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The Battle of Badr (Arabic: غزوة بدر‎), fought Saturday, 13 March 624 AD (17 Ramadan, 2 AH in the Islamic calendar) in the Hejaz region of western Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia), was a key battle in the early days of Islam and a turning point in Muhammad's struggle with his opponents among the Quraish^[1] in Mecca. The battle has been passed down in Islamic history as a decisive victory attributable to divine intervention, or by secular sources to the strategic genius of Muhammad. It is one of the few battles specifically mentioned in the Quran. Most contemporary knowledge of the battle at Badr comes from traditional Islamic accounts, both hadiths and biographies of Muhammad, recorded in written form some time after the battle.^[2]

Prior to the battle, the Muslims and Meccans had fought several smaller skirmishes in late 623 and early 624, as the Muslim ghazawāt (prophet-led battles) had become more frequent. Badr, however, was the first large-scale engagement between the two forces. Advancing to a strong defensive position, Muhammad's well-disciplined force broke the Meccan lines, killing several important Quraishi leaders including Muhammad's chief antagonist, 'Amr ibn Hishām.^{[citation needed]} For the early Muslims the battle was the first sign that they might eventually defeat their enemies among the Meccans. Mecca at that time was one of the richest and most powerful cities in Arabia, fielding an army three times larger than that of the Muslims.^{[citation needed]} The Muslim victory also signalled other tribes that a new power had arisen in Arabia and strengthened Muhammad’s position as leader of the often fractious community in Medina.^{[citation needed]}

Background[link]

Muhammad was born in Mecca around 571 AD into the Quraish tribe. In 622, to escape persecution of Muslims by the Meccans, Muhammad and many of his followers migrated from Mecca to the neighboring city of Medina. This migration is called the Hijra.

Following the hijra, tensions between Mecca and Medina escalated and hostilities broke out in 623 when the Muslims began a series of raids (called ghazawāt in Arabic) on Quraishi caravans. Ghazawāt (s. ghazw) were plundering raids organized by nomadic Bedouin warriors against either rival tribes or wealthier, sedentary neighbors. Since Medina was located just off Mecca's main trade route, the Muslims were in an ideal position to do this. Even though many Muslims were Quraish themselves, they believed that they were entitled to steal from them because the Meccans had expelled them from their homes and tribes, a serious offense in hospitality-oriented Arabia.^[3] Also, there was a tradition in Arabia of poor tribes raiding richer tribes. It also provided a means for the Muslim community to carve out an independent economic position at Medina, where their political position was far from secure. The Meccans obviously took a different view, seeing the Muslim raids as banditry at best, as well as a potential threat to their livelihood and prestige.^[4]

In late 623 and early 624, the Muslim ghazawāt grew increasingly brazen and commonplace. In September 623, Muhammad himself led a force of 200 in an unsuccessful raid against a large caravan. Shortly thereafter, the Meccans launched their own "raid" against Medina, although its purpose was just to steal some livestock which belonged to the Muslims.^[5] In January 624, the Muslims ambushed a Meccan caravan near Nakhlah, only forty kilometers outside of Mecca, killing one of the guards and formally inaugurating a blood feud with the Meccans.^[6] Worse, from a Meccan standpoint, the raid occurred in the month of Rajab, a truce month sacred to the Meccans in which fighting was prohibited and a clear affront to their pagan traditions.^[4]

The battle[link]

A map of the Badr campaign

In the spring of 624, Muhammad received word from his intelligence sources that one of the richest trade caravans of the year, commanded by Abu Sufyan and guarded by thirty to forty men, was travelling from Syria to Mecca. Because of the caravan's size, or perhaps because of the previous failures to intercept a caravan, Muhammad gathered an army of over 313 men, the largest army the Muslims had ever put in the field. The traded items for the caravan were the belongings left behind by the Muslims in Makkah before they migrated to Madinah.^[7]

The march to Badr[link]

