Thomas Mann (1875–1955) belonged to a family of the Hanseatic League, which he portrayed in the novel Buddenbrooks (1901) about the decadent German bourgeoisie.

In sociology and in political science, the noun bourgeoisie (Fr.: [ˈbuʁʒwazi] | Eng.: /bʊərʒwɑːˈziː/) and the adjective bourgeois are terms that describe an historical range of socio-economic classes. As such, in the Western world, since the late 18th century, the bourgeoisie describes a social class “characterized by their ownership of capital, and their related culture”; hence, the personal terms bourgeois (masculine) and bourgeoise (feminine) culturally identify the man or woman who is a member of the wealthiest social class in capitalist societies.^[1]

In contemporary academic theories, the term bourgeoisie usually refers to the ruling class in capitalist societies. In Marxist theory, the abiding characteristics of this class are their ownership of the means of production.^[2]

Etymology[link]

In Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (1670), the 17th-century French playwright Molière (1622–73) catalogued the social-class essence of the bourgeoisie. (Portrait by Nicolas Mignard, 1658)

The Modern French word bourgeois derived from the Old French burgeis (walled city), which derived from bourg (market town), from the Old Frankish burg (town); in other European languages, the etymologic derivations are the Middle English burgeis, the Middle Dutch burgher, the German Bürger (burgess), and the Polish burżuazja, which occasionally is synonymous with “the intelligentsia”.^[3] In English, “bourgeoisie” (a French citizen-class) identified a social class oriented to economic materialism and hedonism, and to upholding the extreme political and economic interests of the capitalist class ruling class.^[4] In the 18th century, before the French Revolution (1789–99), in the French feudal order, the masculine and feminine terms bourgeois and bourgeoise identified the rich men and women who were members of the urban and rural Third Estate — the common people of the French realm, who violently deposed the absolute monarchy of the Bourbon King Louis XVI (r. 1774–91), his clergy, and his aristocrats. Hence, since the 19th century, the term “bourgeoisie” usually is politically and sociologically synonymous with the ruling upper class of a capitalist society.^[5]

Historically, the mediæval French word bourgeois denoted the inhabitants of the bourgs (walled market-towns), the craftsmen, artisans, merchants, and others, who constituted the bourgeoisie, they were the socio-economic class between the peasants and the landlords, between the workers and the owners of the means of production. Resultantly, as the economic managers of the (raw) materials, the goods, and the services, and thus the capital (money) produced by the feudal economy, the term “bourgeoisie” evolved to also denote “the middle class” — the businessmen and businesswomen who accumulated, administered, and controlled the capital that made possible the development of the bourgs into cities.^[6]

Contemporarily, the terms “bourgeoisie” and “bourgeois” identify the ruling class in capitalist societies, as a social stratum; whilst “bourgeois” describes the Weltanschauung (worldview) of men and women whose way of thinking is socially and culturally determined by their economic materialism and philistinism, a social identity catalogued and described in drame bourgeois (bourgeois drama), which satirizes buying the trappings of a noble-birth identity as the means climbing the social ladder.^[7][8] (See: Le Bourgeois gentilhomme, 1670)

History[link]

The 16th century German banker Jacob Fugger and his principal accountant, M. Schwarz, registering an entry to a ledger. The background shows a file cabinet indicating the European cities where the Fugger Banker conducts business. (1517)

Origins and rise

In the 11th century, the bourgeoisie emerged as an historical and political phenomenon, when the bourgs of Central and Western Europe developed into cities dedicated to commerce. The organised economic concentration that made possible such urban expansion derived from the protective self-organisation into guilds, which became necessary when individual businessmen (craftsmen, artisans, merchants, et alii) conflicted with their rent-seeking feudal landlords who demanded greater-than-agreed rents. In the event, by the end of the Middle Ages (ca. AD 1500), under régimes of the early national monarchies of Western Europe, the bourgeoisie acted in self-interest, and politically supported the king or the queen against the legal and financial disorder caused by the greed of the feudal lords. In the late-16th and early 17-th centuries, the bourgeoisies of England and the Netherlands had become the financial — and thus political — forces that deposed the feudal order; economic power had vanquished military power in the realm of politics.^[9]

From progress to reaction

During the 17th and 18th centuries, the bourgeoisie were the politically progressive social class who supported the principles of constitutional government and of natural right, against the Law of Privilege and the claims of rule by divine right that the nobles and prelates had autonomously exercised during the feudal order. The motivations for the English Civil War (1642–51), the American War of Independence (1775–83), and French Revolution (1789–99) partly derived from the desire of the bourgeoisie to rid themselves of the feudal trammels and royal encroachments upon their personal liberty, commercial rights, and the ownership of property. In the 19th century, the bourgeoisie propounded liberalism, and gained political rights, religious rights, and civil liberties for themselves and the lower social classes; thus was the bourgeoisie then a progressive philosophic and political force in modern Western societies.

By the middle of the 19th century, subsequent to the Industrial Revolution (1750–1850), the great expansion of the bourgeoisie social class caused its self-stratification — by business activity and by economic function — into the haute bourgeoisie (bankers and industrialists) and the petite bourgeoisie (tradesmen and white-collar workers). Moreover, by the end of the 19th century, the capitalists (the original bourgeoisie) had ascended to the upper class (people whose money works for them), whilst the developments of technology and the technical occupations thereby engendered, allowed the ascension of working-class men and women to the lower strata of the bourgeoisie; yet the social progress was incidental. In the event, despite its initial philosophic progressivism — from feudalism to liberalism to capitalism — like all ruling political establishments, the bourgeoisie social class (haute and petite) became reactionary in their refusal to allow the ascendance (economic, social, political) of people from the proletariat (peasants and urban workers) in order to remain predominant, as the political Establishment of their society.^[10]

Denotations[link]

The 19th-century German intellectual K.H. Marx (1818–83) identified and described the bourgeoisie as an economic class of great societal influence.

The dictatorship of the bourgeoisie

In the Middle Ages (AD 500–1500), the bourgeois usually was a self-employed businessman — proprietor, merchant, banker, entrepreneur, et alii — whose economic role in society was being the financial intermediary to the feudal landlord and the peasant who worked the fief, the land of the lord. Yet, by the 18th century, the time of the Industrial revolution (1750–1850) and of industrial capitalism, the bourgeoisie had become the economic ruling class who owned the means of production (capital and land), and who controlled the means of coercion (armed forces and legal system, police forces and prison system). In such a society, the bourgeoisie’s ownership of the means of production enabled their employment and exploitation of the wage-earning working class (urban and rural), people whose sole economic means is labour; and the bourgeois control of the means of coercion suppressed the socio-political challenges of the lower classes, and so preserved the economic status quo; workers remained workers, and employers remained employers.^[11]

In the 19th century, the German economist Karl Marx distinguished two types of bourgeois capitalist: (i) the functional capitalist, the business administrator of the means of production; and (ii) the rentier capitalist whose livelihood derives either from the rent of property or from the interest-income produced by finance capital, or both.^[12] In the course of economic relations, the working class and the bourgeoisie continually engage in class struggle, wherein the capitalists exploit the workers, whilst the workers resist their economic exploitation, which occurs because the worker owns no means of production, and, to earn a living, he or she seeks employment from the bourgeois capitalist; the worker produces goods and services that are property of the employer, who sells them for a price. The money generated by the sale of the goods and services yields three sums (i) the wages of the worker, (ii) the costs of production, and (iii) profit (surplus value). Thereby, the capitalist profits (makes extra money) by selling the surplus value of the labour of the workers; hence is new wealth created through work.

