years, I suppose, I was probably a pacifist." ... ....(size: 13.0Kb)
Sun Sentinel
17 Jan 2013
The revision to the guidelines, which set rules on how Japanese and U.S. forces work together in or near Japan, comes after a hawkish Abe led his Liberal Democratic Party to power in an election last month ... and Japanese officials ... But Japanese governments have traditionally interpreted the pacifist constitution as banning the actual exercise of the right, creating a sore spot in Tokyo's security ties with Washington ... ....(size: 3.7Kb)
The Star
17 Jan 2013
The revision to the guidelines, which set rules on how Japanese and U.S. forces work together in or near Japan, comes after a hawkish Abe led his Liberal Democratic Party to power in an election last month ... and Japanese officials ... But Japanese governments have traditionally interpreted the pacifist constitution as banning the actual exercise of the right, creating a sore spot in Tokyo's security ties with Washington ... ....(size: 2.5Kb)
China Daily
17 Jan 2013
Hatoyama makes symbolic gesture, but Tokyo keeps 'hard-line stance'. A former Japanese leader visited a memorial site to victims of Japanese wartime aggression, but analysts were quick to reject any suggestion that Tokyo will change its policies toward China ... Despite these developments, analysts said there was no indication of Tokyo changing policies ... The pacifistic New Komeito Party is part of Japan's coalition government....(size: 4.2Kb)
Vogue
17 Jan 2013
Nancy was, in fact, American, and something of a “dynamo,” as Adrian Fort puts it in Nancy. The Story of Lady Astor (St ... ... ... ... “What I really like to have in my house is a party which contains thoroughly opposing elements—pacifists and fire-eaters, reformers and diehards, rich and poor, old and young ... ... Where suffragettes demanded equality, Nancy took the opposite approach ... ... ... Nancy ... ....(size: 4.4Kb)
American Spectator
17 Jan 2013
By Mark Tooley on 1.17.13 @ 6.07AM. The Religious Left is all fired up — and half-cocked — about its new opportunity ... And no Religious Left campaign is complete without Sojourners activist Jim Wallis ... True, but Wallis the pacifist sidesteps historic Christian teaching that morally sanctions the defenders of the innocent against attackers on the innocent, even if all parties are indeed sinners ... press conference is dubious. ....(size: 5.7Kb)
"Pacifist" redirects here. For other uses, see Pacifist (disambiguation).
"Dovish" redirects here. For the economic term, see Dovish (inflation).
Pacifism is the opposition to war and violence. The term "pacifism" was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud (1864–1921) and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress in Glasgow in 1901.[1] The concept is an ancient one that goes back to the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (Buddha) and Jesus. In modern times, it was refined by Mohandas Gandhi (1869-1948) into the practice of steadfast nonviolent opposition which he called "satyagraha". Its effectiveness served as inspiration to Martin Luther King Jr. among many others. An iconic image of pacifism came out of the Tiananmen Square Protests of 1989 with the "Tank Man", where one protester stood in nonviolent opposition to a column of tanks. Historians have identified that event as being a key motivation that led to the fall of the Berlin Wall which ultimately precipitated the nonviolent fall of Communism. The Arab Spring movement is a current example where pacifist methods have been used.
Contents |
Definition[link]
Pacifism covers a spectrum of views, including the belief that international disputes can and should be peacefully resolved, calls for the abolition of the institutions of the military and war, opposition to any organization of society through governmental force (anarchist or libertarian pacifism), rejection of the use of physical violence to obtain political, economic or social goals, the obliteration of force except in cases where it is absolutely necessary to advance the cause of peace, and opposition to violence under any circumstance, even defense of self and others. Historians of pacifism Peter Brock and Thomas Paul Socknat define pacifism "in the sense generally accepted in English-speaking areas" as "an unconditional rejection of all forms of warfare".[2] Philosopher Jenny Teichman defines the main form of pacifism as "anti-warism", the rejection of all forms of warfare.[3] Teichman's beliefs have been summarized by Brian Orend as "...A pacifist rejects war and believes there are no moral grounds which can justify resorting to war. War, for the pacifist, is always wrong." The whole theory is based on the idea that the end does NOT justify the means.[4]
Moral considerations[link]
Pacifism may be based on moral principles (a deontological view) or pragmatism (a consequentialist view). Principled pacifism holds that at some point along the spectrum from war to interpersonal physical violence, such violence becomes morally wrong. Pragmatic pacifism holds that the costs of war and interpersonal violence are so substantial that better ways of resolving disputes must be found. Pacifists in general usually reject theories of Just War. Some, however, believe that if the foe is willing to hurt others, then it is justified to respond with force, even to the extent of the atomic bomb. Such people can be called semi-pacifists.
A counterargument to this is the belief that even if one side's resort to force can provide more peace in the long run, people on both sides will think they are on that side due to the worse side's propaganda, so it would be safer for both sides to oppose war despite both believing they are on that side which should resort to force.
Nonviolence[link]
Some pacifists follow principles of nonviolence, believing that nonviolent action is morally superior and/or pragmatically most effective. Some pacifists, however, support physical violence for emergency defense of self or others. Others support destruction of property in such emergencies or for conducting symbolic acts of resistance like pouring red paint to represent blood on the outside of military recruiting offices or entering air force bases and hammering on military aircraft.
By no means is all nonviolent resistance (sometimes also called civil resistance) based on a fundamental rejection of all violence in all circumstances. Many leaders and participants in such movements, while recognizing the importance of using non-violent methods in particular circumstances, have not been absolute pacifists. Sometimes, as with the US civil rights movement's march from Selma to Montgomery in 1965, they have called for armed protection. The interconnections between civil resistance and factors of force are numerous and complex.[5]
Non-aggression[link]
In contrast to the nonviolence principle stands the non-aggression principle which rejects the initiation of violence, but permits the use of violence for self-defense or delegated defense. People supporting the non-aggression principle claim that the moral prohibition of the use of violence follows from argumentation ethics, which applies only when people are using argumentation to solve disputes. So it does not apply when someone is subject to initiated violence, and hence self-defense is not morally rejected. Another possible approach is a semantic one: the claim that defense and aggression are fundamentally different, a point that is obscured when using terms like "defensive violence" and "initiated violence"; that there is no moral prohibition on defense and no need to justify it or make an exception for it.[citation needed]
Dove[link]
"Dove" or "dovish" are informal terms used, especially in politics, for people who prefer to avoid war or prefer war as a last resort. The terms refer to the story of Noah's Ark in which the dove came to symbolize the hope of salvation and peace.[citation needed] Similarly, in common parlance, the opposite of a dove is a hawk or war hawk.
Early history[link]
Advocacy of pacifism can be found far back in history and literature.
India[link]
Compassion for all life, human and nonhuman, is central to Buddhism, which was founded by Siddhattha Gotama; and also Jainism, which was founded by Mahavira 599–527 BC. Both the Buddha and Mahavira were by birth kshatriya, the varna (social order) of soldiers and officials. An unusual example is that of Emperor Ashoka who became a pacifist after the bloody Kalinga war.[citation needed]
Greece[link]
In Ancient Greece, however, pacifism seems not to have existed except as a broad moral guideline against violence between individuals. No philosophical program of rejecting violence between states, or rejecting all forms of violence, seems to have existed. Aristophanes, in his play Lysistrata, creates the scenario of an Athenian woman's anti-war sex strike during the Peloponnesian War of 431–404 BC, and the play has gained an international reputation for its anti-war message. Nevertheless, it is both fictional and comical, and though it offers a pragmatic opposition to the destructiveness of war, its message seems to stem from frustration with the existing conflict (then in its twentieth year) rather than from a philosophical position against violence or war. Equally fictional is the nonviolent protest of Hegetorides of Thasos.
Italy[link]
Panda was a god of peace (according to a gloss by Philoxenos).[6] (The derivation of this name "Panda" is from "pandi" 'unfold, publish', and is an allusion to the openness and forthrightness of pacifists.)
China[link]
During the Warring States Period, the pacifist Mohist School opposed aggressive war between the feudal states. They took this belief into action by using their famed defensive strategies to defend smaller states from invasion from larger states, hoping to dissuade feudal lords from costly warfare.
The Taoist scripture "Classic of Great Peace (Taiping jing)" foretells "the coming Age of Great Peace (taiping)."[7] The Taiping Jing advocates "a world full of peace".[8]
Africa[link]
The Lemba religion of southern French Congo, along with its symbolic herb, is named for pacifism : " "lemba, lemba" (peace, peace), describes the action of the plant lemba-lemba (Brillantaisia patula T. Anders)".[9] Likewise in Cabinda, "Lemba is the spirit of peace, as its name indicates."[10]
Chatham Islands[link]
The Moriori, of the Chatham Islands, practiced pacifism by order of their ancestor Nunuku-whenua. This enabled the Moriori to preserve what limited resources they had in their harsh climate, avoiding waste through warfare. In turn, this led to their almost complete annihilation in 1835 by invading Ngāti Mutunga and Ngāti Tama Māori from the Taranaki region of the North Island of New Zealand. The invading Māori killed, enslaved and cannibalised the Moriori.
New Zealand[link]
Among the Māori, the major god Rongo is the "god of peace".[11] The minor god Kahungunu is "a pacifist in spirit".[12]
Hawaii[link]
In Hawaii at the time of Captain Cook's visit (1779 Chr.E.), Lono was worshipped as "god of peace".[13]
North America[link]
The Whilkut of northern California have a bird-god of peace-making, "Merk" ('Egret').[14]
The Hopi people, whose name means 'Peaceful'[15] ("Hopi" is a contraction of /hopitu/ 'peaceful'),[16] have followed religious doctrine that is generally "anti-war".[17]
Among the Aztecs, Quetzalcoatl was "god of Peace ..., who required his people to live in peace".[18]
Judea under Roman control[link]
Throughout history, many have understood Jesus of Nazareth to have been a pacifist,[19] drawing on his Sermon on the Mount (see Christian pacifism). In the sermon Jesus stated that one should "not resist an evildoer" and promoted his turn the other cheek philosophy. "If anyone strikes you on the right cheek, turn the other also; and if anyone wants to sue you and take your coat, give your cloak as well... Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who abuse you."[20][21][22] The New Testament story is of Jesus, besides preaching these words, surrendering himself freely to an enemy intent on having him killed and proscribing his followers from defending him.
There are those, however, who deny that Jesus was a pacifist[19] and state that Jesus never said that not to fight,[22] citing examples from the New Testament. One such instance portrays an angry Jesus driving dishonest market traders from the temple.[22] A frequently quoted passage is Luke 22:36: "He said to them, 'But now, the one who has a purse must take it, and likewise a bag. And the one who has no sword must sell his cloak and buy one.'" Others have interpreted the non-pacifist statements in the New Testament to be related to self-defense or to be metaphorical and state that on no occasion did Jesus shed blood or urge others to shed blood.[19]
Roman Empire[link]
Seneca the Younger expressed criticism of warfare in his book Naturales quaestiones (circa 65 AD).[23]
Maximilian of Tebessa was a conscientious objector. He was killed for refusing to be conscripted. [24]
Cathars[link]
Known in the Balkans as Bogomils and in northern Italy and southern France as Cathars, they were pacifists totally dedicated to nonviolence. The Cathars were actually branded heretics, persecuted, and eventually annihilated by the Catholic Church through the Albigensian Crusade and the Inquisition that followed.[25] "These heretics are worse than the saracens" exclaimed Pope Innocent III, and on March 10, 1208, after the murder of the papal legate Pierre de Castelnau, probably by Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse, the pope took full advantage of it and proclaimed a crusade against a sect in southern France.[26]
Modern history[link]
Beginning in the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation gave rise to a variety of new Christian sects, including the historic peace churches. Foremost among them were the Religious Society of Friends (Quakers), Amish, Mennonites and Church of the Brethren. After its founding by Quaker pacifist William Penn, Quaker-controlled colonial Pennsylvania employed an anti-militarist public policy. Unlike residents of many of the colonies, Quakers chose to trade peacefully with the Indians, including for land. The colonial province was, for the 75 years from 1681 to 1756, essentially unarmed and experienced little or no warfare in that period.
The humanist writer Desiderius Erasmus was one of the most outspoken pacifists of the Renaissance, arguing strongly against warfare in his essays The Praise of Folly (1509) and The Complaint of Peace (1517).[27]
From the 16th to the 18th centuries, a number of thinkers devised plans for an international organisation that would promote peace, and reduce or even eliminate the occurrence of war. These included the French politician Duc de Sully, the philosophers Émeric Crucé and the Abbe de Saint-Pierre, and the Quakers William Penn and John Bellers.[28][29] These internationalist ideas influenced both Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who promoted Saint-Pierre's plan, (while criticising many aspects of it), in Extrait du Projet de Paix Perpetuelle de Monsieur l'Abbe Saint-Pierre (1756),[30] and Immanuel Kant, in his Thoughts on Perpetual Peace.[31]
Bohemian Bernard Bolzano (1781–1848) taught about the social waste of militarism and the needlessness of war. He urged a total reform of the educational, social, and economic systems that would direct the nation's interests toward peace rather than toward armed conflict between nations.
Nineteenth century[link]
In the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars, a number of peace societies were set up to prevent future conflicts. The first such movements were the New York Peace Society, founded in 1815 by the theologian David Low Dodge, and the Massachusetts Peace Society. These groups merged with other US peace groups in 1828 to form the American Peace Society.[32] The London Peace Society (also known as the Society for the Promotion of Permanent and Universal Peace) was formed in 1816 with similar aims, and in the 1840s, British women formed "Olive Leaf Circles", groups of around 15 to 20 women, who discussed and promoted pacifist ideas.[33]
Russian writer Leo Tolstoy was a fervent advocate of pacifism. In one of his latter works, The Kingdom of God is Within You, Tolstoy provides a detailed history, account and defense of pacifism. Tolstoy's work inspired a movement named after him advocating pacifism to arise in Russia and elsewhere.[34] The book was a major early influence on Mohandas K. Gandhi (1869–1948), and the two engaged in regular correspondence while Gandhi was active in South Africa.[35]
Bertha von Suttner, the first woman to be a Nobel Peace Prize laureate, became a leading figure in the peace movement with the publication of her novel, Die Waffen nieder! ("Lay Down Your Arms!") in 1889 and founded an Austrian pacifist organization in 1891.
Resistance to colonialism[link]
In New Zealand, during the latter half of the 19th century British colonists used many tactics to confiscate land from the indigenous Māori, including warfare. In the 1870s and 1880s, Parihaka, then reputed to be the largest Māori village in New Zealand, became the centre of a major campaign of non-violent resistance to European occupation of confiscated land in the area. One Māori leader, Te Whiti-o-Rongomai, inspired warriors to stand up for their rights without using weapons, which had led to defeat in the past. In 1881 he convinced 2000 Maori to welcome battle-hardened British soldiers into their village and even offered food and drink. He allowed himself and his people to be arrested without resistance for opposing land confiscation. He is remembered as a great leader because the "passive resistance" he practiced prevented British massacres and even protected far more land than violent resistance.[36]
Mohandas K. Gandhi was a major political and spiritual leader of India, instrumental in the Indian independence movement. The Nobel prize winning great poet Rabindranath Tagore, who was also an Indian, gave him the honorific "Mahatma", usually translated "Great Soul." He was the pioneer of a brand of nonviolence (or ahimsa) which he called satyagraha --translated literally as "truth force". This was the resistance of tyranny through civil disobedience that was not only nonviolent but also sought to change the heart of the opponent. He contrasted this with duragraha, "resistant force," which sought only to change behaviour with stubborn protest.
During his 30 years of work (1917–1947) for the independence of his country from the British Raj, Gandhi led dozens of nonviolent campaigns, spent over seven years in prison, and fasted nearly to the death on several occasions to obtain British compliance with a demand or to stop inter-communal violence. His efforts helped lead India to independence in 1947, and inspired movements for civil rights and freedom worldwide.
World War I[link]
There was strong antiwar sentiment in Western Europe during the 19th century. Many socialist groups and movements were antimilitarist, arguing that war by its nature was a type of governmental coercion of the working class for the benefit of capitalist elites. The French socialist pacifist leader Jean Jaurès was assassinated by a nationalist fanatic on July 31, 1914. The national parties in the Second International increasingly supported their respective nations in war and the International was dissolved in 1916. Nevertheless many groups protested against the war, including the traditional peace churches, the Woman's Peace Party (which was organized in 1915 and led by noted reformer Jane Addams) and the International Committee of Women for Permanent Peace (ICWPP) (also organized in 1915).[37] Other groups included the American Union Against Militarism, the Fellowship of Reconciliation, and the American Friends Service Committee.[38] Jeanette Rankin, the first woman elected to Congress, was another fierce advocate of pacifism, the only person to vote no to America's entrance into both World Wars.
Between the two World Wars[link]
In the aftermath of World War I, there was a great revulsion against war, leading to the formation of War Resisters' International[39] and the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, and in Britain the No More War Movement and the Peace Pledge Union (PPU). The League of Nations convened several disarmament conferences in the inter-war period.
The British Labour Party had a strong pacifist wing in the early 1930s and between 1931 and 1935 was led by George Lansbury, a Christian pacifist who later chaired the No More War Movement and was president of the PPU. The 1933 annual conference resolved unanimously to "pledge itself to take no part in war". "Labour's official position, however, although based on the aspiration towards a world socialist commonwealth and the outlawing of war, did not imply a renunciation of force under all circumstances, but rather support for the ill-defined concept of 'collective security' under the League of Nations. At the same time, on the party's left, Stafford Cripps's small but vocal Socialist League opposed the official policy, on the non-pacifist ground that the League of Nations was 'nothing but the tool of the satiated imperialist powers'."[40] Lansbury was eventually persuaded to resign as Labour leader by the non-pacifist wing of the party and was replaced by Clement Attlee.[41] As the threat from Nazi Germany increased in the 1930s, the Labour Party abandoned its pacifist position and supported re-armament, largely due to the efforts of Ernest Bevin and Hugh Dalton who by 1937 had also persuaded the party to oppose Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement.[42]
In the Soviet Union, pacifism was initially tolerated. However with the advent of Joseph Stalin's rule, while a pro-Soviet "peace movement" was allowed to operate abroad, "home-grown pacifism was ruthlessly suppressed"; all Soviet pacifist organisations were closed down by 1929. Stalin's regime also removed the law permitting conscientious objectors to serve in noncombatant roles in the Red Army.[43] A number of Tolstoyan pacifists were known to be among prisoners in the gulags in the 1940s and 1950s. [44]
A noted Canadian pacifist was the politician J. S. Woodsworth, who called for the strengthening of the League of Nations to ensure world peace. Woodsworth also called for the use of economic sanctions against states that committed aggression, such as Italy when it invaded Abyssinia.[45] Agnes Macphail, another noted Canadian pacifist, was the first woman to be elected to the Canadian House of Commons. Macphail objected to the Royal Military College of Canada in 1931 on pacific grounds.[46] Macphail was also the first Canadian woman delegate to the League of Nations, where she worked with the World Disarmament Committee. Although a pacifist, she voted for Canada to enter World War II.
The Spanish Civil War proved a major test for international pacifism, and the work of pacifist organisations (such as War Resisters' International and the Fellowship of Reconciliation) and individuals (such as José Brocca and Amparo Poch) in that arena has until recently[when?] been ignored or forgotten by historians, overshadowed by the memory of the International Brigades and other militaristic interventions. Shortly after the war ended, Simone Weil, despite having volunteered for service on the republican side, went on to publish The Iliad or the Poem of Force, a work that has been described as a pacifist manifesto.[47] In response to the threat of fascism, some pacifist thinkers, such as Richard B. Gregg, devised plans for a campaign of nonviolent resistance in the event of a fascist invasion or takeover.[48]
World War II[link]
With the start of World War II, pacifist and anti-war sentiment declined in nations affected by war. Even the communist-controlled American Peace Mobilization reversed its anti-war activism once Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, mainstream isolationist groups like the America First Committee, declined, but many smaller religious and socialist groups continued their opposition to war. Bertrand Russell argued that the necessity of defeating Adolf Hitler and the Nazis was a unique circumstance where war was not the worst of the possible evils; he called his position relative pacifism. H. G. Wells, who had joked after the armistice ending World War I that the British had suffered more from the war than they would have from submission to Germany, urged in 1941 a large-scale British offensive on the continent of Europe to combat Hitler and Nazism.[citation needed] Similarly Albert Einstein wrote: "I loathe all armies and any kind of violence; yet I'm firmly convinced that at present these hateful weapons offer the only effective protection."[49]
Pacifists in the Third Reich were dealt with harshly; German pacifist Carl von Ossietzky,[50] and Olaf Kullmann, a Norwegian pacifist active during the Nazi occupation,[51] were both imprisoned in concentration camps and died as a result of their mistreatment there. Austrian farmer Franz Jägerstätter was executed in 1943 for refusing to serve in the Wehrmacht.[52]
There were conscientious objectors and war tax resisters in both World War I and World War II. The United States government allowed sincere objectors to serve in noncombatant military roles. However, those draft resisters who refused any cooperation with the war effort often spent much of each war in federal prisons. During World War II, pacifist leaders like Dorothy Day and Ammon Hennacy of the Catholic Worker Movement urged young Americans not to enlist in military service.
Later twentieth century[link]
Martin Luther King, Jr (1929–1968), a Baptist minister, led the American civil rights movement which successfully used Gandhian nonviolent resistance to repeal laws enforcing racial segregation and work for integration of schools, businesses and government. In 1957, his wife Coretta Scott King, Albert Schweitzer, Benjamin Spock, and others formed the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy (now Peace Action) to resist the nuclear arms race. In 1958 British activists formed the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament with Bertrand Russell as its president.
In 1960, Thich Nhat Hanh came to the US to study comparative religion at Princeton University and subsequently was appointed lecturer in Buddhism at Columbia University. Thich Nhat Hanh had written a letter to Martin Luther King in 1965 entitled "Searching for the Enemy of Man" and during his 1966 stay in the US met with King and urged him to publicly denounce the Vietnam War.[53] King gave his famous speech at the Riverside Church in New York City in 1967,[54] his first to publicly question the U.S. involvement in Vietnam.
Other examples from this period include the 1986 People Power Revolution in the Philippines led by Cory Aquino, and the 1989 Tiananmen Square Protests which included the broadly publicized "Tank Man" incident.
Costa Rica[link]
On December 1, 1948, President José Figueres Ferrer of Costa Rica abolished the Costa Rica’s military.[55] In 1949, the abolition of the military was introduced in Article 12 of the Costa Rican Constitution. Unlike its neighbors, Costa Rica has not endured a civil war since 1948. Figueres later remarked with justifiable pride that such reforms gave Costa Rica a deeper and more human revolution than that of Cuba.[56] The budget previously dedicated to the military now is dedicated to providing health care services and education.[57]
Religion[link]
Ahmadiyya[link]
Further information: Ahmadiyya view on Jihad
According to the Ahmadiyya understanding of Islam, pacifism is a strong current, and jihad is one's personal inner struggle and should not be used violently for political motives. Violence is the last option only to be used to protect religion and one's own life in extreme situations of persecution. Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, the founder of the Ahmadiyya Muslim Community, said that in contrary to the current views, Islam does not allow the use of sword in religion, except in the case of defensive wars, wars waged to punish a tyrant, or those meant to uphold freedom.[58]
Ahmadiyya claims its objective to be the peaceful propagation of Islam with special emphasis on spreading the true message of Islam by the pen. Ahmadis point out that as per prophecy, who they believe was the promised messiah, Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, rendered the concept of violent jihad unnecessary in modern times. They believe that the answer of hate should be given by love.[59]
Bahá'í Faith[link]
Bahá'u'lláh, the founder of the Bahá'í Faith abolished holy war and emphasized its abolition as a central teaching of his faith.[60] However, the Bahá'í Faith does not have an absolute pacifistic position. For example Bahá'ís are advised to do social service instead of active army service, but when this is not possible because of obligations in certain countries, the Bahá'í law of loyalty to one's government is preferred and the individual should perform the army service.[61][62] Shoghi Effendi, the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, noted that in the Bahá'í view, absolute pacifists are anti-social and exalt the individual over society which could lead to anarchy; instead he noted that the Bahá'í conception of social life follows a moderate view where the individual is not suppressed or exalted.[63]
On the level of society, Bahá'u'lláh promotes the principle of collective security, which does not abolish the use of force, but prescribes "a system in which Force is made the servant of Justice."[64] The idea of collective security from the Bahá'í teachings states that if a government violates a fundamental norm of international law or provision of a future world constitution which Bahá'ís believe will be established by all nations, then the other governments should step in.[65]
Buddhism[link]
Main article: Buddhism and violence
Buddhist Aung San Suu Kyi is a nonviolent pro-democracy activist and leader of the National League for Democracy in Myanmar (Burma). A devout Buddhist, Suu Kyi won the Rafto Prize and the Sakharov Prize for Freedom of Thought in 1990 and in 1991 was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for her peaceful and non-violent struggle under a repressive military dictatorship. One of her best known speeches is the "Freedom From Fear" speech, which begins, "It is not power that corrupts but fear. Fear of losing power corrupts those who wield it and fear of the scourge of power corrupts those who are subject to it."[66]
Christianity[link]
Main article: Christian pacifism
Peace churches[link]
Peace churches are Christian denominations explicitly advocating pacifism. The term "historic peace churches" refers specifically to three church traditions: the Church of the Brethren, the Mennonites (and some other Anabaptists, such as Amish and Hutterites), and the Quakers (Religious Society of Friends). The historic peace churches have, from their origins as far back as the 16th century, always taken the position that Jesus was himself a pacifist who explicitly taught and practiced pacifism, and that his followers must do likewise. Pacifist churches vary on whether physical force can ever be justified in self-defense or protecting others, as many adhere strictly to nonresistance when confronted by violence. But all agree that violence on behalf of a country or a government is prohibited for Christians.
Pentecostal churches[link]
Jay Beaman's thesis[67] states that 13 of 21, or 62% of American Pentecostal groups formed by 1917 show evidence of being pacifist sometime in their history. Furthermore Jay Beaman has shown in his thesis[67] that there has been a shift away from pacifism in the American Pentecostal churches to more a style of military chaplaincy and support of war. The major organisation for Pentecostal Christians who believe in pacifism is the PCPF, the Pentecostal Charismatic Peace Fellowship.
The United Pentecostal Church, an Apostolic/Oneness denomination, is the largest Pentecostal organization that takes an official stand of pacifism: its Articles of Faith read, "We are constrained to declare against participating in combatant service in war, armed insurrection... aiding or abetting in or the actual destruction of human life."[68]
Other Christian denominations[link]
The Peace Pledge Union was a pacifist organisation from which the Anglican Pacifist Fellowship (APF) later emerged within the Anglican Church. The APF succeeded in gaining ratification of the pacifist position at two successive Lambeth Conferences, but many Anglicans would not regard themselves as pacifists. South African Bishop Desmond Tutu is the most prominent Anglican pacifist. Rowan Williams led an almost united Anglican Church in Britain in opposition to the 2003 Iraq War. In Australia Peter Carnley similarly led a front of bishops opposed to the Government of Australia's involvement in the invasion of Iraq.
The Catholic Worker Movement is concerned with both social justice and pacifist issues, and voiced consistent opposition to the Spanish Civil War and World War II. Many of its early members were imprisoned for their opposition to conscription.[69] Within the Roman Catholic Church, the Pax Christi organisation is the premiere pacifist lobby group. It holds positions similar to APF, and the two organisations are known to work together on ecumenical projects. Within Roman Catholicism there has been a discernible move towards a more pacifist position through the twentieth and early twenty-first centuries. Popes Benedict XV, John XXIII and John Paul II were all vocal in their opposition to specific wars. By taking the name Benedict XVI, some suspect that Joseph Ratzinger will continue the strong emphasis upon nonviolent conflict resolution of his predecessor. However, the Roman Catholic Church officially maintains the legitimacy of Just War, which is rejected by some pacifists.
In the twentieth century there was a notable trend among prominent Roman Catholics towards pacifism. Individuals such as Dorothy Day and Henri Nouwen stand out among them. The monk and mystic Thomas Merton was noted for his commitment to pacifism during the Vietnam War era. Murdered Salvadoran Bishop Oscar Romero was notable for using non-violent resistance tactics and wrote meditative sermons focusing on the power of prayer and peace. School of the Americas Watch was founded by Maryknoll Fr. Roy Bourgeois in 1990 and uses strictly pacifist principles to protest the training of Latin American military officers by United States Army officers at the School of the Americas in the state of Georgia.
