Carleton Stevens Coon, (23 June 1904 – 3 June 1981) was an American physical anthropologist, Professor of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania, lecturer and professor at Harvard, and president of the American Association of Physical Anthropologists.^[1]

Biography[link]

Carleton Coon was born in Wakefield, Massachusetts to a Cornish American family.^[2] He developed an interest in prehistory, and attended Phillips Academy, Andover where he studied hieroglyphics and became proficient in ancient Greek. Coon matriculated to Harvard, where he studied Egyptology with George Reisner. He was attracted to the relatively new field of anthropology by Earnest Hooton and he graduated magna cum laude in 1925. He became the Curator of Ethnology at the University Museum of Philadelphia.^[3][4]

Coon continued with coursework at Harvard. He conducted fieldwork in the Rif area of Morocco in 1925, which was politically unsettled after a rebellion of the local populace against the Spanish. He earned his Ph.D. in 1928^[5] and returned to Harvard as a lecturer and later a professor. Coon's interest was in attempting to use Darwin's theory of natural selection to explain the differing physical characteristics of races. Coon studied Albanians from 1929–1930; he traveled to Ethiopia in 1933; and in Arabia, North Africa and the Balkans, he worked on sites from 1925 to 1939, where he discovered a Neanderthal in 1939. Coon rewrote William Z. Ripley's 1899 The Races of Europe in 1939.

Coon wrote widely for a general audience like his mentor Earnest Hooton. Coon published The Riffians, Flesh of the Wild Ox, Measuring Ethiopia, and A North Africa Story: The Anthropologist as OSS Agent. The North Africa Story was an account of his work in North Africa during World War II, which involved espionage and the smuggling of arms to French resistance groups in German-occupied Morocco under the guise of anthropological fieldwork. During that time, Coon was affiliated with the United States Office of Strategic Services, the forerunner to the Central Intelligence Agency.

Coon left Harvard to take up a position as Professor of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania in 1948, which had an excellent museum. Throughout the 1950s he produced academic papers, as well as many popular books for the general reader, the most notable being The Story of Man (1954).

Coon did photography work for the United States Air Force from 1954-1957. He photographed areas where US planes might be attacked. This led him to travel throughout Korea, Ceylon, India, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Japan, Taiwan, Nepal, Sikkim, and the Philippines.

Coon published The Origin of Races in 1962. In its "Introduction" he described the book as part of the outcome of his project he conceived (in light of his work on The Races of Europe) around the end of 1956, for a work to be titled along the lines of Races of the World. He said that since 1959 he had proceeded with the intention to follow The Origin of Races with a sequel, so the two would jointly fulfill the goals of the original project.^[6] (He indeed published The Living Races of Man in 1965.) The book asserted that the human species divided into five races before it had evolved into Homo sapiens. Further, he suggested that the races evolved into Homo sapiens at different times. It was not well received.^[7] The field of anthropology was moving rapidly from theories of race typology, and The Origin of Races was widely castigated by his peers in anthropology as supporting racist ideas with outmoded theory and notions which had long since been repudiated by modern science. One of his harshest critics, Theodore Dobzhansky, scorned it as providing "grist for racist mills".^[8]

He continued to write and defend his work, publishing two volumes of memoirs in 1980 and 1981.^[9]

He died on June 3, 1981, in Gloucester, Massachusetts.

Racial theories[link]

Coon concluded that sometimes different racial types annihilated other types while in other cases warfare and/or settlement led to the partial displacement of racial types. He asserted that Europe was the refined product of a long history of racial progression. He stated that historically "different strains in one population have showed differential survival values and often one has reemerged at the expense of others (in Europeans)", in The Races of Europe, The White Race and the New World (1939).^[10]

He stated the "maximum survival" of the European racial type was increased by the replacement of the indigenous peoples of the New World.^[10] He stated the history of the White race to have involved "racial survivals" of White subraces.^[11]

Study of the Caucasoid race[link]

In his book The Races of Europe, The White Race and the New World (1939), Coon used the term "Caucasoid" and "White race" synonymously, as had become common in the United States. This is in contrast to many uses of the term "White race" that exclude Arabs and those from the Indian subcontinent. Typically Coon would include most people from the Middle East and South Asia within the "Caucasoid" and "White" definitions, which he used interchangeably. In his introduction, he stated his interest was "the somatic character of peoples belonging to the white race". His first chapter was entitled, "Introduction to the Historical Study of the White Race", and his last chapter, "The White Race and the New World".^[12]

He considered the European racial type to be a sub-race of the Caucasoid race, one that warranted more study. In other sections of The Races of Europe, he mentioned people to be "European in racial type" and having a "European racial element."^[13]

Coon suggested that the study of some major versions of European racial types was sadly lacking compared with other types, writing,

"For many years physical anthropologists have found it more amusing to travel to distant lands and to measure small remnants of little known or romantic peoples than to tackle the drudgery of a systematic study of their own compatriots. For that reason, sections in the present book that deal with the Lapps, the Arabs, the Berbers, the Tajiks, and the Ghegs may appear more fully and more lucidly treated than those that deal with the French, the Hungarians, the Czechs, or the English. What is needed more than anything else in this respect is a thoroughgoing study of the inhabitants of the principal and most powerful nations of Europe."^[10]

Summary of The Races of Europe^[10]
Coon's 1939 book concluded the following:

1. The Caucasian race is of dual origin consisting of Upper Paleolithic (mixture of sapiens and neandertals) types and Mediterranean (purely sapiens) types.
2. The Upper Paleolithic peoples are the truly indigenous peoples of Europe.
3. Mediterraneans invaded Europe in large numbers during the Neolithic period and settled there.
4. The racial situation in Europe today may be explained as a mixture of Upper Paleolithic survivors and Mediterraneans.
5. When reduced Upper Paleolithic survivors and Mediterraneans mix, then occurs the process of dinarization, which produces a hybrid with non-intermediate features.
6. The Caucasian race encompasses the regions of Europe, Central Asia, South Asia, the Near East, North Africa, and Northeast Africa.
7. The Nordic race is part of the Mediterranean racial stock, being a mixture of Corded and Danubian Mediterraneans.

Mediterranean race[link]

According to Carleton Coon the "homeland and cradle" of the Mediterranean race is in the Middle East, in the area from Morocco to Afghanistan.^[14] Coon argued that smaller Mediterraneans traveled by land from the Mediterranean basin north into Europe in the Mesolithic era. Taller Mediterraneans (Atlanto-Mediterraneans) were Neolithic seafarers who sailed in reed-type boats and colonized the Mediterranean basin from a Near Eastern origin.^[14]

While often characterized by dark brown hair, dark eyes and robust features, he stressed that Mediterraneans skin is, as a rule, some shade of white from pink to light brown, hair is usually black or dark brown but his whiskers may reveal a few strands of red of even blond, and blond hair is an exception but can be found, and a wide range of eye color can be found. He stressed the central role of the Mediterraneans in his works, claiming "The Mediterraneans occupy the center of the stage; their areas of greatest concentration are precisely those where civilization is the oldest. This is to be expected, since it was they who produced it and it, in a sense, that produced them".^[14]

Racial origins[link]

Coon first modified Franz Weidenreich's Polycentric (or multiregional) theory of the origin of races. The Weidenreich Theory states that human races have evolved independently in the Old World from Homo erectus to Homo sapiens sapiens, while at the same time there was gene flow between the various populations. Coon held a similar belief that modern humans, Homo sapiens, arose separately in five different places from Homo erectus, "as each subspecies, living in its own territory, passed a critical threshold from a more brutal to a more sapient state", but unlike Weidenreich stressed gene flow far less.^[15][16]

Coon's modified form of the Weidenreich Theory is sometimes referred to as the Candelabra Hypothesis. A misunderstanding however has led some to believe that Coon supported parallel evolution or polygenism; this is not true since Coon's evolution model still allows for gene-flow, although he did not stress it.^[17]

In his 1962 book, The Origin of Races, Coon theorized that some races reached the Homo sapiens stage in evolution before others, resulting in the higher degree of civilization among some races.^[18] He had continued his theory of five races. He considered both what he called the Mongoloid race and the Caucasoid race had individuals who had adapted to crowding through evolution of the endocrine system, which made them more successful in the modern world of civilization. This can be found on pages 108-109 of The Origin of Races. In his book Coon contrasted a picture of an Indigenous Australian with one of a Chinese professor. His caption "The Alpha and the Omega" was used to demonstrate his research that brain size was positively correlated with intelligence.

By this he meant that the Caucasoid and Mongoloid races had evolved more in their separate areas after they had left Africa in a primitive form. He also believed, "The earliest Homo sapiens known, as represented by several examples from Europe and Africa, was an ancestral long-headed white man of short stature and moderately great brain size." Further, he wrote, "The negro group probably evolved parallel to the white strain." (The Races of Europe, Chapter II).

