An assortment of minerals.

A mineral is a naturally occurring solid chemical substance formed through biogeochemical processes, having characteristic chemical composition, highly ordered atomic structure, and specific physical properties. By comparison, a rock is an aggregate of minerals and/or mineraloids and does not have a specific chemical composition. Minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex silicates with thousands of known forms.^[1] The study of minerals is called mineralogy.

Mineral definition and classification[link]

To be classified as a true mineral, a substance must be a solid and have a crystalline structure. It must also be a naturally occurring, homogeneous substance with a defined chemical composition.

The International Mineralogical Association approved the following definition in 1995:

"A mineral is an element or chemical compound that is normally crystalline and that has been formed as a result of geological processes."^[2]

According to this definition and classification scheme, biogenic materials were excluded from the mineral kingdom:

"Biogenic substances are chemical compounds produced entirely by biological processes without a geological component (e.g., urinary calculi, oxalate crystals in plant tissues, shells of marine molluscs, etc.) and are not regarded as minerals. However, if geological processes were involved in the genesis of the compound, then the product can be accepted as a mineral."^[2]:690

However, other researchers do not adhere to this exclusion rule. Lowenstam (1981), for example, states the following:^[3]

"Organisms are capable of forming a diverse array of minerals, some of which cannot be formed inorganically in the biosphere."^:1126

The distinction is a matter of classification and less to do with the constituents of the minerals themselves. Skinner (2005) views all solids as potential minerals and includes biominerals in the mineral kingdom, which are those that are created by the metabolic activities of organisms. Inclusion of these biogenic minerals requires an expanded definition of a mineral as:

"An element or compound, amorphous or crystalline, formed through biogeochemical processes."^[4]:621

Mineral classification schemes and their definitions are evolving to match recent advances in mineral science. More recent classifications, for example, include an organic class – in both the new Dana and the Strunz classification schemes.^[5][6] The organic class includes a very rare group of minerals with hydrocarbons. The IMA Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names recently adopted (in 2009) a hierarchical scheme for the naming and classification of mineral groups and group names^[7] and established seven commissions and four working groups to review and classify minerals into an official listing of their published names.^[8] According to these new rules, "mineral species can be grouped in a number of different ways, on the basis of chemistry, crystal structure, occurrence, association, genetic history, or resource, for example, depending on the purpose to be served by the classification."^[7]:1073

Recent advances in high-resolution genetic and x-ray absorption spectroscopy is opening new revelations on the biogeochemical relations between microrganisms and minerals that may make Nickel's (1995)^[2] biogenic mineral exclusion obsolete and Skinner's (2005) biogenic mineral inclusion a necessity.^[4] For example, the IMA commissioned 'Environmental Mineralogy and Geochemistry Working Group'^[9] deals with minerals in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. Mineral forming microorganisms inhabit the areas that this working group deals with. These organisms exist on nearly every rock, soil, and particle surface spanning the globe reaching depths at 1600 meters below the sea floor (possibly further) and 70 kilometers into the stratosphere (possibly entering the mesosphere).^[10][11][12] Biologists and geologists have recently started to research and appreciate the magnitude of mineral geoengineering that these creatures are capable of. Bacteria have contributed to the formation of minerals for billions of years and critically define the biogeochemical cycles on this planet. Microorganisms can precipitate metals from solution contributing to the formation of ore deposits in addition to their ability to catalyze mineral dissolution, to respire, precipitate, and form minerals.^[13][14][15]

Prior to the International Mineralogical Association's listing, over 60 biominerals had been discovered, named, and published.^[16] These minerals (a sub-set tabulated in Lowenstam (1981)^[3]) are considered minerals proper according to the Skinner (2005) definition.^[4] These biominerals are not listed in the International Mineral Association official list of mineral names,^[17] however, many of these biomineral representatives are distributed amongst the 78 mineral classes listed in the `Dana' classification scheme.^[4] Another rare class of minerals (primarily biological in origin) include the mineral liquid crystals that are crystalline and liquid at the same time. To date over 80,000 liquid crystalline compounds have been identified.^[18][19]

Concerning the use of the term “mineral” to name this family of liquid crystals, one can argue that the term inorganic would be more appropriate. However, inorganic liquid crystals have long been used for organometallic liquid crystals. Therefore in order to avoid any confusion between these fairly chemically different families, and taking into account that a large number of these liquid crystals occur naturally in nature, we think that the use of the old fashioned but adequate “mineral” adjective taken sensus largo is more specific that an alternative such as “purely inorganic”, to name this subclass of the inorganic liquid crystals family.^[19]

The Skinner (2005) definition^[4] of a mineral takes this matter into account by stating that a mineral can be crystalline or amorphous. Liquid mineral crystals are amorphous. Biominerals and liquid mineral crystals, however, are not the primary form of minerals, most are geological in origin,^[20] but these groups do help to identify at the margins of what constitutes a mineral proper.