The Greek Orthodox Church also tends towards pacifism, though it has accepted defensive warfare through most of its history. However, more recently[when?] it took a strong stance towards the war in Lebanon and its large community there refused to take up arms during its civil wars. It also supports dialogue with Islam. In 1998 the Third Pre-conciliar Pan-Orthodox Conference drew up a text on "the contribution of the Orthodox Church to the achievement of peace" emphasizing respect for the human person and the inseparability of peace from justice. The text states in part: "Orthodoxy condemns war in general, for she regards it as a consequence of the evil and sin in the world."[70]
The Southern Baptist Convention has stated in the Baptist Faith and Message, "It is the duty of Christians to seek peace with all men on principles of righteousness. In accordance with the spirit and teachings of Christ they should do all in their power to put an end to war."[71]
The United Methodist Church explicitly supports conscientious objection by its members "as an ethically valid position" while simultaneously allowing for differences of opinion and belief for those who do not object to military service.[72]
Jainism[link]
Compassion for all life, human and non-human, is central to Jainism. Human life is valued as a unique, rare opportunity to reach enlightenment; to kill any person, no matter what crime he may have committed, is considered unimaginably abhorrent. It is a religion that requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Some Indian regions, such as Gujarat, have been strongly influenced by Jains and often the majority of the local Hindus of every denomination have also become vegetarian.[73]
Judaism[link]
Some pre-Holocaust Hasidic groups were pacifist.[citation needed] The Jewish Peace Fellowship is a New-York based[74] nonprofit, nondenominational organization set up to provide a Jewish voice in the peace movement. The organization was founded in 1941 in order to support Jewish conscientious objectors who sought exemption from combatant military service.[75][76] It is affiliated to the International Fellowship of Reconciliation.[77] The small Neturei Karta group of anti-Zionist, ultra-orthodox Jews, supposedly take a pacifist line, saying that "Jews are not allowed to dominate, kill, harm or demean another people and are not allowed to have anything to do with the Zionist enterprise, their political meddling and their wars.".[78] However, the Neturei Karta group do support violent, antisemitic terrorist groups such as Hezbollah and Hamas.[79] Most religious Jews in Europe and North America agree with war when reasoning with the enemy does not work. Torah is full of examples when Jews were told to go and war against enemy lands. November 11 is a day a remembrance for many Jews as they honour those who fought to end the Hitler government which starved and burnt over six million Jews to death.
Government and political movements[link]
While many governments have tolerated pacifist views and even accommodated pacifists' refusal to fight in wars, others at times have outlawed pacifist and anti-war activity. In 1918, The United States Congress passed the Sedition Act of 1918. During the periods between World Wars I and World War II, pacifist literature or public advocacy was banned in Italy under Benito Mussolini, Germany after the rise of Adolf Hitler,[80] and the Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin.[44] In these nations, pacifism was denounced as cowardice; indeed, Mussolini referred to pacifist writings as the "propaganda of cowardice".[80]
Today, the United States requires that all young men register for selective service but does not allow them to be classified as conscientious objectors unless they are drafted in some future reinstatement of the draft. does permits enlisted personnel to become conscientious objectors, allowing them to be discharged or transferred to noncombatant status.[81] Some European governments like Switzerland, Greece, Norway and Germany offer civilian service. However, even during periods of peace, many pacifists still refuse to register for or report for military duty, risking criminal charges.
Anti-war and "pacifist" political parties seeking to win elections may moderate their demands, calling for de-escalation or major arms reduction rather than the outright disarmament which is advocated by many pacifists. Green parties list "non-violence" and "decentralization" towards anarchist co-operatives or minimalist village government as two of their ten key values. However, in power, Greens often compromise. The German Greens in the cabinet of Social Democrat Gerhard Schröder supported an intervention by German troops in Afghanistan in 2001 if that they hosted the peace conference in Berlin. However, during the 2002 election Greens forced Schröder to swear that no German troops would invade Iraq.
The controversial democratic peace theory holds that liberal democracies have never (or rarely) made war on one another and that lesser conflicts and internal violence are rare between and within democracies. It also argues that the growth in the number of democratic states will, in the not so distant future, end warfare.
Some pacifists and multilateralists are in favor of international criminal law as means to prevent and control international aggression. The International Criminal Court has jurisdiction over war crimes, but the crime of aggression has yet to be clearly defined in international law.
The Italian Constitution enforces a mild pacifist character on the Italian Republic, as Article 11 states that "Italy repudiates war as an instrument offending the liberty of the peoples and as a means for settling international disputes...." Similarly, Articles 24, 25 and 26 of the German Constitution (1949), Alinea 15 of the French Constitution (1946), Article 20 of the Danish Constitution (1953), Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution (1947) and several other mostly European constitutions correspond to the United Nations Charter by rejecting the institution of war in favour of collective security and peaceful cooperation.[82]
Pacifism and abstention from political activity[link]
However, some pacifists, such as the Christian anarchist Leo Tolstoy and autarchist Robert LeFevre, consider the state a form of warfare. In addition, for doctrinal reason that a manmade government is inferior to divine governance and law, many pacifist-identified religious sects also refrain from political activity altogether, including the Anabaptists, Jehovah's Witnesses and Mandaeans. This means that such groups refuse to participate in government office or serve under an oath to a government.
Anarcho-pacifism[link]
Main article: Anarcho-pacifism
Anarcho-pacifism (also pacifist anarchism or anarchist pacifism) is a form of anarchism which completely rejects the use of violence in any form for any purpose. The main precedent was Henry David Thoreau who through his work Civil Disobedience influenced the advocacy of both Leo Tolstoy and Mohandas Gandhi for nonviolent resistance.[83] As a global movement, Anarchist pacifism emerged shortly before World War II in the Netherlands, Great Britain and the United States and was a strong presence in the subsequent campaigns for nuclear disarmament.
Violence has always been controversial in anarchism. While many anarchists during the 19th century embraced propaganda of the deed, Leo Tolstoy and other anarcho-pacifists directly opposed violence as a means for change. He argued that anarchism must by nature be nonviolent since it is, by definition, opposition to coercion and force and since the state is inherently violent, meaningful pacifism must likewise be anarchistic. His philosophy was cited as a major inspiration by Mohandas Gandhi, an Indian independence leader and pacifist who self-identified as an anarchist. Ferdinand Domela Nieuwenhuis was also instrumental in establishing the pacifist trend within the anarchist movement.[84] In France anti-militarism appeared strongly in individualist anarchist circles as Émile Armand founded "Ligue Antimilitariste" in 1902 with Albert Libertad and George Mathias Paraf-Javal.
Opposition to military taxation[link]
Many pacifists who would be conscientious objectors to military service are also opposed to paying taxes to fund the military. In the United States, The National Campaign for a Peace Tax Fund works to pass a national law to allow conscientious objectors to redirect their tax money to be used only for non-military purposes.[85]
Criticism[link]
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This article's Criticism or Controversy section may compromise the article's neutral point of view of the subject. Please integrate the section's contents into the article as a whole, or rewrite the material. (June 2008) |
One common argument against pacifism is the possibility of using violence to prevent further acts of violence (and reduce the "net-sum" of violence). This argument hinges on consequentialism: an otherwise morally objectionable action can be justified if it results in a positive outcome. For example, either violent rebellion, or foreign nations sending in troops to end a dictator's violent oppression may save millions of lives, even if many thousands died in the war. Those pacifists who base their beliefs on deontological grounds would oppose such violent action, arguing that nonviolent resistance should be just as effective and with a much lesser loss of life. Others would oppose organized military responses but support individual and small group self-defense against specific attacks if initiated by the dictator's forces. Pacifists may argue that military action could be justified should it subsequently advance the general cause of peace.
Still more pacifists would argue that a nonviolent reaction may not save lives immediately but would in the long run. The acceptance of violence for any reason makes it easier to use in other situations. Learning and committing to pacifism helps to send a message that violence is, in fact, not the most effective way. It can also help people to think more creatively and find more effective ways to stop violence without more violence.
In light of the common criticism of pacifism as not offering a clear alternative policy, one approach to finding "more effective ways" has been the attempt to develop the idea of "defence by civil resistance", also called "social defence". This idea, which is not necessarily dependent on acceptance of pacifist beliefs, is based on relying on nonviolent resistance against possible threats, whether external (such as invasion) or internal (such as coup d'état).
There have been some works on this topic, including by Adam Roberts[86] and Gene Sharp.[87] However, no country has adopted this approach as the sole basis of its defence.[88] (For further information and sources see social defence.)
Japanese, Italian and Nazi aggression that precipitated World War II often is cited[by whom?]as an argument against pacifism. If these forces had not been challenged and defeated militarily, the argument goes, many more people would have died under their oppressive rule. Adolf Hitler told the British Foreign Secretary Lord Halifax in 1937 that the British should "shoot Gandhi, and if this doesn't suffice to reduce them to submission, shoot a dozen leading members of the Congress, and if that doesn't suffice shoot 200, and so on, as you make it clear that you mean business."[89]
Hermann Göring described, during an interview at the Nuremberg Trials, how denouncing and outlawing pacifism was an important part of the Nazis' seizure of power: "The people can always be brought to the bidding of the leaders. That is easy. All you have to do is tell them they are being attacked and denounce the pacifists for lack of patriotism and exposing the country to danger. It works the same way in any country."[90]
Some commentators on the most nonviolent forms of pacifism, including Jan Narveson, argue that such pacifism is a self-contradictory doctrine. Narveson claims that everyone has rights and corresponding responsibilities not to violate others' rights. Since pacifists give up their ability to protect themselves from violation of their right not to be harmed, then other people thus have no corresponding responsibility, thus creating a paradox of rights. Narveson said that "the prevention of infractions of that right is precisely what one has a right to when one has a right at all". Narveson then discusses how rational persuasion is a good but often inadequate method of discouraging an aggressor. He considers that everyone has the right to use any means necessary to prevent deprivation of their civil liberties and force could be necessary.[91]
Many pacifists[who?] would argue that not only are there other ways to protect oneself but that some of those ways are far more effective than violence, and that physical harm is not the only variety that can be done. Often pacifists would much rather take the physical harm inflicted by another rather than cause themselves emotional or psychological harm, not to mention harming the other.
The ideology and political practice of pacifism also have been criticized by the radical American activist Ward Churchill, in his essay, Pacifism as Pathology. Churchill argues that the social and political advancements pacifists claim resulted from non-violent action always have been made possible by concurrent violent struggles. In the late 1990s, Churchill's work convinced many anarchist and left-wing activists to adopt what they called "diversity of tactics" using "black bloc" formations that engage in property destruction and scuffles with police at larger mainstream protests.[92][93]
One powerful pacifist reply to Churchill was from American activist George Lakey, a founder of Movement for a New Society, in a detailed response to Pacifism as Pathology. Lakey quotes Martin Luther King in entitling his 2001 article Nonviolent Action as the Sword that Heals.[94] However, he takes on Churchill's assumptions and reading of history from a pragmatic viewpoint, arguing the superiority of nonviolent action by describing "some movements that learned, from their own pragmatic experience, that they could wage struggle more successfully through nonviolent direct action than through violence."
In his book The End of Faith, Sam Harris argues that pacifism is a fallacy, combining hesitance with cowardice, in that the social context in which a pacifist can protest was created by the actions of direct activists. In the same philosophical chapter, he goes on to compare the collateral damage that could result from practicing torture with that resulting from errant bombing. He posits that if one is willing to accept the collateral damage that results from the incidental bombing of civilians on the one hand, one cannot denounce the collateral damage resulting from the accidental torture of the innocent on the other. He notes that the only difference between the two is that the revulsion one experiences when directly causing the suffering of another human being is more potent when done in person than when done from the safety of an aircraft or a command center. He brings to light these similarities not to so much to argue for the potential use of torture in combat but to demonstrate the hideousness of both. Ultimately, his book suggests just and humane action must be taken in order to reduce the total suffering of sentient beings.
See also[link]
References[link]
- ^ The Abolition of War: the Peace Movement in Britain, 1914-1919 by Keith Robbins. University of Wales Press, 1976. ISBN 978-0-7083-0622-2 (p.10).
- ^ Challenge to Mars: Essays on Pacifism from 1918 to 1945. Edited by Brock and Socknat University of Toronto Press, 1999 ISBN 0-8020-4371-2 (p. ix)
- ^ Pacifism and the Just War: A Study in Applied Philosophy by Jenny Teichman. Basil Blackwell, 1986 ISBN 0-631-15056-0
- ^ War and International Justice: a Kantian perspective by Brian Orend. Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, 2000. ISBN 0-88920-337-7 p. 145-6
- ^ Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present, Oxford University Press, 2009. See [1]. Includes chapters by specialists on the various movements.
- ^ Charlton T. Lewis & Charles Short : A Latin Dictionary. Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1879. s.v. "Panda"
- ^ Daoist Philosophy -- 10. "Celestial Masters Daoism"
- ^ http://www.kaogu.com.cn/upload/200811191348384181.doc
- ^ Janzen, John M. (1982). Lemba, 1650-1930. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.. pp. 173. ISBN 0-8240-9306-2.
- ^ Janzen, John M. (1982). Lemba, 1650-1930. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.. pp. 303 (8). ISBN 0-8240-9306-2.
- ^ "Rongo : god of peace"
- ^ Mitira, Tiaki Hikawera (1972 (1944)). Takitimu. New Zealand: Reed Publishing, Ltd.. pp. 73. ISBN 0-589-00717-3. http://www.nzetc.org/tm/scholarly/tei-MitTaki-t1-body-d2-d2.html
- ^ D. Z. Zhong : The Possibility of Anthropological Fideism. BALLSACKUniversity Press of America, Lanham (MD), 2004. p. 3
- ^ Robert G. Lake : Chilula : People from the Ancient Redwoods. University Press of America, Washington (DC), 1982. pp. 147-8
- ^ "Hopi Prophecies"
- ^ "Society -- Hopi
- ^ "anti-war religion"
- ^ Katharine Tyler Burchwood : The Origin and Legacy of Mexican Art. 1972. p. 29
- ^ a b c Weidhorn, Manfred (2004). "Pacifism Lost". International Journal of Humanities and Peace 20 (1): 13–18.
- ^ oremus Bible Browser : Matthew 5
- ^ oremus Bible Browser : Luke 6
- ^ a b c Cleave, Joanne; Geddes, Gordon D.; Griffiths, Jane; (2004). GCSE Religious Studies for AQA Christianity: Christianity: Behaviour, Attitudes & Lifestyles. Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publisher. pp. 75. ISBN 0-435-30714-2.
- ^ Panorama of the Classical World by Nigel Spivey and Michael Squire. Getty Publications, 2011, ISBN 1-60606-056-2 (p.200).
- ^ The Riddle of Saint Maximilian of Tebessa by Peter Brock. University of Toronto Press, 2000.
- ^ Joseph Reese Strayer (1992). "The Albigensian Crusades". University of Michigan Press. p.143. ISBN 0-472-06476-2
- ^ "Massacre of the Pure." Time. 28 April 1961.
- ^ "Erasmus, Desiderius" by Garrett L. McAinsh, in The World Encyclopedia of Peace.Edited by Linus Pauling, Ervin László, and Jong Youl Yoo. Oxford : Pergamon, 1986. ISBN 0-08-032685-4, (Volume 1, p.293).
- ^ Power and the Pursuit of Peace: Theory and Practice in the History of Relations between States, by Francis Harry Hinsley, Cambridge University Press, 1967, ISBN 0-521-09448-8, (pp. 13-45).
- ^ "Thinking About Peace in History" by Charles Chatfield, in The Pacifist Impulse in Historical Perspective : Essays in Honour of Peter Brock, edited by Harvey L. Dyck. Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1996, ISBN 0-8020-0777-5 (p.36-51).
- ^ Hinsley, pp. 46-61.
- ^ Hinsley, pp.62-80.
- ^ Pacifism to 1914 : an overview by Peter Brock. Toronto, Thistle Printing, 1994. (pp. 38-9).
- ^ The Long Road to Greenham : Feminism and Anti-Militarism in Britain since 1820, by Jill Liddington. London, Virago, 1989 ISBN 0-86068-688-4 (pp. 14-5).
- ^ Tolstoy's Pacifism, by Colm McKeogh, Cambria Press, 2009, ISBN 1-60497-634-9, (pp.105-107).
- ^ Pacifism in the Twentieth Century, by Peter Brock and Nigel Young. Syracuse University Press, New York, 1999 ISBN 0-8156-8125-9 (p.73)
- ^ Winder, Virginia, “Conflict and Protest - Pacifist of Parihaka - Te Whiti o Rongomai”
- ^ Pacifism vs. Patriotism in Women's Organizations in the 1920s.
- ^ Chatfield, Charles, “Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy” 2002.
- ^ Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915-1963 by Scott H. Bennett. New York, Syracuse University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-8156-3028-X, p.18.
- ^ Richard Toye, The Labour Party and the Economics of Rearmament, 1935-1939
- ^ Rhiannon Vickers, Labour and the World, Manchester University Press, 2004 ISBN 0-7190-6745-6 ISBN 978-0-7190-6745-7
- ^ A.J.Davies, To Build A New Jerusalem: The British Labour Party from Keir Hardie to Tony Blair, Abacus, 1996
- ^ Brock and Young, pp. 94-5.
- ^ a b Notes sur l'anarchisme en U.R.S.S : De 1921 à nos jours.Les Cahiers du Vent du Chemin. Paris,1983.
- ^ Fool for Christ:The Political Thought of J.S. Woodsworth by Allen Mills. Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press, 1991. ISBN 0-8020-6842-1
- ^ Preston `Canada`s RMC: A History of the Royal Military College` (University of Toronto Press, Toronto, 1969)
- ^ "War and the Illiad". The New York Review of books. http://www.nybooks.com/shop/product?usca_p=t&product_id=4551. Retrieved 29 September 2009.
- ^ Lynd, Staughton. Nonviolence in America: a documentary history,Bobbs-Merrill, 1966, (pps. 271-296).
- ^ Quoted on Albert Einstein at Peace Pledge Union, and but also discussed in detail in articles in Einstein, Albert (1954), Ideas and Opinions, New York: Random House, ISBN 0-517-00393-7
- ^ Brock and Young, p.99.
- ^ Brock and Socknat, pp. 402-3.
- ^ In Solitary Witness: The Life and Death of Franz Jägerstätter by Gordon Zahn.Springfield, Illinois: Templegate Publishers. ISBN 0-87243-141-X.
- ^ "Searching for the Enemy of Man", in Nhat Nanh, Ho Huu Tuong, Tam Ich, Bui Giang, Pham Cong Thien. Dialogue. Saigon: La Boi, 1965. P. 11-20., archived on the African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War website, King's Journey: 1964 - April 4, 1967
- ^ "Beyond Vietnam", 4 April 1967, speech made by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. at the Riverside Church, NYC, archived on the African-American Involvement in the Vietnam War website
- ^ "Costa Rica". U.S. Department of State.
- ^ Costa Rica's Fierce Pacifist, The New York Times June 17, 1990; Section 4; Page 20, Column 1
- ^ "The Happiest People". The New York Times. January 6, 2010.
- ^ "Jihad the True Islamic Concept". http://www.alislam.org/library/articles/Jihad-Brochure.pdf. Retrieved 9 September 2010.
- ^ "Jihad of the Pen". http://www.alislam.org/library/links/00000064.html. Retrieved 9 September 2010.
- ^ Troxel, Duane; Cole, Juan; Lambden, Stephen (17 October 2003). "Tablet of Ridván: Wilmette Institute faculty notes". bahai-library.com. http://bahai-library.com/wilmette_lawh_ridvan_notes. Retrieved 13 September 2006.
- ^ Mazal, Peter (21 October 2003). "Selected Topics of Comparison in Christianity and the Bahá'í Faith". http://bahai-library.com/mazal_comparison_christianity_bahai&chapter=1. Retrieved 13 September 2006.
- ^ Effendi, Shoghi. Unfolding Destiny. pp. 134–135. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/UD/ud-136.html.
- ^ Effendi, Shoghi. Directives from the Guardian. India: Baha'i Publishing Trust. pp. 53–54. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/DG/dg-144.html#gr1.
- ^ Effendi, Shoghi (1938). The World Order of Bahá’u’lláh. Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. pp. 191–203. ISBN 0-87743-231-7. http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/WOB/wob-52.html#gr1.
- ^ Sarooshi, Danesh (1994). "Search for a Just Society, Review". Baha'i Studies Review 4 (1). http://bahai-library.com/saroosh_huddleston_just_society. Retrieved 13 September 2006.
- ^ "Aung San Suu Kyi — Biography". Nobel Foundation. http://nobelprize.org/peace/laureates/1991/kyi-bio.html. Retrieved 4 May 2006.
- ^ a b Beaman, J: Pentecostal Pacifism: The Origin, Development, and Rejection of Pacific Belief among the Pentecostals, Center for Mennonite Brethren Studies, Hillsboro, Kansas, 1989
- ^ http://www.spiritualabuse.org/aof.html
- ^ Catholic Worker Movement http://www.catholicworker.org
- ^ Clément, Olivier, "The Orthodox Church and Peace Some Reflections" on the Orthodox Peace Fellowship website.
- ^ SBC, “ Baptist Faith and Message 2000”
- ^ Article V, section 2 of The United Methodist Church and Peace
- ^ Titze, Kurt, Jainism: A Pictorial Guide to the Religion of Non-Violence, Mohtilal Banarsidass, 1998
- ^ http://www.jewishdirectory.com/listing/jewish_peace_fellowship_497bb804c2044.html
- ^ http://www.jewishpeacefellowship.org/index.php?p=about
- ^ http://www.beyondthepale.org/link/jewish-peace-fellowship
- ^ http://www.ifor.org/members.htm
- ^ What is the Neturei Karta?
- ^ [2]
- ^ a b Benjamin Ziemann, "Pacifism" in World Fascism:An Encyclopedia, edited by Cyprian P. Blamires. ABC-CLIO Ltd, 2006. ISBN 1-57607-940-6 (p.495-6)
- ^ “Conscientious Objection Today, Central Committee for Conscientious Objectors”
- ^ “Constitutional clauses providing for limitations of national sovereignty to achieve cooperation, peace and disarmament”
- ^ The pacifist and anarchist tradition by Geoffrey Ostergaard
- ^ Woodcock, George (2004). Anarchism: a History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements. Peterborough: Broadview Press. ISBN 1-55111-629-4.
- ^ Mission of National Campaign for a Peace Tax Fund
- ^ Adam Roberts, ed. The Strategy of Civilian Defence: Non-violent Resistance to Aggression, Faber, London, 1967. (Also published as Civilian Resistance as a National Defense, Stackpole Books, Harrisburg, USA, 1968; and, with a new Introduction on "Czechoslovakia and Civilian Defence", as Civilian Resistance as a National Defence, Penguin Books, Harmondsworth, UK, and Baltimore, USA, 1969. ISBN 0-14-021080-6.)
- ^ Gene Sharp, Social Power and Political Freedom, Porter Sargent, Boston, 1980, pp. 195-261. ISBN 0-87558-093-9 (paperback); and Civilian-based Defence: A Post-military Weapons System, Princeton University Press, 1990. ISBN 0-691-07809-2.
- ^ Adam Roberts, in Roberts and Garton Ash (ed.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics, Introduction, p.12.
- ^ Ghose, Sankar (1992). Jawaharlal Nehru, A Biography, p.138. Allied Publishers Limited.
- ^ q:Hermann Göring#Nuremberg Diary (1947)
- ^ Narveson, January 1965. “Pacifism: A Philosophical Analysis.” Ethics, LXXV: 4, pp 259-271.
- ^ Hurl, Chris (17 October 2003). "Anti-Globalization and "Diversity of Tactics"". http://auto_sol.tao.ca/node/view/1334. Retrieved 19 April 2007. [dead link]
- ^ Conway, Janet (2003). "Civil Resistance and the "Diversity of Tactics" in the Anti-globalization Movement: Problems of Violence, Silence, and Solidarity in Activist Politics" (PDF). Osgood Hall Law Journal, York University, Toronto, Canada. http://www.ohlj.ca/archive/articles/41_23_conway.pdf. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
- ^ Lakey, George (2001). "Nonviolent Action as the Sword that Heals" (PDF). TrainingforChange.Org. http://globalsolidarity.transcend.org/articles/nonviolent.pdf. Retrieved 19 April 2007.
Further reading[link]
- Paul Alexander, (2009), Peace to War: Shifting Allegiances in the Assemblies of God. Telford, PA: Cascadia Publishing/Herald Press.
- Bennett, Scott H. Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915-1963 (New York: Syracuse Univ. Press, 2003).
- Bennett, Scott H., ed. Army GI, Pacifist CO: The World War II Letters of Fank and Albert Dietrich (New York: Fordham Univ. Press, 2005).
- Brock, Peter and Young, Nigel. Pacifism in the Twentieth Century (New York, Syracuse University Press, 1999).
- Brock, Peter. Varieties of Pacifism: A Survey from Antiquity to the Outset of the Twentieth Century (New York, Syracuse University Press, 1999).
- Cortright, David. Peace :A History of Movements and Ideas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
- True, Michael, "Justice Seekers, Peace Makers: 32 Portraits in Courage", 1985. ISBN 0-89622-212-8
- Yoder, John Howard (1992). Nevertheless: the varieties and shortcomings of religious pacifism. Scottdale, Pennsylvania: Herald Press. ISBN 0-8361-3586-5.
Shalom: The Jewish Peace Letter. An online zine published by the Jewish Peace Fellowship.org/Shalom
External links[link]
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"Cassius Clay" redirects here. For the 19th-century politician and abolitionist, see Cassius Marcellus Clay (politician).
This article is about the American boxer. For other people named Muhammad Ali, see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation).
| Muhammad Ali | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Ali in 1967 |
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| Statistics | |||||||||||||
| Nickname(s) | The Greatest The People's Champion The Louisville Lip |
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| Rated at | Heavyweight | ||||||||||||
| Height | 6 ft 3 in (1.91 m) | ||||||||||||
| Reach | 80 in (203 cm) | ||||||||||||
| Nationality | American | ||||||||||||
| Born | (1942-01-17) January 17, 1942 (age 70) Louisville, Kentucky, U.S. |
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| Stance | Orthodox | ||||||||||||
| Boxing record | |||||||||||||
| Total fights | 61 | ||||||||||||
| Wins | 56 | ||||||||||||
| Wins by KO | 37 | ||||||||||||
| Losses | 5 | ||||||||||||
| Draws | 0 | ||||||||||||
| No contests | 0 | ||||||||||||
|
Medal record
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Muhammad Ali (born Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr.; January 17, 1942) is an American former professional boxer,[1] philanthropist[2] and social activist.[2] Considered a cultural icon, Ali was both idolized and vilified.[3][4]
Originally known as Cassius Clay, Ali changed his name after joining the Nation of Islam in 1964, subsequently converting to Sunni Islam in 1975, and more recently practicing Sufism.[clarification needed][5] In 1967, three years after Ali had won the World Heavyweight Championship, he was publicly vilified for his refusal to be conscripted into the U.S. military, based on his religious beliefs and opposition to the Vietnam War. Ali stated, "I ain't got no quarrel with them Viet Cong... No Viet Cong ever called me nigger" – one of the more telling remarks of the era.[6]
Widespread protests against the Vietnam War had not yet begun, but with that one phrase, Ali articulated the reason to oppose the war for a generation of young Americans, and his words served as a touchstone for the racial and antiwar upheavals that would rock the 1960s. Ali's example inspired Martin Luther King Jr. – who had been reluctant to alienate the Johnson Administration and its support of the civil rights agenda – to voice his own opposition to the war for the first time.[7]
Ali was eventually arrested and found guilty on draft evasion charges; he was stripped of his boxing title, and his boxing license was suspended. He was not imprisoned, but did not fight again for nearly four years while his appeal worked its way up to the U.S. Supreme Court, where it was eventually successful.
Ali would go on to become the first and only three-time lineal World Heavyweight Champion.
Nicknamed "The Greatest," Ali was involved in several historic boxing matches.[8] Notable among these were three with rival Joe Frazier, which are considered among the greatest in boxing history, and one with George Foreman, where he finally regained his stripped titles seven years later. Ali was well known for his unorthodox fighting style, which he described as "float[ing] like a butterfly, sting[ing] like a bee", and employing techniques such as the Ali Shuffle and the rope-a-dope.[9] Ali had brought beauty and grace to the most uncompromising of sports and through the wonderful excesses of skill and character, he had become the most famous athlete in the world.[10] He was also known for his pre-match hype, where he would "trash talk" opponents, often with rhymes.
In 1999, Ali was crowned "Sportsman of the Century" by Sports Illustrated and "Sports Personality of the Century" by the BBC.[11][12]
Biography[link]
Amateur career and Olympic gold[link]
Cassius Marcellus Clay, Jr., was born on January 17, 1942, in Louisville, Kentucky.[13] The younger of two boys, he was named after his father, Cassius Marcellus Clay, Sr., who was named after the 19th century abolitionist and politician of the same name. His father painted billboards and signs,[13] and his mother, Odessa O'Grady Clay, was a household domestic. Although Cassius Sr. was a Methodist, he allowed Odessa to bring up both Cassius and his elder brother Rudolph "Rudy" Clay (later renamed Rahman Ali) as Baptists.[14] He is a descendant of pre-Civil War era American slaves in the American South, and is predominantly of African-American descent, with some Irish ancestry.[15]
Clay was first directed toward boxing by the white Louisville police officer and boxing coach Joe E. Martin,[16] who encountered the 12-year-old fuming over a thief taking his bicycle. He told the officer he was going to "whup" the thief. The officer told him he better learn how to box first.[17] For the last four years of Clay's amateur career he was trained by legendary boxing cutman Chuck Bodak.[18]
Clay won six Kentucky Golden Gloves titles, two national Golden Gloves titles, an Amateur Athletic Union National Title, and the Light Heavyweight gold medal in the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome.[19][20] Clay's amateur record was 100 wins with five losses.