Races in the Indian Sub-Continent[link]

Coon's understanding of racial typology and diversity within the Indian sub-continent changed over time. In The Races of Europe, he regarded the so-called "Veddoids" of India (tribal Indians, or "Adivasi") as closely related to other peoples in the South-Pacific ("Australoids"), and he thought that this group (the "Australoids) was an important genetic substratum in Southern India. As for the north of the sub-continent, it was an extension of the Caucasoid range.^[19] By the time Coon coauthored The Living Races of Man, he thought that India's Adivasis were an ancient Caucasoid-Australoid mix who tended to be more Caucasoid than Australoid (with great variability), that the Dravidian peoples of Southern India were simply Caucasoid, and that the north of the sub-continent was also Caucasoid. In short, the Indian sub-continent (North and South) is "the easternmost outpost of the Caucasoid racial region".^[20] Underlying all of this was Coon's typological view of human history and biological variation, a way of thinking that is not taken seriously today by most anthropologists/biologists.^{[21][22][23][24]} Like all world regions, it is now understood by most scientists that the Indian sub-continent bleeds genetically into neighboring regions, being structured fluidly and continuously in a loose pattern of isolation-by-distance. Nevertheless, Coon's views are of historical interest, and are part of a long line of western anthropology which has sought to describe and conceptualize biological diversity in the Indian sub-continent.

Criticism[link]

Contemporary reception[link]

Coon's published magnum opus The Origin of Races (1962) received mixed reactions from scientists of the era.

Positive[link]

Ernst Mayr praised the work for its synthesis as having an "invigorating freshness that will reinforce the current revitalization of physical anthropology".^[25]

In a book review by Stanley Marion Garn, while criticising Coon's parallel view of the origin of the races with little gene flow, nonetheless praises the work for its racial taxonomy, and concludes: "an overall favorable report on the now famous Origin of Races".^[26]

Negative[link]

Sherwood Washburn and Ashley Montagu were heavily influenced by the modern synthesis in biology and population genetics. In addition, they were influenced by Franz Boas, who had moved away from typological racial thinking. Rather than supporting Coon's theories, they and other contemporary researchers viewed the human species as a continuous serial progression of populations and heavily criticised Coon's Origin of Races.

The Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s and changing social attitudes challenged racial theories like Coon's that had been used by segregationists to justify discrimination and depriving people of civil rights. In 1961 non-fiction writer Carleton Putnam published Race and Reason: A Yankee View, a popular theory of racial segregation. The American Association of Physical Anthropologists voted to censure Putnam's book. Coon, who was then the president of the association, resigned in protest, claiming the action violated free speech.^[27]

Posthumous reputation[link]

William W. Howells writing in an 1989 article, notes that Coon's research is "still regarded as a valuable source of data".^[28]

In 2001 John P. Jackson, Jr. researched Coon's papers in order to review the controversy around the reception of The Origin of Races, stating in the article abstract

Segregationists in the United States used Coon’s work as proof that African Americans were "junior" to white Americans, and thus unfit for full participation in American society. The paper examines the interactions among Coon, segregationist Carleton Putnam, geneticist Theodosius Dobzhansky, and anthropologist Sherwood Washburn. The paper concludes that Coon actively aided the segregationist cause in violation of his own standards for scientific objectivity.^[29]

Jackson found in the archived Coon papers records of repeated efforts by Coon to aid Putnam's efforts to provide intellectual support to the ongoing resistance to racial integration, while cautioning Putnam against statements that could identify Coon as an active ally. (Jackson also noted that both men had become aware that they had American-Revolutionary Gen. Israel Putnam as a common ancestor, making them (at least distant) cousins, but Jackson indicated neither when either learned of the family relationship nor whether they had a more recent common ancestor.)^[29]

Works[link]

Science:

• The Origin of Races (1962)
• The Story of Man (1954)
• The Races of Europe (1939)
• Caravan: the Story of the Middle East (1958)
• Races: A Study of the Problems of Race Formation in Man
• The Hunting Peoples
• Anthropology A to Z (1963)
• Living Races of Man (1965)
• Seven Caves: Archaeological Exploration in the Middle East
• Mountains of Giants: A Racial and Cultural Study of the North Albanian Mountain Ghegs
• Yengema Cave Report (his work in Sierra Leone)
• Racial Adaptations (1982)

Fiction and Memoir:

• Flesh of the Wild Ox (1932)
• The Riffian (1933)
• A North Africa Story: Story of an Anthropologist as OSS Agent (1980)
• Measuring Ethiopia
• Adventures and Discoveries: The Autobiography of Carleton S. Coon (1981)

References[link]

Citations[link]

Further reading[link]

• The Lagar Velho 1 Skeleton
• Hybrid Humans? Archaeological Institute of America Volume 52 Number 4, July/August 1999 by Spencer P.M. Harrington [2]
• Two Views of Coon's Origin of Races with Comments by Coon and Replies. 1963. Theodosius Dobzhansky; Ashley Montagu; C. S. Coon in Current Anthropology, Vol. 4, No. 4. (Oct., 1963), pp. 360–367.
• Jackson, John P. (2005). Science for Segregation: Race, Law, and the Case against Brown v. Board of Education. NYU Press. ISBN 978-0-8147-4271-6. Lay summary (30 August 2010). 
• The Races of Europe (1939) by Carleton S. Coon - physical anthropological information on the indigenous peoples of Europe.
• Tucker, William H. (2007). The funding of scientific racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07463-9. Lay summary (4 September 2010). 

External links[link]

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Carleton S. Coon

• Carleton Stevens Coon Papers, National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution
• Caravan: The Story of the Middle East

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2008)

Arthur de Gobineau in 1864

Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau (14 July 1816, Ville-d'Avray, Hauts-de-Seine – 13 October 1882, Turin) was a French aristocrat, novelist and man of letters who became famous for developing the theory of the Aryan master race in his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853–1855). De Gobineau is credited as being the father of modern racial demography.

Life and theories[link]

Portrait of de Gobineau by the Comtesse de la Tour, 1876

Gobineau's father was a government official and staunch royalist, and his mother, Anne-Louise Magdeleine de Gercy, was the daughter of a royal tax official. He was not, however, a nobleman, having added the 'count' to his name himself ^[1].

In the later years of the July Monarchy, Gobineau made his living writing serialized fiction (romans-feuilletons) and contributing to reactionary periodicals. He struck up a friendship and had voluminous correspondence with Alexis de Tocqueville, who brought him into the foreign ministry while he was foreign minister during the Second Republic.^[2]

Gobineau was a successful diplomat for the Second French Empire. Initially he was posted to Persia, before working in Brazil and other countries.

He came to believe that race created culture, arguing that distinctions between the three races - "black", "white", and "yellow" - were natural barriers, and that "race-mixing" breaks those barriers and leads to chaos. He classified Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, the Middle East, Central Asia, and North Africa as racially mixed.^[3]

Gobineau also questioned the belief that the black and yellow races belong to the same human family as the white race and share a common ancestor. Trained neither as a theologian nor a naturalist and writing before the popular spread of evolutionary theory, Gobineau took the Bible to be an true telling of human history and accepted in An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races the day's prevailing Christian doctrine that all human beings shared the common ancestors Adam and Eve (monogenism as opposed to polygenism). Nonetheless, he suggested that but for the Church's teaching there was nothing else to suggest that the colored races were foreborn, like the white race, from Adam,^[4][5] since "... nothing proves that at the first redaction of the Adamite genealogies the colored races were considered as forming part of the species".^[6]

Gobineau believed the white race was superior to the other races in the creation of civilized culture and maintaining ordered government. However, he also thought that the development of civilization in other periods was different than in his own and speculated that other races might have superior qualities in those civilization periods than in his own. Nonetheless, he believed European civilization represented the best of what remained of ancient civilizations and held the most superior attributes capable for continued survival. His primary thesis in regards to this theory was that European civilizational flowering from Greece to Rome and Germanic to contemporary sprang from, and corresponded to, the ancient Indo-European culture, also known as "Aryan". Gobineau originally wrote that, given the past trajectory of civilization in Europe, white race miscegenation was inevitable and would result in growing chaos. He attributed much of the economic turmoil in France to pollution of races. Later on in his life, with the spread of British and American civilization and the growth of Germany, he altered his opinion to believe that the white race could be saved.

Paradoxically, although Gobineau saw hope in the expansion of European power, he did not support the creation of commercial empires with their attendant multicultural milieu, concluding that the development of empires was ultimately destructive to the "superior races" that created them, since they led to the mixing of distinct races. Instead, he saw the later period of the 19th century imperialism as a degenerative process in European civilization. To support his conclusion, he continually referred to past empires in Europe and their attendant movement of non-white peoples into European homelands in explaining the ethnography of the nations of Europe.

According to his theories, the mixed populations of Spain, most of France and Italy, most of Southern Germany, most of Switzerland and Austria, and parts of the Britain, derived from the historical development of Roman, Greek, and Ottoman Empires which had opened up Europe to non-Aryan peoples of Africa and the Mediterraneum cultures. Also according to him, southern and western Iran, Southern Spain and Italy, consisted of a degenerative race arising from miscegenation. Also according to him, the whole of north India consisted of a yellow race.