Besides describing the social class who own the means of production, the Marxist usage of the term “bourgeois” also describes the consumerist style of life derived from the ownership of capital and real property. As an economist Karl Marx acknowledged the bourgeois industriousness that created wealth, yet criticised the moral hypocrisy of the bourgeoisie when they ignored the true origins of their wealth — the exploitation of the proletariat, the urban and rural workers. Further sense denotations of “bourgeois” describe ideologic concepts such as “bourgeois freedom”, which is opposed to substantive forms of freedom; “bourgeois independence”; “bourgeois personal individuality”; the “bourgeois family”; et cetera, all derived from owning capital and property. (See: The Communist Manifesto, 1848)

The state bourgeoisie

In the 20th century, communist states developed the nomenklatura, a state bourgeoisie constituted by the bureaucrats who administrated the country’s government, industry, agriculture, education, system of state capitalism, et cetera. Moreover, anarchism occasionally describes all important state leaders and functionaries as part of the state bourgeoisie who control the private and public means of production in a state.^{[citation needed]}

Modern history[link]

Fascist Italy

The Italian fascist régime (1922–45) of Prime Minister Benito Mussolini regarded the bourgeoisie as an obstacle to Modernism in aid to transforming Italian society.^[13] Nonetheless, despite such intellectual and social hostility, the Fascist State ideologically exploited the Italian bourgeoisie and their materialistic, middle-class spirit, for the more efficient cultural manipulation of the upper (aristocratic) and the lower (working) classes of Italy. In 1938, Prime Minister Mussolini gave a speech wherein he established a clear ideological distinction between capitalism (the social function of the bourgeoisie) and the bourgeoisie (as a social class), whom he dehumanized by reducing them into high-level abstractions: a moral category and a state of mind.^[13] Culturally and philosophically, Mussolini isolated the bourgeoisie from Italian society by portraying them as social parasites upon the Fascist Italian State and “The People”; as a social class who drained the human potential of Italian society, in general, and of the working class, in particular; as exploiters who victimized the Italian nation with an approach to life characterised by hedonism and materialism.^[13] Nevertheless, despite the slogan The Fascist Man Disdains the «Comfortable» Life, which epitomized the anti-bourgeois principle, in its final years of power, for mutual benefit and profit, the Mussolini Fascist régime transcended ideology in order to merge the political and financial interests of Prime Minister Benito Mussolini with the political and financial interests of the bourgeoisie, the Catholic social circles who constituted the ruling class of Italy.

The fascists argued that as a materialist creature, the bourgeois man was against religion. To establish a distinction between the supernatural faith of the Roman Catholic Church and the materialist faith of temporal religion, in The Autarchy of Culture: Intellectuals and Fascism in the 1930s, the priest Giuseppe Marino said that:

Christianity is essentially anti-bourgeois . . . A Christian, a true Christian, and thus a Catholic, is the opposite of a bourgeois.^[14]

In Bonifica antiborghese (1939), Roberto Paravese claimed that the:

Middle class, middle man, incapable of great virtue or great vice: and there would be nothing wrong with that, if only he would be willing to remain as such; but, when his child-like or feminine tendency to camouflage pushes him to dream of grandeur, honours, and thus riches, which he cannot achieve honestly with his own “second-rate” powers, then the average man compensates with cunning, schemes, and mischief; he kicks out ethics, and becomes a bourgeois.

The bourgeois is the average man who does not accept to remain such, and who, lacking the strength sufficient for the conquest of essential values — those of the spirit — opts for material ones, for appearances.^[15]

The economic security, financial freedom, and social mobility of the bourgeoisie threatened the philosophic integrity of Italian Fascism, the ideologic monolith that was the régime of Prime Minister Benito Mussolini. Any assumption of legitimate political power (government and rule) by the bourgeoisie represented a Fascist loss of totalitarian State power for social control through political unity — one people, one nation, one leader. Sociologically, to the fascist man, to become a bourgeois was a character flaw inherent to the masculine mystique; therefore, the ideology of Italian Fascism scornfully defined the bourgeois man as “spiritually castrated”.^[15]

Bourgeois culture[link]

The bourgeoisie in theatre, literature, and cinema

The comedy-ballet play Le Bourgeois gentilhomme (The Would-be Gentleman, 1670) by Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin) satirized the nouveau riche businessman who buys his way up the social-class scale, in order to realise his aspirations of becoming a gentleman, someone who, in 17th-century France, was a man born to the social-class role, not a self-made social climber. The prototype bourgeois is Monsieur Jourdain, the protagonist who studies dancing, fencing, and philosophy, the trappings and accomplishments of a gentleman, in order to pose as a man of noble birth.^[16][17]

Buddenbrooks (1901), by Thomas Mann (1875–1955), chronicles the moral decay of a rich family through its declines, material and spiritual, in the course of four generations, beginning with the patriarch Johann Buddenbrook Sr. and his son, Johann Buddenbrook Jr., who are typically successful German businessmen; each is a reasonable man of solid character. Yet, in the children of Buddenbrook Jr., the materially comfortable style of life provided by the dedication to solid, middle-class values elicits decadence: The fickle daughter, Toni, lacks and seeks no purpose in life; son Christian is honestly decadent, and lives the life of a ne’er-do-well; and the businessman son, Thomas, who assumes command of the Buddenbrook family fortune, occasionally falters from middle-class solidity by being interested in art and philosophy, the impractical life of the mind, which, to the bourgeoisie, is the epitome of social, moral, and material decadence.^[18][19][20]

Babbitt (1922), by Sinclair Lewis (1885–1951), satirizes the American bourgeois George Follansbee Babbitt, a middle-aged realtor, booster, and joiner in the Midwestern city of Zenith, who — despite being unimaginative, self-important, and hopelessly conformist and middle-class — is aware that there must more to life than money and the consumption of the best things that money can buy. Nevertheless, he fears being excluded from the mainstream of society more than he does living for himself, by being true to himself; thus, his heart-felt flirtations with independence, dabbling in liberal politics and a love affair with a pretty widow, come to nought, because he is afraid. Yet, Babbitt sublimates his desire for self-respect and does encourage his son to rebel against the conformity that results from bourgeois prosperity, by recommending that he be true to himself: “Don’t be scared of the family. No, nor all of Zenith. Nor of yourself, the way I’ve been.”^[21]

The cinema of the Spanish director Luis Buñuel (1900–83) examines and analyses the bourgeois mentality and the life it provides for its practitioners:

• L’Âge d’or (The Golden Age, 1930) illustrates the madness and self-destructive hypocrisy of bourgeois sciety.