Muhammad's forces included Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali, Hamza, Mus`ab ibn `Umair, Az-Zubair bin Al-‘Awwam, Ammar ibn Yasir, and Abu Dharr al-Ghifari. The Muslims also brought seventy camels and two horses, meaning that they either had to walk or fit three to four men per camel.^[8] However, many early Muslim sources indicate that no serious fighting was expected,^[9] and the future Caliph Uthman stayed behind to care for his sick wife Ruqayyah, the daughter of the Prophet.^[10] Salman the Persian also couldn't join the battle, as he was still not a free man.^[11]

Many of the Quraishi nobles, including Amr ibn Hishām, Walid ibn Utba, Shaiba, and Umayah ibn Khalaf, joined the Meccan army. Their reasons varied: some were out to protect their financial interests in the caravan; others wanted to avenge Ibn al-Hadrami, the guard killed at Nakhlah; finally, a few must have wanted to take part in what was expected to be an easy victory against the Muslims.^[12] Amr ibn Hishām is described as shaming at least one noble, Umayah ibn Khalaf, into joining the expedition. ^[13]

By this time Muhammad's companions were approaching the wells where he planned to either waylay the caravan, or to fight the Meccan army at Badr, along the Syrian trade route where the caravan would be expected to stop or the Meccan army to come for its protection. However, several Muslim scouts were discovered by scouts from the caravan^[14] and Abu Sufyan made a hasty turn towards Yanbu.^[15]

The Muslim plan[link]

When the word reached the Muslim army about the departure of the Meccan army, Muhammad immediately called a council of war, since there was still time to retreat and because many of the fighters there were recent converts (called Ansar or "Helpers" to distinguish them from the Quraishi Muslims), who had only pledged to defend Medina. Under the terms of the Constitution of Medina, they would have been within their rights to refuse to fight and leave the army. However, according to tradition, they pledged to fight as well, with Sa'd bin 'Ubada declaring, "If you [Muhammad] order us to plunge our horses into the sea, we would do so."^[16] However, the Muslims still hoped to avoid a pitched battle and continued to march towards Badr.

By 11 March both armies were about a day's march from Badr. Several Muslim warriors (including, according to some sources, Ali) who had ridden ahead of the main column captured two Meccan water carriers at the Badr wells. Expecting them to say they were with the caravan, the Muslims were horrified to hear them say they were with the main Quraishi army.^[16] Some traditions also say that, upon hearing the names of all the Quraishi nobles accompanying the army, Muhammad exclaimed "Mecca hath thrown unto you the best morsels of her liver."^[17] The next day Muhammad ordered a forced march to Badr and arrived before the Meccans.

The Badr wells were located on the gentle slope of the eastern side of a valley called "Yalyal". The western side of the valley was hemmed in by a large hill called 'Aqanqal. When the Muslim army arrived from the east, Muhammad initially chose to form his army at the first well he encountered. Hubab ibn al-Muhdir, however, asked him if this choice was divine instruction or Muhammad's own opinion. When Muhammad responded in the latter, Hubab suggested that the Muslims occupy the well closest to the Quraishi army, and block off the other ones. Muhammad accepted this decision and moved right away.

The Meccan plan[link]

By contrast, while little is known about the progress of the Quraishi army from the time it left Mecca until its arrival just outside Badr, several things are worth noting: although many Arab armies brought their women and children along on campaigns both to motivate and care for the men, the Meccan army did not. Also, the Quraish apparently made little or no effort to contact the many tribes allies they had scattered throughout the Hijaz.^[18] Both facts suggest the Quraish lacked the time to prepare for a proper campaign in their haste to protect the caravan. Besides it is believed since they knew they had outnumbered the Muslims by three to one, they expected an easy victory.

When the Quraishi reached Juhfah, just south of Badr, they received a message from Abu Sufyan telling them the caravan was safely behind them, and that they could therefore return to Mecca.^[19] At this point, according to Karen Armstrong, a power struggle broke out in the Meccan army. Abu Jahl wanted to continue, but several of the clans present, including Banu Zuhrah and Banu Adi, promptly went home. Armstrong suggests they may have been concerned about the power that Abu Jahl would gain from crushing the Muslims. A contingent of Banu Hashim, hesitant to fight their own clansmen, also left with them.^[20] Despite these losses, Abu Jahl was still determined to fight, boasting "We will not go back until we have been to Badr." During this period, Abu Sufyan and several other men from the caravan joined the main army.^[21]