Ali states in his 1975 autobiography that he threw his Olympic gold medal into the Ohio River after being refused service at a 'whites-only' restaurant, and fighting with a white gang.[21] Whether this is true is still debated, although he was given a replacement medal at a basketball intermission during the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta, where he lit the torch to start the games.
Early professional career[link]
After his Olympic triumph, Clay returned to Louisville to begin his professional career. There, on October 29, 1960, he won his first professional fight, a six-round decision over Tunney Hunsaker, who was the police chief of Fayetteville, West Virginia.
Standing at 6'3" (1.91 m), Clay had a highly unorthodox style for a heavyweight boxer. Rather than the normal style of carrying the hands high to defend the face, he instead relied on foot speed and quickness to avoid punches, and carried his hands low.
From 1960 to 1963, the young fighter amassed a record of 19–0, with 15 knockouts. He defeated boxers such as Tony Esperti, Jim Robinson, Donnie Fleeman, Alonzo Johnson, George Logan, Willi Besmanoff, Lamar Clark (who had won his previous 40 bouts by knockout), Doug Jones and Henry Cooper.
Clay built a reputation by correctly predicting the round in which he would "finish" several opponents, and by boasting before his triumphs.[13] Clay admitted he adopted the latter practice from "Gorgeous" George Wagner, a popular professional wrestling champion in the Los Angeles area who drew thousands of fans.[13] Often referred to as "the man you loved to hate," George could incite the crowd with a few heated remarks, and Clay followed suit.
Among Clay's victims were Sonny Banks (who knocked him down during the bout), Alejandro Lavorante, and the aged Archie Moore (a boxing legend who had fought over 200 previous fights, and who had been Clay's trainer prior to Angelo Dundee). Clay had considered continuing using Moore as a trainer following the bout, but Moore had insisted that the cocky "Louisville Lip" perform training camp chores such as sweeping and dishwashing. He considered having his idol, Sugar Ray Robinson, as a manager, but instead hired Dundee.
Clay first met Dundee on February 19, 1957 when the latter was in Louisville the day before a fight with light heavyweight champ Willie Pastrano.[22] The teenaged Golden Gloves winner traveled downtown to the fighter's hotel, called Dundee from the house phone, and was asked up to their room. He took advantage of the opportunity to query Dundee (who had worked with champions Sugar Ramos and Carmen Basilio) about what his fighters ate, how long they slept, how much roadwork (jogging) they did, and how long they sparred.
Following his bout with Moore, Clay won a disputed 10-round decision over Doug Jones in a matchup that was named "Fight of the Year" for 1963. Clay's next fight was against Henry Cooper, who knocked Clay down with a left hook near the end of the fourth round. The fight was stopped in the fifth due to deep cuts over Cooper's eyes.
Despite these close calls, Clay became the top contender for Sonny Liston's title. However, although he had an impressive record, he was not widely expected to defeat the champ. The fight was scheduled for February 25, 1964 in Miami, Florida, but was nearly canceled when the promoter, Bill Faversham, heard that Clay had been seen around Miami and in other cities with the controversial Malcolm X, a member of Nation of Islam. Because of this, news of this association was perceived as a potential gate-killer to a bout which, given Liston's overwhelming status as the favorite to win (7–1 odds),[23] had Clay's colorful persona and nonstop braggadocio as its sole appeal.
Faversham confronted Clay about his association with Malcolm X (who, at the time, was actually under suspension by the Nation as a result of controversial comments made in the wake of President Kennedy's assassination). While stopping short of admitting he was a member of the Nation, Clay protested the suggested cancellation of the fight. As a compromise, Faversham asked the fighter to delay his announcement about his conversion to Islam until after the fight. The incident is described in the 1975 book The Greatest: My Own Story by Ali (with Richard Durham).
During the weigh-in on the day before the bout, the ever-boastful Clay, who frequently taunted Liston during the buildup by dubbing him "the big ugly bear" (among other things), declared that he would "float like a butterfly and sting like a bee," and, summarizing his strategy for avoiding Liston's assaults, said, "Your hands can't hit what your eyes can't see."
First title fight and aftermath[link]
Main article: Muhammad Ali versus Sonny Liston
At the pre-fight weigh-in, Clay's pulse rate was around 120, more than double his norm of 54.[24] Liston, among others, misread this as nervousness. In the opening rounds, Clay's speed kept him away from Liston's powerful head and body shots, as he used his height advantage to beat Liston to the punch with his own lightning-quick jab.[24]
By the third round, Clay was ahead on points and had opened a cut under Liston's eye.[24] Liston regained some ground in the fourth, as Clay was blinded by a substance in his eyes.[24] It is unconfirmed whether this was something used to close Liston's cuts, or deliberately applied to Liston's gloves;[24] however, Bert Sugar has claimed that "in two of his previous fights, Liston's opponents had complained about their eyes 'burning,'"[25] suggesting the possibility that the Liston corner deliberately attempted to cheat.
Liston began the fourth round looking to put away the challenger. As Clay struggled to recover his vision, he sought to escape Liston's offensive. He was able to keep out of range until his sweat and tears rinsed the substance from his eyes, responding with a flurry of combinations near the end of the fifth round. By the sixth, he was looking for a finish and dominated Liston. Then, Liston shocked the boxing world when he failed to answer the bell for the seventh round, stating he had a shoulder injury. At the end of the fight, Clay boasted to the press that doubted him before the match, proclaiming, "I shook up the world!"
When Clay beat Liston, he was the youngest boxer (age 22) ever to take the title from a reigning heavyweight champion, a mark that stood until Mike Tyson won the title (age 20) from Trevor Berbick on November 22, 1986. At the time, Floyd Patterson (dethroned by Liston) had been the youngest heavyweight champ ever (age 21), but he won the title during an elimination tournament following Rocky Marciano's retirement by defeating Archie Moore, the light-heavyweight champion at the time.
In the rematch with Liston, which was held in May 1965 in Lewiston, Maine, Ali (who had by then publicly converted to Islam and changed his name) won by knockout in the first round as a result of what came to be called the "phantom punch." Many believe that Liston, possibly as a result of threats from Nation of Islam extremists, or in an attempt to "throw" the fight to pay off debts, waited to be counted out (see Muhammad Ali versus Sonny Liston). Others, however, discount both scenarios and insist that it was a quick, chopping Ali punch to the side of the head that legitimately felled Liston. Ali was declared the winner after 1 minute and 52 seconds.[26]
Early title defenses[link]
On November 22, 1965, Ali fought Floyd Patterson in his second title defense. Patterson lost by TKO at the end of the 12th round. As would later occur with Ernie Terrell, many sportswriters accused Ali of "carrying" Patterson so that he could physically punish him without knocking him out. Ali countered that Patterson, who said his punching prowess was limited when he strained his sacroiliac, was not as easy to down as may have appeared. During the fight Ali called out "What's my name?" to Patterson, a gesture he would later repeat during the Terrell fight.
Ali was scheduled to fight WBA champion Ernie Terrell (the WBA stripped Ali of his title after his agreement to fight a rematch with Liston) on March 29, 1966, but the llinois Athletic Commission wouldn't approve the Terrell fight unless Ali went to Chicago and apologized for his remarks about the war.[27] The fight destination continued to change venues and ultimately was delayed. Ali won a 15-round decision against substitute opponent George Chuvalo. He then went to England and defeated Henry Cooper by stoppage on cuts May 21, and knocked out Brian London in the third round in August. Ali's next defense was against German southpaw Karl Mildenberger, the first German to fight for the title since Max Schmeling. In one of the tougher fights of his life, Ali stopped his opponent in round 12.
Ali returned to the United States in November 1966 to fight Cleveland Williams in the Houston Astrodome. According to the Sports Illustrated account, the bout drew an indoor world record 35,460 fight fans. A year and a half before the fight, Williams had been shot in the stomach at point-blank range by a Texas policeman. As a result, Williams went into the fight missing one kidney and 10 feet (3.0 m) of his small intestine, and with a shriveled left leg from nerve damage from the bullet that was still lodged in his body. Ali beat Williams in three rounds. Bert Sugar wrote that it had been Ali's greatest performance in the ring.[28]
On February 6, 1967, Ali returned to a Houston boxing ring to fight Terrell in what is regarded as one of the uglier fights in boxing. Terrell angered Ali by calling him Clay, and the champion vowed to punish him for this insult. During the fight, Ali kept shouting at his opponent, "What's my name, Uncle Tom ... What's my name?" Terrell suffered 15 rounds of brutal punishment, losing 13 rounds on two judges' scorecards, but Ali did not knock him out. Analysts, including several who spoke to ESPN on the sports channel's "Ali Rap" special, speculated that the fight continued only because Ali wanted to thoroughly punish and humiliate Terrell. After the fight, Tex Maule wrote, "It was a wonderful demonstration of boxing skill and a barbarous display of cruelty." When asked about this during a replay of the fight on ABC's popular "Wide World of Sports" by host Howard Cosell, Ali said he was not unduly cruel to Terrell- boxers are paid to punch their opponents into submission or defeat. He pointed out that if he had not hit and hurt Terrell, Terrell would have hit and hurt him, which is standard practice. Cosell's repeated reference to the topic surprised Ali. Following his final defense against Zora Folley in March 1967, Ali was stripped of his title the following month for refusing to be drafted into the Army[13] and had his professional boxing license suspended.
Conversion to the Nation of Islam[link]
After winning the championship from Liston in 1964, Clay revealed that he was a member of the Nation of Islam (often called the Black Muslims at the time) and the Nation gave Clay the name Cassius X, discarding his surname as a symbol of his ancestors' enslavement, as had been done by other Nation members. On Friday, March 6, 1964, Malcolm X took Clay on a guided tour of the UN building (for a second time). Malcolm X announced that Clay would be granted his "X." That same night, Elijah Muhammad recorded a statement over the phone to be played over the radio that Clay would be renamed Muhammad (one who is worthy of praise) Ali (fourth rightly guided caliph). Only a few journalists (most notably Howard Cosell) accepted it at that time. Venerable boxing announcer Don Dunphy addressed the champion by his adopted name, as did British reporters. The adoption of this name symbolized his new identity as a member of the Nation of Islam.
Many sportswriters of the early 1960s reported[where?] that it was Ali's brother, Rudy Clay, who converted to Islam first (estimating the date as 1961). Others wrote[where?] that Clay had been seen at Muslim rallies a few years before he fought Liston. Ali's own version[where?] is that he would sneak into Nation of Islam meetings through the back door roughly three years before he fought Sonny Liston.
Aligning himself with the Nation of Islam made him a lightning rod for controversy, turning the outspoken but popular champion into one of that era's most recognizable and controversial figures. Appearing at rallies with Nation of Islam leader Elijah Muhammad and declaring his allegiance to him at a time when mainstream America viewed them with suspicion—if not outright hostility—made Ali a target of outrage, as well as suspicion. Ali seemed at times to provoke such reactions, with viewpoints that wavered from support for civil rights to outright support of separatism. For example, Ali once stated, in relation to integration: "We who follow the teachings of Elijah Muhammad don't want to be forced to integrate. Integration is wrong. We don't want to live with the white man; that's all."[29] And in relation to inter-racial marriage: "No intelligent black man or black woman in his or her right black mind wants white boys and white girls coming to their homes to marry their black sons and daughters."[29] Indeed, Ali's religious beliefs at the time included the notion that the white man was "the devil" and that white people were not "righteous." Ali claimed that white people hated black people.
Ali converted from the Nation of Islam sect to mainstream Sunni Islam in 1975. In a 2004 autobiography, written with daughter Hana Yasmeen Ali, Muhammad Ali attributes his conversion to the shift toward Sunni Islam made by Warith Deen Muhammad after he gained control of the Nation of Islam upon the death of Elijah Muhammad in 1975. Later in 2005 he embraced spiritual practices of Sufism.[30]
Vietnam War[link]
In 1964, Ali failed the U.S. Armed Forces qualifying test because his writing and spelling skills were sub-par. However, in early 1966, the tests were revised and Ali was reclassified as 1A.[13] This classification meant he was now eligible for the draft and induction into the U.S. Army during a time when the United States was involved in the Vietnam War. When notified of this status, he declared that he would refuse to serve in the United States Army and publicly considered himself a conscientious objector.[13] Ali stated that "War is against the teachings of the Holy Qur'an. I'm not trying to dodge the draft. We are not supposed to take part in no wars unless declared by Allah or The Messenger. We don't take part in Christian wars or wars of any unbelievers." He famously said in 1966: "I ain't got no quarrel with them Viet Cong... They never called me nigger." Rare for a heavyweight boxing champion in those days, Ali spoke at Howard University, where he gave his popular "Black Is Best" speech to 4,000 cheering students and community intellectuals after he was invited to speak by sociology professor, Nathan Hare, on behalf of the Black Power Committee, a student protest group.[31][32]
Appearing shortly thereafter for his scheduled induction into the U.S. Armed Forces on April 28, 1967 in Houston, he refused three times to step forward at the call of his name. An officer warned him he was committing a felony punishable by five years in prison and a fine of $10,000. Once more, Ali refused to budge when his name was called. As a result, he was arrested and on the same day the New York State Athletic Commission suspended his boxing license and stripped him of his title. Other boxing commissions followed suit. Ali would not be able to obtain a license to box in any state for over three years.[33]
At the trial on June 20, 1967, after only 21 minutes of deliberation, the jury found Ali guilty.[13] After a Court of Appeals upheld the conviction, the case went to the U.S. Supreme Court. During this time, the public began turning against the war and support for Ali began to grow. Ali supported himself by speaking at colleges and universities across the country, where opposition to the war was especially strong. On June 28, 1971, the Supreme Court reversed his conviction for refusing induction by unanimous decision in Clay v. United States.[13] The decision was not based on, nor did it address, the merits of Clay's/Ali's claims per se; rather, the Government's failure to specify which claims were rejected and which were sustained, constituted the grounds upon which the Court reversed the conviction.[34]
Quotes about Vietnam war[link]
| “ | I ain't got no quarrel with them Viet Cong... they never called me nigger.[35] | ” |
| “ | No, I am not going 10,000 miles to help murder, kill, and burn other people to simply help continue the domination of white slavemasters over dark people the world over. This is the day and age when such evil injustice must come to an end.[36] | ” |
| “ | Why should they ask me to put on a uniform and go ten thousand miles from home and drop bombs and bullets on brown people in Vietnam while so-called Negro people in Louisville are treated like dogs and denied simple human rights?[35] | ” |
The Fight of the Century[link]
Main article: Fight of the Century
In 1970, while his case was still on appeal, Ali was allowed to fight again. On August 12, 1970, with the help of Leroy R. Johnson, a Georgia State Senator, he was granted a license to box by the City of Atlanta Athletic Commission.[37] In Atlanta on October 26, 1970, he stopped Jerry Quarry on a cut after three rounds. Shortly after the Quarry fight, the New York State Supreme Court ruled that Ali had been unjustly denied a boxing license. Once again able to fight in New York, he fought Oscar Bonavena at Madison Square Garden in December 1970. After a tough 14 rounds, Ali stopped Bonavena in the 15th, paving the way for a title fight against Joe Frazier, who was himself undefeated.
Ali and Frazier met in the ring on March 8, 1971, at Madison Square Garden. The fight, known as "The Fight of the Century," was one of the most eagerly anticipated bouts of all time and remains one of the most famous. It featured two skilled, undefeated fighters, both of whom had legitimate claims to the heavyweight crown. Frank Sinatra—unable to acquire a ringside seat—took photos of the match for Life magazine. Legendary boxing announcer Don Dunphy and actor and boxing aficionado Burt Lancaster called the action for the broadcast, which reached millions of people. The fight lived up to the hype, and Frazier punctuated his victory by flooring Ali with a hard, leaping left hook in the 15th and final round. Frazier retained the title on a unanimous decision, dealing Ali his first professional loss.
Ali rebounded with six victories in 1972, notching wins over Floyd Patterson and Jerry Quarry. In 1972 Muhammad Ali won six boxing matches including one over light-heavyweight champion of the world Bob Foster.
In 1973, Ali fought Ken Norton, who had broken Ali's jaw and won by split decision over 12 rounds in their first bout in 1972. Ali won the rematch, by split decision, on September 10, 1973, which set up Ali-Frazier II, a nontitle rematch with Joe Frazier, who had already lost his title to George Foreman. The bout was held on January 28, 1974, with Ali winning a unanimous 12-round decision.
The Rumble in the Jungle[link]
Main article: The Rumble in the Jungle
In one of the biggest upsets in boxing history, Ali regained his title on October 30, 1974 by defeating champion George Foreman in their bout in Kinshasa, Zaire. Hyped as "The Rumble in the Jungle", the fight was promoted by Don King.
Almost no one, not even Ali's long-time supporter Howard Cosell, gave the former champion a chance of winning. Analysts pointed out that Joe Frazier and Ken Norton had given Ali four tough battles in the ring and won two of them, while Foreman had knocked out both of them in the second round. As a matter of fact, so total was the domination that, in their bout, Foreman had knocked down Frazier an incredible six times in only four minutes and 25 seconds.
During the bout, Ali employed an unexpected strategy. Leading up to the fight, he had declared he was going to "dance" and use his speed to keep away from Foreman and outbox him. However, in the first round, Ali headed straight for the champion and began scoring with a right hand lead, clearly surprising Foreman. Ali caught Foreman nine times in the first round with this technique, but failed to knock him out. He then decided to take advantage of the young champion's weakness: staying power. Foreman had won 37 of his 40 bouts by knockout, mostly within three rounds. Eight of his previous bouts did not go past the second round. Ali saw an opportunity to outlast Foreman, and capitalized on it.
In the second round, the challenger retreated to the ropes—inviting Foreman to hit him, while counterpunching and verbally taunting the younger man. Ali's plan was to enrage Foreman and absorb his best blows to exhaust him mentally and physically. While Foreman threw wide shots to Ali's body, Ali countered with stinging straight punches to Foreman's head. Foreman threw hundreds of punches in seven rounds, but with decreasing technique and potency. Ali leaned on the ropes while covering up his body as Foreman threw punches that were deflected and didn't land squarely. The technique was later termed "The Rope-A-Dope".
By the end of the seventh round, Foreman was exhausted. In the eighth, Ali dropped Foreman with a combination at center ring and Foreman failed to make the count. Against the odds, Ali had regained the title.
The "Rumble in the Jungle" was the subject of a 1996 Academy Award winning documentary film, When We Were Kings. The fight and the events leading up to it are extensively depicted in both John Herzfeld's 1997 docudrama Don King: Only in America and Michael Mann's 2001 docudrama, Ali.
The Thrilla in Manila[link]
Main article: Thrilla in Manila
In March 1975, Ali faced Chuck Wepner in a bout that inspired the original Rocky. While it was largely thought that Ali would dominate, Wepner surprised everyone by not only knocking Ali down in the ninth round, but nearly going the distance. Ali eventually stopped Wepner in the fading minutes of the 15th round. Following a title defense with Ron Lyle, in July Ali faced Joe Bugner, winning a 15 round decision.
On October 1, 1975, Ali fought Joe Frazier for the third time.[13] Taking place in the Philippines, the bout was promoted as the Thrilla in Manila[13] by Don King, who had ascended to prominence following the Ali-Foreman fight. The anticipation was enormous for this final clash between two great heavyweights. Ali believed Frazier was "over the hill" by that point. Ali's frequent insults, slurs and demeaning poems increased the anticipation and excitement for the fight, but enraged a determined Frazier. Regarding the fight, Ali famously remarked, "It will be a killa... and a chilla... and a thrilla... when I get the gorilla in Manila."
The fight lasted 14 grueling rounds in temperatures approaching 100 °F (38 °C). Ali won many of the early rounds, but Frazier staged a comeback in the middle rounds, while Ali lay on the ropes. By the late rounds, however, Ali regained control and the fight was stopped when Frazier was unable to answer the bell for the 15th and final round (his eyes were swollen shut). Frazier's trainer, Eddie Futch, refused to allow Frazier to continue.
Subsequent bouts and retirement[link]
In February 1976, Ali easily beat Jean-Pierre Coopman. In April 1976, he defeated Jimmy Young and then Richard Dunn the following month, which would turn out to be Ali's last knockout victory.
Following that fight, he staged an exhibition match with professional wrestler and martial artist Antonio Inoki.[38] Although widely perceived as a publicity stunt, the match against Inoki would have a long-term detrimental effect on Ali's mobility. Inoki spent much of the fight on the ground trying to damage Ali’s legs, while Ali spent most of the fight dodging the kicks or staying on the ropes.[39] At the end of 15 rounds, the bout was called a draw. Ali's legs, however, were bleeding, leading to an infection. He suffered two blood clots in his legs as well.[38]
In September 1976, at Yankee Stadium, Ali faced Ken Norton in their third fight, with Ali winning a close but unanimous 15-round decision. Soon after the fight, Ali temporarily quit boxing to spread the faith of Islam.[40]
In May 1977, Ali defended his title against Alfredo Evangelista. In September of that year he faced a battering 15 rounds with Earnie Shavers. Fight doctor Ferdie Pacheco left Ali's camp following the Shavers fight after being rebuffed for advising Ali to retire.
In February 1978, Ali lost the heavyweight title to 1976 Olympic Light-Heavyweight Champion Leon Spinks. On September 15, 1978, Ali fought a rematch in the New Orleans Louisiana Superdome against Spinks for the WBA version of the Heavyweight title, winning it for a record third time. Ali retired following this victory on June 27, 1979, but returned in 1980 to face current champion Larry Holmes in an attempt to win a heavyweight title an unprecedented four times. Angelo Dundee refused to let his man come out for the 11th round, in what became Ali's only loss by anything other than a decision. The fight has been cited as a contributing factor in Ali's development of Parkinson's Disease.[41] Ali's final fight, a loss by unanimous decision after 10 rounds, was to up-and-coming challenger Trevor Berbick in 1981.
Ali's legacy[link]
Muhammad Ali defeated every top heavyweight in his era, which has been called the golden age of heavyweight boxing. Ali was named "Fighter of the Year" by Ring Magazine more times than any other fighter, and was involved in more Ring Magazine "Fight of the Year" bouts than any other fighter. He is an inductee into the International Boxing Hall of Fame and holds wins over seven other Hall of Fame inductees. He is one of only three boxers to be named "Sportsman of the Year" by Sports Illustrated.
In 1978, three years before Ali's permanent retirement, the Board of Aldermen in his hometown of Louisville, Kentucky, voted 6–5 to rename Walnut Street to Muhammad Ali Boulevard. This was controversial at the time, as within a week 12 of the 70 street signs were stolen. Earlier that year, a committee of the Jefferson County Public Schools considered renaming Central High School in his honor, but the motion failed to pass. At any rate, in time, Muhammad Ali Boulevard—and Ali himself—came to be well accepted in his hometown.[42]
In 1993, the Associated Press reported that Ali was tied with Babe Ruth as the most recognized athlete, out of over 800 dead or alive athletes, in America. The study found that over 97% of Americans over 12 years of age identified both Ali and Ruth.[43]
He was the recipient of the 1997 Arthur Ashe Courage Award.
In retirement[link]
Ali was diagnosed with Parkinson's syndrome in 1984,[44][45] a disease to which those subject to severe head trauma, such as boxers, are many times more susceptible than average.[46] Despite the disability, he remains a beloved and active public figure. In 1985, he served as a guest referee at the inaugural WrestleMania event.[47][48] In 1987 he was selected by the California Bicentennial Foundation for the U.S. Constitution to personify the vitality of the U.S. Constitution and Bill of Rights in various high profile activities. Ali rode on a float at the 1988 Tournament of Roses Parade, launching the U.S. Constitution's 200th birthday commemoration. He published an oral history, Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times by Thomas Hauser, in 1991. That same year Ali traveled to Iraq during the Gulf War and met with Saddam Hussein in an attempt to negotiate the release of American hostages.[49] Ali received a Spirit of America Award calling him the most recognized American in the world. In 1996, he had the honor of lighting the flame at the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta, Georgia.
He appeared at the 1998 AFL (Australian Football League) Grand Final, where Anthony Pratt invited him to watch the game. He greets runners at the start line of the Los Angeles Marathon every year. Since 1994, Ali has hosted an annual charity event in Phoenix, Arizona called "Celebrity Fight Night", which has raised more than $70 million for the Muhammad Ali Parkinson Center and other charities.[50]
In 1999, the BBC produced a special version of its annual BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award ceremony, and Ali was voted their Sports Personality of the Century,[51] receiving more votes than the other four contenders combined. His daughter Laila Ali became a boxer in 1999,[52] despite her father's earlier comments against female boxing in 1978: "Women are not made to be hit in the breast, and face like that... the body's not made to be punched right here [patting his chest]. Get hit in the breast... hard... and all that."[53]
On September 13, 1999, Ali was named "Kentucky Athlete of the Century" by the Kentucky Athletic Hall of Fame in ceremonies at the Galt House East.[54]
In 2001, a biographical film, entitled Ali, was made, directed by Michael Mann, with Will Smith starring as Ali. The film received mixed reviews, with the positives generally attributed to the acting, as Smith and supporting actor Jon Voight earned Academy Award nominations. Prior to making the Ali movie, Will Smith had continually rejected the role of Ali until Muhammad Ali personally requested that he accept the role. According to Smith, the first thing Ali said about the subject to him was: "Man, you're almost pretty enough to play me."[55]
On November 17, 2002, Muhammad Ali went to Afghanistan as "U.N. Messenger of Peace".[56] He was in Kabul for a three-day goodwill mission as a special guest of the UN.[57]
On January 8, 2005, Muhammad Ali was presented with the Presidential Citizens Medal by President George W. Bush.
He received the Presidential Medal of Freedom at a White House ceremony on November 9, 2005,[58][59] and the "Otto Hahn Peace Medal in Gold" of the UN Association of Germany (DGVN) in Berlin for his work with the US civil rights movement and the United Nations (December 17, 2005).
On November 19, 2005 (Ali's 19th wedding anniversary), the $60 million non-profit Muhammad Ali Center opened in downtown Louisville. In addition to displaying his boxing memorabilia, the center focuses on core themes of peace, social responsibility, respect, and personal growth.
According to the Ali Center website, "Since he retired from boxing, Ali has devoted himself to humanitarian endeavors around the globe. He is a devout Muslim, and travels the world over, lending his name and presence to hunger and poverty relief, supporting education efforts of all kinds, promoting adoption and encouraging people to respect and better understand one another. It is estimated that he has helped to provide more than 22 million meals to feed the hungry. Ali travels, on average, more than 200 days per year."
At the FedEx Orange Bowl on January 2, 2007, Ali was an honorary captain for the Louisville Cardinals wearing their white jersey, number 19. Ali was accompanied by golf legend Arnold Palmer, who was the honorary captain for the Wake Forest Demon Deacons, and Miami Heat star Dwyane Wade.
A youth club in Ali's hometown and a species of rose (Rosa ali) have been named after him. On June 5, 2007, he received an honorary doctorate of humanities at Princeton University's 260th graduation ceremony.[60]
Ali lives in Scottsdale, Arizona with his fourth wife, Yolanda "Lonnie" Ali.[61] They own a house in Berrien Springs, Michigan, which is for sale. On January 9, 2007, they purchased a house in eastern Jefferson County, Kentucky for $1,875,000.[62] Lonnie converted to Islam from Catholicism in her late 20s.[63]
On August 17, 2009, it was voted unanimously by the town council of Ennis, Co Clare, Ireland to make Ali the first Freeman of Ennis. Ennis was the birthplace of Ali's great grandfather before he emigrated to the U.S. in the 1860s, before eventually settling in Kentucky.[64] On September 1, 2009, Ali visited the town of Ennis and at a civic reception he received the honour of the freedom of the town.[65]
Ranking in heavyweight history[link]
Ali is generally considered to be one of the greatest heavyweights of all time by boxing commentators and historians. Ring Magazine, a prominent boxing magazine, named him number 1 in a 1998 ranking of greatest heavyweights from all eras.[66]
Ali was named the second greatest fighter in boxing history by ESPN.com behind only welterweight and middleweight great Sugar Ray Robinson.[67] In December 2007, ESPN listed Ali second in its choice of the greatest heavyweights of all time, behind Joe Louis.[68]
The Associated Press voted Ali the No. 1 heavyweight of the 20th century in 1999.[69]
Personal life[link]
Muhammad Ali has been married four times and has seven daughters and two sons. Ali met his first wife, cocktail waitress Sonji Roi, approximately one month before they married on August 14, 1964.[citation needed] Roi's objections to certain Muslim customs in regard to dress for women contributed to the breakup of their marriage. They divorced on January 10, 1966.
On August 17, 1967, Ali married Belinda Boyd. After the wedding, she, like Ali, converted to Islam and more recently to Sufism,[70] changed her name to Khalilah Ali, though she was still called Belinda by old friends and family. They had four children: Maryum (b. 1968), Jamillah and Rasheda (b. 1970), and Muhammad Ali Jr. (b. 1972).[71] Maryam has a career as an author and rapper.[72]
In 1975, Ali began an affair with Veronica Porsche, an actress and model. By the summer of 1977, Ali's second marriage was over and he had married Veronica.[73] At the time of their marriage, they had a baby girl, Hana, and Veronica was pregnant with their second child. Their second daughter, Laila, was born in December 1977. By 1986, Ali and Veronica were divorced.