Crystal structure[link]

A crystal structure is the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of a mineral. There are 14 basic crystal lattice arrangements of atoms in three dimensions, and these are referred to as the 14 "Bravais lattices". Each of these lattices can be classified into one of the seven crystal systems, and all crystal structures currently recognized fit in one Bravais lattice and one crystal system. This crystal structure is based on regular internal atomic or ionic arrangement that is often expressed in the geometric form that the crystal takes. Even when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly shaped, the underlying crystal structure is always periodic and can be determined by X-ray diffraction. Chemistry and crystal structure together define a mineral. In fact, two or more minerals may have the same chemical composition, but differ in crystal structure (these are known as polymorphs). For example, pyrite and marcasite are both iron sulfide, but their arrangement of atoms differs. Similarly, some minerals have different chemical compositions, but the same crystal structure: for example, halite (made from sodium and chlorine), galena (made from lead and sulfur) and periclase (made from magnesium and oxygen) all share the same cubic crystal structure.

Crystal structure greatly influences a mineral's physical properties. For example, though diamond and graphite have the same composition (both are pure carbon), graphite is very soft, while diamond is the hardest of all known minerals. This happens because the carbon atoms in graphite are arranged into sheets which can slide easily past each other, while the carbon atoms in diamond form a strong, interlocking three-dimensional network.

There are currently more than 4,000 known minerals, according to the International Mineralogical Association (IMA), which is responsible for the approval of and naming of new mineral species found in nature. Of these, perhaps 100 can be called "common", 50 are "occasional", and the rest are "rare" to "extremely rare".

Mineral groups and solid solution[link]

The chemical composition may vary between end members of a mineral system. For example the plagioclase feldspars comprise a continuous series from sodium and silicon-rich albite (NaAlSi₃O₈) to calcium and aluminium-rich anorthite (CaAl₂Si₂O₈) with four recognized intermediate compositions between. Mineral-like substances that don't strictly meet the definition are sometimes classified as mineraloids.

Minerals with the same structure and forming solid solutions are named isomorphs, and form series; for example: forsterite and fayalite of the olivine series, ferberite and hubnerite of the wolframite series. Minerals with the same structure and not forming solid solutions are named isotypes, and form groups [classification of minerals (non silicates)]. Minerals with a similar structure are grouped in homeotype families: amphibole and pyroxene families [classification of minerals (silicates)].

Some ion groups with a similar radius can occupy the same structural site in the crystal cell:

• O^2- and OH^- with 1.32 and 1.33 Å respectively.
• Si⁴⁺ and Al³⁺ with 0.42 and 0.51 Å respectively, the charge is neutralized through an exchange of the other cations:
  • Si⁴⁺ – (Al³⁺ and Na⁺) or (Si⁴⁺ and Na⁺) – (Al³⁺ and Ca²⁺).^[21]
• Larger molecules may have an unoccupied structural site by occupying another unoccupied structural site or by using a divalent cation instead of two monovalent cations, for instance (amphibole family).
• By the end of the 18th century, the minerals were getting chemical formulas. There were some difficulties, as elements were being discovered and isolated for the first time. The minerals: gadolinite-(Y) (first publication: 1802, 09.AJ.20), aeschynite-(Ce) (first publication: 1830, 04.DF.05), vanadinite (first publication: 1838, 08.BN.05), aenigmatite (first publication: 1865, 09.DH.40), labyrinthite (IMA 2002-065, 09.CO.10), illustrate these difficulties.^[22]

More recent definitions:

• "A mineral group consists of two or more minerals with the same (isotypic) or essentially the same (homeotypic) structure, and composed of chemically similar elements" (IMA-CNMNC).
• "two structures are considered homeotypic if all essential features of topology are preserved between them" (IUCr).^[23]

Differences between minerals and rocks[link]

A mineral is a naturally occurring solid with a definite chemical composition and a specific crystalline structure. A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals. (A rock may also include organic remains and mineraloids.) Some rocks are predominantly composed of just one mineral. For example, limestone is a sedimentary rock composed almost entirely of the mineral calcite. Other rocks contain many minerals, and the specific minerals in a rock can vary widely. Some minerals, like quartz, mica or feldspar are common, while others have been found in only four or five locations worldwide. The vast majority of the rocks of the Earth's crust consist of quartz, feldspar, mica, chlorite, kaolin, calcite, epidote, olivine, augite, hornblende, magnetite, hematite, limonite and a few other minerals.^[24] Over half of the mineral species known are so rare that they have only been found in a handful of samples, and many are known from only one or two small grains.

Commercially valuable minerals and rocks are referred to as industrial minerals. Rocks from which minerals are mined for economic purposes are referred to as ores (the rocks and minerals that remain, after the desired mineral has been separated from the ore, are referred to as tailings).

Mineral composition of rocks[link]

A main determining factor in the formation of minerals in a rock mass is the chemical composition of the mass, for a certain mineral can be formed only when the necessary elements are present in the rock. Calcite is most common in limestones, as these consist essentially of calcium carbonate; quartz is common in sandstones and in certain igneous rocks which contain a high percentage of silica.