The day of battle[link]

At midnight on 13 March, the Quraish broke camp and marched into the valley of Badr. It had rained the previous day and they struggled to move their horses and camels up the hill of 'Aqanqal. After they descended from 'Aqanqal, the Meccans set up another camp inside the valley. While they rested, they sent out a scout, Umayr ibn Wahb to reconnoitre the Muslim lines. Umayr reported that Muhammad's army was small, and that there were no other Muslim reinforcements which might join the battle.^[22] However, he also predicted extremely heavy Quraishi casualties in the event of an attack (One hadith refers to him seeing "the camels of [Medina] laden with certain death").^[23] This further demoralized the Quraish, as Arab battles were traditionally low-casualty affairs, and set off another round of bickering among the Quraishi leadership. However, according to Arab traditions Amr ibn Hishām quashed the remaining dissent by appealing to the Quraishi's sense of honor and demanding that they fulfill their blood vengeance.^[24]

The battle began with champions from both armies emerging to engage in combat. Three of the Ansar emerged from the Muslim ranks, only to be shouted back by the Meccans, who were nervous about starting any unnecessary feuds and only wanted to fight the Quraishi Muslims. So Hamza approached forward and called on Ubayda and Ali to join him. The Muslims dispatched the Meccan champions in a three-on-three melee. Hamza killed his opponent Utba; Ali killed his opponent Walid ibn Utba; Ubayda was wounded by his opponent Shayba, but eventually killed him. So this was a victorious traditional 3 on 3 combat for the Muslims.

Now both armies began striking arrows at each other. A few Muslims and an unknown number of Quraish warriors were killed. Before the real attack began, Muhammad had given orders for the Muslims to attack with their ranged weapons, and only engage the Quraish with melee weapons when they advanced.^[25] Now he gave the order to charge, throwing a handful of pebbles at the Meccans in what was probably a traditional Arabian gesture while yelling "Defaced be those faces!"^[26][27] The Muslim army yelled "Yā manṣūr amit!"^[28] "O thou whom God hath made victorious, slay!" and rushed the Quraishi lines. The Meccans, understrength and unenthusiastic about fighting, promptly broke and ran. The battle itself only lasted a few hours and was over by the early afternoon.^[26] The Qur'an describes the force of the Muslim attack in many verses, which refer to thousands of angels descending from Heaven at Badr to terrify the Quraish.^[27][29] It should be noted that early Muslim sources take this account literally, and there are several hadith where Muhammad discusses the Angel Jibreel and the role he played in the battle.

Aftermath[link]

Casualties and prisoners[link]

Al-Bukhari lists Meccan losses as seventy dead and seventy captured.^[30] This would be 15%–16% of the Quraishi army, unless the actual number of Meccan troops present at Badr was significantly lower, in which case the percentage of troops lost would have been higher. 'Ali alone accounted for 18 of the dead Meccans.^[31] Muslim losses are commonly listed at fourteen killed, about 4% of their engaged forces.^[27] Sources do not indicate the number of wounded on either side.

During the course of the fighting, the Muslims took a number of Meccan Quraish prisoner. Their fate sparked an immediate controversy in the Muslim army.^[32] The initial fear was that the Meccan army might rally and that the Muslims couldn't spare any men to guard the prisoners. Sa'eed and Umar were in favor of killing the prisoners, but Abu Bakr argued for clemency. Muhammad eventually sided with Abu Bakr, and most prisoners were spared, either because of clan relations (one was Muhammad's son-in-law), desire for ransom, or the hope that they would later convert to Islam (in fact, several later did).^[33] At least two high-ranking Meccans, including Umayyah, were executed after the battle for their open enmity towards the Muslims, and two other Quraysh who had dumped a bucket of sheep excrement over Muhammad during his days at Mecca were also killed during the return to Medina.^[34] In the case of Umayyah, his former slave Bilal was so intent on killing him that his companions even stabbed one of the Muslims guarding Umayyah.^[35]

Shortly before he departed Badr, Muhammad also gave the order for over twenty of the dead Quraishis to be buried in the well at Badr.^[36] Multiple hadiths refer to this incident, which was apparently a major cause for outrage among the Quraish of Mecca. Shortly thereafter, several Muslims who had been recently captured by allies of the Meccans were brought into the city of Mecca and executed in revenge for the defeat.^[37]

According to the traditional blood feud (similar to Blood Law) any Meccans related to those killed at Badr would feel compelled to take vengeance against members of the tribe who had killed their relatives. On the Muslim side, there was also a heavy desire for vengeance, as they had been persecuted and tortured by the Quraishi Meccans for years. However, after the initial executions, the surviving prisoners were quartered with Muslim families in Medina and treated well, as kin .