Nazism[link]

Hitler and Nazism borrowed much of Gobineau's ideology, though Gobineau himself was not anti-Semitic, and may even be characterised as philo-Semitic.^[7] Gobineau wrote positively about the Jews, including the long eulogy to the Jews in his Essai sur l'inégalité des races, describing them as "a free, strong, and intelligent people" who succeeded despite the natural disadvantages of the Land of Israel.^[8] When the Nazis adopted Gobineau's theories, they were forced to edit his work extensively to make it conform to their views,^[9] much as they did in the case of Nietzsche.

Gobineau visited Bayreuth, home of Richard Wagner shortly before his death.^{[citation needed]}

Writing[link]

Though in no way espousing his beliefs, Bahá'ís know Gobineau as the person who obtained the only complete manuscript of the early history of the Bábí religious movement of Persia, written by Hajji Mirzâ Jân of Kashan, who was put to death by the Persian authorities in c.1852. The manuscript now is in the Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris. He is also known to students of Babism for having written the first and most influential account of the movement, displaying a fairly accurate knowledge of its history in Religions et philosophies dans l'Asie centrale. An addendum to that work is a bad translation of the Bab's Bayan al-'Arabi, the first Babi text to be translated into a European language.

Gobineau wrote novels in addition to his works on race, notably Les Pléiades (1874). His study La Renaissance (1877) also was admired in his day. Both of these works strongly expressed his reactionary aristocratic politics, and his hatred of democratic mass culture.

See also[link]

• Shamakhi dancers, mentioned in a Gobineau novel

References[link]

External links[link]

• The Inequality of Human Races by Arthur de Gobineau, online book
• Les religions et les philosophies dans l'Asie centrale by Arthur de Gobineau at Google Books
• Trois ans en Asie (de 1855 à 1858) by Arthur de Gobineau at Google Books
• Histoire d'Ottar jarl, pirate norvégien, conquérant du pays de Bray, en Normandie, et de sa Desendence by Arthur de Gobineau at Google Books
• Lecture des textes cunéiformes by Arthur de Gobineau at Google Books

Coordinates: 22°16′42″N 114°09′32″E / 22.27833°N 114.15889°E / 22.27833; 114.15889

Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China[note 1] 中華人民共和國香港特別行政區
Flag Emblem
Anthem: March of the Volunteers 《義勇軍進行曲》
View at night from Victoria Peak
Official language(s)		Chinese, English[note 2]
Spoken languages		Cantonese, English
Writing systems		Traditional Chinese, English alphabet
Demonym		Hong Konger
Government		Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China
-	Chief Executive	Donald Tsang
-	Chief Executive-elect	CY Leung
-	Chief Justice	Geoffrey Ma
-	President of the Legislative Council	Jasper Tsang
Legislature		Legislative Council
Establishment
-	Treaty of Nanking	29 August 1842
-	Japanese occupation	25 December 1941 – 15 August 1945
-	Conveyance from British sovereignty to Chinese sovereignty	1 July 1997
Area
-	Total	1,104 km2 (179th) 426 sq mi
-	Water (%)	4.58 (50 km²; 19 mi²)[3]
Population
-	2010 census	7,061,200[4]
-	Density	6,480[5]/km2 (4th) 16,576/sq mi
GDP (PPP)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$351.119 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$49,137[6]
GDP (nominal)		2011 estimate
-	Total	$243.302 billion[6]
-	Per capita	$34,049[6]
Gini (2007)		43.4[7]
HDI (2011)		0.898[8] (very high) (13th)
Currency		Hong Kong dollar (HKD)
Time zone		HKT (UTC+8)
Date formats		yyyy年m月d日 (Chinese) dd-mm-yyyy (English)
Drives on the		left
ISO 3166 code		HK
Internet TLD		.hk and .香港
Calling code		+852

Hong Kong
Chinese	香港
Cantonese Jyutping	Hoeng1gong2
Cantonese Yale	Hēunggóng
Hanyu Pinyin	Xiānggǎng
Literal meaning	Fragrant harbour
Transcriptions Hakka - Romanization Hiông-kóng Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Xiānggǎng - Wade–Giles Hsiang1-kang3 - IPA [ɕjáŋkàŋ] Min - Hokkien POJ Hiong-kang Wu - Romanization shian平kaon上 Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping Hoeng1gong2 - IPA [hœ̂ːŋkɔ̌ːŋ] - Yale Romanization Hēunggóng
Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
Traditional Chinese	香港特別行政區 (or 香港特區)
Simplified Chinese	香港特别行政区 (or 香港特区)
Transcriptions Hakka - Romanization Hiông-kóng Thi̍t-phe̍t Hàng-tsṳn-khî Mandarin - Hanyu Pinyin Xiānggǎng Tèbié Xíngzhèngqū Min - Hokkien POJ Hiong-kang Te̍k-pia̍t Hêng-chèng-khu Wu - Romanization shian平kaon上 deh入bih入 ghan平tsen去chiu平 Cantonese (Yue) - Jyutping Hoeng1gong2 Dak6bit6 Hang4zing3 Keoi1

This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese characters.

Full view of Kowloon and Hong Kong. The old Kai Tak Airport can be seen on the left.

The Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb Museum located in northwest Kowloon was built in 1969 after the tomb's discovery in 1955.

Hong Kong^{[note 3]} (Chinese: 香港) is one of two special administrative regions (SARs) of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the other being Macau. A city-state^[9] situated on China's south coast and enclosed by the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea,^[10] it is known for its expansive skyline and deep natural harbour. With a land mass of 1,104 km² (426 sq mi) and a population of seven million people, Hong Kong is one of the most densely populated areas in the world.^[11] Hong Kong's population is 95 percent ethnic Chinese and 5 percent from other groups.^[12] Hong Kong's Han Chinese majority originate mainly from the cities of Guangzhou and Taishan in the neighbouring Guangdong province.^[13]

Hong Kong became a colony of the British Empire after the First Opium War (1839–42). Originally confined to Hong Kong Island, the colony's boundaries were extended in stages to the Kowloon Peninsula in 1860 and then the New Territories in 1898. It was occupied by Japan during the Pacific War, after which the British resumed control until 1997, when China resumed sovereignty.^[14][15] The region espoused minimum government intervention under the ethos of positive non-interventionism during the colonial era.^[16] The time period greatly influenced the current culture of Hong Kong, often described as "East meets West",^[17] and the educational system, which used to loosely follow the system in England^[18] until reforms implemented in 2009.^[19]

Under the principle of "one country, two systems", Hong Kong has a different political system from mainland China.^[20] Hong Kong's independent judiciary functions under the common law framework.^[21][22] Hong Kong Basic Law, its constitutional document, stipulates that Hong Kong shall have a "high degree of autonomy" in all matters except foreign relations and military defence, governs its political system.^[23][24] Although it has a burgeoning multi-party system, a small-circle electorate^{[clarification needed]} controls half of its legislature. The Chief Executive of Hong Kong, the head of government, is selected by a Selection Committee / Election Committee with 400 to 1200 members, during the first 20 years.^{[25] [26][27] [28]}

As one of the world's leading international financial centres, Hong Kong has a major capitalist service economy characterised by low taxation and free trade, and the currency, Hong Kong dollar, is the eighth most traded currency in the world.^[29] The lack of space caused demand for denser constructions, which developed the city to a centre for modern architecture and the world's most vertical city.^[30][31] Hong Kong has one of the highest per capita income in the world.^[6] The dense space also led to a highly developed transportation network with public transport travelling rate exceeding 90 percent,^[32] the highest in the world.^[33] Hong Kong has numerous high international rankings in various aspects. For instance, its economic freedom, financial and economic competitiveness, quality of life, corruption perception, Human Development Index, etc., are all ranked highly.^{[34][35][36][37][38][39][40]} According to both UN and WHO estimates, Hong Kong has the second longest life expectancy of any country in the world. ^[41][42]

Etymology[link]

The name "Hong Kong" is an approximate phonetic rendering of the pronunciation of the spoken Cantonese or Hakka name "香港", meaning "fragrant harbour".^[43] Before 1842, the name referred to a small inlet – now Aberdeen Harbour or 香港仔 hoeng¹ gong² zai² "Little Hong Kong" – between the Aberdeen Island and the south side of Hong Kong Island, which was one of the first points of contact between British sailors and local fishermen.^[44]

The reference to fragrance may refer to the harbour waters sweetened by the fresh water estuarine influx of the Pearl River, or to the incense from factories lining the coast to the north of Kowloon, which was stored around Aberdeen Harbour for export before the development of Victoria Harbour.^[43] In 1842, the Treaty of Nanking was signed, and the name Hong Kong was first recorded on official documents to encompass the entirety of the island.^[45]

History[link]

Pre-colonial[link]

