The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article and discuss the issue on the talk page. (August 2010)

Companies law (or the law of business associations) is the field of law concerning companies and other business organizations. This includes corporations, partnerships and other associations which usually carry on some form of economic or charitable activity. The most prominent kind of company, usually referred to as a "corporation", is a "juristic person", i.e. it has separate legal personality, and those who invest money into the business have limited liability for any losses the company makes, governed by corporate law. The largest companies are usually publicly listed on stock exchanges around the world. Even single individuals, also known as sole traders may incorporate themselves and limit their liability in order to carry on a business. All different forms of companies depend on the particular law of the particular country in which they reside.

The law of business organizations originally derived from the common law of England, but has evolved significantly in the 20th century. In common law countries today, the most commonly addressed forms are:

• Corporation
• Limited company
• Unlimited company
• Limited liability partnership
• Limited partnership
• Not-for-profit corporation
• Partnership
• Sole Proprietorship

The proprietary limited company is a statutory business form in several countries, including Australia.

Many countries have forms of business entity unique to that country, although there are equivalents elsewhere. Examples are the Limited-liability company (LLC) and the limited liability limited partnership (LLLP) in the United States.

Other types of business organizations, such as cooperatives, credit unions and publicly owned enterprises, can be established with purposes that parallel, supersede, or even replace the profit maximization mandate of business corporations.

For a country-by-country listing of officially recognized forms of business organization, see Types of business entity.

There are various types of company that can be formed in different jurisdictions, but the most common forms of company are:

• a company limited by guarantee. Commonly used where companies are formed for non-commercial purposes, such as clubs or charities. The members guarantee the payment of certain (usually nominal) amounts if the company goes into insolvent liquidation, but otherwise they have no economic rights in relation to the company .
• a company limited by guarantee with a share capital. A hybrid entity, usually used where the company is formed for non-commercial purposes, but the activities of the company are partly funded by investors who expect a return.
• a company limited by shares. The most common form of company used for business ventures.
• an unlimited company either with or without a share capital. This is a hybrid company, a company similar to its limited company (Ltd.) counterpart but where the members or shareholders do not benefit from limited liability should the company ever go into formal liquidation.

There are, however, many specific categories of corporations and other business organizations which may be formed in various countries and jurisdictions throughout the world.

US companies law[link]

In the United States, corporations are generally incorporated, or organized, under the laws of a particular state. The corporate law of a corporation's state of incorporation generally governs that corporation's internal governance (even if the corporation's operations take place outside of that state). The corporate laws of the various states differ - in some cases significantly - from state to state. Because of these differences, corporate lawyers are often consulted in an effort to determine the most appropriate or advantageous state in which to incorporate, and a majority of public companies in the U.S. are Delaware corporations.^[1] The federal laws of the United States and local law may also be applicable sources of corporate law.

Companies law theory[link]

“A corporation is described to be a person in a political capacity created by the law, to endure in perpetual succession.”^[2] Americans in the 1790s knew of a variety of corporations established for various purposes, including those of commerce, education, and religion. As the law of corporations was articulated by the Supreme Court under Chief Justice Marshall, over the first several decades of the new American state, emphasis fell, in a way which seems natural to us today, upon commercial corporations. Nonetheless, Wilson believed that, in all cases, corporations “should be erected with caution, and inspected with care.” The actions of corporations were clearly circumscribed: “To every corporation a name must be assigned; and by that name alone it can perform legal acts.” For non-binding external actions or transactions, corporations enjoyed the same latitude as private individuals; but it was with an eye to internal affairs that many saw principal advantage in incorporation. The power of making by-laws was “tacitly annexed to corporations by the very act of their establishment.”^[2] While they must not directly contradict the overarching laws of the land, the central or local government cannot be expected to regulate toward the peculiar circumstances of a given body, and so “they are invested with authority to make regulations for the management of their own interests and affairs.”^[2]