Implications[link]

The Battle of Badr was extremely influential in the rise of two men who would determine the course of history on the Arabian peninsula for the next century. The first was Muhammad, who was transformed overnight from a Meccan outcast into a major leader. Marshall Hodgson adds that Badr forced the other Arabs to "regard the Muslims as challengers and potential inheritors to the prestige and the political role of the [Quraish]." Shortly thereafter he expelled the Banu Qaynuqa, one of the Jewish tribes at Medina that had been threatening his political position, and who had assaulted a Muslim woman which led to their expulsion for breaking the peace treaty. At the same time Abd-Allah ibn Ubayy, Muhammad's chief opponent in Medina, found his own position seriously weakened. Henceforth, he would only be able to mount limited challenges to Muhammad.^[38]

The other major beneficiary of the Battle of Badr was Abu Sufyan. The death of Amr ibn Hashim, as well as many other Quraishi nobles^[39] gave Abu Sufyan the opportunity, almost by default, to become chief of the Quraish. As a result, when Muhammad marched into Mecca six years later, it was Abu Sufyan who helped negotiate its peaceful surrender. Abu Sufyan subsequently became a high-ranking official in the Muslim Empire, and his son Muawiya would later go on to found the Umayyad Caliphate.

In later days having fought at Badr became so significant that Ibn Ishaq included a complete name-by-name roster of the Muslim army in his biography of Muhammad. In many hadiths, individuals who fought at Badr are identified as such as a formality, and they may have even received a stipend in later years.^[40] The death of the last of the Badr veterans occurred during the First Islamic civil war.^[41]

As Paul K. Davis sums up, "Mohammed’s victory confirmed his authority as leader of Islam; by impressing local tribes that joined him, the expansion of Islam began."^[42]

Historical sources[link]

Badr in the Qur'an[link]

The Battle of Badr is one of the few battles explicitly discussed in the Qur'an. It is even mentioned by name as part of a comparison with the Battle of Uhud.

Qur'an: Al-i-Imran 3:123–125 ^{(Yusuf Ali)}. “Allah had helped you at Badr, when ye were a contemptible little force; then fear Allah; thus May ye show your gratitude.§ Remember thou saidst to the Faithful: "Is it not enough for you that Allah should help you with three thousand angels (Specially) sent down?§ "Yea, – if ye remain firm, and act aright, even if the enemy should rush here on you in hot haste, your Lord would help you with five thousand angels Making a terrific onslaught.§”

According to Abdullah Yusuf Ali, the term "gratitude" may be a reference to discipline. At Badr, the Muslim forces had allegedly maintained firm discipline, whereas at Uhud they broke ranks to pursue the Meccans, allowing Meccan cavalry to flank and rout their army. The idea of Badr as a furqan, an Islamic miracle, is mentioned again in the same surah.

Qur'an: Al-i-Imran 3:13 ^{(Yusuf Ali)}. “There has already been for you a Sign in the two armies that met (in combat): One was fighting in the cause of Allah, the other resisting Allah; these saw with their own eyes Twice their number. But Allah doth support with His aid whom He pleaseth. In this is a warning for such as have eyes to see.”

Badr is also the subject of Sura 8: Al-Anfal, which details military conduct and operations. "Al-Anfal" means "the spoils" and is a reference to the post-battle discussion in the Muslim army over how to divide up the plunder from the Quraishi army. Though the Sura does not name Badr, it describes the battle, and several of the verses are commonly thought to have been from or shortly after the battle.

