An elf (plural elves) is a being of Germanic mythology. The elves were originally thought of as a race of divine beings (wights, ''vættir'') endowed with magical powers, which they use both for the benefit and the injury of mankind. In medieval Norse mythology, they appear to have been divided into light elves and dark elves, difficult to delineate from the Æsir (gods) on one hand and the dvergar (dwarves) on the other.

In early modern and modern folklore, they become associated with the fairies of Romance folklore and assume a diminutive size, often living mainly in forests but also underground in hills or rocks, or in wells and springs. 19th-century Romanticism attempted to restore them to full stature, making them men and women of great beauty, often depicted as very young.

From their depiction in Romanticism, elves entered the 20th-century high fantasy genre in the wake of the published work of J. R. R. Tolkien (especially the posthumous publication of his ''Silmarillion'' where Tolkien's treatment of the relation of light elves, dark elves and dwarves is made explicit).

The "Christmas elves" of contemporary pop culture were popularized during the 1870s in the United States, in publications such as ''Godey's Lady's Book''.

Name

The English word ''elf'' is from the Old English ''ælf'' or ''elf'', in reference to a midget, themselves from the Proto-Germanic ''*albiz'' which also resulted in Old Norse ''álfr'', Middle High German ''elbe''. ''*Albiz'' may be from the Proto-Indo-European root ''*albh-'' meaning "white", from which also stems the Latin ''albus'' "white". Alternatively, a connection to the ''Rbhus'', semi-divine craftsmen in Indian mythology, has also been suggested(OED).

Originally ''ælf''/''elf'' and its plural ''ælfe'' were the masculine forms, while the corresponding feminine form (first found in eighth century glosses) was ''ælfen'' or ''elfen'' (with a possible feminine plural ''-ælfa'', found in ''dunælfa'') which became the Middle English ''elven'', using the feminine suffix ''-en'' from the earlier ''-inn'' which derives from the Proto-Germanic ''*-innja''). The fact that cognates exist (such as the German ''elbinne'') could suggest a West Germanic ''*alb(i)innjo'', but this is uncertain, as the examples may be simply a transference to the weak declension common in Southern and Western forms of Middle English. The Middle English forms with this weak declension were ''aluen(e)'' and ''eluen(e)''. By the earlier eleventh century ''ælf'' could denote a female.

The Modern German ''Elf (m)'', ''Elfe (f)'', ''Elfen'' is a loan from English. A masculine ''Elb'' is reconstructed from the plural by Jacob Grimm, ''Deutsches Wörterbuch'', who rejects ''Elfe'' as a (then, in the 1830s) recent anglicism. ''Elb'' (m, plural ''Elbe'' or ''Elben'') is a reconstructed term, while ''Elbe'' (f) is attested in Middle High German. ''Alb'', ''Alp'' (m), plural ''Alpe'' has the meaning of "incubus" (Old High German ''alp'', plural ''*alpî'' or ''*elpî''). Gothic has no direct testimony of ''*albs'', plural ''*albeis'', but Procopius has the personal name ''Albila''.

Germanic mythology

Jacob Grimm discusses "Wights and Elves" comparatively in chapter 17 of his ''Teutonic Mythology''. He notes that the Elder Edda couples the Æsir and the álfar, a conjunction that recurs in Old English ''ês'' and ''ylfe'', clearly grouping the elves as a divine or supernatural class of beings, sometimes extended by the Vanir as a third class: The Hrafnagaldr states ''Alföðr orkar, álfar skilja, vanir vita'' "The Allfather [i.e. the áss] has power, the álfar have skill, and vanir knowledge".

A notable crux in the Old Norse mythology is the distinction of álfar and dvergar. They appear as separate races in extended lists such as the one in ''Alvíssmál'', listing Æsir, álfar, Vanir, goð (gods), męnn (humans), ginregin, jǫtnar, dvergar and denizens of Hęl. Middle High German tradition asgma separates the ''elbe'' from ''getwerc''.

On the other hand, there is a close kinship between elves and dwarves, evident already because many dwarves have elvish names, including simple ''Álfr'' "elf", and ''Alberich'' "king of elves".