Archaeological studies support a human presence in the Chek Lap Kok area from 35,000 to 39,000 years ago, and in Sai Kung Peninsula from 6,000 years ago.^[46][47][48] Wong Tei Tung and Three Fathoms Cove are the two earliest sites of human habitation in the Paleolithic period. It is believed the Three Fathom Cove was a river valley settlement and Wong Tei Tung was a lithic manufacturing site. Excavated Neolithic artefacts suggest cultural differences from the Longshan culture in northern China and settlement by the Che people prior to the migration of the Baiyue.^[49][50] Eight petroglyphs were discovered on surrounding islands, which dated to the Shang Dynasty in China.^[51]

In 214 BC, Qin Shi Huang, the first emperor of China, conquered the Baiyue tribes in Jiaozhi (modern Liangguang region) and incorporated the territory into imperial China for the first time. Modern Hong Kong is located in Nanhai commandery (modern Nanhai District) and near the ancient capital city Pun Yue.^[52][53][54] The area was consolidated under the kingdom of Nanyue, founded by general Zhao Tuo in 204 BC after the Qin Dynasty collapsed.^[55] When the kingdom was conquered by Emperor Wu of Han in 111 BC, the land was assigned to the Jiaozhi commandery under the Han Dynasty. Archaeological evidence indicates the population increased and early salt production flourished in this time period. Lei Cheng Uk Han Tomb in the Kowloon Peninsula is believed to have been built during the Han Dynasty.^[56]

During the Tang Dynasty period, the Guangdong region flourished as a regional trading center. In 736, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang established a military town in Tuen Mun to defend the coastal area in the region.^[57] The first village school, Li Ying College, was established around 1075 in the New Territories under the Northern Song Dynasty.^[58] During the Mongol invasion in 1276, the Southern Song Dynasty court moved to Fujian, then to Lantau Island and later to Sung Wong Toi (modern Kowloon City), but the child Emperor Bing of Song committed suicide by drowning with his officials after being defeated in the Battle of Yamen. Hau Wong, an official of the emperor is still worshipped in Hong Kong today.^[59]

The earliest recorded European visitor was Jorge Álvares, a Portuguese explorer who arrived in 1513.^[60][61] After establishing settlements in the region, Portuguese merchants began trading in southern China. At the same time, they invaded and built up military fortifications in Tuen Mun. Military clashes between China and Portugal led to the expulsion of the Portuguese. In the mid-16th century, the Haijin order banned maritime activities and prevented contact with foreigners; it also restricted local sea activity.^[59] In 1661–69, the territory was affected by the Great Clearance ordered by Kangxi Emperor, which required the evacuation of the coastal areas of Guangdong. It is recorded that about 16,000 persons from Xin'an County were driven inland, and 1,648 of those who left are said to have returned when the evacuation was rescinded in 1669.^[62] What is now the territory of Hong Kong became largely wasteland during the ban.^[63] In 1685, Kangxi became the first emperor to open limited trading with foreigners, which started with the Canton territory. He also imposed strict terms for trades such as requiring foreign traders to live in restricted areas, staying only for the trading seasons, banning firearms, and trading with silver only.^[64] The East India Company made the first sea venture to China in 1699, and the region's trade with British merchants developed rapidly soon after. In 1711, the company established its first trading post in Canton. By 1773, the British reached a landmark 1,000 chests of opium in Canton with China consuming 2,000 chests annually by 1799.^[64]

British colonial era[link]

• 

  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong(used in between 1870-1876)

• 

  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong(used in between 1876-1910)

• 

  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong(used in between 1910-1959)

• 

  Flag of the British colony of Hong Kong (Unofficial Red ensign for Hong Kong used in between 1959 to prior the Handover of Hong Kong to the PRC in 1997)

General Post Office in Central,City of Victoria, 1911

The Queen's Pier in front of City Hall in Edinburgh Place.

Victoria City in the 1890s.

View of Hong Kong Island from Kowloon (published 1843)

In 1839, the refusal by Qing Dynasty authorities to import opium resulted in the First Opium War between China and Britain. Hong Kong Island was occupied by British forces on 20 January 1841 and was initially ceded under the Convention of Chuenpee as part of a ceasefire agreement between Captain Charles Elliot and Governor Qishan, but the agreement was never ratified due to a dispute between high ranking officials in both governments.^[65] It was not until 29 August 1842 that the island was formally ceded in perpetuity to the United Kingdom under the Treaty of Nanking. The British established a crown colony with the founding of Victoria City the following year.^[66]

Under British rule, the population of Hong Kong island had increased from 7,450 Chinese residents, mostly fishermen, in 1841 to over 115,000 Chinese and 8,754 Europeans in Hong Kong (including Kowloon) in 1870.^[67]

In 1860, after China's defeat in the Second Opium War, the Kowloon Peninsula and Stonecutter's Island were ceded in perpetuity to Britain under the Convention of Peking.

In 1894, the deadly Third Pandemic of bubonic plague spread from China to Hong Kong, causing 50,000–100,000 deaths.^[68]

In 1898, under the terms of the Convention for the Extension of Hong Kong Territory, Britain obtained a 99-year lease of Lantau Island and the adjacent northern lands, which became known as the New Territories.^[69] Hong Kong's territory has remained unchanged to the present.^[70][71]

During the first half of the 20th century, Hong Kong was a free port, serving as an entrepôt of the British Empire. The British introduced an education system based on their own model, while the local Chinese population had little contact with the European community of wealthy tai-pans settled near Victoria Peak.^[69]

Japanese invasion[link]

In conjunction with its military campaign, the Empire of Japan invaded Hong Kong on 8 December 1941.^[72] The Battle of Hong Kong ended with British and Canadian defenders surrendering control of the colony to Japan on 25 December.^[73] During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, civilians suffered widespread food shortages, rationing, and hyper-inflation due to forced exchange of currency for military notes. Through a policy of enforced repatriation of the unemployed to the mainland throughout the period, because of the scarcity of food, the population of Hong Kong had dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945, when the United Kingdom resumed control of the colony.^[74]

Cold war era[link]

Granted by the College of Arms on 21 January 1959, the Blue Ensign colonial flag and coat of arms of Hong Kong were used by British Hong Kong during 1959–1997.

Hong Kong's population recovered quickly as a wave of migrants from China arrived for refuge from the ongoing Chinese Civil War. When the PRC was proclaimed in 1949, more migrants fled to Hong Kong for fear of persecution by the Communist Party.^[69] Many corporations in Shanghai and Guangzhou shifted their operations to Hong Kong.^[69]

In the 1950s, Hong Kong's rapid industrialization was driven by textile exports and other expanded manufacturing industries. As the population grew and labour costs remained low, living standards rose steadily. ^[75] The construction of Shek Kip Mei Estate in 1953 followed a massive slum fire, and marked the beginning of the public housing estate programme designed to cope with the huge influx of immigrants. Trade in Hong Kong accelerated even further when Shenzhen, immediately north of Hong Kong, became a special economic zone of the PRC, and Hong Kong was established as the main source of foreign investment in China.^[76] The manufacturing competitiveness gradually declined in Hong Kong due to the development of the manufacturing industry in southern China beginning in the early 1980s. By contrast, the service industry in Hong Kong experienced high rates of growth in the 1980s and 1990s after absorbing workers released from the manufacturing industry.^[77]

Development of Hong Kong Island in 1986

Throughout the British colonial era, Hong Kong was industrialized and improved in all aspects from its economy to its health care system. Many health facilities were built for its citizens, for example the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Hong Kong, the Queen Mary Hospital, Hong Kong, the Princess Margaret Hospital, Hong Kong and the Prince of Wales Hospital. Many changes happened during this era shaped the future of Hong Kong. In the year 1983, when the United Kingdom reclassified Hong Kong from a British crown colony to a dependent territory, the governments of the United Kingdom and China were already discussing the issue of Hong Kong's sovereignty due to the impending expiry (within two decades) of the lease of the New Territories. In 1984, the Sino-British Joint Declaration – an agreement to transfer sovereignty to the People's Republic of China in 1997 – was signed.^[69] It stipulated that Hong Kong would be governed as a special administrative region, retaining its laws and a high degree of autonomy for at least 50 years after the transfer. The Hong Kong Basic Law, which is based on the English law would serve as the constitutional document after the transfer, was ratified in 1990.^[69]

Since 1997[link]

File:British new style passport.jpg

Left:Old British passports issued to Hong Kong citizens. Right:The British National (Overseas) passport issued to residents of Hong Kong prior 1997, holders are British nationals and Commonwealth citizens, but not British Citizens.