Traditional Muslim accounts[link]

Most knowledge of the Battle of Badr comes either from the traditional Islamic accounts, Quran and Hadiths (records of the life and times of Muhammad). In the English speaking world, it is not known if there are earlier written records other than the traditional Islamic accounts since Arabic at that time in the Hijaz was primarily an oral language. People relied mostly on oral traditions.

Muslim exegs interpret the Book of Isaiah 21:13–17 as a prophecy of the Battle of Badr:(13) The oracle concerning Arabia. In the thickets in Arabia you will lodge, O caravans of Dedanites. (14) To the thirsty bring water, meet the fugitive with bread, O inhabitants of the land of Tema. (15) For they have fled from the swords, from the drawn sword, from the bent bow, and from the press of battle. (16) For thus the Lord said to me, "Within a year, according to the years of a hireling, all the glory of Kedar will come to an end; (17) and the remainder of the archers of the mighty men of the sons of Kedar will be few; for the LORD, the God of Israel, has spoken."

Executions[link]

A painting from Siyer-i Nebi, Ali beheading Nadr ibn al-Harith in the presence of Muhammad and his companions.

After the battle Muhammad decided to return to Medina. While Muhammad was returning to Medina, he reportedly received a revelation regarding the distribution of war booty.

According to Muslim scholar "Saifur Rahman al Mubarakpuri", a Quran verse was revealed ordering the execution of one of the captives, Nadr bin Harith. After this revelation, Nadr bin Harith was subsequently beheaded by Ali.^[43][44]

Later the command to kill Uqba bin Abu Muayt was given, and he was subsequently beheaded by Asim Bin Thabit Ansari (some sources say Ali beheaded him).^[45]

In modern culture[link]

"Badr" has become popular among Muslim armies and paramilitary organizations. "Operation Badr" was used to describe Egypt's offensive in the 1973 Yom Kippur War as well as Pakistan's actions in the 1999 Kargil War. Iranian offensive operations against Iraq in the late 1980s were also named after Badr. During the 2011 Libyan civil war, the rebel leadership stated that they selected the date of the assault on Tripoli to be the 20th of Ramadan, marking the anniversary of the Battle of Badr.^[46]

The Battle of Badr was featured in the 1976 film The Message.

See also[link]

• Islamic military jurisprudence
• Jihad
• Military career of Muhammad
• Pre-Islamic Arabia

Footnotes[link]

References[link]

Books and articles[link]

• Ali, Abdullah Yusuf (1987). The Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation & Commentary. Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an; Reissue edition. ISBN 0-940368-32-3. 
• Armstrong, Karen (1992). Muhmmad: Biography of the Prophet. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-250886-5. 
• Crone, Patricia (1987). Meccan Trade and the Rise of Islam. Blackwell. 
• Hodgson, Marshall (1974). The Venture of Islam: The Classical Age of Islam. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-34683-8. 
• Lings, Martin (1983). Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources. Inner Traditions International. ISBN 0-89281-170-6. 
• Nicolle, David (1993). Armies of the Muslim Conquest. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1-85532-279-X. 
• Ramadan, Tariq (2007). In the Footsteps of the Prophet. United States of America: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-530880-8. 
• Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. 

Online references[link]

• "Translation of Malik's Muwatta.". USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/muwatta/. Retrieved September 2010. 
• "Translation of Sahih Muslim.". USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/muslim/. Retrieved September 2010. 
• "Translation of Sahih al-Bukhari.". USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/bukhari/. Retrieved September 2010. 
• "Partial Translation of Sunan Abu-Dawud.". USC-MSA Compendium of Muslim Texts. http://www.usc.edu/schools/college/crcc/engagement/resources/texts/muslim/hadith/abudawud/. Retrieved September 2010. 

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Battle of Badr

Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Holy Qur'an/Al-Anfal

• Battle of Badr, 17th Ramadan 624 A.D
• Badr at IslamAnswers.Net
• The Battle of Badr at Al-Islam.Org
• The first battle of Islam at Badr: Islamic Occasions Network
• Hope Springs Eternal A nice multimedia presentation at IslamOnline.Net
• MSN Virtual Earth: A modern-day satellite image of Badr, now called "Badr Hunayn".
• Tafsir (Sura 8: verse 11 to 18) – Battle of Badr: Analysis of Qur'anic verses by Irshaad Hussain.