On November 19, 1986, Ali married Yolanda ("Lonnie") Williams. They had been friends since 1964 in Louisville. They have one son, Asaad Amin, who they adopted when Amin was five.[71][74][75][76][77]
Ali was a resident of Cherry Hill, New Jersey in the early 1970s.[78] Ali has two other daughters, Miya and Khaliah, from extramarital relationships.[71][79]
In the media and popular culture[link]
File:StangoAli.jpg
Pop art painting of Muhammad Ali by John Stango
Main article: Muhammad Ali in media and popular culture
As a world champion boxer and social activist, Ali has been the subject of numerous books, films and other creative works. In 1963, he released an album of spoken word on Columbia Records titled I am the Greatest! He has appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated on 37 different occasions, second only to Michael Jordan.[80] He appeared in the documentary film Black Rodeo (1972) riding both a horse and a bull. His autobiography The Greatest: My Own Story, written with Richard Durham, was published in 1975.[81] In 1977 the book was adapted into a film called The Greatest, in which Ali played himself and Ernest Borgnine played Angelo Dundee. When We Were Kings, a 1996 documentary about the Rumble in the Jungle, won an Academy Award,[82] and the 2001 biopic Ali garnered an Oscar nomination for Will Smith's portrayal of the lead role.[83]
For contributions to the entertainment industry, Ali was honored with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard.[84]
The Muhammad Ali Effect[link]
The Muhammad Ali Effect is a term used in psychology that was named after him when he stated, "I only said I was the greatest, not the smartest" in his autobiography The Greatest: My Own Story.[81] According to this effect, when people are asked to rate their intelligence and moral behavior in comparison to others, people will rate themselves as more moral, but not more intelligent than others.[85][86]
Professional boxing record[link]
| 56 Wins (37 knockouts, 19 decisions), 5 Losses (4 decisions, 1 TKO), 0 Draws[1] | |||||||
| Res. | Opponent | Type | Round, Time | Date | Age | Location | Notes |
| Loss | Trevor Berbick | Decision (unanimous) | 10 (10) | 01981-12-11December 11, 1981 | &1000000000000003900000039 years, &10000000000000328000000328 days |  Nassau, Bahamas |
"Drama in the Bahamas"[87] |
| Loss | Larry Holmes | TKO (Corner Stoppage) | 10 (15) | 01980-10-02October 2, 1980 | &1000000000000003800000038 years, &10000000000000259000000259 days |  Las Vegas, NV |
Lost The Ring World Heavyweight title. For WBC World Heavyweight title. |
| Win | Leon Spinks | Decision (unanimous) | 15 (15) | 01978-09-15September 15, 1978 | &1000000000000003600000036 years, &10000000000000241000000241 days | New Orleans, LA |
Won The Ring & WBA World Heavyweight titles; Vacated WBA title on 1979-09-06. |
| Loss | Leon Spinks | Decision (split) | 15 (15) | 01978-02-15February 15, 1978 | &1000000000000003600000036 years, &1000000000000002900000029 days | Las Vegas, NV |
Lost The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Earnie Shavers | Decision (unanimous) | 15 (15) | 01977-09-29September 29, 1977 | &1000000000000003500000035 years, &10000000000000255000000255 days | New York City |
Retained The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Alfredo Evangelista | Decision (unanimous) | 15 (15) | 01977-05-16May 16, 1977 | &1000000000000003500000035 years, &10000000000000119000000119 days | Landover, MD |
Retained The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Ken Norton | Decision (unanimous) | 15 (15) | 01976-09-28September 28, 1976 | &1000000000000003400000034 years, &10000000000000255000000255 days | The Bronx, New York |
Retained The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Richard Dunn | TKO | 5 (15) | 01976-05-24May 24, 1976 | &1000000000000003400000034 years, &10000000000000128000000128 days |  Munich, West Germany |
Retained The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Jimmy Young | Decision (unanimous) | 15 (15) | 01976-04-30April 30, 1976 | &1000000000000003400000034 years, &10000000000000104000000104 days | Landover, MD |
Retained The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Jean-Pierre Coopman | KO | 5 (15) | 01976-02-20February 20, 1976 | &1000000000000003400000034 years, &1000000000000003400000034 days |  San Juan, Puerto Rico |
Retained The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Joe Frazier | TKO | 14 (15), 0:59 | 01975-10-01October 1, 1975 | &1000000000000003300000033 years, &10000000000000257000000257 days |  Quezon City, Philippines |
"The Thrilla in Manila"; Retained The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Joe Bugner | Decision (unanimous) | 15 (15) | 01975-06-30June 30, 1975 | &1000000000000003300000033 years, &10000000000000164000000164 days |  Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia |
Retained The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Ron Lyle | TKO | 11 (15) | 01975-05-16May 16, 1975 | &1000000000000003300000033 years, &10000000000000119000000119 days | Las Vegas, NV |
Retained The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Chuck Wepner | TKO | 15 (15), 2:41 | 01975-03-24March 24, 1975 | &1000000000000003300000033 years, &1000000000000006600000066 days | Richfield, OH |
Retained The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | George Foreman | KO | 8 (15), 2:58 | 01974-10-30October 30, 1974 | &1000000000000003200000032 years, &10000000000000286000000286 days |  Kinshasa, Zaire |
"The Rumble in the Jungle"; Won The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Joe Frazier | Decision (unanimous) | 12 (12) | 01974-01-28January 28, 1974 | &1000000000000003200000032 years, &1000000000000001100000011 days | New York City, NY |
Retained NABF Heavyweight title; Vacated title later in 1974. |
| Win | Rudi Lubbers | Decision (unanimous) | 12 (12) | 01973-10-20October 20, 1973 | &1000000000000003100000031 years, &10000000000000276000000276 days |  Jakarta, Indonesia |
|
| Win | Ken Norton | Decision (split) | 12 (12) | 01973-09-10September 10, 1973 | &1000000000000003100000031 years, &10000000000000236000000236 days | Inglewood, CA |
Won NABF Heavyweight title. |
| Loss | Ken Norton | Decision (split) | 12 (12) | 01973-03-31March 31, 1973 | &1000000000000003100000031 years, &1000000000000007300000073 days | San Diego, CA |
Lost NABF Heavyweight title. |
| Win | Joe Bugner | Decision (unanimous) | 12 (12) | 01973-02-14February 14, 1973 | &1000000000000003100000031 years, &1000000000000002800000028 days | Las Vegas, NV |
|
| Win | Bob Foster | KO | 7 (12) | 01972-11-21November 21, 1972 | &1000000000000003000000030 years, &10000000000000309000000309 days | Stateline, NV |
Retained NABF Heavyweight title. |
| Win | Floyd Patterson | TKO | 7 (12) | 01972-09-20September 20, 1972 | &1000000000000003000000030 years, &10000000000000247000000247 days | New York City, NY |
Retained NABF Heavyweight title. |
| Win | Alvin Lewis | TKO | 11 (12), 1:15 | 01972-07-19July 19, 1972 | &1000000000000003000000030 years, &10000000000000184000000184 days |  Dublin, Ireland |
|
| Win | Jerry Quarry | TKO | 7 (12), 0:19 | 01972-06-27June 27, 1972 | &1000000000000003000000030 years, &10000000000000162000000162 days | Las Vegas, NV |
Retained NABF Heavyweight title. |
| Win | George Chuvalo | Decision (unanimous) | 12 (12) | 01972-05-01May 1, 1972 | &1000000000000003000000030 years, &10000000000000105000000105 days |  Vancouver, Canada |
Retained NABF Heavyweight title. |
| Win | Mac Foster | Decision (unanimous) | 15 (15) | 01972-04-01April 1, 1972 | &1000000000000003000000030 years, &1000000000000007500000075 days |  Tokyo, Japan |
|
| Win | Jürgen Blin | KO | 7 (12), 2:12 | 01971-12-26December 26, 1971 | &1000000000000002900000029 years, &10000000000000343000000343 days |  Zurich, Switzerland |
|
| Win | Buster Mathis | Decision (unanimous) | 12 (12) | 01971-11-17November 17, 1971 | &1000000000000002900000029 years, &10000000000000304000000304 days | Houston, TX |
Retained NABF Heavyweight title. |
| Win | Jimmy Ellis | TKO | 12 (12), 2:10 | 01971-07-26July 26, 1971 | &1000000000000002900000029 years, &10000000000000190000000190 days | Houston, TX |
Won vacant NABF Heavyweight title. |
| Loss | Joe Frazier | Decision (unanimous) | 15 (15) | 01971-03-08March 8, 1971 | &1000000000000002900000029 years, &1000000000000005000000050 days | New York City, NY |
"The Fight of the Century"; Lost The Ring World Heavyweight title. For WBA & WBC World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Oscar Bonavena | TKO | 15 (15), 2:03 | 01970-12-07December 7, 1970 | &1000000000000002800000028 years, &10000000000000324000000324 days | New York City, NY |
Retained The Ring World Heavyweight title. |
| Win | Jerry Quarry | TKO | 3 (15) | 01970-10-26October 26, 1970 | &1000000000000002800000028 years, &10000000000000282000000282 days | Atlanta, GA |
Retained The Ring World Heavyweight title. |
| Win | Zora Folley | KO | 7 (15), 1:48 | 01967-03-22March 22, 1967 | &1000000000000002500000025 years, &1000000000000006400000064 days | New York City, NY |
Retained The Ring, WBC & WBA World Heavyweight titles; Stripped of titles on 1967-04-28. |
| Win | Ernie Terrell | Decision (unanimous) | 15 (15) | 01967-02-06February 6, 1967 | &1000000000000002500000025 years, &1000000000000002000000020 days | Houston, TX |
Retained The Ring WBC & won WBA World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Cleveland Williams | TKO | 3 (15) | 01966-11-14November 14, 1966 | &1000000000000002400000024 years, &10000000000000301000000301 days | Houston, TX |
Retained The Ring & WBC World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Karl Mildenberger | TKO | 12 (15) | 01966-09-10September 10, 1966 | &1000000000000002400000024 years, &10000000000000236000000236 days | Frankfurt, West Germany |
Retained The Ring & WBC World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Brian London | KO | 3 (15) | 01966-08-06August 6, 1966 | &1000000000000002400000024 years, &10000000000000201000000201 days |  London, England |
Retained The Ring & WBC World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Henry Cooper | TKO | 6 (15), 1:38 | 01966-05-21May 21, 1966 | &1000000000000002400000024 years, &10000000000000124000000124 days | London, England |
Retained The Ring & WBC World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | George Chuvalo | Decision (unanimous) | 15 (15) | 01966-03-29March 29, 1966 | &1000000000000002400000024 years, &1000000000000007100000071 days | Toronto, Canada |
Retained The Ring & WBC World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Floyd Patterson | TKO | 12 (15), 2:18 | 01965-11-22November 22, 1965 | &1000000000000002300000023 years, &10000000000000309000000309 days | Las Vegas, NV |
Retained The Ring & WBC World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Sonny Liston | KO | 1 (15), 2:12 | 01965-05-25May 25, 1965 | &1000000000000002300000023 years, &10000000000000128000000128 days | Lewiston, ME |
Retained The Ring & WBC World Heavyweight titles. |
| Win | Sonny Liston | TKO | 7 (15) | 01964-02-25February 25, 1964 | &1000000000000002200000022 years, &1000000000000003900000039 days | Miami Beach, FL |
Won The Ring, WBA & WBC World Heavyweight titles; Stripped of WBA title on 1964-06-19. |
| Win | Henry Cooper | TKO | 5 (10), 2:15 | 01963-06-18June 18, 1963 | &1000000000000002100000021 years, &10000000000000152000000152 days | London, England |
|
| Win | Doug Jones | Decision (unanimous) | 10 (10) | 01963-03-13March 13, 1963 | &1000000000000002100000021 years, &1000000000000005500000055 days | New York City, NY |
|
| Win | Charley Powell | KO | 3, 2:04 | 01963-01-24January 24, 1963 | &1000000000000002100000021 years, &100000000000000070000007 days | Pittsburgh, PA |
|
| Win | Archie Moore | TKO | 4 (10), 1:35 | 01962-11-15November 15, 1962 | &1000000000000002000000020 years, &10000000000000302000000302 days | Los Angeles, CA |
|
| Win | Alejandro Lavorante | KO | 5 (10), 1:48 | 01962-07-20July 20, 1962 | &1000000000000002000000020 years, &10000000000000184000000184 days | Los Angeles, CA |
|
| Win | Billy Daniels | TKO | 7 (10), 2:21 | 01962-05-19May 19, 1962 | &1000000000000002000000020 years, &10000000000000122000000122 days | New York City, NY |
|
| Win | George Logan | TKO | 4 (10), 1:34 | 01962-04-23April 23, 1962 | &1000000000000002000000020 years, &1000000000000009600000096 days | New York City, NY |
|
| Win | Don Warner | TKO | 4, 0:34 | 01962-03-28March 28, 1962 | &1000000000000002000000020 years, &1000000000000007000000070 days | Miami Beach, FL |
|
| Win | Sonny Banks | TKO | 4 (10), 0:26 | 01962-02-10February 10, 1962 | &1000000000000002000000020 years, &1000000000000002400000024 days | New York City, NY |
|
| Win | Willi Besmanoff | TKO | 7 (10), 1:55 | 01961-11-29November 29, 1961 | &1000000000000001900000019 years, &10000000000000316000000316 days | Louisville, KY |
|
| Win | Alex Miteff | TKO | 6 (10), 1:45 | 01961-10-07October 7, 1961 | &1000000000000001900000019 years, &10000000000000263000000263 days | Louisville, KY |
|
| Win | Alonzo Johnson | Decision (unanimous) | 10 (10) | 01961-07-22July 22, 1961 | &1000000000000001900000019 years, &10000000000000186000000186 days | Louisville, KY |
|
| Win | Duke Sabedong | Decision (unanimous) | 10 (10) | 01961-06-26June 26, 1961 | &1000000000000001900000019 years, &10000000000000160000000160 days | Las Vegas, NV |
|
| Win | LaMar Clark | KO | 2 (10), 1:27 | 01961-04-19April 19, 1961 | &1000000000000001900000019 years, &1000000000000009200000092 days | Louisville, KY |
|
| Win | Donnie Fleeman | TKO | 7 (8) | 01961-02-21February 21, 1961 | &1000000000000001900000019 years, &1000000000000003500000035 days | Miami Beach, FL |
|
| Win | Jim Robinson | KO | 1 (8), 1:34 | 01961-02-07February 7, 1961 | &1000000000000001900000019 years, &1000000000000002100000021 days | Miami Beach, FL |
|
| Win | Tony Esperti | TKO | 3 (8), 1:30 | 01961-01-17January 17, 1961 | &1000000000000001900000019 years, &100000000000000000000000 days | Miami Beach, FL |
|
| Win | Herb Siler | KO | 4 (8) | 01960-12-27December 27, 1960 | &1000000000000001800000018 years, &10000000000000345000000345 days | Miami Beach, FL |
|
| Win | Tunney Hunsaker | Decision (unanimous) | 6 (6) | 01960-10-29October 29, 1960 | &1000000000000001800000018 years, &10000000000000286000000286 days | Louisville, KY |
|
See also[link]
- List of heavyweight boxing champions
- List of North American Muslims
- List of people from Louisville, Kentucky
- List of WBA world champions
- List of WBC world champions
- Notable boxing families
- Conscientious Objector
Notes[link]
- ^ a b "Muhammad Ali – Boxer". Boxrec.com. http://boxrec.com/list_bouts.php?human_id=000180&cat=boxer. Retrieved September 5, 2011.
- ^ a b "Muhammad Ali Biography". Biography.com. January 17, 1942. http://www.biography.com/articles/Muhammad-Ali-9181165?part=0. Retrieved September 5, 2011.
- ^ "Muhammad Ali – Biography of Muhammad Ali – Page 2". History1900s.about.com. http://history1900s.about.com/od/people/a/muhammadali_2.htm. Retrieved September 5, 2011.
- ^ Cagle, Jess (December 17, 2001). "Ali: Lord of the Ring". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1001498,00.html. Retrieved September 5, 2011.
- ^ BY: Interview by Deborah Caldwell. "Muhammad Ali has embraced Sufi Islam and is on a new spiritual quest". Beliefnet.com. http://www.beliefnet.com/Faiths/Islam/2005/02/Muhammad-Alis-New-Spiritual-Quest.aspx. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
- ^ Plimpton, George (June 14, 1999). "MUHAMMAD ALI: The Greatest". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,991256,00.html#ixzz1WkE11Voo. Retrieved September 5, 2011.
- ^ "BACKTALK; Today's Athletes Owe Everything to Ali – Page 3 – New York Times". The New York Times. April 30, 2000. http://www.nytimes.com/2000/04/30/sports/backtalk-today-s-athletes-owe-everything-to-ali.html?pagewanted=3&src=pm. Retrieved September 5, 2011.
- ^ "Muhammad Ali". ESPN. January 20, 2012. http://espn.go.com/sports/boxing/topics/_/page/muhammad-ali. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
- ^ "Float like a butterfly, sting like a bee. by Muhammad Ali". Quotedb.com. http://www.quotedb.com/quotes/3980. Retrieved December 5, 2010.
- ^ Plimpton, George (June 14, 1999). "MUHAMMAD ALI: The Greatest". TIME. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,991256,00.html#ixzz1WjqptGlj. Retrieved September 5, 2011.
- ^ "CNN/SI – SI Online – This Week's Issue of Sports Illustrated – Ali named SI's Sportsman of the Century – Friday December 03, 1999 12:00 AM". Sports Illustrated. December 3, 1999. http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/features/cover/news/1999/12/02/awards. Retrieved September 5, 2011.
- ^ "Ali crowned Sportsman of Century". BBC News. December 13, 1999. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/sport/561352.stm.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Dawson, Dawn P; Salem Press (February 1, 2002). Great Athletes. 1 (Revised ed.). Salem Press. pp. 38–41. ISBN 978-1-58765-008-6. http://books.google.com/?id=TnIAPwAACAAJ.
- ^ Hauser 2004, p. 14
- ^ "Ali has Irish ancestry". BBC News. February 9, 2002. http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/boxing/1810535.stm. Retrieved August 5, 2009.
- ^ Kandel, Elmo (April 1, 2006). "Boxing Legend – Muhammad Ali". Article Click (Elmo Kandel). http://www.articleclick.com/Article/Boxing-Legend---Muhammad-Ali/938509. Retrieved March 9, 2009.
- ^ "Muhammad Ali". University of Florida. http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Spring05/Shaffer/clay.html. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ “GODFATHER” OF CUTMEN-CHUCK BODAK SUFFERS STROKE September 2, 2007 by Pedro Fernandez, ringtalk.com
- ^ "Muhammad Ali Timeline". Infoplease. http://www.infoplease.com/spot/malitimeline1.html. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ Nathan Ward "'A Total Eclipse of the Sonny,'" American Heritage, Oct. 2006.[dead link]
- ^ "Biographies: Muhammad Ali". Gale.cengage.com. http://www.gale.cengage.com/free_resources/bhm/bio/ali_m.htm. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
- ^ Irusta, Carlos (January 17, 2012). "Dundee: Ali was, still is 'The Greatest'". ESPN. http://espn.go.com/boxing/story/_/id/7470417/muhammad-ali-was-continues-greatest. Retrieved January 17, 2012.
- ^ "Boxing Classics – Sonny Liston v Cassius Clay – February 25, 1964". Saddo Boxing. http://www.saddoboxing.com/boxing-article/Sonny-Liston-v-Cassius-Clay.html. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ a b c d e Lipsyte, Robert (February 26, 1964). "Clay Wins Title in Seventh-Round Upset As Liston Is Halted by Shoulder Injury". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/books/98/10/25/specials/ali-upset.html. Retrieved December 27, 2008.
- ^ Sugar, Bert Randolph (November 1, 2003). Bert Sugar on Boxing: The Best of the Sport's Most Notable Writer. Globe Pequot. p. 196. ISBN 978-1-59228-048-3. http://books.google.com/?id=tJ2uBBsN0E0C.
- ^ Anderson, Dave (January 16, 1992). "Sports of The Times; On His 50th, Ali Is Still 'The Greatest'". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/16/sports/sports-of-the-times-on-his-50th-ali-is-still-the-greatest.html?src=pm. Retrieved January 25, 2012.
- ^ Dundee, Maule, Angelo, Tex (August 28, 1967). "He Could Go To Jail And Still Be Champ". Sports Illustrated. http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1080216/1/index.htm. Retrieved February 17, 2012.
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- ^ a b Hauser, Thomas (November 2, 2003). "The living flame". The Observer (UK). http://observer.guardian.co.uk/osm/story/0,,1072751,00.html. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ Caldwell, Deborah. "Muhammad Ali's New Spiritual Quest". Beliefnet. http://www.beliefnet.com/Faiths/Islam/2005/02/Muhammad-Alis-New-Spiritual-Quest.aspx. Retrieved May 20, 2008.
- ^ ""The Greatest" Is Gone". TIME: p. 5. February 27, 1978. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,919377-5,00.html. Retrieved August 4, 2007.
- ^ "This Week in Black History". Jet. May 2, 1994. Archived from the original on April 28, 2009. http://web.archive.org/web/20090428040723/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1355/is_n26_v85/ai_15407999/. Retrieved August 4, 2007.
- ^ Reemstsma, Jean (1999). More Than a Champion: The Style of Muhammad Ali. New York: Vintage. ISBN 978-0-375-70005-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=Hc9tZ7IfUTEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=more+than+a+champion+prime&hl=en&sa=X&ei=NN1gT7LpBYOygwe21-XqBw&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=stronger&f=false. Retrieved March 14, 2012.
- ^ Clay v. United States
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- ^ African-American involvement in the Vietnam war |date=1967 |accessdate=May 25, 2010
- ^ "Ga. Senator Gets TKOed By His Political 'Friends'", by John H. Britton,Jet March 4, 1971, pp.52–54
- ^ a b Tallent, Aaron. "The Joke That Almost Ended Ali's Career". The Sweet Science. Archived from the original on May 15, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20070515075625/http://www.thesweetscience.com/boxing-article/1716/joke-almost-ended-ali-career/. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
- ^ "Inoki vs. Ali Footage". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VrXzH4WOUdc. Retrieved December 4, 2007.
- ^ "Champion Ali Quits Boxing". The Paris News: p. 12. October 1, 1976. http://www.newspaperarchive.com/SiteMap/FreePdfPreview.aspx?img=110827611?sec=Sports. Retrieved October 19, 2011.
- ^ Hale, Mike (October 26, 2009). "Boxing King Casts His Shadow, Even at Time of Defeat". New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/27/arts/television/27muhammad.html?_r=3&scp=2&sq=parkinson%27s%2520disease&st=cse. Retrieved March 5, 2012.
- ^ Hill, Bob (November 19, 2005). "Ali stirs conflicting emotions in hometown". The Courier-Journal. http://www.courier-journal.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20051119/ALI01/511190320. Retrieved December 22, 2006. [dead link]
- ^ Retton, Hammill most popular American athletes; Wilstein, Steve, Associated Press; May 17, 1993.
- ^ Thomas Jr., Robert McG. (September 20, 1984). "Change In Drug Helps Ali Improve". New York Times: pp. D–29. http://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/20/sports/change-in-drug-helps-ali-improve.html?sec=health. Retrieved March 9, 2009.
- ^ "Ali Leaves Hospital Vowing to take better care of himself and get more sleep". New York Times. September 22, 1984. http://www.nytimes.com/1984/09/22/sports/sports-people-ali-leaves-hospital-vowing-take-better-care-himself-get-more-sleep.html. Retrieved March 9, 2009.
- ^ "Progressive parkinsonism in boxers". Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. November 16, 2010. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/2655100. Retrieved December 5, 2010.
- ^ March 31, 1985 (March 31, 1985). "WrestleMania I: Celebrities". Wwe.com. http://www.wwe.com/shows/wrestlemania/history/wm1/celebrities/. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
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- ^ Ryan, Joe (June 5, 2007). "Boxing legend Ali gets Princeton degree". The Star-Ledger. http://www.nj.com/news/index.ssf/2007/06/boxing_legend_ali_gets_princet_1.html. Retrieved June 5, 2007.
- ^ Dahlberg, Tim (January 17, 2007). "Ali turns 65 with a whisper and twinkle". The Courier-Journal. http://www.courier-journal.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20070426/ALI/104260005/-1/ALI. Retrieved January 18, 2007. [dead link]
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- ^ BY: Interview by Deborah Caldwell. "Muhammad Ali has embraced Sufi Islam and is on a new spiritual quest". Beliefnet.com. http://www.beliefnet.com/Faiths/Islam/2005/02/Muhammad-Alis-New-Spiritual-Quest.aspx. Retrieved September 5, 2011.
- ^ a b c "Winstead, Fry, Clay, Greathouse, and Alexander Family Tree:Information about Muhammad Ali". Familytreemaker.genealogy.com. http://familytreemaker.genealogy.com/users/w/i/n/Keith-Winstead/WEBSITE-0001/UHP-0094.html. Retrieved August 5, 2009.
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- ^ Miller, Davis (September 12, 1993). "Still Larger Than Life – To Millions, Muhammad Ali Will Always Be The Champ". Seattle Times Newspaper (Community.seattletimes.nwsource.com). http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=19930912&slug=1720560. Retrieved August 5, 2009.
- ^ page 9. Google Books. 2005. ISBN 978-1-4120-5335-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=mzTW9Nitee4C&printsec=frontcover. Retrieved December 5, 2010.
- ^ By Rhett Bollinger / MLB.com. "Angels draft boxing legend Ali's son". Mlb.mlb.com. http://mlb.mlb.com/news/article.jsp?ymd=20090611&content_id=5270622&vkey=news_mlb&fext=.jsp&c_id=mlb. Retrieved August 5, 2009.
- ^ "Ali's camp now a bed and breakfast". ESPN. http://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00014057.html. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
- ^ "The Biography Channel – Muhammed Ali Biography". Web.archive.org. May 23, 2006. http://web.archive.org/web/20060523172332/http://www.thebiographychannel.co.uk/biography_story/741:610/1/Muhammed_Ali.htm. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
- ^ "Magazine of the Week (September 28, 2006): Sports Illustrated November 28, 1983". Dtmagazine.com. http://www.dtmagazine.com/magazineofweek9282006.html. Retrieved January 29, 2012.
- ^ a b Durham, Richard; Ali, Muhammad; Richard Durham (1975-10). The greatest, my own story. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0-394-46268-4. OCLC 1622063. http://books.google.com/?id=EkfhAAAAMAAJ.
- ^ When We Were Kings (1996).
- ^ Ali (2001).
- ^ "Hollywood Walk of Fame database". HWOF.com. http://hwof.com/star/live-theatre/muhammad-ali/2435.
- ^ Allison, S; Messick Goethals (1989). "On being better but not smarter than others: The Muhammad Ali effect". Social Cognition 7 (3): 275–295.
- ^ Van Lange, P. A. M. (December 1, 1991). "Being Better but Not Smarter than Others: The Muhammad Ali Effect at Work in Interpersonal Situations". Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 17 (6): 689–693. DOI:10.1177/0146167291176012.
- ^ Steen, Rob (October 29, 2006). "Obituary: Trevor Berbick". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2006/oct/30/guardianobituaries.sport. Retrieved September 25, 2011.
References[link]
- Hauser, Thomas (October 21, 2004). Muhammad Ali: His Life and Times. Robson Books. ISBN 978-1-86105-738-9. OCLC 56645513. http://books.google.com/?id=UkFxgibeS1AC.
- Schulke, Flip; Matt Schudel (2000). Muhammad Ali: The Birth of a Legend, Miami, 1961–1964. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-312-20340-5. http://books.google.com/?id=5h2JHAAACAAJ.
External links[link]
 |
Book: Muhammad Ali |
| Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print. | |
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Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Muhammad Ali |
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Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Muhammad Ali |
- Official website
- Muhammad Ali at the Internet Movie Database
- Barrow Neurological Institute: Muhammad Ali Parkinson Center
- Professional boxing record for Muhammad Ali from BoxRec
- WLRN: Muhammad Ali: Made in Miami
- Life Magazine: Cassius Clay: Before He Was Ali (photo essay)
- BoxRec: list of world heavyweight champions?
- BoxRec: list of world P4P champions?