• Le charme discret de la bourgeoisie (The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie, 1972) explores the timidity instilled by middle-class values.

• Cet obscur objet du désir (That Obscure Object of Desire, 1977) illuminates the practical self-deceptions required for buying love as marriage.^[22][23]

The pejorative “bourgeois”

In the U.S., beyond the realms of political economy, history, and political science, the sociological terms bourgeois and bourgeoise are colloquially applied to describe the social stereotype of the nouveau riche man and woman who is a politically timid conformist who is satisfied with a wealthy, consumerist style of life that is characterised by conspicuous consumption and continual striving for prestige.^[24][25]

See also[link]

• Beurgeois (rich French Muslims of North-African descent)
• Bildungsbürgertum
• Burgess
• Conspicuous consumption
• Conspicuous leisure
• Cultural hegemony
• Economic stratification
• Gemütlichkeit
• Great Burgher
• Habitus (sociology)
• Homo economicus
• Occupational prestige
• Political class
• Rational-legal authority
• Social environment
• Social structure of the United Kingdom
• The Theory of the Leisure Class: An Economic Study of Institutions (1899)

References[link]

Further reading[link]

• Burton J. Bledstein and Robert D. Johnston (eds.), The Middling Sorts: Explorations in the History of the American Middle Class. Routledge. 2001.
• David Brooks, Bobos In Paradise: The New Upper Class and How They Got There. Simon & Schuster. 2001.
• Frank J. Byrne, Becoming Bourgeois: Merchant Culture in the South, 1820-1865. University Press of Kentucky. 2006.
• Margaret R. Hunt, The Middling Sort: Commerce, Gender, and the Family in England, 1680–1780. University of California Press. 1996.
• Marsha Kinder (ed.), Luis Buñuel's The Discreet Charm of the Bourgeoisie. Cambridge University Press. 1999.
• David Lockwood, Cronies or Capitalists? The Russian Bourgeoisie and the Bourgeois Revolution from 1850 to 1917. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2009.
• Molière, and Frederick Morris Warren (ed.), Molière's Le bourgeois gentilhomme. D.C. Heath & Co. 1899. (full text)
• Jerrold Seigel, Bohemian Paris: Culture, Politics, and the Boundaries of Bourgeois Life, 1830–1930. The Johns Hopkins University Press. 1999.
• Robert W. Stern, Changing India: Bourgeois Revolution on the Subcontinent. Cambridge University Press. 2nd edition, 2003.

External links[link]

Look up bourgeoisie in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Bourgeoisie

• The Democratic State – A Critique of Bourgeois Sovereignty

Jacques Brel
Jacques Brel (1955)
Background information
Birth name	Jacques Romain Georges Brel
Born	(1929-04-08)8 April 1929 Schaarbeek, Belgium
Died	9 October 1978(1978-10-09) (aged 49) Bobigny, France
Genres	Chanson
Occupations	Singer-songwriter, Actor
Years active	1953–1978
Labels	Philips Records Barclay Records Barclay/Universal
Website	www.jacquesbrel.be

Jacques Brel (French pronunciation: [ʒak bʁɛl]; 8 April 1929 – 9 October 1978) was a Belgian singer-songwriter who composed and performed literate, thoughtful, and theatrical songs that generated a large, devoted following in France initially, and later throughout the world. He was widely considered a master of the modern chanson.^[1] Although he recorded most of his songs in French, he became a major influence on English-speaking songwriters and performers such as David Bowie, Leonard Cohen, and Rod McKuen. English translations of his songs were recorded by many top performers in the United States, including Ray Charles, Judy Collins, John Denver, the Kingston Trio, Nina Simone, Frank Sinatra, Scott Walker, and Andy Williams.^[2] In French-speaking countries, Brel was also a successful actor, appearing in ten films. He also directed two films, one of which, Le Far West, was nominated for the Palme d'Or at the Cannes Film Festival in 1973.^[3] Jacques Brel has sold over 25 million records worldwide, and is the third best-selling Belgian recording artist of all time.

Early life[link]

Jacques Romain Georges Brel was born on 8 April 1929 in Schaarbeek, Brussels, Belgium to Romain Brel and Elisabeth Lambertine Brel. Although his family spoke French, they were of Flemish descent, with some of the family originating from Zandvoorde, near Ypres. His father worked in an import-export firm, and later became co-director of a company that manufactured cardboard. Jacques and his older brother Pierre grew up in an austere environment, attending a Catholic primary school run by the Saint-Viateur Brothers. They were also members of the local Cub Scouts troop. The family lived at 138 Avenue du Diamant in Schaerbeek, one of the 19 Brussels communes. Jacques was close to his mother, fascinated by her generosity and sense of humor, which he inherited.^[4]

In 1941, his parents enrolled Jacques at the Saint-Louis College, at rue du Marais, near the Botanical Garden of Brussels. Although he did poorly in many subjects, he showed a talent for writing. He helped set up the Saint-Louis College Drama Club, and took on his first stage roles with great enthusiasm. He wrote short stories, poems, and essays.^[5] In 1944, at the age of 15, Jacques began playing the guitar.^[2] The following year, he formed his own theatre group with friends and began writing plays.^[6]

Brel was never a good student, failing many of his exams. In August 1947, at the age of 18, Jacques went to work at his father's cardboard factory. To offset the boredom of his daily office routine, he joined a local Catholic youth organization, La Franche Cordée, which was dedicated to philanthropic work. In 1948, Brel also enrolled for part-time military service. By 1949, Brel became president of La Franche Cordée, and produced a number of benefit plays for the organization, including Saint Exupéry's Le Petit Prince.^[6]

While working at La Franche Cordée, Brel met his future wife, Thérèse Michielsen, known to her friends as Miche. On 1 June 1950, Jacques and Miche were married at Laeken, a Brussels commune. On 6 December 1951, Miche gave birth to their first daughter, Chantal.^[6][4]

In 1952, Brel began writing songs and performing them at family gatherings and in Brussels' cabaret circuit. His family and friends were not supportive of Brel's stark lyrics and violent, emotional performances. That year he performed on a local radio station for the first time.^[7]

Music career[link]

1953–1959[link]

In January 1953, Brel performed at the cabaret La Rose Noire in Brussels. In February he signed a contract with Philips Records and recorded his first 78 rpm record, "La foire" (The Fair), which was released in March.^[8] The talent scout and artistic director at the record company, Jacques Canetti, invited Brel to move to Paris. Despite his family's objections and the added pressure of raising a second daughter, France, born on 12 July,^[4] Brel left Brussels for Paris in the fall of 1953.^[7]

In Paris, Brel worked hard to get his career off the ground. He stayed at the Hotel Stevens and gave guitar lessons to artist-dancer Francesco Frediani to pay his rent. He found work on the cabaret circuit at venues such as L'Ecluse, L'Echelle de Jacob, and in Jacques Canetti's cabaret Les Trois Baudets.^[7]