Loki is particularly difficult to classify; he is usually called an áss, but is really of jǫtunn origin, and is nevertheless also addressed as álfr. The conclusion of Grimm is that the classification "elf" can be considered to "shrink and stretch by turns". The etymology connecting ''*alboz'' with ''albus'' "white" suggests an original dichotomy of "white" vs. "black" genii, corresponding to the elves vs. the dwarves which was subsequently confused. Thus the "white" elves proper are named ''ljósálfar'' "light elves", contrasting with ''døckálfar'' "dark elves".

Snorri in the Prose Edda states that the light elves dwell in Álfheim while the dark elves dwell underground. Confusion arises from the introduction of the additional term ''svartálfar'' "black elves", which at first appears synonymous to the "dark elves"; Snorri identifies with the dvergar and has them reside in Svartálfaheim. This prompts Grimm to assume a tripartite division of light elves, dark elves and black elves, of which only the latter are identical with dwarves, while the dark elves are an intermediate class, "not so much downright black, as dim, dingy". In support of such an intermediate class between light elves, or "elves proper", on one hand, and black elves or dwarves on the other, Grimm adduces the evidence of the Scottish ''brownies'' and other traditions of dwarves wearing grey or brown clothing.

Old Norse

The earliest preserved descriptions of elves comes from Norse mythology. In Old Norse they are called ''álfar'' (nominative singular ''álfr'').

Men could be elevated to the rank of elves after death, such as the petty king Olaf Geirstad-Elf. The smith hero Völundr is identified as 'Ruler of Elves' (''vísi álfa'') and 'One among the Elven Folk' (''álfa ljóði''), in the poem ''Völundarkviða'', whose later prose introduction also identifies him as the son of a king of 'Finnar', an Arctic people respected for their shamanic magic (most likely, the sami). In the ''Thidrek's Saga'' a human queen is surprised to learn that the lover who has made her pregnant is an elf and not a man. In ''the saga of Hrolf Kraki'' a king named Helgi rapes and impregnates an elf-woman clad in silk who is the most beautiful woman he has ever seen.

Crossbreeding was possible between elves and humans in the Old Norse belief. The human queen who had an elvish lover bore the hero Högni, and the elf-woman who was raped by Helgi bore Skuld, who married Hjörvard, Hrólfr Kraki's killer. ''The saga of Hrolf Kraki'' adds that since Skuld was half-elven, she was very skilled in witchcraft (seiðr), and this to the point that she was almost invincible in battle. When her warriors fell, she made them rise again to continue fighting. The only way to defeat her was to capture her before she could summon her armies, which included elvish warriors.

They are also found in the ''Heimskringla'' and in ''The Saga of Thorstein, Viking's Son'' accounts of a line of local kings who ruled over Álfheim, and since they had elven blood they were said to be more beautiful than most men. :''The land governed by King Alf was called Alfheim, and all his offspring are related to the elves. They were fairer than any other people...''

In addition to these human aspects, they are commonly described as semi-divine beings associated with fertility and the cult of the ancestors and ancestor worship. The notion of elves thus appears similar to the animistic belief in spirits of nature and of the deceased, common to nearly all human religions; this is also true for the Old Norse belief in ''dísir'', ''fylgjur'' and ''vörðar'' ("follower" and "warden" spirits, respectively). Like spirits, the elves were not bound by physical limitations and could pass through walls and doors in the manner of ghosts, which happens in ''Norna-Gests þáttr''.

The Icelandic mythographer and historian Snorri Sturluson referred to dwarves (''dvergar'') as "dark-elves" (''dökkálfar'') or "black-elves" (''svartálfar''). He referred to other elves as "light-elves" (''ljósálfar''), which has often been associated with elves' connection with Freyr, the god of fertility (according to ''Grímnismál'', Poetic Edda). Snorri describes the elf differences as follows:

:"There is one place there that is called the Elf Home (''Álfheimr'' which is the elven city). People live there that are named the light elves (''Ljósálfar''). But the dark elves (''Dökkálfar'') live below in earth,in caves and the dark forest and they are unlike them in appearance – and more unlike them in reality. The Light Elves are brighter than the sun in appearance, but the Dark Elves are blacker than pitch." (Snorri, ''Gylfaginning'' 17, Prose Edda)

:''"Sá er einn staðr þar, er kallaðr er Álfheimr. Þar byggvir fólk þat, er Ljósálfar heita, en Dökkálfar búa niðri í jörðu, ok eru þeir ólíkir þeim sýnum ok miklu ólíkari reyndum. Ljósálfar eru fegri en sól sýnum, en Dökkálfar eru svartari en bik."''