Other factors are of equal importance in determining the natural association or paragenesis of rock-forming minerals, principally the mode of origin of the rock and the stages through which it has passed in attaining its present condition. Two rock masses may have very much the same bulk composition and yet consist of entirely different assemblages of minerals. The tendency is always for those compounds to be formed which are stable under the conditions under which the rock mass originated. A granite arises by the consolidation of a molten magma at high temperatures and great pressures and its component minerals are those stable under such conditions. Exposed to moisture, carbonic acid and other subaerial agents at the ordinary temperatures of the Earth's surface, some of these original minerals, such as quartz and white mica are relatively stable and remain unaffected; others weather or decay and are replaced by new combinations. The feldspar passes into kaolinite, muscovite and quartz, and any mafic minerals such as pyroxenes, amphiboles or biotite have been present they are often altered to chlorite, epidote, rutile and other substances. These changes are accompanied by disintegration, and the rock falls into a loose, incoherent, earthy mass which may be regarded as a sand or soil. The materials thus formed may be washed away and deposited as sandstone or siltstone. The structure of the original rock is now replaced by a new one; the mineralogical constitution is profoundly altered; but the bulk chemical composition may not be very different. The sedimentary rock may again undergo metamorphism. If penetrated by igneous rocks it may be recrystallized or, if subjected to enormous pressures with heat and movement during mountain building, it may be converted into a gneiss not very different in mineralogical composition though radically different in structure to the granite which was its original state.^[24]

Physical properties of minerals[link]

Classifying minerals can range from simple to very difficult. A mineral can be identified by several physical properties, some of them being sufficient for full identification without equivocation. In other cases, minerals can only be classified by more complex optical, chemical or X-ray diffraction analysis; these methods, however, can be costly and time-consuming.

Physical properties commonly used are:^[1]

• Crystal structure and habit: See the above discussion of crystal structure. A mineral may show good crystal habit or form, or it may be massive, granular or compact with only microscopically visible crystals.

Talc

Rough diamond.

• Hardness: the physical hardness of a mineral is usually measured according to the Mohs scale. This scale is relative and goes from 1 to 10. A mineral with a given Mohs hardness can scratch the surface of any mineral that has a lower hardness than itself.
  • Mohs hardness scale:^[25]

1. Talc Mg₃Si₄O₁₀(OH)₂
2. Gypsum CaSO₄·2H₂O
3. Calcite CaCO₃
4. Fluorite CaF₂
5. Apatite Ca₅(PO₄)₃(OH,Cl,F)
6. Orthoclase KAlSi₃O₈
7. Quartz SiO₂
8. Topaz Al₂SiO₄(OH,F)₂
9. Corundum Al₂O₃
10. Diamond C (pure carbon)

• Luster indicates the way a mineral's surface interacts with light and can range from dull to glassy (vitreous).
  • Metallic – high reflectivity like metal: galena and pyrite
  • Sub-metallic – slightly less than metallic reflectivity: magnetite
  • Non-metallic lusters:
    • Adamantine – brilliant, the luster of diamond also cerussite and anglesite
    • Vitreous – the luster of a broken glass: quartz
    • Pearly – iridescent and pearl-like: talc and apophyllite
    • Resinous – the luster of resin: sphalerite and sulfur
    • Silky – a soft light shown by fibrous materials: gypsum and chrysotile
    • Dull/earthy – shown by finely crystallized minerals: the kidney ore variety of hematite
• Diaphaneity describes how well light passes through a mineral; there are three basic degrees of transparency:
  • Transparent objects can be seen through a transparent mineral, such as a clear quartz crystal
  • Translucent light passes through the mineral but no objects can be seen
  • Opaque no light passes through the mineral

Many minerals range from transparent to translucent or translucent to opaque. Calcite, for instance, can be translucent or opaque. Some minerals that are naturally translucent become opaque with weathering.

• Color indicates the appearance of the mineral in reflected light or transmitted light for translucent minerals (i.e. what it looks like to the naked eye).
  • Iridescence – the play of colors due to surface or internal interference. Labradorite exhibits internal iridescence whereas hematite and sphalerite often show the surface effect.
• Streak refers to the color of the powder a mineral leaves after rubbing it on an unglazed porcelain streak plate. Note that this is not always the same color as the original mineral.
• Cleavage describes the way a mineral may split apart along various planes. In thin sections, cleavage is visible as thin parallel lines across a mineral.
• Fracture describes how a mineral breaks when broken contrary to its natural cleavage planes.
  • Chonchoidal fracture is a smooth curved fracture with concentric ridges of the type shown by glass.
  • Hackley is jagged fracture with sharp edges.
  • Fibrous
  • Irregular
• Specific gravity relates the mineral mass to the mass of an equal volume of water, namely the density of the material. While most minerals, including all the common rock-forming minerals, have a specific gravity of 2.5–3.5, a few are noticeably more or less dense, e.g. several sulfide minerals have high specific gravity compared to the common rock-forming minerals.
• Other properties: fluorescence (response to ultraviolet light), magnetism, radioactivity, tenacity (response to mechanical induced changes of shape or form), piezoelectricity and reactivity to dilute acids.

Chemical properties of minerals[link]

Minerals may be classified according to chemical composition. They are here categorized by anion group. The list below is in approximate order of their abundance in the Earth's crust. The list follows the Dana classification system^[1][26] which closely parallels the Strunz classification.

Silicate class[link]

Quartz

The largest group of minerals by far are the silicates (most rocks are ≥95% silicates), which are composed largely of silicon and oxygen, with the addition of ions such as aluminium, magnesium, iron, and calcium. Some important rock-forming silicates include the feldspars, quartz, olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, garnets, and micas.

Carbonate class[link]

The carbonate minerals consist of those minerals containing the anion (CO₃)²⁻ and include calcite and aragonite (both calcium carbonate), dolomite (magnesium/calcium carbonate) and siderite (iron carbonate). Carbonates are commonly deposited in marine settings when the shells of dead planktonic life settle and accumulate on the sea floor. Carbonates are also found in evaporitic settings (e.g. the Great Salt Lake, Utah) and also in karst regions, where the dissolution and reprecipitation of carbonates leads to the formation of caves, stalactites and stalagmites. The carbonate class also includes the nitrate and borate minerals.