- William Addams Reitwiesner Genealogical Services: Ancestry of Muhammad Ali
| Achievements | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Sonny Liston |
WBA Heavyweight boxing champion February 25, 1964 – June 19, 1964 (Stripped) |
Succeeded by Ernie Terrell filled vacancy |
| WBC Heavyweight boxing champion February 25, 1964 – March 11, 1969 (Stripped) |
Succeeded by Joe Frazier filled vacancy |
|
| Preceded by Ernie Terrell |
WBA Heavyweight boxing champion February 6, 1967 – April 28, 1967 (Stripped) |
Succeeded by Jimmy Ellis filled vacancy |
| Preceded by Leotis Martin (Vacated) |
NABF Heavyweight boxing champion December 17, 1970–1971 (Vacated) |
Succeeded by George Foreman filled vacancy |
| Preceded by George Foreman (Vacated) |
NABF Heavyweight boxing champion Ju1y 26, 1971 – March 31, 1973 |
Succeeded by Ken Norton |
| Preceded by Ken Norton |
NABF Heavyweight boxing champion September 10, 1973–1974 (Vacated) |
Succeeded by Ken Norton filled vacancy |
| Preceded by George Foreman |
WBA Heavyweight boxing champion October 30, 1974 – February 15, 1978 |
Succeeded by Leon Spinks |
| WBC Heavyweight boxing champion October 30, 1974 – February 15, 1978 |
||
| Preceded by Leon Spinks |
WBA Heavyweight boxing champion September 15, 1978 – September 6, 1979 (Vacated) |
Succeeded by John Tate filled vacancy |
| Awards | ||
| Preceded by none |
United Press International Athlete of the Year 1974 |
Succeeded by João Carlos de Oliveira |
| Preceded by O.J. Simpson |
Hickok Belt Winner 1974 |
Succeeded by Pete Rose |
| Preceded by Dick Tiger |
Ring Magazine Fighter of the Year 1963 |
Succeeded by Emile Griffith |
| Preceded by Joe Frazier |
Ring Magazine Fighter of the Year Shared award with Carlos Monzon 1972 |
Succeeded by George Foreman |
| Preceded by George Foreman |
Ring Magazine Fighter of the Year 1974, 1975 |
Succeeded by George Foreman |
| Preceded by Carlos Zarate |
Ring Magazine Fighter of the Year 1978 |
Succeeded by Sugar Ray Leonard |
| Preceded by Willie Pastrano |
BWAA Fighter of the Year 1965 |
Succeeded by Dick Tiger |
| Preceded by George Foreman |
BWAA Fighter of the Year 1974, 1975 (shared award with Joe Frazier) |
Succeeded by U.S. Olympic Boxing Gold Medalists – Sugar Ray Leonard, Leo Randolph, Howard Davis, Jr., Leon Spinks and Michael Spinks |
| Olympic Games | ||
| Preceded by Antonio Rebollo |
Final Summer Olympic Torchbearer Atlanta 1996 |
Succeeded by Cathy Freeman |
|
||||||||||||||||
|
|||||
|
||||||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Ali, Muhammad |
| Alternative names | Clay, Cassius Marcellus, Jr. |
| Short description | American boxer, world heavyweight champion, Olympic gold medalist; anti-Vietnam War activist |
| Date of birth | January 17, 1942 |
| Place of birth | Louisville, Kentucky |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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| Ursula Franklin | |
|---|---|
 Ursula Franklin in 2006 during the launch of The Ursula Franklin Reader at Massey College in Toronto |
|
| Born | (1921-09-16) 16 September 1921 (age 90) Munich, Germany |
| Residence | Toronto, Canada |
| Nationality | Canadian |
| Fields | Metallurgist Research Physicist |
| Institutions | University of Toronto |
| Alma mater | Technical University of Berlin University of Toronto |
| Known for | Archaeometry Pacifism Feminism Theories of technology |
| Influences | Jacques Ellul Lewis Mumford C.B. Macpherson E. F. Schumacher Vandana Shiva |
| Notable awards | Governor General's Award (1991) Pearson Medal of Peace (2001) |
Ursula Martius Franklin, CC OOnt FRSC (born September 16, 1921 in Munich, Germany), is a Canadian metallurgist, research physicist, author and educator who has taught at the University of Toronto for more than 40 years.[1] She is the author of The Real World of Technology, which is based on her 1989 Massey Lectures, and The Ursula Franklin Reader: Pacifism as a Map, a collection of her papers, interviews, and talks. Franklin is a practising Quaker and has been active in working on behalf of pacifist and feminist causes. She has written and spoken extensively about the futility of war and the connection between peace and social justice.[2] Franklin has received numerous honours and awards, including the Governor General's Award in Commemoration of the Persons Case for promoting the equality of girls and women in Canada and the Pearson Medal of Peace for her work in advancing human rights. A Toronto high school, Ursula Franklin Academy, has been named in her honour.[3]
Franklin is best known for her writings on the political and social effects of technology. For her, technology is much more than machines, gadgets or electronic transmitters. It is a comprehensive system that includes methods, procedures, organization, "and most of all, a mindset".[4] She distinguishes between holistic technologies used by craft workers or artisans and prescriptive ones associated with a division of labour in large-scale production. Holistic technologies allow artisans to control their own work from start to finish. Prescriptive technologies organize work as a sequence of steps requiring supervision by bosses or managers.[5] Franklin argues that the dominance of prescriptive technologies in modern society discourages critical thinking and promotes "a culture of compliance".[6]
For some, Franklin belongs in the intellectual tradition of Harold Innis and Jacques Ellul who warn about technology's tendency to suppress freedom and endanger civilization.[7] Franklin herself acknowledges her debt to Ellul as well as to several other thinkers including Lewis Mumford, C.B. Macpherson, E. F. Schumacher and Vandana Shiva.[8]
Contents |
Career[link]
Ursula Franklin began her career during World War II, but was imprisoned in a Nazi work camp because her mother was Jewish. She spent the rest of the war helping to repair bombed buildings. In 1948, Franklin received her Ph.D. in experimental physics at the Technical University of Berlin and emigrated to Canada the following year.[9] She completed post-doctoral studies at the University of Toronto (U of T) and worked for 15 years at the Ontario Research Foundation. In 1967, Franklin became the first female professor in the U of T's department of metallurgy and materials science.[10]
Franklin was a pioneer in the field of archaeometry, which applies modern materials analysis to archaeology. She worked for example, on the dating of prehistoric bronze, copper and ceramic artifacts.[11] In the early 1960s, Franklin investigated levels of strontium-90—a radioactive isotope in fallout from nuclear weapons testing—in children's teeth.[11] Her research contributed to the cessation of atmospheric weapons testing.[10] Franklin has published more than a hundred scientific papers and contributions to books on the structure and properties of metals and alloys as well as on the history and social effects of technology.[12]
As a member of the Science Council of Canada during the 1970s, Franklin chaired an influential study on conserving resources and protecting nature. The study's 1977 report, Canada as a Conserver Society, recommended a wide range of steps aimed at reducing wasteful consumption and the environmental degradation that goes with it.[13] The work on that study helped shape Franklin's ideas about the complexities of modern technological society.[14]
Franklin was also active in the Voice of Women (VOW), now the Canadian Voice of Women for Peace, one of Canada's leading social advocacy organizations. In 1968, she and VOW national president Muriel Duckworth presented a brief to a House of Commons committee asserting that Canada and the United States had entered into military trade agreements without adequate public debate. They argued that these commercial arrangements made it difficult for Canada to adopt independent foreign policy positions such as calling for an immediate U.S. military withdrawal from South Vietnam.[15] In 1969, Franklin and Duckworth called on a committee of the Canadian Senate to recommend that Canada discontinue its chemical and biological weapons research and spend money instead on environmental research and preventive medicine.[16] Franklin was also part of a 1969 VOW delegation that urged the federal government to withdraw from the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and establish a special agency to oversee Canadian disarmament.[17]
In the 1980s, Franklin participated in an organized campaign to win the right for conscientious objectors to redirect part of their income taxes from military uses to peaceful purposes. Her 1987 paper, written to support the campaign, argued that the well-recognized right to refuse military service on grounds of conscience should be extended to include the right to refuse to pay taxes for war preparations.[18] Franklin asserted that the freedom of conscience provision of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guaranteed this form of conscientious objection.[19] Her paper was to be part of an appeal to the Supreme Court of Canada. The lower courts had convicted those withholding part of their taxes of violating the Income Tax Act. In 1990 however, the Supreme Court declined to hear the appeal.[20]
Following Franklin's retirement, she and several other retired female faculty members filed a class action lawsuit against the University of Toronto claiming it had been unjustly enriched by paying women faculty less than comparably qualified men. In 2002, the lawsuit was settled when the university acknowledged that many of its female professors had suffered from gender barriers and pay discrimination during their careers. As a result, about 60 retired women faculty received a pay equity settlement intended to compensate them for the lower salaries and pensions they had received.[21]
Franklin continues to have a strong association with the University of Toronto's Massey College as a continuing senior fellow and senior resident.[3] Her many activities include encouraging young women to pursue careers in science, promoting peace and social justice, and speaking and writing about the social effects of science and technology.[22] Many of her articles and speeches on pacifism, feminism, technology and teaching are collected in The Ursula Franklin Reader published in 2006. Franklin is also the author of The Real World of Technology which is based on her 1989 Massey Lectures broadcast on CBC Radio.
Pacifism, feminism and war[link]
Ursula Franklin explains in a prelude to her 2006 collection of papers, interviews and talks that her lifelong interest in structures, in what she terms "the arrangement and interplay of the parts within a whole," has been at the root of most of her activities.[23] Looking back after almost 40 years, she adds, "I can see how I have tried to wrestle with just one fundamental question: 'How can one live and work as a pacifist in the here and now and help to structure a society in which oppression, violence, and wars would diminish and co-operation, equality, and justice would rise?'"[23] As part of the answer, Franklin turns to the metaphor of mapmaking to explain her intellectual journey. "Increasingly I found the maps of conventional wisdom inadequate for my travels," she writes. "I became unwilling and unable to orient my life according to national maps depicting the realms of 'them' and 'us,' of good guys and bad guys, of winning, defeating, and being defeated; in short, all those maps drawn up for travel towards private gain and personal advancement."[24] Franklin concludes that she has been guided in understanding what she calls "the real world" by "the maps of pacifism and feminism".[24]
Pacifism and conscience[link]
Central to Franklin's pacifism and her view of life is what she calls "the Quaker vision of the world".[25] Individual conscience is at the heart of that vision. So too, is the need to discern appropriate ways of working for peace in each time and place "rather than relying on a dogma of unvarying rules of conduct".[26] She notes that for more than 300 years, Quakers have opposed war and violence and have objected to military service and conscription. They have worked on reconciliation, peace research and disarmament and in many countries have won the right for conscientious objectors to perform alternative service instead of taking part in war.[27] Franklin remarks that Quaker principles have not changed, but technology has changed the nature of war. In a modern technological society she argues, there is no longer a clear boundary between war and peace.[27] War planning is constant during peacetime and when wars are fought, women and children become targets.[28] Nations no longer depend primarily on conscripting military recruits, but rely on advanced weapons systems that are costly to build or acquire.[29] She writes that the arms race is driven by a "technological imperative" which requires the creation of an enemy as a permanent social institution:
Modern weapons technologies, including the required research and development, are particularly capital-intensive and costly. The time between initial research and the deployment of weapon systems can be as long as a decade, during which the government must provide financial security and political justification for the project. In other words, the state not only provides the funding but also identifies a credible external enemy who warrants such expenditure.[30]
Franklin points out that the technological nature of war requires states to conscript the resources needed to pay for hi-tech devices designed for destruction. Thus, people opposed to war are forced—through taxation—to pay for war preparations even if it violates their individual conscience.[31]
Peace and social justice[link]
In her 1987 paper, Reflections on Theology and Peace, Ursula Franklin contends that "peace is not the absence of war—peace is the absence of fear."[32] She asserts however, that fear of war and violence is not the only kind of fear that destroys peace. She includes fears arising for example, from economic insecurity, unemployment and the lack of adequate shelter. Franklin points to what she calls "the threat system" which manages people by instilling fear and uncertainty at all levels of society.[33]
|
There is no way to peace. Peace is the way. |
| – A.J. Muste quoted in The Ursula Franklin Reader.[34] |
For her, social justice is the essential element needed to banish fear and bring peace. Justice means freedom from oppression, but it also implies equality for all. "In God's eyes," she writes, "all creatures have value and are subjects of equal care and love; similarly, in a society of justice and peace, all people matter equally."[35] Franklin suggests that in consumer-oriented societies, war and violence are the inevitable result of an acquisitive lifestyle that rejects caring and social justice. She quotes historian Lewis Mumford's observation that during the rise of capitalism, the sins of greed, gluttony, avarice, envy and luxury became cardinal virtues.[36] Mumford goes on to argue that the "moral change that took place under capitalism can be summed up in the fact that human purposes, human needs, and human limits no longer exercised a directing and restraining influence upon industry: people worked, not to maintain life, but to increase money and power and to minister to the ego that found satisfaction in vast accumulations of money and power."[37] Franklin extends Mumford's argument by pointing to new global realities such as militarized economies dependent on weapons production and national borders increasingly closed to refugees. "Any modern theology of peace," she writes, "must, I think, take into account the worldwide drift towards 'techno-fascism,' the anti-people, anti-justice form of global management and power sharing that is developing around the world."[38]
Globalization as warfare[link]
Franklin argues that the end of the Cold War brought two main changes. First, the threat of war between the United States and Soviet Union was replaced by regional wars among smaller states. Second, war was transposed to what Franklin calls "another key"—the struggle for global commercial and economic dominance.[39] She asserts that this new form of war is now called globalization and its battlefields are global stock and currency markets.[40] This economic warfare defines the enemy as all those who care about the values of community. "Whatever cannot be merely bought and sold," Franklin writes, "whatever cannot be expressed in terms of money and gain-loss transactions stands in the way of the 'market' as enemy territory to be occupied, transformed and conquered."[41] A main strategy in this kind of warfare is the privatization of formerly public domains such as culture, health care, prisons and education to generate private profit. Franklin contends that the new economic warlords or "marketeers" aim, for example, to transform "the ill health or misery of our neighbours into investment opportunities for the next round of capitalism."[42] She argues that marketeers have become occupying forces served by "puppet governments who run the country for the benefit of the occupiers."[42]
Franklin recommends that resistance take the form of refusing to speak the language of the occupiers. This language includes such terms as stakeholders, users, health-care providers and consumers of education to refer to teachers and students, doctors, nurses, patients and communities.[43] Franklin also calls for resistance through court challenges and "the creative use of electronic media to bypass the occupation forces' control of information."[43] Finally, Franklin is a strong supporter of citizen politics, a civic movement which focuses on practical solutions to common problems—everything from the absence of peace to homelessness and local traffic congestion.[44] Borrowing a Quaker term, Franklin calls on citizens to engage in scrupling, the process of sitting down together to discuss and clarify common moral and political concerns.[45] She writes that citizen politics does not seek to overthrow existing governments but to improve them "whether those in power like it or not."[46] The movement also tries to defend communities against those intent, in Franklin's words, on "turning the globe into one giant commercial resource base, while denying a decent and appropriate habitat to many of the world's citizens."[47]
War, failure and 9/11[link]
Again and again in her writings, speeches and interviews, Ursula Franklin insists that war and its violence are not only morally wrong, but also ineffective, impractical, and costly. During a radio interview broadcast two days after the September 11 attacks in the U.S., Franklin argued that violence nowadays is always unsuccessful even for the powerful who try to use it. "Nothing has been resolved by violence over the past fifty years," Franklin said. "The rational thinking that force does not work, even for the enforcer, is staring us in the face."[48] In a newspaper article published just before the first anniversary of 9/11, Franklin wrote, "It is crucial to recognize that war and war measures are fundamentally dysfunctional instruments of problem-solving. Violence begets more violence, war begets further wars, more enemies and more suffering."[49]
|
War does not work, not even for the warriors. |
| – Ursula Franklin on the first anniversary of the September 11 attacks.[50] |
Franklin suggested that it would have been more effective if, instead of launching a War on Terrorism, the U.S. had interpreted the attacks as a political earthquake instead of an act of war. She argued that social and political structures are as inherently unstable as geological ones. "Geological fissures and human terrorists are created in a context of forces that can be understood and—at times—mitigated. Neither can be eliminated by bombing."[51]
Franklin asserts that militarism is the ultimate development of hierarchical social structures and threat-based systems. "They all work under the implicit assumption that some people matter much less than others, and that all people are of interest only as long as they are needed to support the system or to justify it."[52] She notes that many prominent advocates for women's rights such as Jane Addams and Sylvia Pankhurst were pacifists. "To me, the struggle for women's rights and the opposition to militarism in all its forms are two sides of the same coin."[53]
When a CBC Radio interviewer suggested to Franklin that her ideas about peace and justice were not connected with what was actually happening in the aftermath of 9/11, she readily agreed. "Yes, you are quite right. They are totally unconnected. I have spent the best part of my life trying to put these thoughts into the stream that makes decisions, and I've been spectacularly unsuccessful. That, I think, is a reflection on my ability in the climate of the time, not on the value of the thoughts."[54]
Technological society[link]
For Ursula Franklin, technology is a set of practices in the "here and now" rather than an array of machines or gadgets.[55] It is also a comprehensive system. "Technology involves organization, procedures, symbols, new words, equations, and, most of all, a mindset."[4] Her definition is similar to the French thinker Jacques Ellul's concept of technique. Like Ellul, Franklin asserts that technological methods dominate the modern world. "Technology has built the house in which we all live," she writes, "today there is hardly any human activity that does not occur within this house."[56] As such, technology is a central element of the here and now. "In the broadest sense of the term, the here and now is our environment, that is, all that is around us—the ever-changing overlay of nature, the built environment, the institutional and social structures within which human activities take place, as well as the activities themselves—'the way things are done around here.'"[57] Franklin sees her studies of technology as an attempt to understand how technological practices affect the advancement of justice and peace.[57]
Holistic and prescriptive technologies[link]
According to Ursula Franklin, technology is not a set of neutral tools, methods or practices. She asserts that various categories of technology have markedly different social and political effects. She distinguishes for example, between work-related and control-related technologies. Work-related technologies, such as electric typewriters, are designed to make tasks easier. Computerized word processing makes typing easier still. But when computers are linked into work stations—part of a system—word processing becomes a control-related technology. "Now workers can be timed," Franklin writes, "assignments can be broken up, and the interaction between the operators can be monitored."[58]
Franklin extends the distinction between work and control-related technologies to the larger concept of holistic and prescriptive ones. This enables her to consider the social implications of how work is performed. She writes that holistic technologies are usually associated with craft work. "Artisans, be they potters, weavers, metal-smiths, or cooks, control the process of their own work from beginning to finish."[58] Artisans may specialize in a particular kind of product, but they are always in total control of the process of production and each thing they make or create is unique.[59] Prescriptive technologies, on the other hand, break work down into a series of discrete, standardized steps. "Each step is carried out by a separate worker, or group of workers, who need to be familiar only with the skills of performing that one step."[60]
Although the division of labour inherent in prescriptive technologies is usually associated with the industrial revolution, Franklin points out that such production methods have been used since ancient times. Chinese bronze casting before 1200 BC for example, required a tightly controlled and closely supervised production process as well as a strict division of labour.[61] Franklin writes that when she studied Chinese bronze casting as a metallurgist, "the extraordinary social meaning of prescriptive technologies dawned on me. I began to understand what they meant, not just in terms of casting bronze but in terms of discipline and planning, of organization and command."[62]
Technology's culture of compliance[link]
Franklin argues that in modern society, control-related and prescriptive technologies are dominant. "When work is organized as a sequence of separately executable steps, the control over the work moves to the organizer, the boss or manager," she writes. "In political terms, prescriptive technologies are designs for compliance."[63] For Franklin, workers accustomed to following prescriptive rules become used to seeing external control and internal compliance as normal and necessary. They also come to believe that there is only one prescribed way of performing a wide variety of tasks. "While we should not forget that these prescriptive technologies are often exceedingly effective and efficient, they come with an enormous social mortgage. The mortgage means that we live in a culture of compliance, that we are ever more conditioned to accept orthodoxy as normal, and to accept that there is only one way of doing 'it'."[64]
Franklin points out that prescriptive technologies have moved beyond materials production to the realms of administration, government and social services. She argues that tasks which require nurturing or caring for people, in health and education for example, are best done holistically. Yet such tasks are increasingly coming under the sway of prescriptive technologies based on what Franklin calls a production model. Professor Heather Menzies, an admirer of Franklin, describes for example, how nursing tasks are performed in keeping with preset, computerized check lists which leave little discretionary time for dealing with the unexpected or talking with patients who are lonely or distressed.[65] Franklin herself notes that schools and universities test and promote students based on strict production schedules yet "if there ever was a holistic process, a process that cannot be divided into rigid predetermined steps, it is education."[66]
Technology and power[link]
Ursula Franklin rejects the idea that powerful technologies automatically determine the ways in which people live and work. She maintains that the uses of technology are not preordained, but are the result of conscious choices.[67] The dominant prescriptive technologies establish structures of power and control that follow what Franklin sees as male patterns of hierarchy, authoritarianism, competition and exclusion.[68] Female workers are often victims of these patterns. Mechanical sewing machines were introduced in 1851 with the promise that they would liberate women from household drudgery. But when the machines ended up in factory sweatshops to produce cheap clothing, the new technology was used to exploit female workers.[69] "A strictly prescriptive technology with the classic division of labour arose from the introduction of new, supposedly liberating 'domestic' machines," Franklin notes. "In the subsequent evolution of the garment industry, much of the designing, cutting, and assembling began to be automated, often to the complete exclusion of workers."[70] She points to similar examples in other industries. Female operators helped introduce the telephone only to be replaced by automated switchboards after the technology had been successfully established while secretaries struggled to make the early mechanical typewriters function properly, but ended up performing fragmented and increasingly meaningless tasks.[71]
"Many technological systems, when examined for context and overall design, are basically anti-people," Franklin writes. "People are seen as sources of problems while technology is seen as a source of solutions."[72] As a result, people live and work under conditions structured for the well-being of technology even though manufacturers and promoters always present new technologies as liberating.[73] "The dreams of flight, of fast private transportation, of instant communication across continents, and of helpful machines, all stress liberation from hard physical labour at work or drudgery at home."[74] But once technologies are accepted and standardized, they often enslave or displace their users. Franklin argues that work could be made less prescriptive in workplaces that are less rigidly hierarchical if we adopted more holistic practices based on the way women traditionally work in running households for example, or in caring for children.[75]
Communications technologies[link]
Franklin asserts that powerful communications technologies have reshaped political and social realities distancing people from each other and their immediate environments. Radio and television for example, transmit messages instantaneously from afar—messages that are separated from people's experiences in the vicinities where they live and work. Franklin calls such messages pseudorealities. She writes they are based on images that are constructed, staged and selected to create emotional effects and the illusion of "being there" as a participant, not just as an observer.[76] She asserts however, that one-way communications technologies reduce or eliminate reciprocity, the normal give and take of face-to-face communication.[77]
According to Franklin, the selective fragments or pseudorealities that become news stories are produced to attract and hold people's attention by focusing on the unusual over the usual. She acknowledges that no one is forced to watch television or listen to radio; people can explore other channels of communication. But the pseudorealities created by the media are still there "and the world is structured to believe in them."[78] She argues that images from afar have taken over much of our everyday reality like an immensely powerful occupation force. "And somewhere, someone will have to ask, 'How come the right to change our mental environment—to change the constructs of our minds and the sounds around us—seems to have been given away without anybody's consent?'"[79]
Silence and the commons[link]
"Silence," Franklin writes, "possesses striking similarities [to] aspects of life and community, such as unpolluted water, air, or soil, that were once taken as normal and given, but have become special and precious in technologically mediated environments."[80] She argues that the technological ability to separate recorded sound from its source makes the sound as permanent as the Muzak that plays endlessly in public places without anyone's consent.[81] For Franklin, such canned music is a manipulative technology programmed to generate predictable emotional responses and to increase private profit. She compares this destruction of silence to the British enclosure laws which fenced off the commons for private farming.[82]
Franklin maintains that the core of the strength of silence is its openness to unplanned events. Quakers, she writes, worship God in collective silence. "I think that if any one of you attended a Quaker meeting, particularly on a regular basis," she told a 1993 conference on acoustic ecology, "you would find that suddenly, out of the silence, someone will speak about something that had just entered your mind. It's an uncanny thing, but the strength of collective silence is probably one of the most powerful spiritual forces."[83] Franklin advocates defending the human right to public silence—negotiating one music-free elevator for example, or lobbying for quiet rooms in public buildings. She also recommends starting and ending meetings with a few minutes of silence.[84]
Awards and honours[link]
Franklin has received numerous awards and honours during her long career. In 1984, she became the first woman at the University of Toronto to be named University Professor,[11] a special title which is the highest honour given by the university.[85] She was named Officer of the Order of Canada in 1981 and a Companion of the Order in 1992.[86] She was appointed to the Order of Ontario in 1990. In 1982, she was given the award of merit for the City of Toronto, mainly for her work in neighbourhood planning.[87] She received an honorary membership in the Delta Kappa Gamma Society International for women educators in 1985. Two years later, she was given the Elsie Gregory McGill memorial award for her contributions to education, science and technology. In 1989, she received the Wiegand Award which recognizes Canadians who have made significant contributions to the understanding of the human dimensions of science and technology.[88] In 1991, she received a Governor General's Award in Commemoration of the Person's Case for advancing the equality of girls and women in Canada. She received the 2001 Pearson Medal of Peace for her work in human rights. She has a Toronto high school named after her, Ursula Franklin Academy.[89] In 2004, Franklin was awarded one of Massey College's first Adrienne Clarkson Laureateships, honoring outstanding achievement in public service.[90] She has received honorary degrees from more than a dozen Canadian universities including a Doctor of Science from Queen's University and a Doctor of Humane Letters from Mount Saint Vincent University, both awarded in 1985.[91]
Notes[link]
- ^ Lumley, Elizabeth (editor) (2008), Canadian Who's Who 2008. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, p.439.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), pp.2–5.
- ^ a b Lumley, p.439.
- ^ a b Franklin (Real World), p.12.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), pp.18–20.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.24.
- ^ Rose, Ellen. "An Interview with Heather Menzies (2003)." Antigonish Review. January 1, 2004, p.113.
- ^ see Franklin (Reader) p.213 as well as the more complete list on pp.367–368.
- ^ "Hagey Lecturer addresses technology". University of Waterloo, Daily Bulletin. http://www.bulletin.uwaterloo.ca/2005/mar/02we.html. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
- ^ a b "Ursula M. Franklin Doctor of Science". McGill University McGill Reporter. http://www.mcgill.ca/reporter/38/17/convocation. Retrieved 2008-07-16. [dead link]
- ^ a b c Sheinin, p.839.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.369.
- ^ Science Council of Canada. (1977) Canada as a Conserver Society: Resource Uncertainties and the Need for New Technologies. Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada, pp.71–88.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), pp.137–138.
- ^ Kerans, Marion Douglas. (1996) Muriel Duckworth: A Very Active Pacifist. Halifax: Fernwood Publishing, p.135.
- ^ Kerans, p.117.
- ^ Kerans, p.138.
- ^ The paper appears in The Ursula Franklin Reader, as "The Nature of Conscience and the Nature of War," pp.46–60.
- ^ Section 2 of the Charter states that everyone has certain fundamental freedoms including (a) freedom of conscience and religion.
- ^ "A Brief History of Conscientious Objection in Canada" (PDF). Conscience Canada. http://www.consciencecanada.ca/references/history.pdf. Retrieved 2008-07-24. [dead link]
- ^ Valpy, Michael. "U of T recognizes female academics faced barriers." Globe and Mail, April 20, 2002.
- ^ Swenarchuk, pp.5,6,9,12,16,29,34.
- ^ a b Franklin (Reader), p.39.
- ^ a b Franklin (Reader), p.41.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.43.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), pp.36–37.
- ^ a b Franklin (Reader), p.53.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.54.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.55.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.58.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), pp.55–57.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.76.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), pp.69–70.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), pp.69&96.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.70.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.71.
- ^ Mumford, Lewis. (1973) The Condition of Man. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, Inc., p.162.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), pp.71–73.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.115.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.117.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.118.
- ^ a b Franklin (Reader), p.124.
- ^ a b Franklin (Reader), p.125.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.280.
- ^ "An interview with Ursula Franklin". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation,. http://www.cbc.ca/thecurrent/2010/05/may-06-2010.html. Retrieved 2010-05-06.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.281.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.288.
- ^ How the World Has Changed, an interview broadcast on Ideas, CBC Radio, September 13, 2001. Quoted in Franklin (Reader), p.129.
- ^ On the First Anniversary of September 11, Toronto Star, August 30, 2002. Quoted in Franklin (Reader), p.135.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.135.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), pp.134–135.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.101.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.102.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.131.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), pp.16 & 137.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.11.
- ^ a b Franklin (Reader), p.137.
- ^ a b Franklin (Real World), p.18.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.19.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.20.
- ^ Franklin describes Chinese bronze casting in some detail in Real World, pp.20–23.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), pp.22–23.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.23. Emphasis in original.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.24
- ^ Menzies, Heather. (2005) No Time: Stress and the Crisis of Modern Life. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre Ltd., pp.126–130.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.29.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.115.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.103.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), pp.100–101.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.101.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), pp.106–110.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.76.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.86.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), pp.95–96.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.104.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.42.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), pp. 48–49. In fact, Franklin writes that she would like to call these "non-communications" technologies because of their lack of reciprocity.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.44.
- ^ Franklin (Real World), p.44. Franklin's question is somewhat similar to Marshall McLuhan's warning about the effects of commercial media: "Once we have surrendered our senses and nervous systems to the private manipulation of those who would try to benefit from taking a lease on our eyes and ears and nerves, we don't really have any rights left. Leasing our eyes and ears and nerves to commercial interests is like handing over the common speech to a private corporation, or like giving the earth's atmosphere to a company as a monopoly." See, McLuhan, Marshall. (2003) Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Critical edition, edited by W. Terrence Gordon. Corte Madera, CA: Gingko Press Inc. pp.99–100.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.157.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), pp.158 & 161.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), pp.162–163.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.160.
- ^ Franklin (Reader), p.164.
- ^ "Ursula Franklin". science.ca. http://www.science.ca/scientists/scientistprofile.php?pID=156. Retrieved 2008-07-16.