In 1954, Brel competed in the music contest Grand Prix de la Chanson in Knokke-le-Zoute, finishing a disappointing 27th out of 28 participants. One positive result of the experience was that the French star Juliette Gréco requested to sing one of Brel's songs, "Ça va le diable" (There goes the devil), at her upcoming concert at the prestigious Olympia music-hall.^[6] She went on to record the song that spring.^[5] In July 1954, Brel made his first appearance at the prestigious Olympia Theatre in Paris. Later that summer, Brel embarked on his first French tour, appearing on the bill with French singers Dario Moreno, Philippe Clay, and Catherine Sauvage.^[7] By the end of the year, Philips released his debut album, a nine-song, 10-inch LP called Jacques Brel et ses Chansons (Jacques Brel and his songs).^[8]

In February 1955, Brel met Georges Pasquier (known as Jojo) who would become the singer's closest friend, manager, and personal chauffeur. He began singing with a number of Christian associations, which later led to his being called, "Abbé Brel".^[7] In March, Brel's wife and children joined him in France and the family settled in the Paris suburb of Montreuil-sous-Bois at the rue du Moulin à Vent. In June, Brel toured France again with Canetti's show Les Filles de Papa, which included Françoise Dorin, Perrette Souplex, and Suzanne Gabriello.^[5]

In March 1956, Brel performed in North Africa, Amsterdam, Lausanne, and throughout Belgium.^[4] In July, while visiting Grenoble, Brel met François Rauber, a classical pianist who would become his accompanist on future recordings. Rauber played a major role in providing Brel with the formal musical training he was lacking, and was responsible for Brel's musical arrangements.^[6] In September, Brel recorded "Quand on n'a que l'amour" (When you only have love), which would prove to be his commercial breakthrough. The song was released in November on a Philips 7-inch EP Quand on n'a que l'amour. The song reached number three on the French music charts.^[2]

In February 1957, Brel performed at the Alhambra Theatre with Maurice Chevalier, Michel Legrand, and ballet dancer Zizi Jeanmaire. In April, Brel released his second studio album, Quand on n'a que l'amour, which contained the popular title song.^[6][4] The album was recorded at the Théâtre de l'Apollo in Paris, with André Popp and Michel Legrand conducting.^[9] In June, Brel won the prestigious Grand Prix du Disque from the Académie Charles Cros. In September, he appeared on the bill in the Discorama programmme Au Palace d'Avignon with Raymond Devos, Pierre-Jean Vaillard, and Les Trois Ménestrels. And in November, Brel met pianist Gérard Jouannest, another talented pianist, who would accompany the singer on his many concert tours. Brel and Jouannest would also collaborate on many of Brel's future classic songs, such as "Madeleine", "La chanson des vieux amants" (Song of the old lovers), and "Les vieux" (The old ones).^[4]

In February 1958, Brel's wife Miche and their two children returned to live in Belgium, while Brel rented a room near Place de Clichy in Paris—a place to stay on those rare occasions when he was not touring. In March and April, Brel recorded his third album, Au Printemps (In the spring), which would be released later that year. In May, while touring Canada for the first time, Brel met Félix Leclerc. On August 23, Brel's third daughter, Isabelle, was born back in Belgium. In November, Brel gave a recital at the Halles d'Arlon in Belgian Luxembourg with Stéphane Steeman. And in December, Brel appeared at the Olympia in Paris as the supporting act to Philippe Clay. The pianist Gérard Jouannest and François Rauber joined Brel on stage for this performance.^[4] Brel's incredibly emotional performance brought the house down.^[6]

In January 1959, Brel signed a new recording contract with Philips Records. He continued to tour extensively throughout the year. On 22 February, Brel performed at the Bolivie Gala in the Solvay Casino in Couillet. In March, he starred at the Trois Baudets with Serge Gainsbourg. In September, Brel recorded his fourth album, La Valse à Mille Temps (The waltz a thousand times as fast), with François Rauber and his orchestra. On 14 October, he appears at the Eden in Mouscron with Raymond Devos. On 20 November, he sang with Charles Aznavour at the Ancienne Belgique in Brussels.^[5] At the close of the decade, Brel had gained an impressive and enthusiastic following across France. He was so popular that he was invited to headline the end-of-year concert at the renowned Bobino Cabaret in Paris. The concert was an enormous success. During these appearances, Brel stopped accompanying himself on the guitar in order to concentrate entirely on his increasingly theatrical vocal performances.^[7]

1960–1967[link]

In January 1960, Brel's new impressario, Charles Marouani, organised a series of international concert tours for the singer that would take him from the French provinces to the then Soviet Union, the Middle East, Canada, and the United States. From 19-24 March, he appeared at the Ancienne Belgique in Brussels. On 19 October, he performed at the Shepheard's Hotel in Cairo. The year's concert tours brought him international recognition and popularity.^[7][5] His appearances initiated the first United States release of a Jacques Brel recording, American Début, released on Columbia Records. It was a compilation of previously-released Philips tracks.^[8]

In January 1961, Brel made a triumphant return to the Bobino Theatre. By now, accordionist Jean Corti had joined Brel's touring group. Between 22 February and 12 April, he recorded his fifth album for Philips simply titled, No. 5, which introduced the future Brel classics "Marieke" and "Le moribond" (The dying man).^[6] In March, Brel toured Canada again. In Montreal, he met French actress and singer Clairette Oddera at her club on the rue Saint-Jacques. They would become good friends. While in Montreal, Brel appears with Raymond Devos at La Comédie Canadienne.^[4] In May, Brel performed at the Kurhaus of Scheveningen in The Hague in the Netherlands. From 12-29 October, Brel returned to the Olympia Theatre in Paris with star billing, after Marlene Dietrich cancelled at the last minute. Many critics point to these inspired performances as the turning point in Brel's career. The audiences responded with rapturous applause, and the critics proclaimed him as the new star of French chanson.^[6]

In March 1962, Brel left Philips Records and signed a five-year contract with Barclay Records. The contract would be renewed in 1967 for another six years. His first album release for his new label was a live album, Enregistrement Public à l'Olympia 1961, recorded the previous year.^[8] On 6 March, he recorded his first song for Barclay, "Le plat pays" (The flat country). During the second week of March, he recorded the remaining tracks for his sixth studio album, Les Bourgeois (The middle class). In addition to the title song and "Le plat pays", the new album contained the future Brel classics "Madeleine", "Les biches" (The does), and "La statue" (The statue).^[10] In October, Brel set up his own music publishing company, Arlequin, which was soon renamed Editions Musicales Pouchenel. Brel's wife Miche was appointed company director.^[7] In November, he recorded "Les Bigotes", "Quand maman reviendra" (When mother returns), "Filles et les chiens" (Girls and dogs), and "La Parlote" as singles.^[5]

In April 1963, Brel performed at the Bobino in Paris. In July, he headlined at the Casino in Knokke for the fifth Coupe d'Europe de Tour de Chant. During this engagement, he performed the classic "Mathilde" for the first time.^[5] Brel also returned for another triumphant engagement at the Olympia Theatre in Paris, performing with Isabelle Aubret, who was the support act. Once again, Brel's performance was a critical and artistic success, with the audience leaping up from their seats in a standing ovation following Brel's emotional rendering of "Amsterdam".^[5]

