History of Indian science and technology

Prehistory

Irrigation was developed in the Indus Valley Civilization by around 4500 BCE. Sophisticated irrigation and water storage systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization, including artificial reservoirs at Girnar dated to 3000 BCE, and an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE. Cotton was cultivated in the region by the 5th millennium BCE—4th millennium BCE. Sugarcane was originally from tropical South and Southeast Asia.

By 2800 BCE private bathrooms, located on the ground floor, were found in many houses of the Indus civilization. The sewage was then led into cesspools, built at the intersection of two drains, which had stairs leading to them for periodic cleaning. This technical standardization enabled gauging devices to be effectively used in angular measurement and measurement for construction.

Excavations at Balakot (c. 2500-1900 BC), present day Pakistan, have yielded evidence of an early furnace. Ovens, dating back to the civilization's mature phase (c. 2500-1900 BC), were also excavated at Balakot. Kilns with fire and kiln chambers have also been found at the Kalibangan site.]]

Based on archaeological and textual evidence, Joseph E. Schwartzberg (2008)—a University of Minnesota professor emeritus of geography—traces the origins of Indian cartography to the Indus Valley Civilization (ca. 2500–1900 BCE). Climatic conditions were responsible for the destruction of most of the evidence, however, a number of excavated surveying instruments and measuring rods have yielded convincing evidence of early cartographic activity. Schwartzberg (2008)—on the subject of surviving maps—further holds that: 'Though not numerous, a number of map-like graffiti appear among the thousands of Stone Age Indian cave paintings; and at least one complex Mesolithic diagram is believed to be a representation of the cosmos.'

Archeological evidence of an animal-drawn plough dates back to 2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization. The earliest available swords of copper discovered from the Harappan sites date back to 2300 BCE.

Early kingdoms

Baudhayana (c. 8th century BCE) composed the Baudhayana Sulba Sutra, which contains examples of simple Pythagorean triples, such as: $(3,\; 4,\; 5)$, $(5,\; 12,\; 13)$, $(8,\; 15,\; 17)$, $(7,\; 24,\; 25)$, and $(12,\; 35,\; 37)$ as well as a statement of the Pythagorean theorem for the sides of a square: "The rope which is stretched across the diagonal of a square produces an area double the size of the original square."

The earliest Indian astronomical text—named —dates back to around 1200 BC, and details several astronomical attributes generally applied for timing social and religious events. Since the texts written by 1200 BCE were largely religious compositions the has connections with Indian astrology and details several important aspects of the time and seasons, including lunar months, solar months, and their adjustment by a lunar leap month of Adhimāsa. Ritus and Yugas are also described. Kearns & Nash (2008) state that mention of leprosy is described in the medical treatise Sushruta Samhita (6th century BCE). However, The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the Hindu religious book Atharva-veda, written by 1500–1200 BCE. Cataract surgery was known to the physician Sushruta (6th century BCE). The removal of cataract by surgery was also introduced into China from India. Brahmanic hospitals were established in what is now Sri Lanka as early as 431 BCE.

During the 5th century BCE, the scholar Pāṇini had made several discoveries in the fields of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. Metal currency was minted in India before 5th century BCE, with coinage (400 BCE—100 CE) being made of silver and copper, bearing animal and plant symbols on them.

Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur, Rajasthan, were active during 400 BC. Diverse specimens of swords have been discovered in Fatehgarh, where there are several varieties of hilt. These swords have been variously dated to periods between 1700-1400 BCE, but were probably used more extensively during the opening centuries of the 1st millennium BCE. Archaeological sites in such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements from the period between 1800 BC - 1200 BC. Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BC by employing the method of radio carbon dating. Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BC iron smelting was practiced on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date of the technology's inception may be placed earlier.

Post Maha Janapadas—High Middle Ages

The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions the construction of dams and bridges. The use of suspension bridges using plaited bamboo and iron chain was visible by about the 4th century. The stupa, the precursor of the pagoda and torii, was constructed by the 3rd century BCE. Rock-cut step wells in the region date from 200-400 CE.

During the 1st millennium BCE, the Vaisheshika school of atomism was founded. The most important proponent of this school was Kanada, an Indian philosopher who lived around 200 BCE. The school proposed that atoms are indivisible and eternal, can neither be created nor destroyed, and that each one possesses its own distinct (individuality). It was further elaborated on by the Buddhist school of atomism, of which the philosophers Dharmakirti and Dignāga in the 7th century CE were the most important proponents. They considered atoms to be point-sized, durationless, and made of energy.

By the beginning of the Common Era glass was being used for ornaments and casing in the region. The Satavahana period further reveals short cylinders of composite glass, including those displaying a lemon yellow matrix covered with green glass. Wootz originated in the region before the beginning of the common era. Wootz was exported and traded throughout Europe, China, the Arab world, and became particularly famous in the Middle East, where it became known as Damascus steel. Archaeological evidence suggests that manufacturing process for Wootz was also in existence in South India before the Christian era.

Evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE). Early diamonds used as gemstones originated in India. Golconda served as an important early center for diamond mining and processing. The Arthashastra also mentions diamond trade in the region. The Iron pillar of Delhi was erected at the times of Chandragupta II Vikramaditya (375–413). The Rasaratna Samuccaya (800 AD) explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose. (200–848 CE) ship's hull, built by the ASI, based on a wreck 19 miles off the coast of Poombuhar, displayed in a Museum in Tirunelveli.]]

The origins of the spinning wheel are unclear but India is one of the probable places of its origin. The device certainly reached Europe from India by the 14th century CE. The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as charkhi, the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of the region, driven by water power. This cotton gin was used until further innovations were made in form of foot powered gins. Each mission returned with different results on refining sugar. A description of binary numbers is also found in the works of Pingala. The use of negative numbers was known in early India, and their role in situations like mathematical problems of debt was understood. Consistent rules for working with these numbers were formulated. Other cultures discovered a few features of this number system but the system, in its entirety, was compiled in India, where it attained coherence and completion. The concept of 0 as a number, and not merely a symbol for separation is attributed to India. In India, practical calculations were carried out using zero, which was treated like any other number by the 9th century CE, even in case of division. Conceptual design for a perpetual motion machine by Bhaskara II dates to 1150. He described a wheel that he claimed would run forever.

The trigonometric functions of Sine and 'Versine, from which it was trivial to derive the Cosine, were used by the mathematician, Aryabhata, in the late 5th century. The calculus theorem now known as "Rolle's theorem" was stated by mathematician, Bhāskara II, in the 12th century. In the 12th century, Bhāskara II developed the concept of a derivative and a differential representing infinitesimal change.—written by August 12, 1602—depicts the defeat of Baz Bahadur of Malwa by the Mughal troops, 1561. The Mughals extensively improved metal weapons and armor used by the armies of India.]]

Indigo was used as a dye in India, which was also a major center for its production and processing. The Indigofera tinctoria variety of Indigo was domesticated in India. The woolen shawls from Kashmir region find written mention between 3rd century BC and the 11th century CE. Crystallized sugar was discovered by the time of the Gupta dynasty, and the earliest reference to candied sugar comes from India. Jute was also cultivated in India. Muslin was named after the city where Europeans first encountered it, Mosul, in what is now Iraq, but the fabric actually originated from Dhaka in what is now Bangladesh. In the 9th century, an Arab merchant named Sulaiman makes note of the material's origin in Bengal (known as Ruhml in Arabic). European scholar Francesco I reproduced a number of Indian maps in his magnum opus La Cartografia Antica dell India. Out of these maps, two have been reproduced using a manuscript of Lokaprakasa, originally compiled by the polymath Ksemendra (Kashmir, 11th century CE), as a source. The development of the series expansions for trigonometric functions (sine, cosine, and arc tangent) was carried out by mathematicians of the Kerala School in the 15th century CE.

Shēr Shāh of northern India issued silver currency bearing Islamic motifs, later imitated by the Mughal empire. They were of fine quality and could be exchanged in China for 15 silver coins of four-li weight each. miniature by Mir Sayyid Ali, ca. 1550.]]

It was written in the Tarikh-i Firishta (1606–1607) that the envoy of the Mongol ruler Hulegu Khan was presented with a pyrotechnics display upon his arrival in Delhi in 1258 CE. As a part of an embassy to India by Timurid leader Shah Rukh (1405–1447), 'Abd al-Razzaq mentioned naphtha-throwers mounted on elephants and a variety of pyrotechnics put on display. Firearms known as top-o-tufak also existed in the Vijayanagara Empire by as early as 1366 CE.

In A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, James Riddick Partington describes Indian rockets, mines and other means of gunpowder warfare:

By the 16th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur and Murshidabad. Guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504) and Diu (1533). Gujarāt supplied Europe saltpeter for use in gunpowder warfare during the 17th century. Bengal and Mālwa participated in saltpeter production.

The construction of water works and aspects of water technology in India is described in Arabic and Persian works. The founder of the cashmere wool industry is traditionally held to be the 15th century ruler of Kashmir, Zayn-ul-Abidin, who introduced weavers from Central Asia. The 32 sheet atlas—with maps oriented towards the south as was the case with Islamic works of the era—is part of a larger scholarly work compiled by Isfahani during 1647 CE.

Colonial era

By the end of the 18th century the postal system in the region had reached high levels of efficiency. Later this system underwent modernization with the establishment of the British Raj. The British also constructed a vast railway network in the region for both strategic and commercial reasons.

The British education system, aimed at producing able civil and administrative services candidates, exposed a number of Indians to foreign institutions. Sir Jagadis Chandra Bose (1858–1937), Satyendra Nath Bose (1894–1974), Meghnad Saha (1893–1956), P. C. Mahalanobis (1893–1972), Sir C. V. Raman (1888–1970), Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar (1910–1995), Homi Bhabha (1909–1966), Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887–1920), Vikram Sarabhai (1919–1971), Hargobind Khorana (1922–), and Harish Chandra (1923–1983) were among the notable scholars of this period. Western science came to be associated with the requirements of nation building rather than being viewed entirely as a colonial entity, By the time of India's independence colonial science had assumed importance within the westernized intelligentsia and establishment.

See also

Notes

References

External links

Category:History of science and technology in India