- ^ "Honours Order of Canada". Governor General of Canada. http://www.gg.ca/honours/search-recherche/honours-desc.asp?lang=e&TypeID=orc&id=3073. Retrieved 2008-09-18. [dead link]
- ^ The Order of Ontario award and Toronto's award of merit are listed in Franklin (Reader), p.370.
- ^ These three honours are listed in a postscript to Franklin's Real World of Technology.
- ^ These awards are listed in Lumley, p.439.
- ^ MasseyNews, annual newsletter of Massey College, Toronto, 2003–2004, No. 35 (October 2004), pp.1 & 15.
- ^ Sheinin, p.839
References[link]
- Ellul, Jacques. (1964) The Technological Society. New York: Vintage Books. OCLC 1955603
- Kerans, Marion Douglas. (1996) Muriel Duckworth: A Very Active Pacifist. Halifax: Fernwood Publishing. ISBN 1-895686-68-7
- Lumley, Elizabeth (editor). (2008) Canadian Who's Who 2008. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-4071-8
- McLuhan, Marshall. (2003) Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Critical edition, edited by W. Terrence Gordon. Corte Madera, CA: Gingko Press Inc. ISBN 1-58423-073-8
- Menzies, Heather. (2005) No Time: Stress and the Crisis of Modern Life. Vancouver: Douglas & McIntyre Ltd. ISBN 1-55365-045-X
- Mumford, Lewis. (1973) The Condition of Man. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, Inc. ISBN 0-15-621550-0
- Rose, Ellen. An Interview with Heather Menzies (2003). Antigonish Review, # 136, p. 111. January 1, 2004. ISSN 0003-5661
- Science Council of Canada. (1977) Canada as a Conserver Society: Resource Uncertainties and the Need for New Technologies. Ottawa: Supply and Services Canada. ISBN 0-660-01400-9
- Sheinin, Rose. (1988) The Canadian Encyclopedia. (Second Edition, Vol. II). Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers Ltd. ISBN 0-88830-328-9
- Swenarchuk, Michelle. (2006) Introduction to The Ursula Franklin Reader: Pacifism as a Map. Toronto: Between the Lines. ISBN 1-897071-18-3
Bibliography[link]
- Franklin, Ursula. (1984) Knowledge reconsidered : a feminist overview = Le savoir en question : vue d'ensemble féministe. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement of Women. ISBN 978-0-919653-44-3
- Franklin, Ursula. (1985) Will women change technology or will technology change women?. Ottawa, ON: Canadian Research Institute for the Advancement of Women. ISBN 978-0-919653-09-2
- Franklin, Ursula. (1992) The Real World of Technology. (CBC Massey lectures series.) Concord, ON: House of Anansi Press Limited. ISBN 0-88784-531-2
- Franklin, Ursula. (1996) Every Tool Shapes the Task: Communities and the Information Highway (Discussion Series #5). Vancouver, BC: Lazara Press. ISBN 0-902999-30-1
- Franklin, Ursula. (2006) The Ursula Franklin Reader: Pacifism as a Map. Toronto: Between the Lines Books. ISBN 1-897071-18-3
Further reading[link]
- Beniger, James R. (1986) The Control Revolution: Technological and Economic Origins of the Information Society. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-16986-7
- Boulding, Kenneth E. (1969) The Image: Knowledge in Life and Society. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press. OCLC 298988
- Ellul, Jacques. (1981) Perspectives on Our Age. Toronto: Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. ISBN 0-88794-095-1
- Ellul, Jacques. (1980) The Technological System. New York: The Continuum Publishing Corporation. ISBN 0-8264-9007-4
- Giedion, Siegfried. (1969) Mechanization Takes Command: A Contribution to Anonymous History. New York: W.W. Norton & Company Inc. OCLC 2356796
- Grant, George. (1969) Technology and Empire: Perspectives on North America. Toronto: House of Anansi Press Limited. ISBN 0-88784-605-X
- Grant, George. (1986) Technology and Justice. Toronto: House of Anansi Press Limited. ISBN 0-88784-152-X
- Jacobs, Jane. (1992) Systems of Survival: A Dialogue on the Moral Foundations of Commerce and Politics. New York: Random House. ISBN 0-394-55079-X
- Menzies, Heather. (1989). Fast Forward and Out of Control: How Technology is Changing Your Life. Toronto: Macmillan of Canada. ISBN 0-7715-9910-2
- Menzies, Heather. (1996) Whose Brave New World? The Information Highway and the New Economy. Toronto: Between the Lines. ISBN 1-896357-02-4
- Mumford, Lewis. (1934) Technics and Civilization. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co. OCLC 560667
- Mumford, Lewis. (1967) The Myth of the Machine: Technics and Human Development. New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, Inc. OCLC 424751
- Noble, David F. (1995) Progress Without People: New Technology, Unemployment and the Message of Resistance. Toronto: Between the Lines. ISBN 1-896357-00-8
- Polanyi, Karl. (1957) The Great Transformation: The Political and Economic Origins of Our Time. Boston: Beacon Press. OCLC 173165
- Postman, Neil. (1993) Technopoly: The Surrender of Culture to Technology. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 0-679-74540-8
- Rose, Ellen. Speaking Truth to Power in New Brunswick: A Review-Essay of the Ursula Franklin Reader: Pacifism as a Map. Antigonish Review, # 151, p. 119. October 1, 2007. ISSN 0003-5661
- Schumacher, E. F. (1974) Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics As If People Mattered. London: ABACUS ed. ISBN 0-349-13137-6
- Shiva, Vandana. (1993) Monocultures of the Mind: Perspectives on Biodiversity and Biotechnology. London and New Jersey: Zed Books Limited. ISBN 1-85649-218-4
External links[link]
|
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ursula Franklin |
- Pearson Medal of Peace - Dr. Ursula M. Franklin
- The Ursula Franklin Reader
- science.ca: Ursula Franklin profile
- Order of Canada citation
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Franklin, Ursula Martius |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Canadian metallurgist, research physicist, author, and educator |
| Date of birth | 1921-09-16 |
| Place of birth | Munich, Germany |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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| Christopher Hitchens | |
|---|---|
 Hitchens speaking in 2007 |
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| Born | Christopher Eric Hitchens (1949-04-13)13 April 1949 Portsmouth, England |
| Died | 15 December 2011(2011-12-15) (aged 62) Houston, Texas |
| Occupation | Writer, journalist, public speaker |
| Nationality | English American |
| Citizenship | British and American |
| Alma mater | Balliol College, Oxford |
| Subjects | Politics, religion, history, biography, literature |
| Spouse(s) | Eleni Meleagrou (m. 1981-1989; divorced) Carol Blue (m. 1989-2011; his death) |
| Relative(s) | Peter Hitchens (brother) |
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Influences
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Influenced
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| Signature |  |
Christopher Eric Hitchens (13 April 1949 – 15 December 2011) was an English American[6][7] author and journalist whose career spanned more than four decades.[8] Hitchens, often referred to colloquially as "Hitch",[9] was a columnist and literary critic for New Statesman, The Atlantic, The Nation, The Daily Mirror, The Times Literary Supplement and Vanity Fair. He was an author of twelve books and five collections of essays. As a staple of talk shows and lecture circuits, he was a prominent public intellectual, and his confrontational style of debate made him both a lauded and controversial figure.
Hitchens was known for his admiration of George Orwell, Thomas Paine and Thomas Jefferson, as well as for his excoriating critiques of various public figures including Mother Teresa, Bill Clinton, Henry Kissinger and Diana, Princess of Wales. Although he supported the Falklands War, his key split from the established political left began in 1989 after what he called the "tepid reaction" of the Western left to the Rushdie Affair. The September 11 attacks strengthened his internationalist embrace of an interventionist foreign policy, and his vociferous criticism of what he called "fascism with an Islamic face." His numerous editorials in support of the Iraq War caused some to label him a neoconservative, although Hitchens insisted he was not "a conservative of any kind", and his friend Ian McEwan describes him as representing the anti-totalitarian left.[10][11]
A noted critic of religion and a self described "antitheist", he said that a person "could be an atheist and wish that belief in god were correct", but that "an antitheist, a term I'm trying to get into circulation, is someone who is relieved that there's no evidence for such an assertion."[12] According to Hitchens, the concept of a god or a supreme being is a totalitarian belief that destroys individual freedom, and that free expression and scientific discovery should replace religion as a means of teaching ethics and defining human civilization. His 2007 book, God Is Not Great, sold over 500,000 copies.
On 15 December 2011, Hitchens died from pneumonia, a complication of his cancer, in the MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston, Texas. A popular figure, his death prompted tributes and eulogies from a range of public figures, including Tony Blair, Richard Dawkins, Martin Amis, James Fenton, Nick Clegg, Stephen Fry and Bill Maher.
Contents |
Life and career[link]
Early life and education[link]
His mother, Yvonne Jean (née Hickman), and father, Eric Ernest Hitchens (1909–1987), met in Scotland while both were serving in the Royal Navy during World War II.[13] Yvonne was at the time a "Wren" (a member of the Women's Royal Naval Service),[14] and Eric a "purse-lipped and silent" commander, whose ship HMS Jamaica helped sink Nazi Germany's battleship Scharnhorst in the Battle of the North Cape.[3] His father's naval career required the family to move a number of times from base to base throughout Britain and its dependencies, including in Malta, where Christopher's brother Peter was born in Sliema in 1951.
Hitchens's mother having argued that "if there is going to be an upper class in this country, then Christopher is going to be in it,"[15] he was sent off to Mount House School in Tavistock in Devon at the age of eight, followed by the independent Leys School in Cambridge, and then at Balliol College in Oxford, where he was tutored by Steven Lukes and read philosophy, politics, and economics. Hitchens was "bowled over" in his adolescence by Richard Llewellyn's How Green Was My Valley, Arthur Koestler's Darkness at Noon, Fyodor Dostoyevsky's Crime and Punishment, R. H. Tawney's critique on Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, and the works of George Orwell.[14] In 1968, he took part in the TV quiz show University Challenge.[16]
Hitchens has written of his homosexual experiences when in boarding school in his memoir, Hitch-22.[17] These experiences continued in his college years, when he allegedly had relationships with two men who eventually became a part of the Thatcher government.[18]
In the 1960s Hitchens joined the political left, drawn by his anger over the Vietnam War, nuclear weapons, racism, and "oligarchy", including that of "the unaccountable corporation". He would express affinity with the politically charged countercultural and protest movements of the 1960s and 1970s. However, he deplored the rife recreational drug use of the time, which he describes as hedonistic.[19]
He joined the Labour Party in 1965, but along with the majority of the Labour students' organization was expelled in 1967, because of what Hitchens called "Prime Minister Harold Wilson's contemptible support for the war in Vietnam".[20][clarification needed] Under the influence of Peter Sedgwick, who translated the writings of Russian revolutionary and Soviet dissident Victor Serge, Hitchens forged an ideological interest in Trotskyist and anti-Stalinist socialism.[14] Shortly after he joined "a small but growing post-Trotskyist Luxemburgist sect".[21]
Journalistic career (1970–1981)[link]
Hitchens began working as a correspondent for the magazine International Socialism,[22] published by the International Socialists, the forerunners of today's British Socialist Workers Party. This group was broadly Trotskyist, but differed from more orthodox Trotskyist groups in its refusal to defend communist states as "workers' states". Their slogan was "Neither Washington nor Moscow but International Socialism".
Hitchens left Oxford with a third class degree.[23] In 1971 he went to work at the Times Higher Education Supplement where he served as a social science correspondent.[24] Hitchens admitted that he hated the position, and was later fired; he recalled, "I sometimes think if I'd been any good at that job, I might still be doing it."[25] He then went on to become a researcher for ITV's Weekend World.[26] In 1973 he went on to work for the New Statesman, where he became friends with the authors Martin Amis and Ian McEwan, among others.[26] At the New Statesman he acquired a reputation as a fierce left-winger, aggressively attacking targets such as Henry Kissinger, the Vietnam War, and the Roman Catholic Church.
In November 1973, Hitchens' mother committed suicide in Athens in a suicide pact with her lover, a former clergyman named Timothy Bryan.[14] They overdosed on sleeping pills in adjoining hotel rooms, and Bryan slashed his wrists in the bathtub. Hitchens flew alone to Athens to recover his mother's body. Hitchens said he thought his mother was pressured into suicide by fear that her husband would learn of her infidelity, as their marriage had been strained and unhappy. Both her children were then independent adults. While in Greece, Hitchens reported on the constitutional crisis of the military junta. It became his first leading article for the New Statesman.[27]
In 1977, unhappy at the New Statesman, Hitchens defected to the Daily Express where he became a foreign correspondent.[26] He returned to the New Statesman in 1979 where he became foreign editor.[26]
American career (1981–2011)[link]
After moving to the United States in 1981, Hitchens wrote for The Nation, where he penned vociferous critiques of Ronald Reagan, George H. W. Bush and American foreign policy in South and Central America.[28][29][30][31][32][33][34] He became a contributing editor of Vanity Fair in 1992,[35] writing ten columns a year. In 2002 Asteroid 57901 Hitchens was named after him.[36] He left The Nation in 2002 after profoundly disagreeing with other contributors over the Iraq War. There is speculation that Hitchens was the inspiration for Tom Wolfe's character Peter Fallow in the 1987 novel The Bonfire of the Vanities,[30] but others — including Hitchens (or he indicated as such while alive) — believe it to be Spy Magazine's "Ironman Nightlife Decathlete" Anthony Haden-Guest.[37][38] In 1987, his father died from cancer of the esophagus.[39] He became a media fellow at the Hoover Institution in September 2008.[40]
Hitchens spent part of his early career in journalism as a foreign correspondent in Cyprus.[41] Through his work there he met his first wife Eleni Meleagrou, a Greek Cypriot, with whom he had two children, Alexander and Sophia. His son, Alexander Meleagrou-Hitchens, born in 1984, has worked as a researcher for London think tanks the Policy Exchange and the Centre for Social Cohesion. Hitchens continued writing essay-style correspondence pieces from a variety of locales, including Chad, Uganda[42] and the Darfur region of Sudan.[43] His work took him to over 60 countries.[44] In 1991 he received a Lannan Literary Award for Nonfiction.[45]
Before Hitchens' political shift, the American author and polemicist Gore Vidal was apt to speak of Hitchens as his "Dauphin" or "heir".[46][47][48] In 2010, Hitchens attacked Vidal in a Vanity Fair piece headlined "Vidal Loco," calling him a "crackpot" for his adoption of 9/11 conspiracy theories.[49][50] Also, on the back of his book Hitch-22, among the praise from notable writers and figures, a Vidal quote endorsing Hitchens as his successor is crossed out with a red 'X' and a message saying "NO C.H." His strong advocacy of the war in Iraq had gained Hitchens a wider readership, and in September 2005 he was named one of the "Top 100 Public Intellectuals" by Foreign Policy and Prospect magazines.[51] An online poll ranked the 100 intellectuals, but the magazines noted that the rankings of Hitchens (5), Noam Chomsky (1), and Abdolkarim Soroush (15) were partly due to supporters publicising the vote.[52]
In 2007 Hitchens' work for Vanity Fair won him the National Magazine Award in the category "Columns and Commentary".[53] He was a finalist once more in the same category in 2008 for some of his columns in Slate but lost out to Matt Taibbi of Rolling Stone.[54] He won the National Magazine Award for Columns about Cancer in 2011.[55][56] Hitchens also served on the Advisory Board of Secular Coalition for America and offered advice to Coalition on the acceptance and inclusion of nontheism in American life.[57]
Literature reviews[link]
Hitchens wrote a monthly essay on books in The Atlantic[58] and contributed occasionally to other literary journals. One of his books, Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere, is a collection of such works, and Love, Poverty and War contains a section devoted to literary essays. In Why Orwell Matters, he defends Orwell's writings against modern critics as relevant today and progressive for his time. In the 2008 book Christopher Hitchens and His Critics: Terror, Iraq, and the Left, many literary critiques are included of essays and other books of writers, such as David Horowitz and Edward Said.
During a three-hour interview by Book TV,[3] he named authors who have had influence on his views, including Aldous Huxley, George Orwell, Evelyn Waugh, P. G. Wodehouse and Conor Cruise O'Brien.
Political views[link]
Main article: Christopher Hitchens's political views
| My own opinion is enough for me, and I claim the right to have it defended against any consensus, any majority, anywhere, anyplace, anytime. And anyone who disagrees with this can pick a number, get in line and kiss my ass. |
| – Christopher Hitchens[59] |
The San Francisco Chronicle referred to Hitchens as a "gadfly with gusto".[60] In 2009, Hitchens was listed by Forbes magazine as one of the "25 most influential liberals in the U.S. media".[61] However, the same article noted that he would "likely be aghast to find himself on this list", since it reduces his self-styled radicalism to mere liberalism. Hitchens' political perspective can be found in his wide ranging writings which include many of the political dialogues he published.
Socialism[link]
Hitchens became a socialist "largely [as] the outcome of a study of history, taking sides ... in the battles over industrialism and war and empire." In 2001, he told Rhys Southan of Reason magazine that he could no longer say "I am a socialist." Socialists, he claimed, had ceased to offer a positive alternative to the capitalist system. Capitalism had become the more revolutionary economic system, and he welcomed globalisation as "innovative and internationalist", but added, "I don't think that the contradictions, as we used to say, of the system, are by any means all resolved." He stated that he had a renewed interest in the freedom of the individual from the state, but that he still considered libertarianism "ahistorical" both on the world stage and in the work of creating a stable and functional society, adding that libertarians are "more worried about the over-mighty state than the unaccountable corporation" whereas "the present state of affairs ... combines the worst of bureaucracy with the worst of the insurance companies."[62]
In 2006, in a town hall meeting in Pennsylvania debating the Jewish Tradition with Martin Amis, Hitchens commented on his political philosophy by stating, "I am no longer a socialist, but I still am a Marxist".[63] In a June 2010 interview with The New York Times, he stated that "I still think like a Marxist in many ways. I think the materialist conception of history is valid. I consider myself a very conservative Marxist".[64] In 2009, in an article for The Atlantic entitled "The Revenge of Karl Marx", Hitchens frames the late-2000s recession in terms of Marx's economic analysis and notes how much Marx admired the capitalist system he was calling for the end of, but says that Marx ultimately failed to grasp how revolutionary capitalist innovation was.[65] Hitchens was an admirer of Che Guevara, commenting that "[Che's] death meant a lot to me and countless like me at the time, he was a role model, albeit an impossible one for us bourgeois romantics insofar as he went and did what revolutionaries were meant to do — fought and died for his beliefs."[66] However, in an essay written in 1997, he distanced himself from Che, and referred to the mythos surrounding him as a "cult".[67]
He continued to regard both Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky as great men,[68][69] and the October Revolution as a necessary event in the modernization of Russia.[21][30] In 2005, Hitchens praised Lenin's creation of "secular Russia" and his discrediting of the Russian Orthodox Church, describing it as "an absolute warren of backwardness and evil and superstition".[21]
Iraq War and the war on terror[link]
In the years after the fatwa issued against Salman Rushdie, Hitchens became increasingly critical of what he called "excuse making" on the left. At the same time, he was attracted to the foreign policy ideas of some on the Republican-right that promoted pro-liberalism intervention, especially the neoconservative group that included Paul Wolfowitz.[70] Around this time, he befriended the Iraqi dissident and businessman Ahmed Chalabi.[71] In 2004, Hitchens stated that neoconservative support for US intervention in Iraq convinced him that he was "on the same side as the neo-conservatives" when it came to contemporary foreign policy issues.[72] Hitchens had also been known to refer to his association with "temporary neocon allies".[73]
Following the September 11 attacks, Hitchens and Noam Chomsky debated the nature of radical Islam and the proper response to it. In October 2001, Hitchens wrote criticisms of Chomsky in The Nation.[74][75] Chomsky responded[76] and Hitchens issued a rebuttal to Chomsky[77] to which Chomsky again responded.[78] Approximately a year after the September 11 attacks and his exchanges with Chomsky, Hitchens left The Nation, claiming that its editors, readers and contributors considered John Ashcroft a bigger threat than Osama bin Laden,[79] and that they were making excuses on behalf of Islamist terrorism; in the following months he wrote articles increasingly at odds with his colleagues.
Christopher Hitchens argued the case for the Iraq War in a 2003 collection of essays entitled A Long Short War: The Postponed Liberation of Iraq, and he held numerous public debates on the topic with George Galloway[80] and Scott Ritter.[81]
Criticism of George W. Bush[link]
Prior to September 11, 2001, and the invasion of Iraq and Afghanistan, Hitchens was highly critical of Bush's "non-interventionist" foreign policy. He also criticized Bush's support of intelligent design[82] and capital punishment.[83][83]
Although Hitchens defended Bush's post-September 11 foreign policy, he criticized the actions of U.S. troops in Abu Ghraib and Haditha, and the U.S. government's use of waterboarding, which he unhesitatingly deemed as torture after being invited by Vanity Fair to voluntarily undergo it.[84][85] In January 2006, Hitchens joined with four other individuals and four organizations, including the American Civil Liberties Union and Greenpeace, as plaintiffs in a lawsuit, ACLU v. NSA, challenging Bush's warrantless domestic spying program; the lawsuit was filed by the ACLU.[86][87][88]
Presidential endorsements[link]
Hitchens would elaborate on his political views and ideological shift in a discussion with Eric Alterman on Bloggingheads.tv. In this discussion Hitchens revealed himself to be a supporter of Ralph Nader in the 2000 U.S. presidential election, who was disenchanted with the candidacy of both George W. Bush and Al Gore.[89]
Hitchens made a brief return to The Nation just before the 2004 U.S. presidential election and wrote that he was "slightly" for Bush; shortly afterwards, Slate polled its staff on their positions on the candidates and mistakenly printed Hitchens' vote as pro-John Kerry. Hitchens shifted his opinion to "neutral", saying: "It's absurd for liberals to talk as if Kristallnacht is impending with Bush, and it's unwise and indecent for Republicans to equate Kerry with capitulation. There's no one to whom he can surrender, is there? I think that the nature of the jihadist enemy will decide things in the end".[90]
In the 2008 presidential election, Hitchens in an article for Slate stated, "I used to call myself a single-issue voter on the essential question of defending civilization against its terrorist enemies and their totalitarian protectors, and on that 'issue' I hope I can continue to expose and oppose any ambiguity." He was critical of both main party candidates, Barack Obama and John McCain. Hitchens went on to support Obama, calling McCain "senile", and his choice of running mate Sarah Palin "absurd", calling Palin a "pathological liar" and a "national disgrace".[91]
Blumenthal–Hitchens feud[link]
Hitchens and Carol Blue chose to submit an affidavit to the trial managers of the Republican Party in the trial of impeachment of Bill Clinton. In the affidavit, Blue and Hitchens swore that their then-friend, Sidney Blumenthal, had described Monica Lewinsky as a stalker. This allegation contradicted Blumenthal's own sworn deposition in the trial,[92] and it resulted in a hostile exchange of opinion in the public sphere between Hitchens and Blumenthal. Following the publication of Blumenthal's The Clinton Wars, Hitchens wrote several pieces in which he accused Blumenthal of manipulating the facts.[92][93]
Israel–Palestine[link]
Hitchens had said of himself, "I am an Anti-Zionist. I'm one of those people of Jewish descent who believes that Zionism would be a mistake even if there were no Palestinians."[94]
A review of his autobiography Hitch-22 in the Jewish Daily Forward refers to Hitchens as "a prominent anti-Zionist" and says that he views Zionism "as an injustice against the Palestinians".[95] Others have commented on his anti-Zionism as well[96] suggesting that his memoir was "marred by the occasional eruption of [his] anti-Zionism".[97] The Jewish Daily Forward quoted him saying of Israel's prospects for the future, "I have never been able to banish the queasy inner suspicion that Israel just did not look, or feel, either permanent or sustainable."[95]
In Slate, Hitchens pondered the notion that, instead of curing antisemitism through the creation of a Jewish state, "Zionism has only replaced and repositioned"[98] it, saying: "there are three groups of 6 million Jews. The first 6 million live in what the Zionist movement used to call Palestine. The second 6 million live in the United States. The third 6 million are distributed mainly among Russia, France, Britain, and Argentina. Only the first group lives daily in range of missiles that can be (and are) launched by people who hate Jews." Hitchens argued that instead of supporting Zionism, Jews should help "secularize and reform their own societies", believing that unless one is religious, "what the hell are you doing in the greater Jerusalem area in the first place?" Indeed, Hitchens goes so far as to claim that the only justification for Zionism given by Jews is a religious one.[99]
During a town hall function in Pennsylvania with Martin Amis, Hitchens stated that "one must not insult or degrade or humiliate people"[100] and that he "would be opposed to this maltreatment of the Palestinians if it took place on a remote island with no geopolitical implications". Hitchens described Zionism as "an ethno-nationalist quasi-religious ideology" and stated his desire that if possible, he would "re-wind the tape [to] stop Hertzl from telling the initial demagogic lie (actually two lies) that a land without a people needs a people without a land".
He continued to say that Zionism "nonetheless has founded a sort of democratic state which isn't any worse in its practice than many others with equally dubious origins." He stated that settlement in order to achieve security for Israel is "doomed to fail in the worst possible way", and the cessation of this "appallingly racist and messianic delusion" would "confront the internal clerical and chauvinist forces which want to instate a theocracy for Jews". However, Hitchens contended that the "solution of withdrawal would not satisfy the jihadists" and wondered "What did they imagine would be the response of the followers of the Prophet [Muhammad]?" Hitchens bemoaned the transference into religious terrorism of Arab secularism as a means of democratization: "the most depressing and wretched spectacle of the past decade, for all those who care about democracy and secularism, has been the degeneration of Palestinian Arab nationalism into the theocratic and thanatocratic hell of Hamas and Islamic Jihad".[98] He maintained that the Israel-Palestine conflict is a "trivial squabble" that has become "so dangerous to all of us" because of "the faith-based element."[100]
Hitchens collaborated on this issue with prominent Palestinian advocate Edward Said, in 1988 publishing Blaming the Victims: Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question.
Domestic policy[link]
Hitchens actively supported drug policy reform and called for the abolition of the "War on Drugs" which he described as an "authoritarian war" during a debate with William F. Buckley.[19] He supported the legalization of cannabis for both medical and recreational purposes, citing it as a cure for glaucoma and as treatment for numerous side-effects induced by chemotherapy, including severe nausea, describing the prohibition of the drug as "sadistic".[101] On the issue of abortion, Hitchens prioritized in affirming that he believed a fetus should be regarded as an "unborn child", but opposed the overturning of Roe v. Wade and supported the development of medical abortion techniques, and fundamentally believed in access to contraceptives and reproductive rights as "the only thing that is known to cure poverty", and in order to prevent surgical abortion altogether.[102][103]
Other[link]
Other issues Hitchens wrote on the subjects of included his support for the reunification of Ireland,[104][105] abolition of the British monarchy,[106] and his condemnation of the war crimes of Slobodan Milošević[107] and Franjo Tuđman[108] in Yugoslavia, and the Bosnian War.[109]
Critiques of specific individuals[link]
Hitchens was known for his scathing critiques of public figures. Three figures — Bill Clinton, Henry Kissinger, and Mother Teresa — were the targets of three separate full length texts, No One Left to Lie To: The Triangulations of William Jefferson Clinton, The Trial of Henry Kissinger, and The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice. Hitchens also wrote book-length biographical essays about Thomas Jefferson (Thomas Jefferson: Author of America), George Orwell (Why Orwell Matters), and Thomas Paine (Thomas Paine's "Rights of Man": A Biography).