Further evidence for elves in Norse mythology comes from Skaldic poetry, the ''Poetic Edda'' and legendary sagas. In these elves are linked to the Æsir, particularly by the common phrase "Æsir and the elves". In the ''Alvíssmál'' ("The Sayings of All-Wise"), elves are considered distinct from both the Æsir and the Vanir.

''Grímnismál'' relates that the Van Frey was the lord of ''Álfheimr'' (meaning "elf-world"), the home of the light-elves. ''Lokasenna'' relates that a large group of Æsir and elves had assembled at Ægir's court for a banquet.

A poem from around 1020, the ''Austrfaravísur'' ('Eastern-journey verses') of Sigvat Thordarson, mentions that, as a Christian, he was refused board in a heathen household, in Sweden, because an ''álfablót'' ("elves' sacrifice") was being conducted there.

From the time of year (close to the autumnal equinox) and the elves' association with fertility and the ancestors, it might be assumed that it had to do with the ancestor cult and the life force of the family.

In addition to this, ''Kormáks saga'' accounts for how a sacrifice to elves was apparently believed able to heal a severe battle wound:

:''Þorvarð healed but slowly; and when he could get on his feet he went to see Þorðís, and asked her what was best to help his healing.'' :''"A hill there is," answered she, "not far away from here, where elves have their haunt. Now get you the bull that Kormák killed, and redden the outer side of the hill with its blood, and make a feast for the elves with its flesh. Then thou wilt be healed."''

Old English

The Old English form of the word is ''ælf'' (pl. ''ælfe'', with regional and chronological variants such as ''ylfe'' and ''ælfen''). Words for the nymphs of the Greek and Roman mythos were translated by Anglo-Saxon scholars with ''ælf'' and variants on it.

Old English tradition preserves the ''ylfe'' exclusively as mischievous, harmful beings. The 10th century Metrical Charm "Against A Sudden Stitch" (''Wið færstice'') offers remedy against sudden pain (such as rheumatism) caused by projectiles of either ''ése'' or ''ylfe'' or witches (''gif hit wære esa gescot oððe hit wære ylfa gescot oððe hit wære hægtessan gescot'' "be it ''Ése''-shot or Elf-shot or witch-shot").

In relation the beauty of the Norse elves, some further evidence is given by old English words such as ''ælfsciene'' ("elf-beautiful"), used of seductively beautiful Biblical women in the Old English poems ''Judith'' and ''Genesis A''. Although elves could be considered to be beautiful and potentially helpful beings in some sections of English-speaking society throughout its history, Old English evidence also attests to alignments of elves with demons, as for example in line 112 of ''Beowulf''. On the other hand, ''oaf'' is simply a variant of the word ''elf'', presumably originally referring to a changeling or to someone stupefied by elvish enchantment.

''Elf-shot'' (or ''elf-bolt'' or ''elf-arrow'') is a word found in Scotland and Northern England, first attested in a manuscript of about the last quarter of the 16th century. Although first attested in the sense 'sharp pain caused by elves', it is later attested denoting Neolithic flint arrow-heads, which by the 17th century seem to have been attributed in the region to elvish folk, and which were used in healing rituals, and alleged to be used by witches (and perhaps elves) to injure people and cattle. So too a tangle in the hair was called an ''elf-lock'', as being caused by the mischief of the elves (or especially by Queen Mab), and sudden paralysis was sometimes attributed to ''elf-stroke''. Compare with the following excerpt from an 1750 ode by Willam Collins:

:''There every herd, by sad experience, knows'' :''How, winged with fate, their elf-shot arrows fly,'' :''When the sick ewe her summer food forgoes,'' :''Or, stretched on earth, the heart-smit heifers lie.''