Coordinates: 23°44′N 38°46′E / 23.733°N 38.767°E / 23.733; 38.767

Anwar al-Awlaki أنور العولقي
Anwar al-Awlaki in Yemen in 2008
Born	Anwar bin Nasser bin Abdulla al-Aulaqi (1971-04-21)April 21, 1971[1][2] (UPI gives April 22.) Las Cruces, New Mexico, U.S.
Died	September 30, 2011(2011-09-30) (aged 40) al-Jawf Governorate, Yemen[3]
Cause of death	Killed by U.S. Hellfire missiles
Residence	Yemen
Ethnicity	Arab
Citizenship	U.S. and Yemen (dual)
Alma mater	Colorado State University (B.S.) San Diego State University (M.A.) George Washington University (Ph.D., incomplete)
Occupation	Lecturer, former imam
Organization	Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula
Known for	Alleged senior Al-Qaeda recruiter and spokesman[4][5]
Influenced by	Sayyid Qutb
Influenced	Nawaf al-Hazmi Khalid al-Mihdhar Hani Hanjour Michael Finton Fort Hood shooter Christmas Day bomber Sharif Mobley Times Square bomber Roshonara Choudhry Mohamed Alessa Carlos Almonte Zachary Adam Chesser
Height	6 feet 1 inch (1.85 m)[6]
Weight	160 pounds (73 kg)[6]
Religion	Sunni Islam
Children	5[7]
Parents	Nasser al-Awlaki (father)
Relatives	Ali Muhammad Mujawar[citation needed]

Anwar al-Awlaki (also spelled al-Aulaqi; Arabic: أنور العولقي‎ Anwar al-‘Awlaqī; April 21, 1971 – September 30, 2011) was an American^[8] and Yemeni imam who was an engineer and educator by training.^[9][10] According to U.S. government officials, he was a senior talent recruiter and motivator who was involved with planning operations for the Islamist militant group al-Qaeda.^{[2][6][11][12][13][14][15]} With a blog, a Facebook page, and many YouTube videos, the Saudi news station Al Arabiya described him as the "bin Laden of the Internet",^[16][17] though Bin Laden himself reportedly held Awlaki in low esteem.^[18] Many of his videos have subsequently been removed from YouTube after a request from the US Congress.^[19]

U.S. officials say that Al-Awlaki spoke with and preached to a number of al-Qaeda members and affiliates, including three of the 9/11 hijackers,^[20] alleged Fort Hood shooter Nidal Malik Hasan,^[21][22] and "Underwear Bomber" Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab;^[23][24][25] he was also allegedly involved in planning the latter's attack. The Yemeni government began trying him in absentia in November 2010, for plotting to kill foreigners and being a member of al-Qaeda, and a Yemenite judge ordered that he be captured "dead or alive".^[26][27]

According to U.S. officials, al-Awlaki was promoted to the rank of "regional commander" within al-Qaeda in 2009.^[28][29] He repeatedly called for jihad against the United States.^[30][31] In April 2010, American President Obama approved Al-Awlaki's targeted killing,^[32][33][34] an action unprecedented for an American citizen and an action unsuccessfully challenged by al-Awlaki's father and civil rights groups.^{[32][33][34][35]}

Al-Awlaki was believed to be in hiding in Southeast Yemen in the last years of his life.^[26] The U.S. deployed unmanned aircraft in Yemen to search for and kill him,^[36] firing at and failing to kill him at least once,^[37] before he was killed in an American drone attack in Yemen on September 30, 2011.^[38] Two weeks later Al-Awlaki's 16-year-old son, Abdulrahman al-Awlaki, a U.S. citizen who was born in Denver, was also killed by a CIA-led drone strike in Yemen.^[39][40][41] Nasser al-Awlaki, the father of Anwar, made an audio recording condemning the killings of his son and grandson as senseless murders.^[42]

Early life[link]