The question then arises: if corporations are to be inspected with care, what - if not the commercial or social conduct, or the by-laws - is to be inspected – and by whom? Do corporations have duties? Yes: “The general duties of every corporation may be collected from the nature and design of its institution: it should act agreeably to its nature, and fulfill the purposes for which it was formed.”^[2] Who sees that corporations are living up to those duties? “The law has provided proper persons with proper powers to visit those institutions, and to correct every irregularity, which may arise within them.”^[2] The Common Law provided for inspection by the court of king’s bench. In 1790, at least, “the powers of the court of king's bench [were] vested in the supreme court of Pennsylvania.”^[2] As for the dissolution of corporations, there seems not to have been much question that a corporation might “surrender its legal existence into the hands of that power, from which it was received. From such a surrender, the dissolution of the body corporate ensues.”^[2] Nor does there seem to have been much question that by “a judgment of forfeiture against a corporation itself, it may be dissolved.”^[2] However, Supreme Court Justice Wilson, lecturing in his unofficial capacity, at least, suggests his displeasure with the doctrine that corporate dissolution cannot be predicated “by a judgment of ouster against individuals. God forbid ― such is the sentiment of Mr. Justice Wilmot ― that the rights of the body should be lost or destroyed by the offenses of the members.”^[2]

As theorists such as Ronald Coase have pointed out, all business organizations represent an attempt to avoid certain costs associated with doing business. Each is meant to facilitate the contribution of specific resources - investment capital, knowledge, relationships, and so forth - towards a venture which will prove profitable to all contributors. Except for the partnership, all business forms are designed to provide limited liability to both members of the organization and external investors. Business organizations originated with agency law, which permits an agent to act on behalf of a principal, in exchange for the principal assuming equal liability for the wrongful acts committed by the agent. For this reason, all partners in a typical general partnership may be held liable for the wrongs committed by one partner. Those forms that provide limited liability are able to do so because the state provides a mechanism by which businesses that follow certain guidelines will be able to escape the full liability imposed under agency law. The state provides these forms because it has an interest in the strength of the companies that provide jobs and services therein, but also has an interest in monitoring and regulating their behavior.

Companies law study[link]

Law schools typically offer either a single upper level course on business organizations, or offer several courses covering different aspects of this area of law. The area of study examines issues such as how each major form of business entity may be formed, operated, and dissolved; the degree to which limited liability protects investors; the extent to which a business can be held liable for the acts of an agent of the business; the relative advantages and disadvantages of different types of business organizations, and the structures established by governments to monitor the buying and selling of ownership interests in large corporations.

The basic theory behind all business organizations is that, by combining certain functions within a single entity, a business (usually called a firm by economists) can operate more efficiently, and thereby realize a greater profit. Governments seek to facilitate investment in profitable operations by creating rules that protect investors in a business from being held personally liable for debts incurred by that business, either through mismanagement, or because of wrongful acts committed by the business .

See also[link]

• Business ethics
• Corporate crime
• Corporate law
• Corporation sole
• European Company Statute

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Kraakman, Reinier H.; et al. (2004). Anatomy of Corporate Law: A Comparative and Functional Approach. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-926063-X. 
• Lowry, John; Dignam, Alan (2006). Company Law. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-928446-6. 

External links[link]

• "A Comparative Bibliography: Regulatory Competition on Corporate Law". (Georgetown University Law Center Working Paper). http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1103644. 

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Suze Orman
Orman at the Time 100 Gala, May 4, 2010.
Born	Susan Lynn Orman (1951-06-05) June 5, 1951 (age 61) Chicago, Illinois
Residence	Florida, New York City, and San Francisco[1]
Nationality	American
Education	Bachelor of Arts in social work
Alma mater	University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (1976)
Occupation	author, television personality, motivational speaker
Known for	The Suze Orman Show
Spouse	Kathy Travis
Website
www.SuzeOrman.com The Suze Orman Show

Susan Lynn "Suze" Orman (born June 5, 1951) is an American financial advisor, author, motivational speaker, and television host.^[2]

Orman was born in Chicago and received her B.A. in social work. She worked as a waitress in Berkeley, California before becoming a financial advisor for Merrill Lynch. In 1983 she became the vice-president of investments at Prudential Bache Securities and in 1987 founded the Suze Orman Financial Group.