Sulfate class[link]

Hanksite, Na₂₂K(SO₄)₉(CO₃)₂Cl, one of the few minerals that is considered a carbonate and a sulfate

Sulfate minerals all contain the sulfate anion, SO₄²⁻. Sulfates commonly form in evaporitic settings where highly saline waters slowly evaporate, allowing the formation of both sulfates and halides at the water-sediment interface. Sulfates also occur in hydrothermal vein systems as gangue minerals along with sulfide ore minerals. Another occurrence is as secondary oxidation products of original sulfide minerals. Common sulfates include anhydrite (calcium sulfate), celestine (strontium sulfate), barite (barium sulfate), and gypsum (hydrated calcium sulfate). The sulfate class also includes the chromate, molybdate, selenate, sulfite, tellurate, and tungstate minerals.

Halide class[link]

Halite

The halide minerals are the group of minerals forming the natural salts and include fluorite (calcium fluoride), halite (sodium chloride), sylvite (potassium chloride), and sal ammoniac (ammonium chloride). Halides, like sulfates, are commonly found in evaporite settings such as salt lakes and landlocked seas such as the Dead Sea and Great Salt Lake. The halide class includes the fluoride, chloride, bromide and iodide minerals.

Oxide class[link]

Oxide minerals are extremely important in mining as they form many of the ores from which valuable metals can be extracted. They also carry the best record of changes in the Earth's magnetic field. They commonly occur as precipitates close to the Earth's surface, oxidation products of other minerals in the near surface weathering zone, and as accessory minerals in igneous rocks of the crust and mantle. Common oxides include hematite (iron oxide), magnetite (iron oxide), chromite (iron chromium oxide), spinel (magnesium aluminium oxide – a common component of the mantle), ilmenite (iron titanium oxide), rutile (titanium dioxide), and ice (hydrogen oxide). The oxide class includes the oxide and the hydroxide minerals.

Sulfide class[link]

Many sulfide minerals are economically important as metal ores. Common sulfides include pyrite (iron sulfide – commonly known as fools' gold), chalcopyrite (copper iron sulfide), pentlandite (nickel iron sulfide), and galena (lead sulfide). The sulfide class also includes the selenides, the tellurides, the arsenides, the antimonides, the bismuthinides, and the sulfosalts (sulfur and a second anion such as arsenic).

Phosphate class[link]

The phosphate mineral group actually includes any mineral with a tetrahedral unit AO₄ where A can be phosphorus, antimony, arsenic or vanadium. By far the most common phosphate is apatite which is an important biological mineral found in teeth and bones of many animals. The phosphate class includes the phosphate, arsenate, vanadate, and antimonate minerals.

Element class[link]

The elemental group includes native metals and intermetallic elements (gold, silver, copper), semi-metals and non-metals (antimony, bismuth, graphite, sulfur). This group also includes natural alloys, such as electrum (a natural alloy of gold and silver), phosphides, silicides, nitrides and carbides (which are usually only found naturally in a few rare meteorites).

Organic class[link]

The organic mineral class includes biogenic substances in which geological processes have been a part of the genesis or origin of the existing compound.^[2] Minerals of the organic class include various oxalates, mellitates, citrates, cyanates, acetates, formates, hydrocarbons and other miscellaneous species.^[5] Examples include whewellite, moolooite, mellite, fichtelite, carpathite, evenkite and abelsonite.

See also[link]

• A list of minerals with associated Wikipedia articles
• A comprehensive list of minerals
• Bowen's reaction series
• Dietary mineral
• Goldich dissolution series
• Mineral collecting
• Mineral industry
• Mineral processing
• Mineral water
• Mineral wool
• Mineralientage
• Nonmineral
• Norman L. Bowen
• Ores
• Quarry
• Mineral collecting
• Tucson Gem & Mineral Show

	Book: Mineralogy
Wikipedia books are collections of articles that can be downloaded or ordered in print.

References[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Minerals

• Mindat mineralogical database, largest mineral database on the Internet
• "Mineralogy Database" by David Barthelmy (2009)
• "Vibrational Spectroscopy and Photo Atlas of Minerals", Mineral atlas with properties, photos, etc.
• Ontogeny of minerals in drawings. Drawings of crystals, druses, and mineral aggregates, showing genetic features indicative of their history, ontogenesis, and formative processes
• "Mineral Identification Key II" Mineralogical Society of America
• "The Mineral and Gemstone Kingdom" interactive reference guide to minerals and gemstones
• "American Mineralogist Crystal Structure Database"

Danny Howells (born on 24 November 1970) is an English producer and DJ. His music is often described as progressive house, though he prefers to associate more with tech house and is sometimes described simply as "deepsexyfuturistictechfunkouse". At performances, he is well known to interact personally with the audience.^[1] Howells has mixed several albums for Global Underground in addition to his Nocturnal Frequencies series. Howells is also a member of the duo Science Department with Dick Trevor, which has produced the singles "Breathe" and "Persuasion"/"Repercussion" as well as remixes for artists such as BT. From 2008 he has run his own record label, Dig Deeper - named after his long running club night.