German

Very little material concerning elves or ''elben'' survives in Old High German beyond the mere noun form ''alp'', plural ''alpî, elpî''. Middle High German has a feminine singular ''elbe'' and a plural ''elbe'', ''elber'', but the word becomes very rare, mostly surviving in the adjective ''elbisch'', and is replaced by the English form ''elf, elfen'' via 18th century German translations of Shakespeare's ''A Midsummernight's Dream''. The masculine ''alp'' survives in German with a shifted meaning of "nightmare".

Jacob Grimm in his ''Deutsches Wörterbuch'' deplored the "unhochdeutsch" form ''Elf'', borrowed "unthinkingly" from the English, and Tolkien was inspired by Grimm to recommend reviving the genuinely German form in his ''Guide to the Names in The Lord of the Rings'' (1967) and ''Elb, Elben'' was consequently reintroduced in the 1972 German translation of ''The Lord of the Rings''.

In Christian folklore, the ''elber'' began to be described as mischievous pranksters that could cause disease to cattle and people, and bring bad dreams to sleepers. The German word for nightmare, ''Alptraum'', means "elf dream". The archaic form ''Alpdruck'' means "elf pressure"; it was believed that nightmares are a result of an elf sitting on the dreamer's chest (incubi). This aspect of German elf-belief largely corresponds to the Scandinavian belief in the ''mara''.

Modern folklore

Scandinavian

In Scandinavian folklore, which is a later blend of Norse mythology and elements of Christian mythology, an ''elf'' is called ''elver'' in Danish, ''alv'' in Norwegian, and ''alv'' or ''älva'' in Swedish (the first is masculine, the second feminine). The Norwegian expressions seldom appear in genuine folklore, and when they do, they are always used synonymous to ''huldrefolk'' or ''vetter'', a category of earth-dwelling beings generally held to be more related to Norse dwarves than elves which is comparable to the Icelandic ''huldufólk'' (hidden people).

In Denmark and Sweden, the elves appear as beings distinct from the vetter, even though the border between them is diffuse. The insect-winged fairies in British folklore are often called "älvor" in modern Swedish or "alfer" in Danish, although the correct translation is "feer". In a similar vein, the ''alf'' found in the fairy tale ''The Elf of the Rose'' by Danish author H. C. Andersen is so tiny that he can have a rose blossom for home, and has "wings that reached from his shoulders to his feet". Yet, Andersen also wrote about ''elvere'' in ''The Elfin Hill''. The elves in this story are more alike those of traditional Danish folklore, who were beautiful females, living in hills and boulders, capable of dancing a man to death. Like the ''huldra'' in Norway and Sweden, they are hollow when seen from the back.

The elves of Norse mythology have survived into folklore mainly as females, living in hills and mounds of stones. The Swedish ''älvor''. (sing. ''älva'') were stunningly beautiful girls who lived in the forest with an elven king. They were long-lived and light-hearted in nature. The elves are typically pictured as fair-haired, white-clad, and (like most creatures in the Scandinavian folklore) nasty when offended. In the stories, they often play the role of disease-spirits. The most common, though also most harmless case was various irritating skin rashes, which were called ''älvablåst'' (elven blow) and could be cured by a forceful counter-blow (a handy pair of bellows was most useful for this purpose). ''Skålgropar'', a particular kind of petroglyph found in Scandinavia, were known in older times as ''älvkvarnar'' (elven mills), pointing to their believed usage. One could appease the elves by offering them a treat (preferably butter) placed into an elven mill – perhaps a custom with roots in the Old Norse ''álfablót''.

In order to protect themselves against malevolent elves, Scandinavians could use a so-called Elf cross (''Alfkors'', ''Älvkors'' or ''Ellakors''), which was carved into buildings or other objects. It existed in two shapes, one was a pentagram and it was still frequently used in early 20th century Sweden as painted or carved onto doors, walls and household utensils in order to protect against elves. As the name suggests, the elves were perceived as a potential danger against people and livestock. The second form was an ordinary cross carved onto a round or oblong silver plate. This second kind of elf cross one was worn as a pendant in a necklace and in order to have sufficient magic it had to be forged during three evenings with silver from nine different sources of inherited silver. In some locations it also had to be on the altar of a church during three consecutive Sundays.