The year 1964 brought a mix of personal tragedies and professional triumphs. On 8 January, Brel's father Romain died of bronchial pneumonia. Only two months later, on 7 March, his mother Elisabeth (nicknamed Mouky) also died. At the same time, he was given the Gold Medal of Brussels from the Tourist Information Bureau, and won a prize from the Société d’Auteurs Belge / Belgische Auteurs Maatschappij (SABAM). He was also awarded the French Academy's Grand Prix du Disque. Brel continued his ambitious touring schedule. By the end of the year, he released a new live album, Enregistrement Public à l'Olympia 1964.^[11] That year, Brel discovered a new passion, aviation. After taking flying lessons with Paul Lepanse, he purchased a small plane.^[12] In the United States, Brel's audience was growing. American poet and singer Rod McKuen began translating Brel's songs into English, and the Kingston Trio recorded one of his English versions on their Time to Think album, "Seasons in the Sun", based on Brel's "Le moribond" (The dying one).^[13]

Drawing of Jacques Brel by Reginald Gray (1965)

In 1965, Reprise Records licensed tracks from Barclay for a United States album titled Jacques Brel.^[13] On 25 March, Brel performed at the Kurhaus of Scheveningen in the Netherlands. In October, he completed a successful five-week tour of the former Soviet Union, which included a week's engagement at the Estrada Theatre in Moscow. On 6 November, he was back in France, recording the songs "Fernand", "Les désespérés" (The despaired), and "Ces gens-là" (Those people) for Barclay. On 4 December, he appeared at the prestigious Carnegie Hall in New York City. His performance was received with high public and critical acclaim.^[11]

By 1966, Brel had grown increasingly weary of his gruelling concert schedules. In April, he toured Jibouti, Madagascar, Reunion Island, and Mauritius. On 21 August, while on tour in Vittel, he revealed to his musicians his decision to retire from touring.^[12] In subsequent public statements, Brel stated that he had nothing more to give to the music world, and that he wanted to devote more time to other projects.^[11] In October 1966, Brel gave a series of farewell concerts at the Olympia in Paris. Thousands of devoted fans flocked to see these final performances, which took place over the course of three weeks. On 1 November, he gave his final concert at the Olympia. After a highly emotional and stunning performance, the audience's standing ovations prompted Brel to return to the stage seven times for his final bows.^[11] Brel spent the next six months fulfilling his concert commitments. On 15 November, he gave his farewell performance at the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Brussels. Later that month, he gave his final UK performance at the Royal Albert Hall in London. During these last months of his world tour, many of Brel's close friends, including Charles Aznavour, urged him to reconsider his decision to retire from singing, but Brel was adamant about his decision.^[11] On 4 December, Brel returned to Carnegie Hall in New York City and gave inspired performances before enthusiastic fans. By then, several English recordings of his songs were on the charts, including Damita Jo's "If You Go Away", based on "Ne me quitte pas", Judy Collins' "The Dove", based on "La colombe", and Glenn Yarbrough's "The Women", based on "Les biches".^[13]

In January 1967, Brel finished recording songs for a new studio album, Jacques Brel 67, which was released later in the year. The album included "Mon enfance" (My childhood), "Fils de..." (Sons of...), "Les bonbons 67" (The candies 67), and "La chanson des vieux amants" (Song of the old lovers).^[10] In late January, Brel returned to Carnegie Hall and gave one final performance. While in New York, he went to see Man of La Mancha, a musical based on Cervantes's novel Don Quixote, at the ANTA Washington Square Theatre in Greenwich Village. Moved by the experience, he began planning a French language production of the musical for Europe. Brel returned to France in the spring, and on 16 May 1967, he gave his final concert performance in the town of Roubaix in northern France.^[13][11] Toward the end of the year, with vague plans of sailing around the world, Brel purchased a yacht.^[12]

1968–1972[link]

Following his retirement from the concert stage, the focus of Jacques Brel's professional life was on film. He would record only four more studio albums in the last decade of his life. In September 1968, Brel recorded the songs for the album, J'arrive (I arrived), which would be released later in the year. In addition to the title song, the album included "Vesoul", "Je suis un soir d’été" (I am a summer's eve), and "Un enfant" (A child). In October 1968, Brel's L'Homme de La Mancha (Man of La Mancha) premièred in Brussels, with Brel playing Don Quixote and Dario Moreno playing Sancho Panza. Moreno would die tragically only ten days before the musical's Paris première.^[14] From 23-27 November, Brel and his fellow cast-members recorded the studio album, L'Homme de la Mancha. Brel adapted the book, translated the lyrics, directed the production, and played the lead role. This was the only time he ever adapted songs by other writers or appeared in a stage musical. The album contains Brel's classic performance of "La quête" (The quest). Moreno was replaced by Robert Manuel, and the first performance at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées in Paris went ahead as planned on 11 December 1968.^[15] Brel's performance received unanimous praise. After 150 performances of L'Homme de La Mancha, Brel gave his final performance in the role of Don Quixote on 17 May 1969. He was never replaced.^[14]

In 1972, Brel signed a special 30-year contract with Barclay Records. Although there were no new songs to record, Barclay persuaded Brel to return to the studio to rerecord eleven of the better-known songs he cut for Philips Records during the early years of his music career. The result was the album Ne me quitte pas (Don't leave me), which contained the title track, "Marieke", "Les Flamandes" (Flemish women), "Quand on a que l’amour" (When you only have love), "Les biches" (The does), "Le moribond" (The dying one), "La valse à mille temps" (The waltz a thousand times as fast), and "Je ne sais pas" (I don't know). Brel's earlier youthful energy was now lovingly harnessed by his long-time colleagues, arranger Francois Raubert and pianist Gerard Jouannest.^[16][14]

Film career[link]

In 1967, Brel began his film career appearing in André Cayatte's Les risques du métier (Risky Business), co-starring Emmanuelle Riva, Jacques Harden, and Nadine Alari. Brel also produced the soundtrack with François Rauber. The film tells the story of a teenage girl who accuses her primary schoolteacher, Jean Doucet (Brel), of trying to rape her. The police and the mayor investigate, but Doucet denies the charges. Two other students come forward to reveal more of Doucet's misconduct — one confessing to be his mistress. Doucet faces trial and hard labour if convicted. The film was released on 21 December 1967. Film critics praised Brel's performance.^[17][18]

In 1968, Brel appeared in his second film, La bande à Bonnot (Bonnot's Gang), directed by Philippe Fourastié, and co-starring Annie Girardot and Bruno Cremer. Once again, Brel produced the soundtrack with François Rauber. The story is set in 1911 Paris . Raymond-la-science (Brel), an anarchist, is released from prison after serving a sentence for spreading agitation among his co-workers. He meets up with his friends who live together with their families in the villa of their political leader. They get involved with the notorious Bonnot Gang — gangsters who revolt against society by robbing, stealing, and killing. The film was released on 30 October 1968.^[17][19]