Biography[link]

Danny Howells was born in the South East England town of Hastings in 1970.^[2] Howells's first event DJ-ing came in the late 1980s and he began to perform at local clubs.^[2] In 1991, Bedrock founder John Digweed heard one of Howells's mix tapes and invited Howells to join the Bedrock club nights.^[2] Howells traveled with Bedrock until they settled at the club Heaven in London.^[2] He would spend nine years as warm-up DJ for Digweed at Bedrock.^[3]

In 1995, Howells began producing experimental techno tracks with fellow Hastings native, Tim Cross, under the moniker Squelch.^[2] Over the next two years, Squelch produced several singles and attracted the attention of the record label Jackpot, who released what would be Cross's and Howells's final single together.^[2] In 1997, Cross and Howells split, though Howells stayed with Jackpot. Jackpot teamed Danny Howells up with Rob Green to produce a remix of React 2 Rhythm's "Intoxication".^[2] Howells performed for the first time outside of the UK, traveling to Holland for his first gig abroad, which gained him a large fan base there.^[4] Following his international tour, Howells signed with Dutch record label ID&T to create his debut mix album, Nightlife Report 1: Mick Boskamp Presents Danny Howells.^[2] Howells and Green continued to work together, including on a remix of Robbie Williams's "South of the Border.^[2] Howells began to produce solo as well, taking on projects such as Ashtrax's "Kafka" and BT's "Dreaming".^[2]

In 1999, Danny Howells began his Nocturnal Frequencies series of mix albums on the record label Obsessive. He also began remixing with Dick Trevor, and the two soon adopted the name Science Department for their original productions.^[2] Howells continued his live DJ-ing, playing regularly at clubs including Bedrock, Renaissance, Cream, and Ministry of Sound.^[2] After the release of his next Nocturnal Frequencies album, Howells left Bedrock and Ministry of Sound, taking a residency at Twilo in New York City.^[2] After finishing the Science Department track "Breathe", Howells compiled his next mix album Nubreed 002.^[2] The second entry in Global Underground's Nubreed series, Howells's album consisted largely of funky, progressive, tech house.^[5] Howells was voted number ten of the world's top DJs in DJ Magazine's 2001 Top 100 DJs poll.^[6]

Howells continued his relationship with Global Underground, releasing the first album in their 24:7 series in July 2003. The first disc features a primarily downtempo or chill out music, similarly to Nick Warren's Global Underground 024: Reykjavik, while the second is more of a club mix.^[7] In 2005, Global Underground brought in Howells for the 27th entry in their series. Howells entry, Global Underground 027: Miami, is based on his 31 October 2004 performance at Club Space in Miami, Florida.^[8] The first disc is based on his morning set and the second disc on his late night set.^[8] In 2008 he launched his own record label "Dig Deeper", initially as a means of showcasing his own productions, but more recently featuring many new and established artists. In 2011 he released the first compilation on this imprint, entitled "Phase One".

Genre and style[link]

Up until the late 1990s, DJs such as Howells allowed themselves to be categorised under genres like "deep trance".^[9] However, with the commercialisation of trance, Howells and others began to be classified as progressive house, tribal house, or tech house.^[6][9]

Danny Howells is also known for his unique clothing styles, including wearing eye liner and "loud" Paisley shirts, which he buys from vintage stores or thrift shops.^[8][10]

Selected discography[link]

Albums^[11]

• 1998: Nightlife Report 1: Mick Boskamp Presents Danny Howells (ID&T)
• 1999: Nocturnal Frequencies (Obsessive)
• 1999: Danny Howells Presents Jackpot Records (Jackpot)
• 2000: Nocturnal Frequencies 2 (Obsessive)
• 2000: Nubreed 002 (Boxed)
• 2001: Renaissance: Revelation (Renaissance)
• 2002: Nocturnal Frequencies 3 (Obsessive)
• 2003: 24:7 (Boxed) (Billboard Top Electronic Albums #10)
• 2005: Global Underground 027: Miami (Global Underground Ltd.) (Billboard Top Electronic Albums #14)
• 2006: Choice - A Collection Of Classics (Azuli Records)
• 2008: Renaissance: The Mix Collection (Renaissance)
• 2009: Dig Deeper: The New Label

Remixes

• Felix da Housecat - ("We All Wanna Be Prince") (2009)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Danny Howells Official Website
• Danny Howells discography at Discogs
• Danny Howells discography at MusicBrainz
• Danny Howells Tracklisting archive
• Danny Howells's myspace page

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Tagged since July 2010. Very few or no other articles link to it. Please help introduce links to this page from other articles related to it. Tagged since March 2010.

Joel D. Wallach (born in St. Louis County, Missouri on June 4, 1940) is an American veterinarian and naturopath. He markets colloidal minerals for many conditions and makes many controversial claims. He is openly critical of many mainstream medical treatments. Dr. Joel Wallach has published numerous books on dietary deficiencies and their resultant effects. Dr. Wallach conducts approximately 300 lectures annually to overflowing and enthusiastic audiences and has sold over 40 million cassettes/CD's which are recordings of the lecture "Dead Doctors Don't Lie". His marketing and claims are the subject of some criticism Liquid multivitamin-mineral preparations are gaining popularity among those who believe that liquid (or colloidal) nutrients are better absorbed from a liquid than when ingested in tablets or pills.