On 1 July 1997, the transfer of sovereignty from United Kingdom to the PRC occurred, officially ending 156 years of British colonial rule. Hong Kong became China's first special administrative region, and Tung Chee Hwa took office as the first Chief Executive of Hong Kong. That same year, Hong Kong suffered an economic double blow from the Asian financial crisis and the H5N1 avian influenza.^[69] In 2003, Hong Kong was gravely affected by the outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS).^[78][79] The World Health Organization reported 1,755 infected and 299 deaths in Hong Kong.^[80] An estimated 380 million Hong Kong dollars (US$48.9 million) in contracts were lost as a result of the epidemic.^[81]

On 10 March 2005, Tung Chee Hwa announced his resignation as Chief Executive due to "health problems".^[82] Donald Tsang, the Chief Secretary for Administration at the time, entered the 2005 election unopposed and became the second Chief Executive of Hong Kong on 21 June 2005.^[83] In 2007, Tsang won the Chief Executive election and continued his second term in office.^[84]

In 2009, Hong Kong hosted the fifth East Asian Games, in which nine national teams competed. It was the first and largest international multi-sport event ever held in the territory.^[85] Today, Hong Kong continues to serve as an important global financial centre, but faces uncertainty over its future due to the growing mainland China economy, and its relationship with the PRC government in areas such as democratic reform and universal suffrage.^[86]

Governance[link]

The Legislative Council Building in Central became the home to Legislative Council of Hong Kong in 1985.

In accordance with the Sino-British Joint Declaration, and the underlying principle of one country, two systems, Hong Kong has a "high degree of autonomy as a special administrative region in all areas except defence and foreign affairs."^{[note 4]} The declaration stipulates that the region maintain its capitalist economic system and guarantees the rights and freedoms of its people for at least 50 years beyond the 1997 handover.^{[note 5]} The guarantees over the territory's autonomy and the individual rights and freedoms are enshrined in a constitution, the Hong Kong Basic Law(formed based on the Common law of England), which outlines the system of governance of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, but which is subject to the interpretation of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC).^[87][88]

The primary pillars of government are the Executive Council, the civil service, the Legislative Council, and the Judiciary. The Executive Council is headed by the Chief Executive who is elected by the Election Committee and then appointed by the Central People's Government.^[89][90] The civil service is a politically neutral body that implements policies and provides government services, where public servants are appointed based on meritocracy.^[26][91] The Legislative Council has 60 members, half of whom are directly elected by universal suffrage by permanent residents of Hong Kong according to five geographical constituencies. The other half, known as functional constituencies, are directly elected by a smaller electorate, which consists of corporate bodies and persons from various stipulated functional sectors. The entire council is headed by the President of the Legislative Council who serves as the speaker.^[92][93] Judges are appointed by the Chief Executive on the recommendation of an independent commission.^[21][94]

Government House is the official residence of the Chief Executive.

The implementation of the Basic Law, including how and when the universal suffrage promised therein is to be achieved, has been a major issue of political debate since the transfer of sovereignty. In 2002, the government's proposed anti-subversion bill pursuant to Article 23 of the Basic Law, which required the enactment of laws prohibiting acts of treason and subversion against the Chinese government, was met with fierce opposition, and eventually shelved.^[23][95][96] Debate between pro-Beijing groups, which tend to support the Executive branch, and the Pan-democracy camp characterises Hong Kong's political scene, with the latter supporting a faster pace of democratisation, and the principle of one man, one vote.^[97]

In 2004, the government failed to gain pan-democrat support to pass its so-called "district council model" for political reform.^[98] In 2009, the government reissued the proposals as the "Consultation Document on the Methods for Selecting the Chief Executive and for Forming the LegCo in 2012". The document proposed the enlargement of the Election Committee, Hong Kong's electoral college, from 800 members to 1,200 in 2012 and expansion of the legislature from 60 to 70 seats. The 10 new legislative seats would consist of five geographical constituency seats and five functional constituency seats, to be voted in by elected district council members from among themselves.^[99] The proposals were destined for rejection by pan-democrats once again, but a significant breakthrough occurred after the Central People's Government accepted a counter-proposal by the Democratic Party. In particular, the Pan-democracy camp was split when the proposal to directly elect five newly created functional seats was not acceptable to two constituent parties. The Democratic Party sided with the government for the first time since the handover and passed the proposals with a vote of 46–12.^[100]

Legal system and judiciary[link]

• 

  Statue of Themis on the Legislative Council Building.

• 

  The Court of Final Appeal in Central is the supreme court of Hong Kong.

Hong Kong's legal system is completely independent from the legal system of Mainland China. In contrast to mainland China's civil law system, Hong Kong continues to follow the English Common Law tradition established under British rule.^[101] Hong Kong's courts may refer to decisions rendered by courts of other common law jurisdictions as precedents,^[21][102] and judges from other common law jurisdictions are allowed to sit as non-permanent judges of the Court of Final Appeal.^[21][102]

Structurally, the court system consists of the Court of Final Appeal, the High Court, which is made up of the Court of Appeal and the Court of First Instance, and the District Court, which includes the Family Court.^[103] Other adjudicative bodies include the Lands Tribunal, the Magistrates' Courts, the Juvenile Court, the Coroner's Court, the Labour Tribunal, the Small Claims Tribunal, and the Obscene Articles Tribunal.^[103] Justices of the Court of Final Appeal are appointed by Hong Kong's Chief Executive.^[21][102]

The Department of Justice is responsible for handling legal matters for the government. Its responsibilities include providing legal advice, criminal prosecution, civil representation, legal and policy drafting and reform, and international legal cooperation between different jurisdictions.^[101] Apart from prosecuting criminal cases, lawyers of the Department of Justice act on behalf of the government in all civil and administrative lawsuits against the government.^[101] As protector of the public interest, the department may apply for judicial reviews and may intervene in any cases involving the greater public interest.^[104] The Basic Law protects the Department of Justice from any interference by the government when exercising its control over criminal prosecution.^[105][106]

Human rights[link]

Hong Kong 1 July march with British Hong Kong flag.

Hong Kong's Basic law is based on the English law and so in general, Hong Kong is perceived to enjoy a high level of civil liberties.^[107] The Hong Kong government generally respect the human rights of the citizens, although core issues remain.^[108] There are concerns over the freedom of assembly which is restricted by the Public Order Ordinance. The police has been occasionally accused of using heavy-handed tactics towards protestors^[109] and questions are asked towards the extensive powers of the police.^[110] As to the right of privacy, covert surveillance remains the major concern.^[111] There is a lack of protection for gay men and lesbians due to the absence of a sexual orientation discrimination law, though there are currently no laws that criminalize homosexuality per se.^[112] There are also comments regarding a lack of protection for labour rights.^[108]

Internet censorship in Hong Kong operates under different principles and regulations than under the rest of China.^[113]

Administrative districts[link]

 Statistics

New Territories
No.	District	Population[114]	Area[115]
1.	Islands	138,900	175.03 km2 (67.58 sq mi)
2.	Kwai Tsing	510,300	21.82 km2 (8.42 sq mi)
3.	North	287,700	137.31 km2 (53.02 sq mi)
4.	Sai Kung	407,300	136.39 km2 (52.66 sq mi)
5.	Sha Tin	606,700	69.46 km2 (26.82 sq mi)
6.	Tai Po	292,700	147.42 km2 (56.92 sq mi)
7.	Tsuen Wan	292,300	60.7 km2 (23.44 sq mi)
8.	Tuen Mun	493,800	84.45 km2 (32.61 sq mi)
9.	Yuen Long	533,300	138.43 km2 (53.45 sq mi)
Kowloon
No.	District	Population	Area
10.	Kowloon City	359,400	9.97 km2 (3.85 sq mi)
11.	Kwun Tong	579,400	11.05 km2 (4.27 sq mi)
12.	Sham Shui Po	365,600	9.48 km2 (3.66 sq mi)
13.	Wong Tai Sin	421,900	9.36 km2 (3.61 sq mi)
14.	Yau Tsim Mong	285,300	6.85 km2 (2.64 sq mi)
Hong Kong Island
No.	District	Population	Area
15.	Central and Western	253,100	12.52 km2 (4.83 sq mi)
16.	Eastern	588,700	18.81 km2 (7.26 sq mi)
17.	Southern	275,700	38.95 km2 (15.04 sq mi)
18.	Wan Chai	155,700	10.02 km2 (3.87 sq mi)

Hong Kong has a unitary system of government; no local government has existed since the two municipal councils were abolished in 2000. As such there is no formal definition for its cities and towns. Administratively, Hong Kong is subdivided into 18 geographic districts, each represented by a district council which advises the government on local matters such as public facilities, community programmes, cultural activities, and environmental improvements.^[116]

There are a total of 534 district council seats, 405 of which are elected; the rest are appointed by the Chief Executive and 27 ex officio chairmen of rural committees.^[116] The Home Affairs Department communicates government policies and plans to the public through the district offices.^[117]

Military[link]

• 

  Coat of Arms of the Royal Hong Kong Regiment(UK)

• Badge of the Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force.gif

  Royal Hong Kong Auxiliary Air Force(UK)

• HKMSC.jpg

  Hong Kong Military Service Corps(UK)

• 

  The Cenotaph of Hong Kong.Constructed in 1923 and located between Statue Square and the City Hall in Central, Hong Kong,[1] commemorates the dead in the First and Second World War[2] that served in Hong Kong in the Royal Navy, British Army and Royal Air Force.