Her program The Suze Orman Show has aired for eleven years and is one of the highest rated shows on CNBC. She has written nine consecutive New York Times Best Sellers and has written, co-produced and hosted seven PBS specials based on her books. Her PBS shows are the most successful fundraisers for PBS and have won two Emmy awards.^[3][4] She has also won the most Gracie Awards of any individual.^[5] In 2008 and 2009, Orman was named to the Times Magazine list of 100 most influential people, the 2010 Forbes Magazine 100 most powerful women in the world, and 18th on the Forbes list of The Most Influential Women In Media.^{[citation needed]}

Early life and education[link]

Orman was born on the South Side of Chicago, Illinois, in 1951. Her mother, Ann, worked for a rabbi and also as a legal secretary, and her father, Morrie Orman, plucked chicken feathers.^[6][7][8] Her family was Jewish; her father was a Russian immigrant and her mother's family were from Romania.^[8][9] Her parents managed a delicatessen in Hyde Park.^[10][11][12]

She attended the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign and received a B.A. in social work in 1976.^[13] In 2009, Orman received an honorary degree of doctor of humane letters from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.^[13]

Career[link]

After finishing school, Orman moved to Berkeley, California and became a waitress. In 1980, she borrowed $52,000 from friends and well wishers to open a restaurant.^{[14][15][16][17]}

Later, Orman trained as an account executive for Merrill Lynch. She simultaneously and successfully sued Merrill Lynch for a prior investment loss of $50,000. After completing her training with Merrill Lynch, she remained at the firm until 1983 when she left to become vice-president of investments at Prudential Bache Securities.

In 1987, Orman resigned from Prudential and founded the Suze Orman Financial Group, in Emeryville, California. She was director of the firm until 1997.^[16]

In 2007, Orman created an interactive TV show called "Can I Afford it?".

In February 2008, Orman gave away 1 million electronic copies of her book Women and Money following an appearance on The Oprah Winfrey Show. In July, Orman began hosting a financial advice show called The Suze Orman Show. Orman has also been featured on the Food Network's Paula's Party alongside RuPaul.

In January 2011, Orman appeared on the TV show, "Oprah's Allstars".

Orman writes an advice column for O. She is the former author of Yahoo!'s "Money Matters" and has written for the Costco Connection magazine. She is also a contributor to the The Philadelphia Inquirer, Lowes MoneyWorks, and Your Business at Home Magazine.^[18][19]

In January 2012, Orman's new six-episode TV series "America's Money Class with Suze Orman" premiered on OWN: Oprah Winfrey Network.^[20]

Orman's prepaid debit card Approved card was released in January 2012 to with some claiming it to be a financial empowerment tool and others claiming it a "rip-off".

While she has proven herself a wealth of information about credit and very general financial issues, Orman's understanding of comprehensive financial planning has been questioned by many in the industry. Senior MarketWatch columnist Chuck Jaffe, for example, states that Orman "scores very high on the personality index, but very low on the knowledge and understanding of the complex issues that face a lot of her audience. She's giving generic, simple solutions to people's most difficult problems, and judging from her [own personal investment] portfolio she's taking them on a path she really hasn't traveled herself."^[21] And according to MSN Money's James Scurlock, "the personal-finance guru favors supersimple mantras—even when they're wrong—and psychological explanations for all your money problems."^[22]

Reception[link]

Orman has written nine New York Times Best Sellers; and has written, co-produced, and hosted seven PBS specials based on her books; and is said to be the most successful fundraiser in the history of public television.^[3] She is also considered a "top seller" on the QVChome shopping network.^[4] Orman won the Daytime Emmy Award in 2004 and 2006 in the category of Outstanding Service Show Host for her PBS pledge drive specials, The Laws of Money, The Lessons of Life and The Money Show for the Young, Fabulous, & Broke. Orman has also won six Gracie Awards.^[5]

Personal life[link]

In February 2007, Orman told The New York Times Magazine that she is a lesbian.^{[23][24][25][26]} According to her Twitter page, Orman married Kathy Travis, a co-producer on The Suze Orman Show, in South Africa in September 2010.^[27]

According to the Federal Election Commission, Orman has donated money to the Democratic National Committee and to the 2000 Senate campaign of Hillary Clinton (D-NY).^[28] In 2008, Orman donated $28,000 to the Democratic National Committee.^[29] She stated in an interview with Larry King in 2008 that she favors the economic policies of the Democratic party and President Barack Obama.^[30]

In an April 2008 online interview with The Young Turks, Orman stated that her net worth is more than ten million USD.^[31]

Publications[link]

Books[link]

• You've Earned It, Don't Lose It: Mistakes You Can't Afford to Make When You Retire (with Linda Mead) (1995)
• The Nine Steps To Financial Freedom (1997)
• The Courage to Be Rich (1999)
• The Road to Wealth (2001)
• The Laws of Money, the Lessons of Life... (2003)
• The Money Book for the Young, Fabulous and Broke (2005)
• Women and Money: Owning the Power to Control Your Destiny (2007)
• Suze Orman's 2009 Action Plan (2009)
• Suze Orman's 2010 Action Plan (March 2010)
• The Money Class: Learn to Create Your New American Dream (March 2011)

Multimedia[link]

Orman is also creator of a number of non-book products, primarily CD-ROM-based services that offer education and various financial services usually in conjunction with her books and writings.