Criticism[link]

Critics like James Pontolillo^[1] are skeptical of Wallach's claims and research. Pontolillo's article attempts to debunk many claims made by Wallach, such as a calcium deficiency causing Bell's Palsy -- traditionally known to be a form of cranial nerve paralysis. It also highlights other claims not supported by any clinical research, and highlights the potential harm from supposed vitamin overdosing.^[1]

Dr. Wallach replies however, that profits are the prime motive for the medical industries decisions on any health matter. Vitamins and minerals are a threat because they can be bought at reasonable prices over the counter without being controlled by a Doctor. Even the two time Nobel Prize winning scientist Linus Pauling, amongst many other well known scientists was labeled a "Quack" in an effort to preserve the powerful attitude and monopolistic control of the general medical industry which has only seen extreme increases in profits while general life expectency has gone down and cancer rates have sky rocketed. This industry has no choice but to disparage anyone who claims, even when it is supported by newsworthy evidence, to usurp curative power from medical doctors. Dr. Wallach even created a special website specifically aimed at presenting all the evidence that supports each of his claims at www.wallachfiles.com.

Silver, for example has been popular since ancient times as an antibiotic and in clinical tests has impressive antibacterial properties. In 1999, after massive popularity brought on in part by information presented on the internet, Colloidal Silver was officially recognized as a "drug" subject to the control of the Food and Drug Administration. The Environmental Protection Agency has officially stated that there is "no known toxicity level" for colloidal silver.

However, critics claim that a comprehensive explanation of why one colloidal mineral, silver, is nutritionally useless, and may in fact cause harm, is given by a recent article from Cecil Adams of Straight Dope.^[2]

Publications some refute[link]

• D. Wallach, Ma Lan, Wei Han Yu, Bo-Qi Gu, Feng Teng Yu and Roy F. Goddard (1990). Common denominators in the etiology and pathology of visceral lesions of cystic fibrosis and Keshan Disease. Biol. Trace El. Res. 24: 189 — 205.^[3]
• Charney AN, Wallach JD, Donowitz M, Johnstone N. Effect of cycloheximide on corticosteroid-induced changes in colonic function. Am J Physiol. 1982 Aug;243(2):G112-6.^[4]
• Wallach JD. A connection between bulimia and depression? Am J Psychiatry. 1986 Mar;143(3):390-1.^[5]
• Lowenkopf EL, Wallach JD. Bulimia: theoretical conceptualizations and therapies. J Am Acad Psychoanal. 1985 Oct;13(4):489-503.^[6]
• Boever WJ, Thoen CO, Wallach JD. Mycobacterium chelonei infection in a natterer manatee.J Am Vet Med Assoc. 1976 Nov 1;169(9):927-9.^[7]

Published books[link]

• Joel D. Wallach, BS, DVM, ND and Ma Lan, MS. The Agebeaters and Their Universal Currency for Immortality. Wellness Publication LLC, Bonita CA, 2008. ISBN 0-9748581-6-1
• Joel D. Wallach, BS, DVM, ND and Ma Lan, MS. The Energy Crisis. Wellness Publication LLC, Bonita CA, 2007. ISBN 0-9748581-5-3
• Joel D. Wallach, BS, DVM, ND and Ma Lan, MS. Passport To Aromatherapy. Wellness Publication LLC, Bonita CA, 2005. ISBN 0-9748581-2-9
• Joel D. Wallach, BS, DVM, ND and Ma Lan, MS. God Bless America!. Wellness Publication LLC, Bonita CA, 2002. ISBN 0-9701490-5-0
• Joel D. Wallach, BS, DVM, ND, and Ma Lan, MS. Let's Play Herbal Doctor. Wellness Publication LLC, Bonita CA, 2001. ISBN 0-9701490-7-7.
• Joel D. Wallach, BS, DVM, ND, and Ma Lan, MS. Dead Doctors Don't Lie. Legacy Communication Group Incorporated, 1999.
• Joel D. Wallach, BS, DVM, ND, and Ma Lan, MS. Rare Earths, Forbidden Cures. Double Happiness Publishing Company, 1997. ISBN 0-9701490-8-5.
• Joel D. Wallach, BS, DVM, ND, and Ma Lan, MS. Let's Play Doctor! Double Happiness Publishing Company, 1998. ISBN 0-9701490-9-3.
• Joel D. Wallach, DVM and William J. Boever, DVM. Diseases of Exotic Animals: Medical and Surgical Management. W. B. Saunders Company, 1983.
• Joel D. Wallach, DVM and Josephine Wallach. Rhino Express. Vantage Press, 1978.

References[link]

External links[link]

Dr. Wallach video[link]

• Youngevity Canada - Importance of Minerals

Sites run by Wallach[link]

• Youngevity
• Wallach Files

Critics[link]

• The Skeptic's Dictionary - The Skeptic's Dictionary
• Dr. Wallach Exposed - Stuart Adams
• Colloidal Mineral Supplements - Quackwatch
• What’s the deal with colloidal silver? - Cecil Adams, The Straight Dope

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There are many people in history who are commonly appended with the phrase "the Great", or who were called that or an equivalent phrase in their own language. Other languages have their own suffixes such as e Bozorg and e azam in Persian and Urdu respectively.