In 1969, Brel appeared in his third film, Mon oncle Benjamin (My Uncle Benjamin), directed by Édouard Molinaro, and co-starring Claude Jade and Bernard Blier. He also produced the soundtrack. The film is period piece, set in 1750 during the time of Louis XV. Benjamin (Brel) is a country doctor in love with the beautiful innkeeper's daughter, Manette, but she refuses his advances until he produces a marriage contract. After suffering a humiliating practical joke and condemned to prison, Benjamin escapes with Manette, who realizes she prefers happiness to a marriage contract after all. The film was released 28 November 1969.^[17][20]

In 1970, Brel appeared in his fourth feature film, Mont-Dragon, directed by Jean Valère and co-starring François Prévost, Paul le Person and Catherine Rouvel,with a screen play by Robert Margerit. The story involves a soldier, Georges Dormond (Brel), who seduces Germaine de Boismesnil and is subsequently driven out of the army by one of Germaine's friends who is a colonel. After Germaine's husband dies, Dormond returns to the widow's castle seeking revenge. After seducing Pierrette the maid, he reminds Germaine of their past love affair and arranges a meeting with the widow, at which he underdresses her, humiliates her, and then leaves. The orphan Marthe, who witnesses the scene, throws herself at Gaston, the colonel's orderly, to avenge her mother. Georges ridicules their feelings and forces Germaine to reveal her attachment to Pierrette, thereby causing a scandal. The film was released 16 December 1970.^[17][21]

In 1971, Brel appeared in his fifth feature film, Franz, the first film he directed. Brel also co-wrote the screenplay with Paul Andréota, and produced the soundtrack with François Rauber. The film co-starred Barbara, Danièle Evenou, Fernand Fabre, Serge Sauvions, Louis Navarre, Jacques Provins, and François Cadet. The film is about Léon (Brel) and Léonie (Barbara), who meet in a convalescent home for state employees in Blankenberge: Catherine (Danièle Evenou) is Léonie's friend. Léonie is shy and reserved while Catherine is loose and flirtatious. Most men are attracted to her vitality, but Léon is the exception. Léonie is intrigued by Léon's secretive personality. She gradually becomes attracted to his clumsy behaviour and they fall in love. The other residents, amused by this unlikely love affair, decide to obstruct their relationship which drives Léon to suicide. The film was released on 2 February 1972, and although praised by the critics, it was not a commercial success.^[17][22][14]

In 1971, Brel appeared in his sixth feature film, Les assassins de l'ordre (Law Breakers), directed by Marcel Carné and co-starring Paola Pitagora, Catherine Rouvel, and Charles Denner. Brel plays Bernard Level, a provincial judge, who presides over a delicate case. A man who was arrested for a minor crime died during police questioning. When Level decides to prosecute the policemen and initiates an investigation, he receives threats and intimidation from those wanting to stop the investigation. The film was released on 7 May 1971.^[17][23][14]

In 1972, Brel appeared in his seventh feature film, L'aventure, c'est l'aventure (Adventure, is adventure), directed by Claude Lelouch. The story follows five crooks who decide to switch from bank robbery to political kidnapping. Among their first hostages is singer Johnny Hallyday. The film was released 4 May 1972, and became a huge box office smash. While filming L'aventure c'est l'aventure on location in the Caribbean, Brel met and fell in love with a young actress and dancer by the name of Madly Bamy. Brel would spend the final years of his life with her.^[14][17][24]

In 1972, Brel appeared in his eighth feature film, Le bar de la fourche (The Bar at the Crossing), directed by Alain Levent, and co-starred Rosy Varte and Isabelle Huppert. Brel plays Vincent Van Horst, a hard-drinking bon viveur ho loves his freedom and his women. He leaves Europe in 1916, which is torn apart by the war, and moves to Canada, intending to meet up with Maria, the only woman he ever loved. On the way to Canada, he meets a young boy who dreams about fighting in the European war. When Vincent arrives at the Bar de la Fourche, managed by Maria, he finds her looking older. He finds consolation in another woman, Annie, who looks down on him and drives Vincent and Olivier to fight a duel against each other. The film was released on 23 August 1972.^[17][25]

In 1973, Brel appeared in his ninth feature film, Le Far West, his second directorial effort. The film co-starred Gabriel Jabbour, Danielle Evenou, and Arlette Lindon. The story is about Jacques, a 40-year old citizen of Brussels, who meets the fakir Abracadabra who, before dying, gives him a special power. Jacques meets, Gabriel, a generous man, who dresses up as Davy Crockett, and who follows Jacques without asking questions. The two companions and other new friends set out to conquer the Far West, their childhood — just as Voltaire sought Eldorado, and Saint-Exupéry the unknown planet. The Far West they seek cannot be found, because it is an imaginary place, a piece of happiness buried in our hearts. The film was released 15 May 1973.^[17][26]

In 1973, Brel appeared in his tenth and final feature film, L'emmerdeur (The troublemaker), directed by Edouard Molinaro and co-starred Lino Ventura, Caroline Cellier, and Jean-Pierre Darras. Jacques Brel et François Rauber produced the soundtrack. The story is about a contract killer, Ralph Milan, who works for the Mafia. He is paid to kill Louis Randoni, whose testimony in various trials could harm the organisation. Ralph waits for his prey in his hotel room, but is interrupted by his comical neighbour, François Pignon (Brel). The film was released 20 September 1973.^[17][27]

Final years[link]

Jacques Brel's grave in Atuona

By early 1973, Brel knew that he was ill. He prepared his will, leaving everything to his wife Miche. In the spring he recorded a new single, "L'enfance" (My childhood), the proceeds of which he donated to La Fondation Perce Neige, an association set up to help handicapped children. After completing his last film, L'emmerdeur, he took his daughters on a cruise. In November, he embarked on a two-month cruise across the Atlantic with five of his closest friends on the training ship Le Korrig.^[14][15]

The final years of Jacques Brel's life were devoting to his passion for sailing. On 28 February 1974, Brel purchased the Askoy II, a 19-meter sailing yacht weighing 42 tons. He began planning a three-year voyage to circumnavigate the world. In July, Brel set off on his world trip with Madly and his daughter, France, aboard his new yacht. In August, while sailing around the Azores, he learned of the death of his old friend Jojo. He returned to France for his friend's funeral, and stayed on to attend the September wedding of his daughter, Chantal. In October, following medical tests in the Canary Islands, Brel learned that he had a small tumour on his left lung. In November, Brel was rushed to a hospital in Brussels, where he underwent an operation on his left lung. He was suffering from an advanced stage of lung cancer. Knowing his days were numbered, Brel issued a statement indicating that he wished to die alone in peace.^[28][29]

In January 1975, after 27 days at sea, the Askoy II anchored in the Fort-de-France Bay. From February to July, Brel cruised around the West Indies before going through the Panama Canal. In November, the Askoy II reached Atuona Bay at Hiva-Oa in the Marquesas Islands archipelago after spending 59 days crossing the Pacific Ocean.^[29] Jacques and Madly decided to live in the Marquesas Islands, living on the Askoy II off the island of Hiva-Oa.^[28]