However, the majority of Hitchens's critiques took the form of short opinion pieces, some of the more notable being his critiques of: Jerry Falwell,[110][111] George Galloway,[112] Mel Gibson,[113] Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama,[114] Michael Moore,[115] Daniel Pipes,[116] Ronald Reagan,[117] Jesse Helms,[118] and Cindy Sheehan.[21][119]When comedian Bob Hope died in 2003, Hitchens wrote an attack piece on him, calling Hope "a fool and nearly a clown, but he was never even remotely a comedian" and "Quick, then—what is your favorite Bob Hope gag? It wouldn't take you long if I challenged you on Milton Berle, or Woody Allen, or John Cleese, or even Lenny Bruce or Mort Sahl. By this time tomorrow, I bet you haven't come up with a real joke for which Hope could take credit." Critics however argued that Hitchens focused solely on Hope's declining years and ignored his heyday in the 1940s.[120]
Views on religion[link]
See also: God Is Not Great
Hitchens often spoke out against the Abrahamic religions, or what he called "the three great monotheisms" (Judaism, Christianity and Islam). He said: "The real axis of evil is Christianity, Judaism, and Islam".[cite this quote] In his book, God Is Not Great, Hitchens expanded his criticism to include all religions, including those rarely criticized by Western secularists such as Hinduism and neo-paganism. His book had mixed reactions, from praise in The New York Times for his "logical flourishes and conundrums"[121] to accusations of "intellectual and moral shabbiness" in the Financial Times.[122] God Is Not Great was nominated for a National Book Award on 10 October 2007.[123][124]
Hitchens contended that organized religion is "the main source of hatred in the world",[125] "[v]iolent, irrational, intolerant, allied to racism, tribalism, and bigotry, invested in ignorance and hostile to free inquiry, contemptuous of women and coercive toward children", and that accordingly it "ought to have a great deal on its conscience". In God Is Not Great, Hitchens contends that:
[A]bove all, we are in need of a renewed Enlightenment, which will base itself on the proposition that the proper study of mankind is man and woman [referencing Alexander Pope]. This Enlightenment will not need to depend, like its predecessors, on the heroic breakthroughs of a few gifted and exceptionally courageous people. It is within the compass of the average person. The study of literature and poetry, both for its own sake and for the eternal ethical questions with which it deals, can now easily depose the scrutiny of sacred texts that have been found to be corrupt and confected. The pursuit of unfettered scientific inquiry, and the availability of new findings to masses of people by electronic means, will revolutionize our concepts of research and development. Very importantly, the divorce between the sexual life and fear, and the sexual life and disease, and the sexual life and tyranny, can now at last be attempted, on the sole condition that we banish all religions from the discourse. And all this and more is, for the first time in our history, within the reach if not the grasp of everyone.[126]
His book rendered him one of the major advocates of the "New Atheism" movement, and he also was made an Honorary Associate of the National Secular Society.[127] Hitchens said he would accept an invitation from any religious leader who wished to debate with him. He also served on the advisory board of the Secular Coalition for America,[128] a lobbying group for atheists and humanists in Washington, DC. In 2007, Hitchens began a series of written debates on the question "Is Christianity Good for the World?" with Christian theologian and pastor, Douglas Wilson, published in Christianity Today magazine.[129] This exchange eventually became a book by the same title in 2008. During their book tour to promote the book, film producer Darren Doane sent a film crew to accompany them. Doane produced the film Collision: "Is Christianity GOOD for the World?" which was released on 27 October 2009.
On 26 November 2010 Hitchens appeared in Toronto, Canada at the Munk Debates, where he debated religion with former British Prime Minister Tony Blair, a convert to Roman Catholicism. Blair argued religion is a force for good, while Hitchens was against it. Preliminary results on the Munk website said 56 per cent of the votes backed the proposition (Hitchens' position) before hearing the debate, with 22 per cent against (Blair's position), and 21 per cent undecided, with the undecided voters leaning toward Hitchens, giving him a 68 per cent to 32 per cent victory over Blair, after the debate.[130][131]
In February 2006, Hitchens helped organize a pro-Denmark rally outside the Danish Embassy in Washington, DC in response to the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy.[132]
Hitchens was accused by William A. Donohue of the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Liberties of being particularly anti-Catholic. Hitchens responded "when religion is attacked in this country [...] the Catholic Church comes in for a little more than its fair share".[133] Hitchens had also been accused of anti-Catholic bigotry by others, including Brent Bozell, Tom Piatak in The American Conservative, and UCLA Law Professor Stephen Bainbridge.[134][135] In an interview with Radar in 2007, Hitchens said that if the Christian right's agenda were implemented in the United States "It wouldn't last very long and would, I hope, lead to civil war, which they will lose, but for which it would be a great pleasure to take part."[136] When Joe Scarborough on 12 March 2004 asked Hitchens whether he was "consumed with hatred for conservative Catholics", Hitchens responded that he was not and that he just thinks that "all religious belief is sinister and infantile".[137] Piatak claimed that "A straightforward description of all Hitchens's anti-Catholic outbursts would fill every page in this magazine", noting particularly Hitchens' assertion that U.S. Supreme Court Justice John Roberts should not be confirmed because of his faith.[135]
Hitchens was raised nominally Christian, and went to Christian boarding schools but from an early age declined to participate in communal prayers. Later in life, Hitchens discovered that he was of partially Jewish ancestry. According to Hitchens, when his brother Peter took his fiancée to meet their maternal grandmother, who was then in her 90s, she said of his fiancée, "She's Jewish, isn't she?" and then announced: "Well, I've got something to tell you. So are you." Hitchens found out that his maternal grandmother, Dorothy Levin, was raised Jewish (Dorothy's father and maternal grandfather had both been born Jewish, and Dorothy's maternal grandmother – Hitchens' matrilineal great-great-grandmother – was a convert to Judaism). Hitchens' maternal grandfather converted to Judaism before marrying Dorothy Levin.[138] Hitchens' Jewish-born ancestors were immigrants from Eastern Europe (including Poland).[139][140] In an article in the The Guardian on 14 April 2002, Hitchens stated that he could be considered Jewish because Jewish descent is matrilineal.[139] In a 2010 interview at New York Public Library, Hitchens stated that he was against circumcision, a Jewish tradition, and that he believed "if anyone wants to saw off bits of their genitalia they should do when they're grown up and have made the decision for themselves".[141]
In February 2010, he was named to the Freedom From Religion Foundation's Honorary Board of distinguished achievers.[142]
Personal life[link]
Marriages and children[link]
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Hitchens married Eleni Meleagrou, a Greek Cypriot, in a Greek Orthodox church[18] in 1981; the couple had a son, Alexander and a daughter, Sophia. In 1989 Hitchens left Meleagrou for Carol Blue, an American writer.[29] The couple married in New York, at the apartment of Victor Navasky, editor of The Nation. They have a daughter, Antonia.[29]
Parents[link]
Hitchens' father, Eric Hitchens, was a Commander in the British Royal Navy. Hitchens often referred to his father as simply the 'Commander'. On 26th December, 1943, Hitchens's father was deployed onboard HMS Jamaica when it sank the German warship, the Scharnhorst. Christopher Hitchens would refer to his father's contribution to the war: 'Sending a Nazi convoy raider to the bottom is a better day's work than any I have ever done.' He also stated that 'the remark that most summed him [his father] up was the flat statement that the war of 1939 to 1945 had been "the only time when I really felt I knew what I was doing."' [143]
Hitchens's mother, Yvonne, died in Athens 1973 when, despite first reports in The Times that she had been murdered, it was later concluded that her death had been the result of an apparent suicide pact with her boyfriend, Reverend Timothy Bryan. Hitchens travelled to Athens to identify his mother's body. On the subject Hitchens later said: 'She probably thought things were getting sordid - he [Bryan] wasn't able to hold a job down, she couldn't go back, she was probably about the age I am now and perhaps there was that - she'd been very pretty - and things were never going to get any better, so why go through with it? She might not have been that hard to persuade, but I know that she did try to save herself because I have the photographs still. So that was sort of the end of family life really.' [144]
In reference to writing about his mother in his memoir, Hitch-22, he said, 'It was painful to write about my mother, but not very because long ago I internally managed all that. 'I even went back to Greece and I went to the graveyard while I was writing the book and decided not to write about it. I thought that would be sentimental.' [145]
Relationship with his younger brother[link]
Hitchens' younger brother by two-and-a-half years, Peter Hitchens, is a Christian and socially conservative journalist in London, although, like his brother, he had been a Trotskyist in the 1970s. The brothers had a protracted falling-out after Peter wrote that Christopher had once joked that he "didn't care if the Red Army watered its horses at Hendon" (a suburb of London).[146] Christopher denied having said this and broke off contact with his brother. He then referred to his brother as "an idiot" in a letter to Commentary, and the dispute spilled into other publications as well. Christopher eventually expressed a willingness to reconcile and to meet his new nephew (born in 1999); shortly thereafter the brothers gave several interviews together in which they said that their personal disagreements had been resolved. They appeared together on 21 June 2007 edition of the BBC current affairs discussion show Question Time. The pair engaged in a formal televised debate for the first time on 3 April 2008, at Grand Valley State University,[147] and at the Pew Forum on 12 October 2010.[148]
Smoking and drinking[link]
The Sunday Times described Hitchens as "Usually armed with a glass of Scotch and an untipped Rothmans cigarette."[149] In late 2007 he briefly gave up smoking, although resumed during the writing of his memoir and continued until his cancer diagnosis.[150] Hitchens admitted to drinking heavily; in 2003 he wrote that his daily intake of alcohol was enough "to kill or stun the average mule", arguing that many great writers "did some of their finest work when blotto, smashed, polluted, shitfaced, squiffy, whiffled, and three sheets to the wind."[151] He argued, "The plain fact is that [drinking] makes other people, and indeed life itself, a good deal less boring."[152]
George Galloway notably accused Hitchens of being a "drink-sodden ex-Trotskyist popinjay",[153] to which Hitchens replied, "only some of which is true".[154] Hitchens later elaborated: "He says that I am an ex-Trotskyist (true), a 'popinjay' (true enough, since the word's original Webster's definition is a target for arrows and shots), and that I cannot hold a drink (here I must protest)."[155] Hitchens' wife Carol Blue described him as "obviously an alcoholic, he functions at a really high level and he doesn’t act like a drunk, so the only reason it’s a bad thing is it’s taking out his liver, presumably. It would be a drag for Henry Kissinger to live to a hundred and Christopher to keel over next year.” [156] His New Yorker profile described him as drinking "like a Hemingway character: continually and to no apparent effect."[156]
Oliver Burkeman writes, "Since the parting of ways on Iraq [...] Hitchens claims to have detected a new, personalised nastiness in the attacks on him, especially over his fabled consumption of alcohol. He welcomes being attacked as a drinker 'because I always think it's a sign of victory when they move on to the ad hominem.' He drinks, he says, 'because it makes other people less boring. I have a great terror of being bored. But I can work with or without it. It takes quite a lot to get me to slur.'"[157]
In his 2010 memoir Hitch-22, Hitchens wrote: "There was a time when I could reckon to outperform all but the most hardened imbibers, but I now drink relatively carefully." He described his current drinking routine on working-days as follows: "At about half past midday, a decent slug of Mr. Walker's amber restorative, cut with Perrier water (an ideal delivery system) and no ice. At luncheon, perhaps half a bottle of red wine: not always more but never less. Then back to the desk, and ready to repeat the treatment at the evening meal. No 'after dinner drinks' — most especially nothing sweet and never, ever any brandy. 'Nightcaps' depend on how well the day went, but always the mixture as before. No mixing: no messing around with a gin here and a vodka there."[158]
Reflecting on the lifestyle that supported his career as a writer he said:
I always knew there was a risk in the bohemian lifestyle ... I decided to take it because it helped my concentration, it stopped me being bored — it stopped other people being boring. It would make me want to prolong the conversation and enhance the moment. If you ask: would I do it again? I would probably say yes. But I would have quit earlier hoping to get away with the whole thing. I decided all of life is a wager and I'm going to wager on this bit ... In a strange way I don't regret it. It's just impossible for me to picture life without wine, and other things, fueling the company, keeping me reading, energising me. It worked for me. It really did.[159]
Esophageal cancer and death[link]
In June 2010, Hitchens postponed his book tour for Hitch-22 to undergo treatment for esophageal cancer.[160] He announced that he was undergoing treatment in a Vanity Fair piece entitled "Topic of Cancer".[39] Hitchens said that he recognised the long-term prognosis was far from positive, and that he would be a "very lucky person to live another five years".[161] In November 2010, Hitchens canceled[162] a scheduled appearance in New York, where he was to debate religion writers David Hazony and Stephen Prothero on the subject of the Ten Commandments. Earlier that year, he published a piece in Vanity Fair on the subject,[163] and was working on a book about the Ten Commandments as well.[164]
During his illness, Hitchens was under the care of Francis Collins and was the subject of Collins' new cancer treatment which maps out the human genome and selectively targets damaged DNA.[165][166]
In April 2011, Hitchens was forced to cancel an appearance at the American Atheist Convention, and instead sent a letter that stated, "Nothing would have kept me from joining you except the loss of my voice (at least my speaking voice) which in turn is due to a long argument I am currently having with the specter of death." He closed with "And don't keep the faith."[167] The letter also dismissed the notion of a possible deathbed conversion, in which he claimed that "redemption and supernatural deliverance appears even more hollow and artificial to me than it did before."[167] In June 2011, he spoke to a University of Waterloo audience via a home video link.[168]
In October 2011, Hitchens made a public appearance at the Texas Freethought Convention in Houston, TX. Atheist Alliance of America was also a participant in the joint convention.[169]
In November 2011, George Eaton wrote in the New Statesman:
The tragedy of Hitchens' illness is that it came at a time when he enjoyed a larger audience than ever. Of his tight circle of friends – Amis, Fenton, McEwan, Rushdie – Hitchens was the last to gain international renown, yet he is now read more widely than any of them." Eaton revealed that Hitchens would like to be remembered as a man who fought totalitarianism in all its forms although many remember him as a "lefty who turned right", and his support of the Iraq War and not his support of the War in Bosnia on the side of the Moslems. Eaton concluded, "The great polemicist is certain to be remembered, but, as he is increasingly aware, perhaps not as he would like."[170]
Hitchens died on 15 December 2011 at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center in Houston.[171]
In accordance with his wishes, his body was donated to medical research.[172]
Reactions to death[link]
Former British Prime Minister Tony Blair said, "Christopher Hitchens was a complete one-off, an amazing mixture of writer, journalist, polemicist, and unique character. He was fearless in the pursuit of truth and any cause in which he believed. And there was no belief he held that he did not advocate with passion, commitment, and brilliance. He was an extraordinary, compelling and colourful human being whom it was a privilege to know."[173]
Richard Dawkins, British evolutionary biologist at the University of Oxford and a friend of Hitchens, said, "I think he was one of the greatest orators of all time. He was a polymath, a wit, immensely knowledgeable, and a valiant fighter against all tyrants including imaginary supernatural ones."[173]
Sam Harris, American writer and neuroscientist, wrote, "I have been privileged to witness the gratitude that so many people feel for Hitch’s life and work — for, wherever I speak, I meet his fans. On my last book tour, those who attended my lectures could not contain their delight at the mere mention of his name — and many of them came up to get their books signed primarily to request that I pass along their best wishes to him. It was wonderful to see how much Hitch was loved and admired — and to be able to share this with him before the end. I will miss you, brother."[174]
Francis Collins, director of the National Institutes of Health and former head of the Human Genome Project who helped treat Hitchens' illness, wrote, "I will miss Christopher. I will miss the brilliant turn of phrase, the good-natured banter, the wry sideways smile when he was about to make a remark that would make me laugh out loud. No doubt he now knows the answer to the question of whether there is more to the spirit than just atoms and molecules. I hope he was surprised by the answer. I hope to hear him tell about it someday. He will tell it really well."[175]
British columnist and author Peter Hitchens, who had a tumultuous relationship with his older brother Christopher, wrote that he and Christopher "got on surprisingly well in the past few months, better than for about 50 years as it happens," and praised his brother as "courageous."[176]
Irish-American political journalist Alexander Cockburn, founder of the left-wing[177][178][179] political magazine CounterPunch wrote an obituary critical of Hitchens, criticizing his support for the Iraq War, criticisms of Mother Teresa, and criticisms of their mutual friend Edward Said and concluded, "I found the Hitchens cult of recent years entirely mystifying. He endured his final ordeal with pluck, sustained indomitably by his wife Carol."[180]
Tributes followed from the philosopher Daniel Dennett,[181] the physicist Lawrence Krauss,[182] the actor Stephen Fry,[183] the writer Ian McEwan,[184] the philosopher A.C. Grayling;[185] and Vanity Fair, in which he was remembered as an "incomparable critic and masterful rhetorician".[186]
Assessment[link]
Anthony Gottlieb argued in The New Yorker that Hitchens "thrives at the lectern, where his powers of rhetoric and recall enable him to entertain an audience, go too far, and almost get away with it."[187]
Jason Cowley argued in the Financial Times:
- He is not a philosopher and has made no original contribution to intellectual thought. As an atheist, his anti-religious tract, God Is Not Great, is elegant but derivative. His polemical denunciations and pamphlets on powerful individuals, such as Mother Teresa, Bill Clinton, Ronald Reagan and Henry Kissinger, feel already dated, stranded in place and time, good journalism but not literature. Ultimately, I suspect, he will be remembered more for his prodigious output and for his swaggering, rhetorical style – as well as for his lifestyle: the louche cosmopolitan and gadfly, the itinerant man of letters and indefatigable raconteur.[188]
Film and television appearances[link]
As referenced from the Internet Movie Database, Hitchens Web or Charlie Rose.[189][190][191]
| Year | Film and/or Television |
|---|---|
| 1984 | Opinions: "Greece to their Rome" |
| 1988 | Frontiers (TV series) |
| 1993 | Everything You Need to Know |
| 1994 | Tracking Down Maggie: The Unofficial Biography of Margaret Thatcher |
| 1994 | Hell's Angel |
| 1996 | Where's Elvis This Week? |
| 1996–2010 | Charlie Rose (talk show) (13 episodes) |
| 1998 | Princess Diana: The Mourning After |
| 1999–2002 | Dennis Miller Live (TV show) (4 episodes) |
| 2002 | The Trials of Henry Kissinger |
| 2003 | Hidden in Plain Sight |
| 2003–2009 | Real Time with Bill Maher (TV show) (6 episodes) |
| 2004 | Mel Gibson: God's Lethal Weapon |
| 2004–2006 | Newsnight (TV show) (3 episodes) |
| 2004–2010 | The Daily Show (TV show) (4 episodes) |
| 2005 | Penn & Teller: Bullshit! (TV show)(1 episode, s03e05) |
| 2005 | The Al Franken Show (TV show)(1 episode) |
| 2005 | Confronting Iraq: Conflict and Hope |
| 2005 | Heaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism |
| 2005–2008 | Hardball with Chris Matthews (TV show)(3 episodes) |
| 2006 | American Zeitgeist |
| 2006 | Blog Wars |
| 2007 | Manufacturing Dissent |
| 2007 | Question Time (TV series) (1 episode) |
| 2007 | Your Mommy Kills Animals |
| 2007 | Personal Che |
| 2007 | Heckler |
| 2007 | In Pot We Trust |
| 2008 | Discussions with Richard Dawkins: Episode 1: "The Four Horsemen" |
| 2008 | Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed |
| 2009 | Holy Hell |
| 2009 | Presidency |
| 2009 | Collision: "Is Christianity GOOD for the World?" |
| 2010 | Phil Ochs: There But For Fortune |
Selected publications[link]
Main article: Christopher Hitchens bibliography
- 1984 Cyprus. Quartet. Revised editions as Hostage to History: Cyprus from the Ottomans to Kissinger, 1989 (Farrar, Straus & Giroux) and 1997 (Verso)
- 1988 Blaming the Victims: Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question (contributor; co-editor with Edward Said) Verso, ISBN 0-86091-887-4 Reissued, 2001
- 1990 The Monarchy, Chatto & Windus Ltd
- 1990 Blood, Class and Nostalgia: Anglo-American Ironies, Farrar Straus & Giroux (T)(June 1990)
- 1995 The Missionary Position: Mother Teresa in Theory and Practice, Verso
- 1997 The Parthenon Marbles: The Case for Reunification, Verso
- 1999 No One Left to Lie To: The Values of the Worst Family, Verso
- 2000 Unacknowledged Legislation: Writers in the Public Sphere, Verso
- 2001 The Trial of Henry Kissinger. Verso.
- 2001 Letters to a Young Contrarian, Basic Books
- 2002 Why Orwell Matters also Orwell's Victory, Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-03050-5
- 2004 Love, Poverty, and War: Journeys and Essays, Thunder's Mouth, Nation Books, ISBN 1-56025-580-3
- 2005 Thomas Jefferson: Author of America, Eminent Lives/Atlas Books/HarperCollins Publishers, ISBN 0-06-059896-4
- 2007 "Thomas Paine's Rights of Man: A Biography ", Atlantic Monthly Press, ISBN 0-87113-955-3
- 2007 The Portable Atheist: Essential Readings for the Non-Believer, [Editor] Perseus Publishing. ISBN 978-0-306-81608-6
- 2007 God Is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything, Twelve/Hachette Book Group USA/Warner Books, ISBN 0-446-57980-7 / Published in the UK as God Is Not Great: The Case Against Religion, Atlantic Books, ISBN 978-1-84354-586-6
- 2008 Christopher Hitchens and His Critics: Terror, Iraq and the Left (with Simon Cottee and Thomas Cushman), New York University Press
- 2008 Is Christianity Good for the World? — A Debate (co-author, with Douglas Wilson), Canon Press, ISBN 1-59128-053-2
- 2010 Hitch-22: A Memoir, Twelve, ISBN 978-0-446-54033-9 OCLC 464590644
- 2011 Arguably: Essays by Christopher Hitchens, Twelve. UK edition as Arguably: Selected Prose, Atlantic, ISBN 1-4555-0277-4 / ISBN 978-1-4555-0277-6
References[link]
- ^ "Christopher Hitchens on George Orwell". NetCharles.com. 24 June 2002. http://www.netcharles.com/orwell/articles/col-hitchens.htm. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens and his Critics, p. 264.
- ^ a b c "Christopher Hitchens In Depth". 2 September 2007. Book TV. http://www.booktv.org/program.aspx?ID=8532&SN=In%20Depth. — List of writers can be seen @ 1:13:10
- ^ Kennard, Matt (17 April 2011). "Johann Hari on Chomsky, Hitchens, Iraq, and anarchism". Thecommentfactory.com. http://www.thecommentfactory.com/johann-hari-on-chomsky-hitchens-iraq-and-anarchism-3160/. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Alexandra Alter (11 May 2010). "A Friendship for the Pages". The Wall Street Journal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748704250104575238560552578150.html.
- ^ Hitchens, C (2011). Hitch-22: A Memoir. Random House Digital. p. 228. ISBN 0-7710-4115-2.
- ^ Hitchens, C (2011). Hitch-22: A Memoir. Random House Digital. p. 204. ISBN 0-7710-4115-2.
- ^ ‘HITCHENS, Christopher Eric’, Who's Who 2012, A & C Black, 2012; online edn, Oxford University Press, Dec 2012 ; online edn, Jan 2012 accessed 5 May 2012
- ^ Wintour, Anna (16 December 2011). "The Ruined Table". Slate. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/fighting_words/2011/12/christopher_hitchens_death_anna_wintour_on_what_her_old_friend_hitchens_loved_most_.html. "Christopher Hitchens — or Hitch, as he was known to me and just about everyone else"
- ^ Eaton, George. The New Statesman Interview: Christopher Hitchens www.newstatesman.com, 12 July 2010. Retrieved 7 November 2010. Hitchens recalls in his memoir having been "invited by Bernard-Henri Levy to write an essay on political reconsiderations for his magazine La Regle du Jeu. I gave it the partly ironic title: 'Can One Be a Neoconservative?' Impatient with this, some copy editor put it on the cover as 'How I Became a Neoconservative.' Perhaps this was an instance of the Cartesian principle as opposed to the English empiricist one: it was decided that I evidently was what I apparently only thought."
- ^ 14:45
- ^ Andre Mayer (14 May 2007). "Nothing sacred — Journalist and provocateur Christopher Hitchens picks a fight with God". CBC. http://www.cbc.ca/arts/books/nothing_sacred.html. Retrieved 29 June 2008.
- ^ Yglesias, Matthew (20 October 2003). "The Commander: My Father, Eric Hitchens". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/2255781/entry/2255782. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ a b c d Walsh, John. The Independent. "Hitch-22: A memoir by Christopher Hitchens" Retrieved 28 May 2010
- ^ Lynn Barber "Look who's talking", The Observer, 14 April 2002
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- ^ a b Hoover Institution. Web.archive.org (15 September 2007). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ Long Live Labor — Why I'm for Tony Blair Slate, 25 April 2005
- ^ a b c d Heaven on Earth — Interview with Christopher Hitchens PBS, 2005
- ^ International Socialism: Christopher Hitchens "Workers' Self Management in Algeria" (1st series), No.51, April–June 1972, p.33, Encyclopedia of Trotskyism, 25 October 2005
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- ^ "Christopher Hitchens Explains Why You Should Quit Your Job". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NegtQIkhz6g. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ a b c d New Statesman - Christopher Hitchens: the New Statesman years
- ^ Barber, Lynn (13 April 2002). "Look who's talking". The Guardian (London). http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2002/apr/14/politics. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
- ^ For the Sake of Argument by Christopher Hitchens Interview with Brian Lamb for the show Booknotes, an author interview series on C-SPAN (some biographical information) 17 October 1993
- ^ a b c The Boy Can't Help It In-depth interview and profile] in New York, 19 April 1999
- ^ a b c "Free Radical", interview in Reason by Rhys Southan, November 2001
- ^ Christopher Hitchens The Atlantic, 2003
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- ^ Christopher Hitchens Notable Interviews — video interview 2007
- ^ Christopher Hitchens – Contributing Editor. Web.archive.org (28 February 2010). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
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- ^ Timothy Noah, Meritocracy's lab rat Slate, 9 January 2002
- ^ Annabel's — the magazine Vogue UK, 15 July 2004
- ^ a b Hitchens, Christopher. "Topic of Cancer | Culture". Vanity Fair. http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2010/09/hitchens-201009. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ "Christopher Hitchens on Sarah Palin: 'A Disgraceful Opportunist and Moral Coward'". PoliticalArticles.NET. 18 December 2009. http://www.politicalarticles.net/blog/2009/12/18/christopher-hitchens-on-sarah-palin-a-disgraceful-opportunist-and-moral-coward/. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ At the Rom: Three New Commandments She Does The City, 30 April 2009
- ^ "Childhood's End", Vanity Fair, September 2006
- ^ "Realism in Sudan", Slate, 7 November 2005
- ^ Christopher Hitchens Twelve Publishers
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- ^ Andrew Werth (January/February 2004). "Hitchens on Books". The Atlantic. http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/2004/01/letters.htm. Retrieved 17 February 2009.
- ^ John Banville (3 March 2001). "Gore should be so lucky". The Irish Times. http://osdir.com/ml/politics.leftists.monkeyfist/2001-04/msg00016.html. Retrieved 17 February 2009.
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- ^ Prospect/FP Top 100 Public Intellectuals Results Foreign Policy
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- ^ FIVE QUESTIONS FOR: Christopher Hitchens SF Gate
- ^ "The 25 Most Influential Liberals In The US Media". Forbes. 22 January 2009. http://www.forbes.com/2009/01/22/influential-media-obama-oped-cx_tv_ee_hra_0122liberal_slide_13.html?thisSpeed=30000. Retrieved 23 November 2009.
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- ^ Martin Amis Christopher Hitchens a conversation about Antisemitism and Saul bellow Part 3 YouTube
- ^ Solomon, Deborah (2 June 2010). "The Contrarian". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/06/magazine/06fob-q4-t.html. Retrieved 19 February 2011.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens. "The Revenge of Karl Marx" The Atlantic, April 2009
- ^ Just a Pretty Face? The Guardian, 11 July 2004
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (1997), "Goodbye to All That", The New York Review of Books, 17 July 1997
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- ^ "Great Lives — Leon Trotsky", BBC Radio 4, 8 August 2006
- ^ "That Bleeding Heart Wolfowitz", Slate, 22 March 2005
- ^ "Ahmad and Me", Slate, 27 May 2004
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- ^ Christopher Hitchens, "The End of Fukuyama", Slate, 1 March 2006
- ^ Of Sin, the Left & Islamic Fascism The Nation, 8 October 2001
- ^ Blaming bin Laden First The Nation, 22 October 2001
- ^ Chomsky Replies to Hitchens The Nation, 15 October 2001
- ^ A Rejoinder to Noam Chomsky The Nation, 15 October 2001
- ^ Reply to Hitchens's Rejoinder The Nation, 15 October 2001
- ^ Taking Sides The Nation, 26 September 2002
- ^ "George Galloway vs Christopher Hitchens (1 of 12)". YouTube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KZnUIeKOIgc. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ "Christopher Hitchens versus Ritter — Iraq War debate part 1". YouTube. 30 April 2009. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HU45ioYvx4k. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Belz, Mindy. "According to Hitch", World Magazine, 3 April 2006
- ^ a b "A War To Be Proud Of" Weekly Standard, 5 September 2005
- ^ "Believe Me, It's Torture", Vanity Fair, August 2008
- ^ On the Waterboard[dead link] Vanity Fair, 2 July 2008
- ^ Lichtblau, Eric. "Two Groups Planning to Sue Over Federal Eavesdropping" The New York Times, 17 January 2006; Retrieved 5 November 2009
- ^ "Statement — Christopher Hitchens, NSA Lawsuit Client". Aclu.org. 16 January 2006. http://www.aclu.org/safefree/nsaspying/23485res20060116.html. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (7 August 1999). "Gov. Death". Salon.com. http://www.truthinjustice.org/govdeath.htm. Retrieved 10 May 2009.
- ^ On Whether Christopher Hitchens Was Wrong Bloggingheads.tv, 14 October 2008
- ^ My Endorsement and Osama's Video: The news in Bin Laden's comments had nothing to do with our election Slate, 1 November 2004]
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher "Vote for Obama" Slate, 13 October 2008; Retrieved 5 November 2009
- ^ a b "Salon Newsreal | Stalking Sidney Blumenthal". Salon.com. http://www.salon.com/news/1999/02/09newsa.html. Retrieved 26 April 2011. [dead link]
- ^ Christopher Hitchens (July/August 2003). "Thinking Like an Apparatchik". The Atlantic Monthly 292 (1): 129–42. http://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/2003/07/hitchens.htm. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Hölbling, Walter; Rieser-Wohlfarter, Klaus (2004). What is American?: new identities in U.S. culture. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 351–. ISBN 978-3-8258-7734-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=_Tn7LqhWI7IC&pg=PA351. Retrieved 6 April 2011.