In Persia, the title "the Great" at first seems to be a colloquial version of the Old Persian title "Great King". This title was first used by the conqueror Cyrus II of Persia.^[1]

The Persian title was inherited by Alexander III of Macedon (336–323 BC) when he conquered the Persian Empire, and the epithet "Great" eventually became personally associated with him. The first reference (in a comedy by Plautus)^[2] assumes that everyone knew who "Alexander the Great" was; however, there is no earlier evidence that Alexander III of Macedon was called "the Great".

The early Seleucid kings, who succeeded Alexander in Persia, used "Great King" in local documents, but the title was most notably used for Antiochus the Great (223–187 BC).

Later rulers and commanders began to use the epithet "the Great" as a personal name, like the Roman general Pompey. Others received the surname retrospectively, like the Carthaginian Hanno and the Indian emperor Ashoka the Great. Once the surname gained currency, it was also used as an honorific surname for people without political careers, like the philosopher Albert the Great.

As there are no objective criteria for "greatness", the persistence of later generations in using the designation greatly varies. For example, Louis XIV of France was often referred to as "The Great" in his lifetime but is rarely called such nowadays, while Frederick II of Prussia is still called "The Great". A later Hohenzollern - Wilhelm I - was often called "The Great" in the time of his grandson Wilhelm II, but rarely later.

Rulers[link]

• Abbas I of Persia (1571–1629), Shah of Iran
• Akbar (1542–1605), ruler of the Mughal Empire of South Asia, mainly India
• Alain I of Albret (1440–1522), French aristocrat
• Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), King of Macedonia, Persia, Greece, Egypt, and all of Mesopotamia
• Alexander I of Georgia (1386–1446), King of Georgia
• Alfonso III of León (c. 848-910), King of León, Galicia and Asturias
• Alfred the Great (848/849-899), King of Wessex
• Antiochus III the Great (c. 241–187 BC), ruler of the Seleucid Empire
• Ashoka the Great (c. 304–232 BC), Indian emperor of the Maurya dynasty
• Ashot I of Iberia “the Great”(died 826/830), presiding prince of Iberia (modern Georgia),
• Askia Mohammad I (c. 1442–1538), ruler of the Songhai Empire
• Bhumibol Adulyadej (born 1927), King of Thailand
• Bolesław I Chrobry (967-1025), sometimes called "the Great", first King of Poland
• Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the following section)
• Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (1736–1809), founder and ruler of the Rattanakosin Kingdom (in what is now Thailand)
• Cnut the Great (c. 985 or 995-1035), King of Denmark, England, Norway and parts of Sweden
• Casimir III the Great (1310–1370), King of Poland
• Catherine the Great (1729–1796), Empress of Russia
• Chandragupta II (reigned 375-413/415), also known as Vikramaditya, ruler of the Gupta empire in India
• Charlemagne (died 814), King of the Franks and Emperor of the Romans
• Chulalongkorn (1853–1910), King of Siam (now Thailand)
• Chlothar II (584-629), King of Neustria and King of the Franks
• Conrad, Margrave of Meissen (c. 1097-1157), Margrave of Meissen
• Constantine I (c. 272-337), Roman emperor
• Cyaxares the Great (c. 625-585 BC), third king of Media
• Cyrus the Great (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC), founder and ruler of the Persian or Achaemenid Empire
• Darius the Great (550 – 486 BC), third ruler of the Persian Empire
• Devapala (died 850), ruler of the Pala Empire in the Indian subcontinent
• Dionysius I, Greek tyrant of Syracuse^[3]
• Ferdinand I of León and Castile (c. 1015–1065), King of León and Count of Castile
• Frederick the Great (1712–1786), King of Prussia
• Genghis Khan (1162?-1227), founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire
• Gero (c. 900–965), ruler of Marca Geronis, a very large march in Europe
• Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1594–1632), King of Sweden, founder of the Swedish Empire, and noted military leader
• Gwanggaeto the Great, King of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea^[4][5]
• Hanno the Great, the name of three leaders of Carthage, in the 4th, 3rd, and 2nd centuries BC
• Henry I, Duke of Burgundy (946–1002)
• Henry IV of France (1553–1610), King of France and King of Navarre
• Herod the Great (73/74 BC-4 BC), King of Judea
• Hugh the Great (898-956), Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris
• Hugh Magnus of France (1007–1025), co-King of France
• Hugh I, Count of Vermandois (1057–1101)
• Humphrey I de Bohun (died c. 1123), Anglo-Norman aristocrat
• Ivan III of Russia (1440–1505), Tsar of Russia
• John I of Portugal (1358–1433), King of Portugal and the Algarve
• John II of Aragon (1398–1479), King of Aragon and, through his wife, King of Navarre
• Justinian I (483-565), Byzantine Emperor
• Kamehameha I (c. 1758-1819), first King of Hawai'i
• Kanishka (died c. 127), ruler of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia and parts of India
• Kvirike III of Kakheti (1010–1029), King of Kakheti in eastern Georgia
• Kublai Khan (1215–1294), Mongol ruler in the 13th century and Emperor of China; founder of the Yuan Dynasty
• Llywelyn the Great (c. 1172–1240), Prince of Gwynedd and de facto ruler of most of Wales
• Louis I of Hungary (1326–1382), King of Hungary, Croatia and Poland
• Mangrai the Great (1238–1317), Lanna, northern Thailand
• Emperor Meiji (1852–1912), Emperor of Japan
• Mircea I of Wallachia (1355–1418)
• Mithridates II of Parthia (died 88 BC), ruler of the Parthian Empire (in present day Iran)
• Mithridates VI of Pontus (134 BC–63 BC), ruler of Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom
• Mstislav I of Kiev (1076–1132), Grand Prince of Kievan Rus
• Naresuan (1555–1605), King of Ayutthaya
• Narai (1633–1688), King of Ayutthaya (in what is now modern Thailand)
• Odo the Great (died c. 735), Duke of Aquitaine
• Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (912-973)
• K'inich Janaab' Pakal (603-683), ruler of the Mayan city-state of Palenque
• Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa (1123–1186), King of Sri Lanka
• Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia (died 1075), King of Croatia
• Peter the Great (1672–1725), Tsar of Russia
• Peter III of Aragon (1239–1285), King of Aragon and King of Sicily
• Pompey (106 BC-48 BC), military and political leader of the late Roman Republic, rival of Julius Caesar
• Radama I (1793–1828), first king of greater Madagascar
• Raja Raja Chola I (c. 947-1014), Indian emperor of the Cholas.^[6][7][8]
• Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1014–1044), Tamil King of India
• Ramesses II (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC), considered the greatest pharaoh of Ancient Egypt
• Ram Khamhaeng (around 1237 to 1247-1298), King of Sukhothai (in present day Thailand)
• Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (1082–1131), also Count of Provence and various other counties
• Rhodri the Great (c. 820–878), King of Gwynedd (in present day Wales)
• Roman the Great (after 1160-1205), Grand Prince of Kiev
• Saladin (c. 1138-1193), Kurdish Sultan of Egypt and Syria, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, and victor over the Crusaders
• Samudragupta (c. 335–375), ruler of the Gupta empire in the Indian subcontinent
• Sancho III of Navarre (c. 992-1035), King of Kingdom of Navarre
• Sargon of Akkad (died c. 2215 BC), ruler of the Akkadian Empire
• Sejong the Great (1397–1450), Korean king^[9]
• Shapur II (309-379), king of the Sassanid Empire, Persia
• Simeon I of Bulgaria (864/865-927), ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire
• Stephen III of Moldavia (1433–1504), Prince of Moldavia (Romania)
• Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia (c. 1308-1355), King of Serbia and Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks
• Taksin (1734–1782), King of the Thonburi Kingdom (Thailand)
• Tamar (1160-1123), Queen of the Georgian Empire
• Timur (1336–1405), better known as Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Dynasty
• Theobald II, Count of Champagne (1090–1151), Count of Blois and of Chartres as Theobald IV, Count of Champagne and of Brie
• Theodoric the Great (454-526), King of the Ostrogoths, regent of the Visigoths and a viceroy of the Byzantine Empire
• Theodosius I (347-395), Roman emperor
• Tigranes the Great (140-55 BC), Emperor of Armenia
• Tiridates III of Armenia (285-339), King of Armenia
• Umar (c. 586 to 590–644), second caliph of the Muslim Empire
• Valdemar I of Denmark (1131–1182), King of Denmark
• Valentinian I (364-375), Roman Emperor
• Vladimir I of Kiev (c. 958-1015), ruler of Kievan Rus
• Vytautas (c. 1350-1430), archduke of the Lithuanian Grand Duchy
• William I, Count of Burgundy (1020–1087), Count of Burgandy and Mâcon
• William V, Duke of Aquitaine (969-1030), also Count of Poitou
• Xerxes I (519-465 BC), King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire (Persia)
• Yu the Great (c. 2200-2100 BC), legendary ruler in ancient China