When Hong Kong was a British colony and later, a dependent territory, defence was provided by the British military under the command of the Governor of Hong Kong who was ex officio Commander-in-chief.^[118] Most of the members of the British Forces in Hong Kong were from Britain but there were locally enlisted personnel (LEP) who served as regular British Forces members in the Hong Kong Squadron of the Royal Navy as well as the Hong Kong Military Service Corps. The Royal Hong Kong Regiment a military unit part of the Hong Kong Government, trained and organised along timelines of British Territorial Army and supported by British Army personnel holding key positions. These British Army personnel, for their duration of service to the Royal Hong Kong Regiment, are seconded to the Hong Kong Government. In the post-WWII era, the majority of the regiment's members have been local citizens of Chinese descent. The Hong Kong Military Service Corps maintained its reputation for loyalty and military skill at the highest level, often outshining British and Gurkha troops based in Hong Kong. The HKMSC Shooting Team won the Team and Individual champion pistol shot a number of times at RASAAM (the Regular Army Skill at Arms Meeting) at Bisley, in the UK, and in 1992 a Training Company team representing the HQ and Depot HKMSC won the Dragon Cup for military skills (outperforming the Queen's Gurkha Signals in signalling and the British Military Hospital team in first aid); the competition was not held again.

The HKMSC reached a peak strength of 1,200 men, providing the British garrison in Hong Kong with supporting personnel. All HKMSC soldiers were basically trained in Hong Kong and from time to time attended upgrading and trade courses in the United Kingdom. HKMSC soldiers who were posted to and served with other non-HKMSC units, wore the other units' cap badge. Unit personnel were enlisted as officers and drivers in 29 Squadron, Royal Corps of Transport (RCT) based in Gun Club Hill Barracks. It provided crews for 415 Maritime Troop based on Stonecutters' Island, dog handlers in the Defence Animal Support Unit (DASU) of the Royal Army Veterinary Corps (RAVC) based in Sek Kong, officer instructors in the Royal Army Educational Corps (RAEC), officers and clerks in the Royal Army Pay Corps (RAPC), technicians in the Royal Signals (R Sigs) of the Queen's Gurkha Signals (QGS) and engineers and armourers in the Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers (REME). The HKMC trained physical training instructors (PTI) in the Army Physical Training Corps (APTC), medics in the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC) based in the British Military Hospital (BMH), military police in the Royal Military Police (RMP), helicopter support crews in 660 Squadron Army Air Corps (AAC) based at Sek Kong Airfield, cooks in the Army Catering Corps (ACC), Weapons and Supplies Storekeepers in the Royal Army Ordnance Corps (RAOC) and intelligence staff in the Intelligence Corps. They also provided interpreters, clerks, Regimental Police and light-infantry personnel in Dragon Company of the General Service Corps (GSC) headquartered in Osborn Baracks, Kowloon Tong. The HKMSC offered Hong Kong Chinese soldiers the opportunity to pursue a full career in the British Regular Army up to and including a Queen's Commissioned officer rank of the General List (HKMSC). As all members of the HKMSC were British Regular Army soldiers, they received a Regular Army Service Record Book when they left the army. Many of them had also been awarded the Long Service and Good Conduct Medal (LS&GC) after 15 years of good and loyal service. British gallantry awards, Orders, Decorations and Medal Ribbons had also been presented to some HKMSC soldiers; such as the Queen's Gallantry Medal (QGM), the British Empire Medal (BEM), Members of the Order of the British Empire (MBE) and the Officers of the Order of the British Empire (OBE).

When the PRC assumed sovereignty in 1997, the British barracks were replaced by a garrison of the People's Liberation Army, comprising ground, naval, and air forces, and under the command of the Chinese Central Military Commission.

The Hong Kong Basic Law is formed based on the Common law of England and it protects local civil affairs against interference by the garrison, and members of the garrison are subject to Hong Kong laws. The Hong Kong Government remains responsible for the maintenance of public order; however, it may ask the PRC government for help from the garrison in maintaining public order and in disaster relief. The PRC government is responsible for the costs of maintaining the garrison.^[23][119]

Geography and climate[link]

Areas of urban development and vegetation are visible in this false-colour satellite image.

Hong Kong is located on China's south coast, 60 km (37 mi) east of Macau on the opposite side of the Pearl River Delta. It is surrounded by the South China Sea on the east, south, and west, and borders the Guangdong city of Shenzhen to the north over the Shenzhen River. The territory's 1,104 km² (426 sq mi) area consists of Hong Kong Island, the Kowloon Peninsula, the New Territories, and over 200 offshore islands, of which the largest is Lantau Island. Of the total area, 1,054 km² (407 sq mi) is land and 50 km² (19 sq mi) is inland water. Hong Kong claims territorial waters to a distance of 3 nautical miles (5.6 km). Its land area makes Hong Kong the 179th largest inhabited territory in the world.^[3][10]

As much of Hong Kong's terrain is hilly to mountainous with steep slopes, less than 25% of the territory's landmass is developed, and about 40% of the remaining land area is reserved as country parks and nature reserves.^[120] Most of the territory's urban development exists on Kowloon peninsula, along the northern edge of Hong Kong Island, and in scattered settlements throughout the New Territories.^[121] The highest elevation in the territory is at Tai Mo Shan, 957 metres (3,140 ft) above sea level.^[122] Hong Kong's long and irregular coast provides it with many bays, rivers and beaches.^[123] On September 18, 2011, UNESCO listed the Hong Kong National Geopark as part of its Global Geoparks Network. Hong Kong Geopark is made up of eight Geo-Areas distributed across the Sai Kung Volcanic Rock Region and Northeast New Territories Sedimentary Rock Region.^[124]

Despite Hong Kong's reputation of being intensely urbanised, the territory has tried to promote a green environment,^[125] and recent growing public concern has prompted the severe restriction of further land reclamation from Victoria Harbour.^[126] Awareness of the environment is growing as Hong Kong suffers from increasing pollution compounded by its geography and tall buildings. Approximately 80% of the city's smog originates from other parts of the Pearl River Delta.^[127]

Though it is situated just south of the Tropic of Cancer, Hong Kong has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen Cwa). Summer is hot and humid with occasional showers and thunderstorms, and warm air coming from the southwest. Summer is when typhoons are most likely, sometimes resulting in flooding or landslides. Winters are mild and usually start sunny, becoming cloudier towards February; the occasional cold front brings strong, cooling winds from the north. The most temperate seasons are spring, which can be changeable, and autumn, which is generally sunny and dry.^[128] Hong Kong averages 1,948 hours of sunshine per year,^[129] while the highest and lowest ever recorded temperatures at the Hong Kong Observatory are 36.1 °C (97.0 °F) and 0.0 °C (32.0 °F), respectively.^[130]

Economy[link]

The International Finance Centre in Central

As one of the world's leading international financial centres, Hong Kong has a major capitalist service economy characterised by low taxation and free trade. The currency, Hong Kong dollar, is the eighth most traded currency in the world as of 2010.^[29] Hong Kong was once described by Milton Friedman as the world’s greatest experiment in laissez-faire capitalism.^[132] It maintains a highly developed capitalist economy, ranked the freest in the world by the Index of Economic Freedom every year since 1995.^{[133][134][135]} It is an important centre for international finance and trade, with one of the greatest concentrations of corporate headquarters in the Asia-Pacific region,^[136] and is known as one of the Four Asian Tigers for its high growth rates and rapid development from the 1960s to the 1990s. Between 1961 and 1997 Hong Kong's gross domestic product grew 180 times while per-capita GDP increased 87 times over.^{[137][138][139]}

The Hong Kong Stock Exchange is the seventh largest in the world, with a market capitalisation of US$2.3 trillion as of December 2009.^[140] In that year, Hong Kong raised 22 percent of worldwide initial public offering (IPO) capital, making it the largest centre of IPOs in the world ^[141] and the easiest place to raise capital.^[142] Hong Kong's currency is the Hong Kong dollar, which has been pegged to the U.S. dollar since 1983.^[143]

The Hong Kong Government has traditionally played a mostly passive role in the economy, with little by way of industrial policy and almost no import or export controls. Market forces and the private sector were allowed to determine practical development. Under the official policy of "positive non-interventionism", Hong Kong is often cited as an example of laissez-faire capitalism. Following the Second World War, Hong Kong industrialised rapidly as a manufacturing centre driven by exports, and then underwent a rapid transition to a service-based economy in the 1980s.^[144] Since then, it has grown to become a leading center for management, financial, IT, business consultation and professional services.^[142]

Hong Kong matured to become a financial centre in the 1990s, but was greatly affected by the Asian financial crisis in 1998, and again in 2003 by the SARS outbreak. A revival of external and domestic demand has led to a strong recovery, as cost decreases strengthened the competitiveness of Hong Kong exports and a long deflationary period ended.^[145][146] Government intervention, initiated by the later colonial governments and continued since 1997, has steadily increased, with the introduction of export credit guarantees, a compulsory pension scheme, a minimum wage, anti-discrimination laws, and a state mortgage backer.^[132]