• Suze Ormans FICO Kit – First offered in 2002 in conjunction with Fair Isaac Corporation.
• Suze Orman's Will & Trust Kit – Introduced in 2005 with her personal trust attorney.
• Suze Orman's Insurance Kit – Introduced in 2007.
• Suze Orman's Protection Portfolio – First introduced in 2002, in third version.
• Suze Orman's Identity Theft Kit – First offered in 2008, in conjunction with TrustedID, Inc.
• Suze Orman's Save Yourself Retirement Program – Introduced September 2009, in conjunction with TD Ameritrade.

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Suze Orman

• Suze Orman Official Site Suze Orman Financial Group Web site
• Suze Orman Show, CNBC Suze Orman Show
• Money Matters - Yahoo! Finance Orman's regular column on Yahoo! Finance
• Suze Orman Bio on CNBC.com
• CNBC. "Anchors & Reporters: Suze Orman". Retrieved July 23, 2006
• Suze Orman Interview on The Hour with George Stroumboulopoulos
• Suze Orman at the Internet Movie Database

The following is a list of significant men and women known for being the father, mother, or considered the founders mostly in Western socities in a field, listed by category. In most non-science fields, the title of being the "father" is debatable.

Church[link]

Games[link]

Humanities[link]

Military[link]

Nations[link]

Natural and social sciences[link]

Sports[link]

Technology[link]

Fields[link]

Inventions[link]

Towns, cities and regions[link]

Transport[link]

See also[link]

• List of inventors
• Father of medicare
• Founders of statistics

References[link]

This article's references may not meet Wikipedia's guidelines for reliable sources. Please help by checking whether the references meet the criteria for reliable sources. (January 2012)

James Fox, OBE (born William Fox; 19 May 1939) is an English actor.

Early life[link]

James Fox was born in London, England to theatrical agent Robin Fox and actress Angela Worthington. He is the brother of actor Edward Fox and film producer Robert Fox. The actress Emilia Fox is his niece and the actor Laurence Fox is his son. His grandfather was playwright Frederick Lonsdale. Like his brother, Fox served with the Coldstream Guards. Like several members of the Fox family, including his brothers and his son, James was educated at Harrow.

Acting career[link]

James Fox first appeared on film in The Miniver Story in 1950. His other early film appearances were made under the name William Fox.

During the 1960s he gained popularity and appeared to be heading for stardom. In 1964, he won a BAFTA for Most Promising Newcomer in The Servant (1963).^[1] His roles in films such as Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines (1965), King Rat (1965), The Chase (1966), Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967), Isadora (1968) and Performance (1970) (alongside Mick Jagger), as well as his relationship with actress Sarah Miles, had made him a media personality.

Spiritual life and break from acting[link]

After finishing work on Performance, and following his father's death, Fox suspended his acting career. The strain of filming, his father's death and smoking the hallucinogen DMT led to a nervous breakdown.^[2] On his break from acting, Fox has commented that "[p]eople think Performance blew my mind... my mind was blown long before that."^[2]

He has also said that: "Performance gave me doubts about my way of life. Before that I had been completely involved in the more bawdy side of the film business. But after that everything changed.'^[2]

In a 2008 interview, he said: "It was just part of my journey...I think my journey was to spend a while away from acting. And I never lost contact with it - watching movies, reading about it ... so I didn't feel I missed it."^[3]

He became an evangelical Christian, working with The Navigators and devoting himself to the ministry.^[4] During this time, the only film in which Fox appeared was No Longer Alone (1978), the story of a suicidal woman saved by Christianity.

Return to acting[link]

After an absence of almost 10 years from mainstream cinema, Fox gradually returned to the screen, appearing in A Passage to India (1984) and playing Anthony Blunt in the acclaimed BBC play by Alan Bennett, A Question of Attribution (1992). He also portrayed the character of Colonel Ferguson in Farewell to the King.