Religious figures[link]

• Abraham the Great of Kashkar (ca. 492-586), monk and saint of the Assyrian Church of the East
• Abraham Kidunaia (died c. 366, hermit, priest, and Christian saint of Mesopotamia
• Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–1280), medieval German philosopher and theologian
• Anthony the Great (c. 251–356), early Christian saint of Egypt
• Babai the Great (c. 551–628), Assyrian church leader
• Basil of Caesarea (330-379), Greek bishop and theologian
• Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the previous section)
• Euthymius the Great (377-473), abbot and Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saint
• Gertrude the Great (1256-c. 1302), German Benedictine, mystic, theologian and Roman Catholic saint
• Pope Gregory I (c. 540-604)
• Hiyya the Great, 3rd-century rabbi, Palestine
• Pope John Paul II (1920–2005)
• Pope Leo I (c. 391 or 400-461)
• Macarius of Egypt (c. 300-391), Egyptian hermit
• Pope Nicholas I (c. 800-867)
• Photius I of Constantinople (c. 810–c. 893), Eastern Orthodox saint and Patriarch of Constantinople
• William of Maleval (died 1157), founder of the Catholic congregation of Williamites

Other[link]

• Beli Mawr, a figure in medieval Welsh literature and genealogies
• Emmy the Great, folk singer
• Matteo Rosso the Great, Roman politician and father of Pope Nicholas III
• Prokop the Great, Hussite general in Bohemia

See also[link]

• Epithet
• List of monarchs by nickname
• List of nicknames of European Royalty and Nobility: G-I
• James, son of Zebedee, also known as James the Greater, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus
• Ajax (mythology), called Ajax the Greater
• Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, whose common honorific "Mahatma" means "Great Soul"

Notes[link]