The territory has little arable land and few natural resources, so it imports most of its food and raw materials. Agricultural activity—relatively unimportant to Hong Kong’s economy and contributing just 0.1% of its GDP—primarily consists of growing premium food and flower varieties.^[142] Hong Kong is the world's eleventh largest trading entity,^[147] with the total value of imports and exports exceeding its gross domestic product. It is the world's largest re-export centre.^[148] Much of Hong Kong's exports consist of re-exports,^[149] which are products made outside of the territory, especially in mainland China, and distributed via Hong Kong. Its physical location has allowed the city to establish a transportation and logistics infrastructure that includes the world’s second busiest container port and the world’s busiest airport for international cargo.^[142] Even before the transfer of sovereignty, Hong Kong had established extensive trade and investment ties with the mainland, which now enable it to serve as a point of entry for investment flowing into the mainland. At the end of 2007, there were 3.46 million people employed full-time, with the unemployment rate averaging 4.1% for the fourth straight year of decline.^[150] Hong Kong's economy is dominated by the service sector, which accounts for over 90% of its GDP, while industry constitutes 9%. Inflation was at 2.5% in 2007.^[151] Hong Kong's largest export markets are mainland China, the United States, and Japan.^[3]

As of 2010, Hong Kong is the eighth most expensive city for expatriates, falling from fifth position in the previous year.^[152] Hong Kong is ranked fourth in terms of the highest percentage of millionaire households, behind Switzerland, Qatar, and Singapore with 8.5 percent of all households owning at least one million US dollars.^[153] In 2011, Hong Kong was ranked second in the Ease of Doing Business Index, behind Singapore.^[154] General principle No. 5 of the Basic Law of the SAR suggests that the CPC expects that it shall have brought the economic system of the Mainland and Hong Kong into harmony by 2047, by which time the Chinese economy is predicted by Businessweek to have been the largest by any measure of GDP for decades.^[155]

Demographics[link]

The territory's population is 7.03 million. In 2009, Hong Kong had a birth rate of 11.7 per 1,000 population and a fertility rate of 1,032 children per 1,000 women.^[156] Residents from mainland China do not have the right of abode in Hong Kong, nor are they allowed to enter the territory freely.^[95] However, the influx of immigrants from mainland China, approximating 45,000 per year, is a significant contributor to its population growth – a daily quota of 150 Mainland Chinese with family ties in Hong Kong are granted a "one way permit".^[157] Life expectancy in Hong Kong is 79.16 years for males and 84.79 years for females as of 2009, making it one of the highest life expectancies in the world.^[3]

About 95% of the people of Hong Kong are of Chinese descent,^[12] the majority of whom are Taishanese, Chiu Chow, other Cantonese people, and Hakka. Hong Kong's Han majority originate mainly from the Guangzhou and Taishan regions in Guangdong province.^[13] The remaining 5% of the population is composed of non-ethnic Chinese.^[12] There is a South Asian population of Indians, Pakistanis and Nepalese; some Vietnamese refugees have become permanent residents of Hong Kong. There are also Europeans (mostly British), Americans, Canadians, Japanese, and Koreans working in the city's commercial and financial sector.^{[note 6]} In 2008, there were an estimate of 252,500 foreign domestic helpers from Indonesia and the Philippines working in Hong Kong.^[159]

Hong Kong's de facto official language is Cantonese, a Chinese language originating from Guangdong province to the north of Hong Kong.^[160] English is also an official language, and according to a 1996 by-census is spoken by 3.1 percent of the population as an everyday language and by 34.9 percent of the population as a second language.^[161] Signs displaying both Chinese and English are common throughout the territory. Since the 1997 handover, an increase in immigrants from mainland China and greater integration with the mainland economy have brought an increasing number of Mandarin speakers to Hong Kong.^[162]

The Roman Catholic Cathedral on Hong Kong Island

A majority of residents of Hong Kong would claim no religious affiliation, professing a form of agnosticism or atheism.^[163] According to the U.S Department of State only 43 percent of the population practices some form of religion.^[164] Some figures put it higher, according to a Gallup poll, 64% of Hong Kong residents do not believe in any religion,^[165][166] and possibly 80% of Hong Kong claim no religion.^[167] In Hong Kong teaching evolution won out in curriculum dispute about whether to teach other explanations, and that creationism and intelligent design will form no part of the senior secondary biology curriculum^{[168] [169]}

Hong Kong enjoys a high degree of religious freedom, guaranteed by the Basic Law. Hong Kong's main religions are Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism; a local religious scholar in contact with major denominations estimates there are approximately 1.5 million Buddhists and Taoists.^[164] A Christian community of around 600,000 forms about 8% of the total population;^[170][171] it is nearly equally divided between Catholics and Protestants, although smaller Christian communities exist, including the Latter-Day Saints^[172] and Jehovah's Witnesses.^[173] The Anglican and Roman Catholic churches each freely appoint their own bishops, unlike in mainland China. There are also Sikh, Muslim, Jewish, Hindu and Bahá'í communities.^[170] The practice of Falun Gong is tolerated.^[174]

Statistically Hong Kong's income gap is the greatest in Asia Pacific. According to a report by the United Nations Human Settlements Programme in 2008, Hong Kong's Gini coefficient, at 0.53, was the highest in Asia and "relatively high by international standards".^[175][176] However, the government has stressed that income disparity does not equate to worsening of the poverty situation, and that the Gini coefficient is not strictly comparable between regions. The government has named economic restructuring, changes in household sizes, and the increase of high-income jobs as factors that have skewed the Gini coefficient.^{[177][178][179]}

Education[link]

A view over the University of Hong Kong

Hong Kong's education system used to roughly follow the system in England,^[18] although international systems exist. The government maintains a policy of "mother tongue instruction" (Chinese: 母語教學) in which the medium of instruction is Cantonese,^[180] with written Chinese and English. In secondary schools, 'biliterate and trilingual' proficiency is emphasised, and Mandarin-language education has been increasing.^[181] The Programme for International Student Assessment ranked Hong Kong's education system as the second best in the world.^[182] Hong Kong's public schools are operated by the Education Bureau. The system features a non-compulsory three-year kindergarten, followed by a compulsory six-year primary education, a compulsory three-year junior secondary education, a non-compulsory two-year senior secondary education leading to the Hong Kong Certificate of Education Examinations and a two-year matriculation course leading to the Hong Kong Advanced Level Examinations.^[183] The New Senior Secondary academic structure and curriculum was implemented in September 2009, which provides for all students to receive three years of compulsory junior and three years of compulsory senior secondary education.^[19][184] Under the new curriculum, there is only one public examination, namely the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education.^[185]

Most comprehensive schools in Hong Kong fall under three categories: the rarer public schools; the more common subsidised schools, including government aids-and-grant schools; and private schools, often run by Christian organisations and having admissions based on academic merit rather than on financial resources. Outside this system are the schools under the Direct Subsidy Scheme and private international schools.^[184]

There are nine public universities in Hong Kong, and a number of private higher institutions, offering various bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees, other higher diplomas, and associate degree courses.The University of Hong Kong, the oldest institution of tertiary education in the territory, was described by Quacquarelli Symonds as a "world-class comprehensive research university"^[186] and was ranked 24th on the 2009 THES - QS World University Rankings,^[187] making it first in Asia.^[188] The Hong Kong University of Science & Technology was ranked 35th in the world in 2009 and ranked second in Asia for 2010. The Chinese University of Hong Kong was ranked 46th in the world in 2009 and ranked fourth in Asia for 2010.^[188] Based on the 2011 rankings published by career and education network QS, three of the top five Asian universities are in Hong Kong. They are the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, the University of Hong Kong and Chinese University of Hong kong as first, second and fifth rank, respectively.^[189]

Healthcare[link]

This unreferenced section requires citations to ensure verifiability.

There are 13 private hospitals and more than 50 public hospitals in Hong Kong. Among the widest range of healthcare services throughout the globe are on offer, and some of the SAR's private hospitals are rightly considered to be among the very best of their type in the world.

There are two medical schools in the SAR, one based at the Chinese University of Hong Kong and the other at Hong Kong University. Both have strong links with public sector hospitals.

With respect to postgraduate education, traditionally many doctors in Hong Kong have looked overseas for further training, and many took British Royal College exams such as the MRCP(UK) and the MRCS(UK). However, Hong Kong has been developing its own postgraduate medical institutions, in particular the Hong Kong Academy of Medicine, and this is gradually taking over the responsibility for all postgraduate medical training in the SAR.

There are also strong public health systems in Hong Kong, and the Centre for Health Protection, founded after the SARS outbreak of 2003, is particularly worthy of mention.

By 2011, however, there have been growing concerns that mothers-to-be from Mainland China, in a bid to obtain the right of abode in Hong Kong and the benefits that come with it, have saturated the neonatal wards of the city's hospitals, both public and private sectors, which has led to outcries and protests from local pregnant women for the government to remedy the issue, as they have found difficulty securing a bed space for giving birth and arrange routine check-ups. Other concerns in the decade of 2001-2010 relate to the workload medical staff experience; and medical errors and mishaps, which are frequently highlighted in local news.