More recently, he has appeared in the 2001 adaption of The Lost World as Prof. Leo Summerlee, Agatha Christie's Poirot - Death on the Nile (2004) as Colonel Race and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005) playing Mr. Salt, Veruca Salt's father. He appeared in the Doctor Who audio drama Shada, and in 2007, he guest-starred in the British television crime series Waking the Dead. He also appeared opposite his son, Laurence Fox in "Allegory of Love," an episode in the third season of Lewis. He was part of the cast of Sherlock Holmes, as Sir Thomas, leading member of a freemason-like secret society.

In 2010, he filmed Cleanskin, a terrorist thriller directed by Hadi Hajaig.^[5]; and in 2011 he played King George V in Madonna's film "W.E."^[6]

Personal life[link]

In the 1960s, Fox had a relationship with actress Sarah Miles.^[2] James Fox has five children with his wife Mary Elizabeth Piper, whom he married in 1973.^[2] He is the father of Laurence Fox, as well as three other sons and one daughter, Lydia Fox. Both Laurence and Lydia were married to fellow actors in 2007, making James the father-in-law of both Richard Ayoade and Billie Piper. He is also grandfather to Laurence's two sons with Piper.

Film and television appearances[link]

• The Miniver Story (1950) - Toby Miniver
• The Magnet (1950) - Johnny Brent
• One Wild Oat (1951) - Porter
• The Loneliness of the Long Distance Runner (1962) - Gunthorpe
• Tamahine (1963) - Oliver
• The Servant ) (1963) - Tony
• King Rat (1965) - Peter Marlowe
• Those Magnificent Men in Their Flying Machines (1965) - Richard Mays
• The Chase - Jason 'Jake' Rogers
• Thoroughly Modern Millie (1967) - Jimmy
• Duffy (1968) - Stephane Calvert
• Performance (1970) - Chas
• Runners (1983) - Tom Lindsay
• Anna Pavlova (1983)
• Greystoke: The Legend of Tarzan, Lord of the Apes (1984) - Lord Charles Esker
• A Passage to India (1984) - Richard Fielding
• Absolute Beginners (1986) - Henley of Mayfair, Dressmaker to the Queen
• The Whistle Blower - Lord
• The Mighty Quinn (1989) - Thomas Elgin
• The Russia House (1990) - Ned
• Patriot Games (1992) - Lord William Holmes
• A Question of Attribution (1992) (TV) - Sir Anthony Blunt
• The Remains of the Day (1993) - Lord Darlington
• Heart of Darkness (1994) - Gosse
• The Choir (1995) - The Dean, Hugh Cavendish
• Gulliver's Travels (1996) - Dr. Bates
• Anna Karenina (1997) - Karenin
• Jinnah (film) (1998) - Mountbatten
• Mickey Blue Eyes (1999) - Philip Cromwell
• The Dwelling Place late 1990s)- "http://www.radiotimes.com/episode/cqnz5/catherine-cookson's-the-dwelling-place--28122011"
• Up at the Villa (2000) - Sir Edgar Swift
• Sexy Beast (2000) - Harry
• The Golden Bowl (2000) - Colonel Bob Assingham
• The Lost World (2001) - Prof. Leo Summerlee
• Cambridge Spies (2003) - Lord Halifax
• The Prince and Me (2004) - King Haraald
• Agatha Christie's Poirot - Death on the Nile (2004) - Colonel Race
• Marple: The Body in the Library (2004) - Colonel Arthur Bantry
• Colditz (2005) - Lt. Colonel Jimmy Fordham
• Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (2005) - Mr. Salt
• Absolute Power - The Nation's Favourite (2005) - Gerald Thurnham
• Suez: A Very British Crisis(2006) - Anthony Eden
• Mister Lonely (2007) - The Pope
• Margaret (2009) - Charles Powell
• Sherlock Holmes (2009) - Sir Thomas
• Cleanskin (2011) - Scott Catesby
• Midsomer Murders (2011–present) "Master Class" - Sir Michael Fielding
• W.E (2011) - King George V

References[link]

External links[link]

• James Fox at the Internet Movie Database
• James Fox at the British Film Institute's Screenonline
• Biography at British Cinema Greats