In 1976, Brel returned to Brussels twice for medical examinations. Against the advice of his doctors, Brel returned to the Marquesas, where the tropical climate was particularly unsuitable for his lungs.^[28] In June, after selling the Askoy II, he rented a small house in Atuona on the island of Hiva-Oa. In July, Brel renewed his pilot's licence, and took advanced flying lessons with his friend Michel Gauthier. Brel purchased a twin-engine plane, which he named Jojo in memory of his lost friend. This enabled him to travel more easily from Hiva-Oa to Tahiti. He also used the private plane to transport food and other supplies to the inhabitants of the neighbouring islands.^[28]

In 1977, Brel decided to record one final album. Despite his recent years away from the continent, Brel's legend continued to live on in Europe, and his records still sold millions of copies each year. In August, Brel returned to Paris and moved into a small hotel. Despite his poor health, he had quit smoking and was enthusiastic about working again with his faithful collaborators François Rauber and Gérard Jouannest. In September and October, Brel recorded 12 of the 17 new songs he had written in the Marquesas. The result was his final album, Les Marquises, which included "Jaurès", "Vieillir" (To Grow Old), "Le Bon Dieu" (The Good Lord), "Orly", "Voir un Ami Pleurer" (To Watch a Friend Cry), "Jojo", and "Les Marquises". The new album was released on 17 November, and was received as an historic national event in France. At Brel's request, Barclay did not to run a huge promotional campaign for the album, and still, by word of mouth alone, over a million fans placed advance orders. The day the album was released, Jacques and Madly returned to their home in the Marquesas Islands.^[29][14]

From January to June 1978, Brel and Madly lived quietly at their home on Atuona Bay on Hiva-Oa island. In July, after his health began to fail, Brel was flown back to France and rushed to a hospital in Neuilly where doctors discovered a cancerous tumour. He remained in the hospital for six weeks, and then spent the rest of the summer in Southern France. On 7 October, he was rushed to a hospital in Bobigny near Paris. He died of a pulmonary embolism at 4:10am on 9 October 1978, aged 49. On 12 October, Brel's body was flown back to the Marquesas Islands, where he was buried in Calvary Cemetery in Atuona on the southern side of Hiva Oa island in the Marquesas, French Polynesia — a few yards away from the grave of painter Paul Gauguin.^[14]

Legacy[link]

In France, Jacques Brel's legacy as one of the major singers and songwriters of the twentieth century is secure. In the English-speaking world, his influence is limited by language and musical style. Yet with each new generation of English-speaking singers and songwriters, Brel is once again "discovered" for his songs. His lyrics delved into personal, dark, and adult subjects long before the emergence of Bob Dylan and other serious songwriters. In a way, Brel was the "French older brother" of Bob Dylan, Leonard Cohen, and those songwriters who followed. Translations of Brel's songs have extended his influence as a songwriter across most popular genres. A partial list of the pop, rock, folk, jazz, and country artists who have performed or recorded Brel's songs underscores his true enduring legacy:

Translations[link]

The songs of Jacques Brel have been translated into many languages. Brel himself occasionally included parts of his songs in Dutch, as in "'Marieke". He also recorded Dutch versions of songs, such as "Mijn vlakke land" ("Le plat pays"), "Laat Me Niet Alleen" ("Ne me quitte pas"), "Rosa", "De Burgerij" ("Les Bourgeois"), and "De Nuttelozen van de Nacht" ("Les paumés du petit matin"). Brel also recorded two obscure singles in Dutch, "De apen" ("Les singes") and "Men vergeet niets" ("On n'oublie rien"), which were included in the 16-CD box set Boîte à Bonbons by Barclay. Since his own command of Dutch was poor, most of Brel's later Dutch interpretations were translated by Ernst van Altena, with Brel's cooperation, and are generally considered to be relatively true to the original French, as well as poetic. "De Apen" was translated by Eric Franssen. "Men vergeet niets" was translated by well known Flemish artist Will Ferdy. "Marieke" was translated by Brel himself.

English versions of Jacques Brel songs have been recorded by a wide variety of artists. Rod McKuen was one of the first American artists to discover and translate Brel's songs. Canadian Terry Jacks' version of "Seasons in the Sun" became a global pop hit in 1974, topping the charts internationally. McKuen and Brel formed a close friendship. McKuen later wrote, "When news of Jacques' death came, I stayed locked in my bedroom and drank for a week."^[32]

During the 1960s, other English translations emerged on the folk music scene, including "The Dove" ("La colombe"), an anti-war lament recorded both by Joan Baez and Judy Collins. This was the only translation of a Brel song written by Alasdair Clayre, an Oxford-educated Englishman who had a brief career as a singer-songwriter before becoming an author, academic, and sometime producer of BBC documentaries.

In 1968, an American musical revue Jacques Brel Is Alive and Well and Living in Paris made its debut. Consisting of 25 songs, the revue was performed by four vocalists, two male and two female. Jacques Brel contributed most of the music and French lyrics. English translations were provided by Eric Blau and Mort Shuman, a Brill Building songwriter responsible for such hits as "This Magic Moment", "Viva Las Vegas", "Teenager In Love", and others. The production enjoyed considerable international success, and has since played throughout the world in various productions.

In the 1970s, David Bowie began singing Brel's "Amsterdam" at a BBC session with John Peel and Evilan Tom (not released until 2000 on Bowie at the Beeb). This version was also released as the B-side to "Sorrow" in 1973, and was released as a bonus track on the 1990 reissue of Pin-ups. Dave Van Ronk also recorded this song, earlier, on Van Ronk. Bowie also sang "My Death" during his Ziggy Stardust era. This popular concert piece was never recorded in the studio. It appears on two of David Bowie's live albums: Live Santa Monica '72 and Ziggy Stardust - The Motion Picture. A similar version of this song was also recorded by Show Of Hands.

Scott Walker's first three solo albums, titled Scott, Scott 2, and Scott 3, each contain three of the Blau/Shuman translations. Several of the original songs on this album, and on the later Scott 4, can be seen as heavily influenced by Brel. The compilation Scott Walker Sings Jacques Brel contains all the Brel material that Walker covered on record. Walker also performed five Brel songs on his television series.

In the early 1980s, a second Brel revue, Encore Brel, was produced in Canada, a performance of which was aired on CBC Radio. In addition to Alasdair Clayre's "The Dove", the revue used mostly Brel's later songs, including "Friend, Don't Let Me See You Cry" ("Voir un ami pleurer") and "To Grow Old" ("Vieillir").

In 1986, Momus and more recently Barb Jungr recorded new English translations of "Ne me quitte pas" which are much nearer to the original. Jungr used a translation called "Don't leave me now" by Des de Moor. Momus translated and recorded "Don't Leave Me" because he was dissatisfied with the dominant English translations to date. "People always sing the versions by Rod McKuen, which are highly sentimentalised, or the versions by Mort Shuman which are better but still really Americanised. To me the strength of Brel is that he doesn't come from the American tradition of songwriting, it's a strongly European thing."^[33]

In 1989, Marc Almond, who had performed Brel songs on his early albums with Marc and the Mambas, released his successful Jacques, an album comprised solely of Jacques Brel songs. In 1991, he released "Jacky", which became a successful hit single. During his concerts, Almond nearly always plays at least one Brel song.