Culture[link]

City lights of Kowloon

Hong Kong is frequently described as a place where "East meets West", reflecting the culture's mix of the territory's Chinese roots with influences from its time as a British colony.^[17] Hong Kong balances a modernised way of life with traditional Chinese practices. Concepts like feng shui are taken very seriously, with expensive construction projects often hiring expert consultants, and are often believed to make or break a business.^[190] Other objects like Ba gua mirrors are still regularly used to deflect evil spirits,^[191] and buildings often lack any floor number that has a 4 in it,^[192] due to its similarity to the word for "die" in Cantonese.^[193] The fusion of east and west also characterises Hong Kong's cuisine, where dim sum, hot pot, and fast food restaurants coexist with haute cuisine.^[194]

Hong Kong is a recognised global centre of trade, and calls itself an "entertainment hub".^[195] Its martial arts film genre gained a high level of popularity in the late 1960s and 1970s. Several Hollywood performers, notable actors and martial artists have originated from Hong Kong cinema, notably Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan, Chow Yun-fat, Michelle Yeoh, Maggie Cheung and Jet Li. A number of Hong Kong film-makers have achieved widespread fame in Hollywood, such as John Woo, Wong Kar-wai, and Stephen Chow.^[195] Homegrown films such as Chungking Express, Infernal Affairs, Shaolin Soccer, Rumble in the Bronx, In the Mood for Love and Echoes of the Rainbow have gained international recognition. Hong Kong is the centre for Cantopop music, which draws its influence from other forms of Chinese music and Western genres, and has a multinational fanbase.^[196]

A statue of Bruce Lee on the Avenue of Stars, a tribute to the city's martial arts

The Hong Kong government supports cultural institutions such as the Hong Kong Heritage Museum, the Hong Kong Museum of Art, the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts, and the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra. The government's Leisure and Cultural Services Department subsidises and sponsors international performers brought to Hong Kong. Many international cultural activities are organised by the government, consulates, and privately.^[197][198]

Hong Kong has two licensed terrestrial broadcasters – ATV and TVB. There are three local and a number of foreign suppliers of cable and satellite services.^[199] The production of Hong Kong's soap dramas, comedy series, and variety shows reach audiences throughout the Chinese-speaking world. Magazine and newspaper publishers in Hong Kong distribute and print in both Chinese and English, with a focus on sensationalism and celebrity gossip.^[200] The media in Hong Kong is relatively free from official interference compared to mainland China, although the Far Eastern Economic Review points to signs of self-censorship by journals whose owners have close ties to or business interests in the People's Republic of China and states that even Western media outlets are not immune to growing Chinese economic power.^[201]

Hong Kong offers wide recreational and competitive sport opportunities despite its limited land area. It sends delegates to international competitions such as the Olympic Games and Asian Games, and played host to the equestrian events during the 2008 Summer Olympics.^[202] There are major multipurpose venues like Hong Kong Coliseum and MacPherson Stadium. Hong Kong's steep terrain and extensive trail network with expansive views attracts hikers, and its rugged coastline provides many beaches for swimming.^[203]

Cityscape[link]

A view from Victoria Peak, looking north over Central, Victoria Harbour and Kowloon (2011).

A view from Victoria Peak, looking north over Central, Victoria Harbour and Kowloon at night (2011).

Architecture[link]

According to Emporis, there are 7,650 skyscrapers in Hong Kong, which puts the city at the top of world rankings.^[204] It has more buildings higher than 500ft (or 150m) than any other city. The high density and tall skyline of Hong Kong's urban area is due to a lack of available sprawl space, with the average distance from the harbour front to the steep hills of Hong Kong Island at 1.3 km (0.81 mi),^[205] much of it reclaimed land. This lack of space causes demand for dense, high-rise offices and housing. Thirty-six of the world's 100 tallest residential buildings are in Hong Kong.^[206] More people in Hong Kong live or work above the 14th floor than anywhere else on Earth, making it the world's most vertical city.^[30][31]

As a result of the lack of space and demand for construction, few older buildings remain, and the city is becoming a centre for modern architecture. The International Commerce Centre (ICC), at 484 m (1,588 ft) high, is the tallest building in Hong Kong and the third tallest in the world, by height to roof measurement.^[207] The tallest building prior to the ICC is Two International Finance Centre, at 415 m (1,362 ft) high.^[208] Other recognisable skyline features include the HSBC Headquarters Building, the triangular-topped Central Plaza with its pyramid-shaped spire, The Center with its night-time multi-coloured neon light show; A Symphony of Lights and I. M. Pei's Bank of China Tower with its sharp, angular façade. According to the Emporis website, the city skyline has the biggest visual impact of all world cities.^[209] Also, Hong Kong's skyline is often regarded to be the best in the world,^[210] with the surrounding mountains and Victoria Harbour complementing the skyscrapers.^[211][212] Most of the oldest remaining historic structures, including the Tsim Sha Tsui Clock Tower, the Central Police Station, and the remains of Kowloon Walled City were constructed during the 19th and early 20th centuries.^{[213][214][215]}

There are many development plans in place, including the construction of new government buildings,^[216] waterfront redevelopment in Central,^[217] and a series of projects in West Kowloon.^[218] More high-rise development is set to take place on the other side of Victoria Harbour in Kowloon, as the 1998 closure of the nearby Kai Tak Airport lifted strict height restrictions.^[219]

A panoramic view of the Hong Kong Island skyline at night

Transport[link]

Hong Kong's transportation network is highly developed. Over 90% of daily travels (11 million) are on public transport,^[32] the highest such percentage in the world.^[33] Payment can be made using the Octopus card, a stored value system introduced by the Mass Transit Railway (MTR), which is widely accepted on railways, buses and ferries, and accepted like cash at other outlets.^[220][221]

The city's main railway company (KCRC) was merged with the urban mass transit operator (MTR) in 2007, creating a comprehensive rail network for the whole territory (also called MTR).^[222] This MTR rapid transit system has 152 stations, which serve 3.4 million people a day.^[223] Hong Kong Tramways, which has served the territory since 1904, covers the northern parts of Hong Kong Island.^[224]

A train at Tai Wai Station of the Mass Transit Railway (MTR) East Rail Line.

The Mass Transit Railway has more than 150 stations in its network.

A double-decker Kowloon Motor Bus in Hong Kong

Ship-Star-Cruises-Star-Pisces-Hong-Kong

Hong Kong's bus service is franchised and run by private operators. Five privately owned companies provide franchised bus service across the territory, together operating more than 700 routes. The two largest, Kowloon Motor Bus provides 402 routes in Kowloon and New Territories; Citybus operates 154 routes on Hong Kong Island; both run cross-harbour services. Double-decker buses were introduced to Hong Kong in 1949, and are now almost exclusively used; single-decker buses remain in use for routes with lower demand or roads with lower load capacity. Public light buses serve most parts of Hong Kong, particularly areas where standard bus lines cannot reach or do not reach as frequently, quickly, or directly.^[225]

The Hong Kong-Kowloon Ferry

The Star Ferry service, founded in 1888, operates four lines across Victoria Harbour and provides scenic views of Hong Kong's skyline for its 53,000 daily passengers.^[226] It acquired iconic status following its use as a setting on The World of Suzie Wong. Travel writer Ryan Levitt considered the main Tsim Sha Tsui to Central crossing one of the most picturesque in the world.^[227] Other ferry services are provided by operators serving outlying islands, new towns, Macau, and cities in mainland China. Hong Kong is famous for its junks traversing the harbour, and small kai-to ferries that serve remote coastal settlements.^[228][229] The Port of Hong Kong is a busy deepwater port, specialising in container shipping.^[230]

The Peak Tram of Hong Kong

Hong Kong Island's steep, hilly terrain was initially served by sedan chairs.^[231] The Peak Tram, the first public transport system in Hong Kong, has provided vertical rail transport between Central and Victoria Peak since 1888.^[232] In Central and Western district, there is an extensive system of escalators and moving pavements, including the longest outdoor covered escalator system in the world, the Mid-Levels escalator.^[233]

Hong Kong International Airport is a leading air passenger gateway and logistics hub in Asia and one of the world's busiest airports in terms of international passenger and cargo movement, serving more than 47 million passengers and handling 3.74 million tonnes (4.12 million tons) of cargo in 2007.^[234] It replaced the overcrowded Kai Tak Airport in Kowloon in 1998, and has been rated as the world's best airport in a number of surveys.^[235] Over 85 airlines operate at the two-terminal airport and it is the primary hub of Cathay Pacific, Dragonair, Air Hong Kong, Hong Kong Airlines, and Hong Kong Express.^[234][236]

See also[link]

	Hong Kong portal
	People's Republic of China portal

• Outline of Hong Kong
• Index of Hong Kong-related articles
• List of cities with most skyscrapers
• Public holidays in Hong Kong

Footnotes[link]

References[link]