- ^ a b Goldstein, Evan R. (June 2010). "Born Grumpy, with a Talent for It: Christopher Hitchens's Memoir is Too Happy by Far". Jewish Daily Forward. http://www.forward.com/articles/128323/.
- ^ Rodden, John (2006). Every intellectual's big brother: George Orwell's literary siblings. University of Texas Press. pp. 95–. ISBN 978-0-292-71308-6. http://books.google.com/books?id=UlnwITCGcw8C&pg=PA95. Retrieved 6 April 2011.
- ^ Richman, Rick (11 2010). "Bellow, Hitchens, and COMMENTARY". Commentary Magazine. http://www.commentarymagazine.com/2010/11/08/bellow-hitchens-and-commentary/.
- ^ a b "Slate: Can Israel Survive for Another 60 Years?". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/2191193/. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
- ^ Kerstein, Benjamin. "Christopher Hitchens's Jewish Problem". Jewish Ideas Daily. http://www.jewishideasdaily.com/content/module/2010/12/13/main-feature/1/christopher-hitchenss-jewish-problem. Retrieved 9 May 2012.
- ^ a b "Frontpage Interview: Christopher Hitchens Part II". FrontPage Magazine. http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/ReadArticle.asp?ID=11253. Retrieved 8 July 2011.
- ^ Just a Pretty Face? by Sean O'Hagan, The Observer, 11 July 2004
- ^ Question and answers on Mother Teresa's opposition to women's rights Poverty linked to reproductive rights, 2006
- ^ Lisa Miller (2008-11-28). "Belief Watch: Pro-life Atheists". Newsweek.com. http://www.newsweek.com/id/171240. Retrieved 2012-01-24.
- ^ Galloway vs. Hitchens: The Transcript endusmilitarism, 16 September 2005
- ^ These Men Are "Peacemakers"? Ian Paisley and Gerry Adams make me want to spew Slate, 2 April 2007
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (6 December 2000). "End of the line". The Guardian (UK). http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2000/dec/06/monarchy.features11.
- ^ "In Defense of WWII: Chapter 5 of 5". Youtube. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VB9uqI62ikA. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
- ^ "Shed No Tears for Milosevic". FrontPage Magazine. 14 March 2006. http://www.frontpagemag.com/Articles/Read.aspx?GUID=C83A870D-93BE-4ACD-B8E0-E082B1D313C0. Retrieved 7 September 2008.
- ^ Bodansky, Yossef (1996). Some Call It Peace: Waiting for the War In the Balkans. International Media Corp. Ltd. ISBN 0-9520070-5-3.
- ^ Video: Christopher Hitchens (15 May 2007) appearance on Anderson Cooper 360 YouTube
- ^ Video: Christopher Hitchens (16 May 2007) appearance on Hannity & Colmes about Rev. Falwell's Death YouTube
- ^ Unmitigated Galloway Weekly Standard, 30 May 2005
- ^ Mel Gibson's Meltdown Slate, 31 July 2006
- ^ His material highness Salon.com article by Christopher Hitchens
- ^ Unfairenheit 9/11 Slate, 21 June 2004
- ^ Christopher Hitchens "Daniel Pipes is not a man of peace", Slate, 11 August 2003
- ^ "The stupidity of Ronald Reagan". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/2101842/. Retrieved 9 May 2007.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens (7 July 2008). "Farewell to a Provincial Redneck". Slate. http://www.slate.com/id/2194921/.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens, Cindy Sheehan's Sinister Piffle, Slate, 15 August 2005
- ^ http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/fighting_words/2003/08/hopeless.html
- ^ Michael Kinsley "In God, Distrust" The New York Times Book Review, 13 May 2007
- ^ Here's the hitch by Michael Skapinker in The Financial Times
- ^ Associated Press. Web.archive.org (13 October 2007). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ Hardcover Nonfiction The New York Times Best Seller list, 3 June 2007
- ^ Free Speech onegoodmove, March 2007
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (May 2007). God is not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything. New York: Twelve Books. p. 283.
- ^ Honorary Associate: Christopher Hitchens National Secular Society
- ^ Biography — Christopher Hitchens Secular Coalition for America Advisory Board
- ^ "Is Christianity Good for the World?" Christianity Today, 8 May 2007
- ^ "Hitchens apparent winner in religion debate. CBC News. Retrieved 27 November 2010". News.ca.msn.com. 27 November 2010. http://news.ca.msn.com/top-stories/cbc-article.aspx?cp-documentid=26520521. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ "Munk Debates Website". Munkdebates.com. http://www.munkdebates.com/debates/. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Pareene, Alex (4 February 2006). "Instant Team Party Crash: Legoland Uber Alles". Wonkette. http://wonkette.com/156915/instant-team-party-crash-legoland-uber-alles. Retrieved 9 Dec 2010.
- ^ Look Who's Hammering Mel[dead link] 1 August 2006
- ^ "Hood, John Hollowed Be Thy Name". Miami Sun Post Web.archive.org (21 May 2007). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ a b Tom Piatak, The Purest Neocon: Christopher Hitchens, an unreconstructed Bolshevik, finds his natural home on the pro-war Right, The American Conservative, 10 October 2005
- ^ "Godless Provocateur Christopher Hitchens Pledges Allegiance to America". Holidaydmitri.com. 1 May 2007. http://www.holidaydmitri.com/hitch.html. Retrieved 26 April 2011.
- ^ Scarborough County Transcripts for 12 March 2004
- ^ Hitch-22
- ^ a b Look who's talking The Observer, 14 April 2002
- ^ Hitch-22, page 352.
- ^ Christopher Hitchens at NYPL w. Paul Holdengräber (4-Jun-10)(2–9)(THE INTERVIEW series). YouTube (18 September 2010). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ "Honorary FFRF Board Announced". http://ffrf.org/news/releases/honorary-ffrf-board-announced/. Retrieved 20 August 2008.
- ^ Hichens, Christopher (2010-06-2). "The Commander: My Father, Eric Hitchens". Slate.com. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/fighting_words/features/2010/hitch22/the_commander_my_father_eric_hitchens.html. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ Lynn Barber (2002-04-13). "Lynn Barber meets Christopher Hitchens". Guardian. http://www.guardian.co.uk/books/2002/apr/14/politics. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ Hitch-22: A Memoir, Huffington post
- ^ Christopher Hitchens (16 May 2005). "O Brother, Why Art Thou?". Vanity Fair. Condé Nast Publications. http://www.vanityfair.com/politics/features/2005/06/hitchens200506. Retrieved 20 December 2011.
- ^ "Hitchens v. Hitchens: Faith, Politics & War". Grand Valley State University. http://www.gvsu.edu/hauenstein/index.cfm?id=3425B4C3-DA0C-48A1-FDE23503A04A3318. Retrieved 29 March 2008.
- ^ "Can Civilization Survive Without God?". http://pewforum.org/Belief-in-God/Can-Civilization-Survive-Without-God-.aspx.
- ^ The Sunday Times (London) December 18, 2011 Sunday Edition 1; Northern Ireland Christopher Hitchens; OBITUARIES ; Polemicist who lived a life of dissolution and contrariness SECTION: NEWS REVIEW;FEATURES; OBITUARIES; Pg. 8
- ^ Edward Luce, Lunch with the Financial Times, 11 January 2008
- ^ Christopher Hitchens, Living Proof, Vanity Fair, March 2003
- ^ Introduction to Everyday Drinking: The Distilled Kingsley Amis, by Kingsley Amis (New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2008), x.
- ^ Unmitigated Galloway , The Weekly Standard, 30 May 2005
- ^ "There's only one popinjay here, George", Evening Standard, 19 May 2005
- ^ George Galloway Is Gruesome, Not Gorgeous, Slate, 13 September 2005
- ^ a b Ian Parker (OCTOBER 16, 2006). "He Knew He Was Right". The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/10/16/061016fa_fact_parker?currentPage=all.
- ^ Oliver Burkeman, War of words, The Guardian, 28 October 2006
- ^ A Short Footnote on the Grape and the Grain, Slate, 6 June 2010
- ^ "Q & A". Q-and-a.org. http://www.q-and-a.org/Program/?ProgramID=1322. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ "Reliable Source – Christopher Hitchens diagnosed with cancer, cuts short his book tour". Voices.washingtonpost.com. http://voices.washingtonpost.com/reliable-source/2010/06/rs-_hitchens.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Goldberg, Jeffrey (6 August 2010). "Hitchens Talks to Goldblog About Cancer and God". The Atlantic. http://www.theatlantic.com/culture/archive/2010/08/hitchens-talks-to-goldblog-about-cancer-and-god/61072/. Retrieved 17 September 2010.
- ^ "Hitchens cancels NYC Jewish Center Ten Commandments panel". Daily Hitchens. 4 November 2010. http://www.dailyhitchens.com/2010/11/hitchens-cancels-nyc-jewish-center-ten.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Hitchens, Christopher (1 August 2011). "The New Commandments | Culture". Vanity Fair. http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/features/2010/04/hitchens-201004. Retrieved 17 December 2011.
- ^ Eaton, George. "Interview: Christopher Hitchens". New Statesman. UK. http://www.newstatesman.com/books/2010/07/conservative-course-presidency. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Neville, Simon (26 March 2011). "Atheist Christopher Hitchens turns to evangelical Christian doctor in his fight against cancer". Daily Mail (UK). http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-1370145/Atheist-Christopher-Hitchens-turns-evangelical-Christian-doctor-fight-cancer.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011. "Dr Francis Collins, the former director of the National Human Genome Research Project was one part of the team which developed techniques to map out the entire human DNA make-up is using Hitchens as a guinea pig for a new treatment. Hitchens, author of God is Not Great: How Religion Poisons Everything, has had his genome mapped out in its entirety by taking DNA from healthy tissue and from his cancerous tumour."
- ^ "Atheist Hitchens Credits Evangelical Francis Collins for Cancer Hope". The Christian Post. http://www.christianpost.com/news/atheist-hitchens-credits-evangelical-francis-collins-for-cancer-hope-49615/. Retrieved 16 December 2011. "In an interview with U.K. Telegraph Magazine, Hitchens said that Collins, who was formerly the director of the National Center for Human Genome Research and now serves as director of the National Institutes of Health, is partially responsible for developing a new cancer treatment that maps out the patient's entire genetic make-up and targets damaged DNA."
- ^ a b Scienceblogs.com article: "Hitchens' address to American Atheists."
- ^ Liz Monteiro (6 June 2011). "Hitchens feted with standing ovation at UW video link debate". Waterloo Region Record. http://www.therecord.com/news/local/article/543148--hitchens-feted-with-standing-ovation-at-u-of-w-video-link-debate.
- ^ Charles McGrath (9 October 2011). "A Voice, Still Vibrant, Reflects on Mortality". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2011/10/10/books/christopher-hitchens-on-writing-mortality-and-cancer.html.
- ^ George Eaton (24 November 2011). "Hitch's Rolls-Royce mind is still purring". New Statesman. http://www.newstatesman.com/ideas/2011/11/hitchens-remembered-polemicist. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ Arnold, Laurence (16 December 2011). "Christopher Hitchens, Who Wrote of War, God, Cancer Battle, Dies Aged 62". Bloomberg. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-12-16/christopher-hitchens-who-wrote-of-war-god-cancer-battle-dies-aged-62.html. Retrieved 16 December 2011.
- ^ "Memorial Gatherings". dailyhitchens.com. 24 December 2011. http://www.dailyhitchens.com/2011/12/memorial-gatherings.html.
- ^ a b The Associated Press: Quotes on the death of pundit Christopher Hitchens. Google.com. Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ The Blog : Hitch. Sam Harris (18 December 2011). Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ Collins, Francis S.. (18 December 2011) In remembrance of my friend Hitch – Guest Voices. The Washington Post. Retrieved on 23 December 2011.
- ^ Hitchens, Peter. (16 December 2011) In Memoriam, my courageous brother Christopher, 1949–2011. Mail Online. Retrieved on 24 December 2011.
- ^ Ralph Blumenthal (12 May 2006). "Army Acts to Curb Abuses of Injured Recruits". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/12/us/12training.html?pagewanted=2. Retrieved 14 June 2011.
- ^ "The Devil You Know". new Republic. http://www.tnr.com/article/politics/the-devil-you-know.
- ^ "Olbermann, Assange, and the Holocaust Denier When you want to believe, you'll believe anything.". Reason. http://reason.com/archives/2010/12/07/olbermann-assange-and-the-holo.
- ^ Cockburn, Alexander. (16 December 2011) Farewell to CH. Counterpunch. Retrieved on 24 December 2011.
- ^ Dennett, Daniel. (19 December 2011) [1]. Washington Post
- ^ Kraus, Lawrence. (23 December 2011) [2]. richarddawkins.net
- ^ Fry, Stephen. (16 December 2011) [3]. thedailybeast.com
- ^ McEwan, Ian. (16 December 2011) [4]. theguradian.co.uk
- ^ Grayling, A.C. (16 December 2011) [5]. barnesandnoble.com
- ^ Vanity, Fair. (15 December 2011) [6]. Vanity Fair
- ^ Gottlieb, Anthony (2007-05-21). "Atheists with Attitude". The New Yorker. http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/05/21/070521crbo_books_gottlieb. Retrieved 2012-04-14.
- ^ September 23, 2011 10:05 pm The war on error By Jason Cowley
- ^ "Christopher Hitchens". Internet Movie Database. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0386899/. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
- ^ "Hitchens Web". http://www.hitchensweb.com/. Retrieved 7 April 2010.
- ^ "Charlie Rose". http://www.charlierose.com/. Retrieved 17 August 2010.
External links[link]
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- Appearances on C-SPAN
- Christopher Hitchens at the Internet Movie Database
- Christopher Hitchens on Charlie Rose
- Daily Hitchens, an archive of material on or by Hitchens
- Christopher Hitchens on National Public Radio in 2010
- Drexel Interview (One-hour video interview) with Paula Marantz Cohen, June 2010
- Works by or about Christopher Hitchens in libraries (WorldCat catalog)
- Christopher Hitchens collected news and commentary at The Guardian
- Christopher Hitchens collected news and commentary at The New York Times
- Christopher Hitchens collected news and commentary at The Boston Globe
- "Journalist Christopher Hitchens fully embraces the Bush war camp" from the World Socialist Website, October 2002
- "Christopher Hitchens[dead link]" feature story in Prospect magazine, May 2008
- "Incendiary Author Spares No Targets" feature story in The New Zealand Herald, May 2008
- "Such, Such are His Joys" David Brooks assessment in The New York Times, 1 July 2010
- Hitchens on Dying with Cancer, video interview with The Atlantic, August 2010
- "Christopher Hitchens: 'You have to choose your future regrets'" The Guardian, 13 November 2010
- "Christopher Hitchens's Jewish Problem" feature article on Jewish Ideas Daily, 13 December 2010
- A debate between Hitchens and Berlinski 2010
- Outspoken and outrageous: Christopher Hitchens a 60 Minutes profile aired 6 March 2011
- Articles by Hitchens
- Contributor page at Vanity Fair
- Column archive at The Atlantic
- Article archive at The Guardian
- Hitchens articles at Slate
- Article archive at Journalisted
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| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Hitchens, Christopher Eric |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | English author, journalist and literary critic |
| Date of birth | 13 April 1949 |
| Place of birth | Portsmouth, England |
| Date of death | 15 December 2011 |
| Place of death | Houston, Texas, United States |
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christopher_Hitchens
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This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
Nicholson Baker (born January 7, 1957) is a contemporary American writer of fiction and non-fiction. As a novelist, he often focuses on minute inspection of his characters' and narrators' stream of consciousness, and has written about poetry, literature, library systems, history, politics, time manipulation, youth and sex. His fiction generally de-emphasizes narrative in favor of careful description and characterization.
Contents |
Life[link]
Nicholson Baker was born in 1957 in New York City, and spent much of his youth in the Rochester, New York, area. He studied briefly at the Eastman School of Music and received a B.A. in philosophy from Haverford College. He lives today with his wife and two children in South Berwick, Maine. He received a National Book Critics Circle Award in 2001 for his nonfiction book Double Fold: Libraries and the Assault on Paper.
Baker has been a fervent critic of what he perceives as libraries' unnecessary destruction of paper-based media. He wrote several vehement articles in The New Yorker critical of the San Francisco Public Library for sending thousands of books to a landfill, the elimination of card catalogs, and the destruction of old books and newspapers in favor of microfilm. In 1997, Baker received the San Francisco–based James Madison Freedom of Information Award in recognition of these efforts.
In 1999, Baker established a non-profit corporation, the American Newspaper Repository, to rescue old newspapers from destruction by libraries.[1] In 2001 he published Double Fold, in which he accuses certain librarians of lying about the decay of materials and being obsessed with technological fads, at the expense of both the public and historical preservation.
Baker describes himself as having "always had pacifist leanings."[2]
In March 2008, Baker reviewed John Broughton's Wikipedia: The Missing Manual in the New York Review of Books. In the review, Baker described Wikipedia's beginnings, its culture, and his own editing activities under the username "Wageless".[3] His article, How I fell in love with Wikipedia, was published in The Guardian newspaper in the UK on April 10, 2008.[4]
Books by Nicholson Baker[link]
- The Mezzanine (1988)
- Room Temperature (1990)
- U and I: A True Story (1991) is a non-fiction study of how a reader engages with an author's work: partly an appreciation of John Updike, and partly a kind of self-exploration. Rather than giving a traditional literary analysis, Baker begins the book by stating that he will read no more Updike than he already has up to that point. All of the Updike quotations used are presented as coming from memory alone, and many are inaccurate, with correct versions and Baker's (later) commentary on the inaccuracy given in brackets.
- Vox (1992) consists of an episode of phone sex between two young single people on a pay-per-minute chat line. The sex scenes in the novel, though quite vivid, nevertheless share the basic approach that Baker has taken since The Mezzanine: in this case, he explores two characters' accumulated thoughts and memories in relation to sex. For some readers, Baker's obsession with detail detracted from a hoped-for pornographic effect. Others, in reading the imaginative sex stories the two protagonists produce for one another, have perceived a budding romantic affection: in the last act they perform before hanging up, the man gives the woman his phone number. The book was Baker's first New York Times bestseller. Monica Lewinsky supposedly once gave a copy to President Bill Clinton.
- The Fermata (1994) also addresses erotic life and fantasy. To quote the dust jacket of one edition: "Arno Strine likes to stop time and take women's clothes off. He is hard at work on his autobiography, 'The Fermata.' It proves in the telling to be a very provocative, funny, and altogether morally confused piece of work." (A fermata is a mark in musical notation indicating a note should be sustained.)
- The Everlasting Story of Nory (1998) was inspired by Baker's daughter Alice, "the informant", to whom he dedicates the book. In this work, Baker tries to see the world through the eyes of a curious nine-year-old American girl attending school in England.
- Double Fold: Libraries and the Assault on Paper (2001) is a non-fiction book about preservation, newspapers, and the American library system. An excerpt first appeared in the July 24, 2000, issue of The New Yorker, under the title "Deadline: The Author's Desperate Bid to Save America's Past." The exhaustively researched work (there are 63 pages of endnotes and 18 pages of references in the paperback edition) details Baker's quest to uncover the fate of thousands of books and newspapers that were replaced and often destroyed during the microfilming boom of the 1980s and 1990s.
- A Box of Matches (2003) is in many ways a continuation of Room Temperature, similarly mining the narrator's store of reflections and memories, many of them domestic. The narrator is now middle-aged and has a family. He rises each morning about 4:00, lights a fire in the fireplace, and ponders. The work is admired, although some have found it rather less exuberant than its predecessor.
- Checkpoint (2004) is composed of dialogue between two old high school friends, Jay and Ben, who discuss Jay's plans to assassinate President George W. Bush. Jay is an unbalanced day laborer who, in the depths of his anger and desperation at Bush's actions and his inability to do anything to stop them, has traveled to Washington, D.C., to kill the president. He considers many far-fetched means of assassination, such as depleted uranium boulders, flying radio-controlled CD saws, homing bullets trained to target the victim by being "marinated" in a tin with a picture of the president, and hypnotized Manchurian scorpions. Ben has met Jay in a Washington, D.C., hotel room, unaware that his friend is planning to commit "a major, major, major crime." Over the course of the novella, Ben discusses what drove Jay to plot an assassination. Reviewers have pointed out that the book is mild, and the planned violence so cartoonish as to be non-threatening.
- Human Smoke: The Beginnings of World War II, the End of Civilization (2008) is a history of World War II that questions the commonly held belief that the Allies wanted to avoid the war at all costs but were forced into action by Hitler's unforgiving crusade. It consists largely of official government transcripts and other documents from the time. In form it is similar to Sven Lindqvist's "A History of Bombing" (New York: New Press, 2001), which Baker includes in the book's copious list of references. Baker cites documents that suggest that the leaders of the United States and the United Kingdom were provoking Germany into war (showing, for example, that Britain bombed Germany before Germany bombed Britain) and that the leaders of those two nations had ulterior motives for wanting to participate. In the epilogue to the book he suggests that the pacifists (who are often vilified by WWII historians) had it right all along, stating: “They failed, but they were right.” [5][6] Some reviewers were dismissive of Human Smoke, the historian Noel Malcolm describing it as a "strangely childish book"[7] and William Grimes as a "self-important, hand-wringing, moral mess of a book".[8] Author Christopher Hitchens accused Baker of ahistoricism and wrote that the book served as a reminder of how "fatuous the pacifist position can sound, or indeed can be".[9] Conservative political commentator R. Emmett Tyrrell, Jr. awarded his J. Gordon Coogler Award for Worst Book of 2008 to Human Smoke.[10] Other reviewers praised Baker's use of documentary research and the intricate construction of the text. Colm Toibin wrote in his New York Times review that "the issues Baker wishes to raise, and the stark system he has used to dramatize his point, make his book a serious and conscientious contribution to the debate about pacifism,"[11] and Mark Kurlansky wrote for the Los Angeles Times that "People are going to get really angry at Baker for criticizing their favorite war. But he hasn't fashioned his tale from gossip. It is documented, with copious notes and attributions. The grace of these well-ordered snapshots is that there is no diatribe; you are left to put things together yourself. [Human Smoke] may be one of the most important books you will ever read."[12]
- The Anthologist (2009) is narrated by Paul Chowder, a little-known poet, who is attempting to write an introduction to a poetry anthology. Distracted by problems in his life—Chowder's career is going nowhere, and his girlfriend has recently left him—he is unable to begin writing, and instead ruminates on poets and poetry throughout history.
- House of Holes (2011) is a collection of novellas, more or less linked or knotted to each other. The novellas are erotic in the sense of Giovanni Boccaccio's Decameron. Either topics are closed resorts in natural areas for wealthy clients on the run from life-threatening epidemics generated by sexual contact. Other relatives like Alice are waving at the entrance of Holes House, offering such artistic entering techniques as tumbling through a clothes dryer and self-sucking through a soft drink straw.[13] It is a book of romantic fairy tales called by the author himself ”A book of Raunch”.
Books[link]
Novels[link]
- The Mezzanine (1988, Weidenfeld & Nicolson; ISBN 1-55584-258-5 / 1990, Vintage; ISBN 0-679-72576-8)
- Room Temperature (1990, Grove Weidenfeld; ISBN 0-8021-1224-2 / 1990, Vintage; ISBN 0-679-73440-6 / 1990, Granta; ISBN 0-14-014212-6 / 1991, Granta; ISBN 0-14-014021-2)
- Vox: A Novel (1992, Random House; ISBN 0-394-58995-5 / 1992, Vintage; ISBN 0-679-74211-5 / 1992, Granta; ISBN 0-14-014057-3)
- The Fermata (1994, Vintage; ISBN 0-679-75933-6)
- The Everlasting Story of Nory (1998, Random House; ISBN 0-679-43933-1 / 1998, Vintage; ISBN 0-679-73440-6)
- A Box of Matches (2003, Random House; ISBN 0-375-50287-4 / 2003, Chatto & Windus; ISBN 0-7011-7402-1)
- Checkpoint (2004, Random House; ISBN 1-4000-4400-6)
- The Anthologist (2009, Simon & Schuster; ISBN 1-84737-635-5)
- House of Holes, A Book of Raunch (2011, Simon & Schuster; ISBN 1-4391-8951-X
Non-fiction[link]
- U and I: A True Story (1991, Random House; ISBN 0-394-58994-7 / 1991 Penguin/Granta; ISBN 0-14-014226-6 (hard) / 1992, Penguin/Granta; ISBN 0-14-014040-9 (paper) /1995, Vintage; ISBN 0-679-73575-5 / 1998, Granta; ISBN 1-86207-097-0)
- The Size of Thoughts: Essays and Other Lumber (1996, Random House, ISBN 0-679-43932-3 / 1996, Vintage; ISBN 0-679-77624-9 (paper) / 1996, Chatto & Windus; ISBN 0-7011-6301-1 (hard) / 1997, Vintage; ISBN 0-09-957971-5 (paper)
- Double Fold: Libraries and the Assault on Paper (2001, Random House; ISBN 0-375-50444-3 / 2001, Vintage; ISBN 0-375-72621-7 / 2002, Vintage; ISBN 0-09-942903-9)
- With Margaret Brentano (his wife). The World on Sunday|The World on Sunday: Graphic Art in Joseph Pulitzer's Newspaper (1898– 1911) (2005, Bulfinch; ISBN 0-8212-6193-2)
- Human Smoke: The Beginnings of World War II, the End of Civilization (2008, Simon & Schuster; ISBN 978-1-4165-6784-4)
Further reading[link]
- Cox, Richard J. Vandals in the Stacks? A Response to Nicholson Baker's Assault on Libraries. Greenwood Press, 2002. ISBN 0-313-32344-5
- Fabre, Claire. "Aux frontières de l’intime : l’intériorité exhibée dans Room Temperature (1984) de Nicholson Baker." Revue française d’études américaines. 2006. 113-121.
- Richardson, Eve, "Space, Projection and the Banal in the Works of Jean-Philippe Toussaint and Nicholson Baker", in Emma Gilby et Katja Haustein (ed.), Space. New Dimensions in French Studies, Oxford, Bern, Berlin, Brussels, Francfurt, New York and Vienna, Peter Lang, 2005. ("Modern French Identities", 30)
- Saltzman, Arthur M. Understanding Nicholson Baker. University of South Carolina Press, 1999. ISBN 1-57003-303-X
- Star, Alexander. "The Paper Pusher." The New Republic. May 28, 2001. 38-41.
References[link]
- ^ American Newspaper Repository
- ^ McGrath, Charles (2008-03-04) A Debunker on the Road to World War II, New York Times
- ^ Baker, Nicholson;"The Charms of Wikipedia", The New York Review of Books; Volume 55, Number 4 March 20, 2008.
- ^ How I fell in love with Wikipedia
- ^ Toibin, Colm (March 23, 2008). "Their Vilest Hour". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/23/books/review/Toibin-t.html?ref=arts. Retrieved May 20, 2010.
- ^ 'Human Smoke: The Beginnings of World War II, the End of Civilization' by Nicholson Baker - BOOK REVIEW - Los Angeles Times
- ^ Review, Daily Telegraph, 2 May2008
- ^ Review, New York Times, 12 March 2008
- ^ Review, New Statesman, 15 May 2008
- ^ Tyrell, R. Emmett, Jr., "J. Gordon Coogler Award for 2008," American Spectator; Volume 42, Number 2, March 2009
- ^ Toibin, Colm (March 23, 2008). "Their Vilest Hour". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/23/books/review/Toibin-t.html?ref=arts. Retrieved May 20, 2010.
- ^ Review, "Days of infamy 'Smoke' and mirrors," Los Angeles Times March 9, 2008.
- ^ Elaine Blair (September 29, 2011 • Volume 58, Number 14). "Coming Attractions". Review on "House of Holes". The New York Review of Books. http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2011/sep/29/coming-attractions/. Retrieved September 13, 2011.
External links[link]
- Nicholson Baker. Faculty profile at European Graduate School, biography, bibliography, photos and video lectures
- Nicholson Baker at Random House, author page
- Nicholson Baker, "A Debunker on the Road to World War II". New York Times, March 4, 2008
- Cox, Richard J. "The Great Newspaper Caper: Backlash in the Digital Age"
- Grimes, William. ""Say What? It Wasn’t a Just War After All?" New York Times Book Review
- "How I fell in love with Wikipedia". Guardian. April 10, 2008
- "The Charms of Wikipedia" New York Review of Books, volume 55, number 4, March 20, 2008.
- Interview about "Human Smoke" on "BackStory" radio program
- "Can the Kindle really improve on the book?" New Yorker, August 3, 2009. On the Kindle reading device.
- A radio interview with Nicholson Baker Aired on the Lewis Burke Frumkes Radio Show.
- Wroe, Nicholas. "A Life in Writing". Guardian, 19 September 2009. An interview.
- KCRW Bookworm Interview May 4, 2002
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|||||
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| Name | Baker, Nicholson |
| Alternative names | |
| Short description | Novelist, essayist, non-fiction writer |
| Date of birth | January 7, 1957 |
| Place of birth | New York City, New York, United States |
| Date of death | |
| Place of death | |
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Related pages:
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This page contains text from Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholson_Baker
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License, which means that you can copy and modify it as long as the entire work (including additions) remains under this license.