In 1991, the American band Vambo Marble Eye recorded a version of "Next" for their album Two Trick Pony, 18 years after an English-language version of the song by SAHB in 1973, from their Next album.

In the 1990s, Brel's widow said that Arnold Johnston, a professor at Western Michigan University, translated Brel's work more accurately than Blau and Shuman, and eventually gave Dr. Johnston exclusive rights to translate Brel's work into English. Dr. Johnston recorded I'm Here! a collection of twenty songs, using a grant from the university.

In 2009, on their album Troubadours, the American duo The Black Veils performed their own "poetic and faithful" English translations of Brel's "Ne me quitte pas" ("Don't Leave Me"), "Jaurès", "Il neige sur Liège" ("Snowfall on Liège"), and "Mai 40".^[34]

English translations of Brel's songs have been subject to criticism for being stripped of their original lyricism.^{[original research?]} In his song "Ne me quitte pas", for example, Brel evocatively states, "Moi, je t'offrirai / Des perles de pluie / Venues de pays / Où il ne pleut pas" (I, I'll offer you / Pearls of rain / That come from countries / Where it doesn't rain). In contrast, Rod McKuen’s English translation replaces that vivid and poetic imagery with "But if you stay / I'll make you a day / Like no day has been / or will be again."

The English translation by Mort Shuman and Eric Blau from their musical revue Jacques Brel Is Alive and Well and Living in Paris have also been criticized for their loose approach to translating the originals. In their song "Marathon" ("Les Flamandes"), they present a charming encapsulation of the United States in the twentieth century—mentioning, among others, Charles Lindbergh and Sacco and Vanzetti. The song bears no relationship to the original song, which is a tongue-in-cheek assessment of Flemish women. Their translation of "Jef" is another example of a version that bears little resemblance to the original. Terry Jacks intended to "lighten up" his version of McKuen's "Seasons in the Sun" — completely removing the cynical gist of Brel's "Le moribond". ironically, this sanitized version became a global pop hit in 1974. Translations of Jacques Brel songs into other languages have also come in for similar criticism.

Other language versions of Jacques Brel songs have been recorded by a wide variety of artists throughout the world. The most frequently recorded song in other languages is "Ne me quitte pas" (Don't leave me), with at least 400 different recorded versions in 22 different languages.^{[citation needed]} Most English versions use the freely translated "If You Go Away" by Rod McKuen. Marlene Dietrich recorded the German version "Bitte geh' nicht fort". Paris-based Colombian salsa singer Yuri Buenaventura performed the Spanish version "No Me Dejes Mas". Czech chanteuse Hana Hegerová made the Czech version "Lásko prokletá" one of the pillars of her repertoire. Russian rock group Mumiy Troll recorded the Russian version "Когда ты уйдёшь".

The work of several German translators are considered particularly faithful to the original French versions. Dieter Kaiser, a Belgian-German singer, who performs internationally in public concerts with a music quartet comprising the French-German professional guitarist, Stéphane Bazire, the guitar playing female singer Barbara and a keyboarder, as Stéphane - Didier & Cie, has translated 30 of Brel's songs and has gathered them in a booklet with over 100 other French chansons in German (also available at www.deutsche-chanson-texte.de). Kaiser also issued a CD in German and a CD in French with various chansons of Brel. Klaus Hoffmann is another important German interpreter of Brel's songs, as is the Austrian actor Michael Heltau, who was asked by Brel himself to record his songs, using the translation of Werner Schneyder.

Discography[link]

Assembling a comprehensive Jacques Brel discography is difficult, because his recordings have been released in so many different permutations, in different countries and in different formats. Furthermore, releases of Brel's recordings are sometimes known by different titles. This discography is restricted to Brel's original albums, as collected and reissued on 23 September 2003 in the sixteen CD box set of his work Boîte à Bonbons, plus the additional album Chansons ou Versions Inédites de Jeunesse, which was released for the first time as part of this box set. The titles listed here are the titles used in the box set. To mark the 25th anniversary of Brel's death, Barclay Records issued Comme quand il était beau (2003), a 3 volume DVD collection of Brel interviews and live performances as well as the compilation album Infiniment (2004). Both releases include five previously unpublished songs that Brel wrote in 1977: "La Cathédrale", "L'amour est mort", "Mai 40", "Avec Élégance", and "Sans Exigences".^[35]

Studio albums[link]

• Grand Jacques (1954)
• Quand On n'a Que l'Amour (1957)
• Au Printemps (1958)
• La Valse à Mille Temps (1959)
• Marieke (1961)
• Les Bourgeois (1962)
• Les Bonbons (1966)
• Ces Gens-Là (1966)
• Jacques Brel 67 (1967)
• J'arrive (1968)
• L'Homme de la Mancha (1968)
• Ne Me Quitte Pas (1972)
• Les Marquises (1977)

Live albums[link]

• Enregistrement Public à l'Olympia 1961 (1962)
• Enregistrement Public à l'Olympia 1964 (1964)

Boxed sets, compilations, and rarities[link]

• Boîte à Bonbons (2003)
• Infiniment (2003)
• Chansons ou Versions Inédites de Jeunesse (2003)

Cover versions[link]

• List of Jacques Brel cover versions

Filmography[link]

As actor[link]

• La grande peur de Monsieur Clément (short) (dir Paul Deliens) (1956)
• Les risques du métier (dir André Cayatte) (1967)
• La Bande à Bonnot (dir Philippe Fourastié) (1968)
• Mon oncle Benjamin (dir Édouard Molinaro) (1969)
• Mont-Dragon (dir Jean Valère) (1970)
• Franz (dir Jacques Brel) (1971)
• Les assassins de l'ordre (dir Marcel Carné) (1971)
• L'aventure, c'est l'aventure (dir Claude Lelouch) (1972)
• Le bar de la fourche (dir Alain Levent) (1972)
• Le Far West (dir Jacques Brel) (1973)
• L'emmerdeur (dir Édouard Molinaro) (1973)^[36]

As director[link]

• Franz (1971)
• Le Far West (1973)^[37]

As writer[link]

• La grande peur de Monsieur Clément (short) (1956)
• Jacques Brel is Alive and Well and Living in Paris (play) (1968)
• Franz (1971)
• Le Far West (1973)^[38]

As self[link]

• Petit jour (short) (1960)
• Zeg hé, spaar je mee? (TV series) (1961)
• Tienerklanken (TV series) (1963)
• La grande farandole (TV series) (1964)
• Age tendre et tête de bois (TV series) (1964)
• Entrez dans la ronde (TV movie) (1965)
• Discorama (TV series) (1962-1966)
• Tid til at leve (TV series documentary) (1974)
• Jacques Brel Is Alive and Well and Living in Paris (dir Denis Heroux) (1974)
• Stellet Licht/Silent Light (dir Carlos Reygadas) (2007)^[39]

References[link]