Al-Awlaki's parents are from Yemen. His father, Nasser al-Aulaqi, was a Fulbright Scholar^[43] who earned a master's degree in agricultural economics at New Mexico State University in 1971, received a doctorate at the University of Nebraska, and worked at the University of Minnesota from 1975 to 1977.^[14][44] Nasser also served as Agriculture Minister and as President of Sana'a University, and is a prominent member of Yemeni President Ali Abdullah Saleh's ruling party.^{[14][44][45][46]} Yemen's Prime Minister since March 2007, Ali Mohammed Mujur, is a relative of al-Awlaki.^[47]

Al-Awlaki was born in 1971 in the United States. In 1978, when he was seven years old, he and his family returned to Yemen.^[17][48] He then lived in Yemen for 11 years, and studied at Azal Modern School.^[49]

Al-Awlaki returned to the U.S state of Colorado in 1991 to attend college. He earned a B.S. in Civil Engineering from Colorado State University (1994), where he was President of the Muslim Student Association.^[49] He attended the university on a foreign student visa and a government scholarship from Yemen, apparently by claiming to be born in that country, according to a former U.S. security agent.^[50] He spent a summer of his college years training with the Afghan mujahideen.^[17] Al-Awlaki also earned an M.A. in Education Leadership from San Diego State University. He worked on a Doctorate degree in Human Resource Development at George Washington University Graduate School of Education & Human Development from January to December 2001.^{[6][44][51][52][53][54][55][56]}

Islamic education[link]

Al-Awlaki's Islamic education was primarily informal, and consisted of intermittent months with various scholars, and reading and contemplating works by several prominent Islamic scholars.^[9] Some Muslim scholars said they did not understand al‑Awlaki's popularity, because while he spoke fluent English and could therefore reach a large non-Arabic-speaking audience, he lacked formal Islamic training and study.^[10]

Ideology[link]

Awlaki developed an animosity towards the U.S. and became a proponent of Takfiri and Jihadi thinking, while retaining Islamism, according to one research paper.^[57] While imprisoned in Yemen, al-Awlaki became influenced by the works of Sayyid Qutb, an originator of the contemporary "anti-Western Jihadist movement".^[58] He read 150–200 pages a day of Qutb's works, and described himself as "so immersed with the author I would feel Sayyid was with me in my cell speaking to me directly".^[58]

He was noted for attracting young men with his lectures, especially U.S.-based and UK-based Muslims.^[59][60] Terrorism consultant Evan Kohlmann referred to al-Awlaki "one of the principal jihadi luminaries for would-be homegrown terrorists. His fluency with English, his unabashed advocacy of jihad and mujahideen organizations, and his Web-savvy approach are a powerful combination." He called al-Awlaki's lecture "Constants on the Path of Jihad", which he says was based on a similar document written by al-Qaeda's founder, the "virtual bible for lone-wolf Muslim extremists".^[61] Philip Mudd, formerly of the CIA's Counterterrorism Center and the FBI's top intelligence adviser, called him "a magnetic character ... a powerful orator."^[49]

U.S. officials and some U.S. media sources called Al-Awlaki an Islamic fundamentalist and accused him of encouraging terrorism.^{[45][53][62][63]} Bin Laden himself, according to documents recovered from the The New York Times, held Al-Awlaki and his magazine Inspire in low esteem.^[18]

Later life, and alleged ties to terrorism[link]

In the United States; 1991–2002[link]

In 1993 as a college student in Colorado State's civil engineering program, al-Awlaki visited Afghanistan in the aftermath of the Soviet occupation. He found himself depressed by the country's poverty and hunger, and "wouldn't have gone with al-Qaeda," according to friends from Colorado State, who said he was nevertheless profoundly affected by the trip.^[60][64] At the time of his visit, much of Afghanistan was under the control of various Mujahideen factions; Mullah Mohammed Omar would not form the Taliban until 1994. When Awlaki returned to campus, he showed increased interest in politics and religion, and would quote from the prominent Palestinian scholar Abdullah Azzam, who provided theological justification for the Afghan jihad, and later influenced Osama bin Laden.^[49]

In 1994, Awlaki married a cousin from Yemen,^[49] and began service as the imam of the Denver Islamic Society, where he preached "eloquently against vice and sin" until 1996, when he was chastised for encouraging a Saudi student to fight in Chechnya against the Russians.^[49][65] He then served as imam of the Masjid Ar-Ribat al-Islami mosque at the edge of San Diego, California, from 1996–2000, where he had a following of 200–300 people^{[1][6][49][53][60][66]} While in San Diego Awlaki was known for the time he spent with youth, for his interest in fishing, for his discussions of travels with friends, and for a popular and lucrative series of lectures that he recorded.^[49]

9/11 hijacker
Nawaf al-Hazmi, for whom al-Awlaki was reportedly a spiritual adviser

In 1998 and 1999, he served as Vice President for the Charitable Society for Social Welfare (CSSW), later accused by the FBI of being "front organization to funnel money to terrorists".^[53][67] Though the FBI investigated Awlaki from June 1999 through March 2000 for possible links to Hamas, Bin Laden contact Ziyad Khaleel, and a visit by an associate of Omar Abdel Rahman,^[49] it never unearthed sufficient evidence for a criminal prosecution.^{[6][9][20][53][62][66][68]} U.S. officials would later allege that later hijackers Nawaf al-Hazmi and Khalid al-Mihdhar, ultimately hijackers of American Airlines Flight 77, attended his sermons and even met personally with Awlaki; the 9/11 Commission Report suggested that the hijackers "reportedly respected [al-Awlaki] as a religious figure".^{[20][49][51][66]}

Awlaki told reporters that he resigned from leading the San Diego mosque "after an uneventful four years," and took a brief sabbatical, traveling overseas to various countries.^[69] When al-Awlaki returned to the U.S., he settled in January 2001 on the East Coast in the Washington Metropolitan Area. There, he served as imam at the Dar al-Hijrah mosque near Falls Church, Virginia, and was also the Muslim Chaplain at George Washington University,^{[6][51][53][70]} where he was hired by Esam Omeish.^[71][72] Omeish said in 2004 that he was convinced that al-Awlaki: "has no inclination or active involvement in any events or circumstances that have to do with terrorism".^[73] Fluent in English, known for giving eloquent talks on Islam, and with a mandate to attract young non-Arabic speakers, Awlaki "was the magic bullet", according to mosque spokesman Johari Abdul-Malik; "he had everything all in a box;"^[73] "he had an allure. He was charming."^[74] While in Washington, Awlaki's sermons were again allegedly attended by Al-Hazmi, and also by later 9/11 hijacker Hani Hanjour. Nidal Malik Hasan, now the primary suspect in the Fort Hood shooting, would visit when Awlaki presided over the funeral of Hassan's mother.^{[20][63][66][75][76]}

Although he hesitated to shake hands with women, he was accused of patronizing prostitutes.^[49] Al-Awlaki was arrested in San Diego in August 1996 and in April 1997 for soliciting prostitutes.^{[20][45][77][78]} In the first instance, he pled guilty to a lesser charge on condition of entering an AIDS education program, and paying $400 in fines and restitution.^[78] The second time, he pled guilty to soliciting a prostitute, and was sentenced to three years' probation, fined $240, and ordered to perform 12 days of community service.^[78][79]

When police investigating the 9/11 attacks raided the Hamburg, Germany, apartment of Ramzi bin al-Shibh (the "20th hijacker"), al-Awlaki's telephone number was found among bin al-Shibh's personal contact information.^[6][53] The FBI interviewed al-Awlaki four times in the eight days following the 9/11 attacks.^[1][49] One detective told the 9/11 Commission he believed al-Awlaki "was at the center of the 9/11 story". And an FBI agent said that "if anyone had knowledge of the plot, it would have been" him, since "someone had to be in the U.S. and keep the hijackers spiritually focused".^[49] One 9/11 Commission staff member said: "Do I think he played a role in helping the hijackers here, knowing they were up to something? Yes. Do I think he was sent here for that purpose? I have no evidence for it."^[49] A separate Congressional Joint Inquiry into the 9/11 attacks suspected that al-Awlaki might have been part of a support network for the hijackers, according to its director, Eleanor Hill.^[49] "In my view, he is more than a coincidental figure", said House Intelligence Committee member Representative Anna Eshoo (D-CA).^[78]