The elves could be seen dancing over meadows, particularly at night and on misty mornings. They left a kind of circle where they had danced, which were called ''älvdanser'' (elf dances) or ''älvringar'' (elf circles), and to urinate in one was thought to cause venereal diseases. Typically, elf circles were fairy rings consisting of a ring of small mushrooms, but there was also another kind of elf circle:

:''On lake shores, where the forest met the lake, you could find elf circles. They were round places where the grass had been flattened like a floor. Elves had danced there. By Lake Tisaren, I have seen one of those. It could be dangerous and one could become ill if one had trodden over such a place or if one destroyed anything there.''

If a human watched the dance of the elves, he would discover that even though only a few hours seemed to have passed, many years had passed in the real world. (This time phenomenon is retold in Tolkien's ''The Lord of the Rings'' when the Fellowship pass into both Rivendell and Lothlórien, where time seems almost to stand still. It also has a remote parallel in the Irish sídhe.) In a song from the late Middle Ages about Olaf Liljekrans, the elven queen invites him to dance. He refuses, he knows what will happen if he joins the dance and he is on his way home to his own wedding. The queen offers him gifts, but he declines. She threatens to kill him if he does not join, but he rides off and dies of the disease she sent upon him, and his young bride dies of a broken heart.

However, the elves were not exclusively young and beautiful. In the Swedish folktale ''Little Rosa and Long Leda'', an elvish woman (''älvakvinna'') arrives in the end and saves the heroine, Little Rose, on condition that the king's cattle no longer graze on her hill. She is described as a beautiful old woman and by her aspect people saw that she belonged to the ''subterraneans''.

Icelandic

Expression of belief in huldufólk or "hidden folk", the elves that dwell in rock formations, is common in Iceland. If the natives do not explicitly express their belief, they are often reluctant to express disbelief. A 2006 and 2007 study on superstition by the University of Iceland’s Faculty of Social Sciences supervised by Terry Gunnell (associate folklore professor), reveal that natives would not rule out the existence of elves and ghosts (similar results of a 1974 survey by Professor Erlendur Haraldsson, Fréttabladid reports). Gunnell stated: "Icelanders seem much more open to phenomena like dreaming the future, forebodings, ghosts and elves than other nations." His results were consistent with a similar study conducted in 1974.

German

An elven king occasionally appears among the predominantly female elves as in Denmark and Sweden. In the German middle-age epic the ''Nibelungenlied'', a dwarf named ''Alberich'' plays an important role. ''Alberich'' literally translates as "elf-sovereign", further contributing to the elf–dwarf confusion observed already in the Younger Edda. Via the French ''Alberon'', the same name has entered English as ''Oberon'' – king of elves and fairies in Shakespeare's ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'' (see below).

The legend of Der Erlkönig appears to have originated in fairly recent times in Denmark and Goethe based his poem on "Erlkönigs Tochter" ("Erlkönig's Daughter"), a Danish work translated into German by Johann Gottfried Herder.

The Erlkönig's nature has been the subject of some debate. The name translates literally from the German as "Alder King" rather than its common English translation, "Elf King" (which would be rendered as ''Elfenkönig'' in German). It has often been suggested that ''Erlkönig'' is a mistranslation from the original Danish ''ellerkonge'' or ''elverkonge'', which ''does'' mean "elf king".

According to German and Danish folklore, the Erlkönig appears as an omen of death, much like the banshee in Irish mythology. Unlike the banshee, however, the Erlkönig will appear only to the person about to die. His form and expression also tell the person what sort of death they will have: a pained expression means a painful death, a peaceful expression means a peaceful death. This aspect of the legend was immortalised by Goethe in his poem ''Der Erlkönig'', later set to music by Schubert.

In the first story of the Brothers Grimm fairy tale ''Die Wichtelmänner'', the title protagonists are two naked mannequins, which help a shoemaker in his work. When he rewards their work with little clothes, they are so delighted, that they run away and are never seen again. Even though ''Wichtelmänner'' are akin to beings such as kobolds, dwarves and brownies, the tale has been translated into English as ''The Elves and the Shoemaker'', and is echoed in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter stories (see House-elf).

Variations of the German elf in folklore include the moss people and the weisse frauen ("white women"). On the latter Jacob Grimm does not make a direct association to the elves, but other researchers see a possible connection to the shining light elves of Old Norse.

English and Lowland Scottish

The elf makes many appearances in ballads of English and Scottish origin, as well as folk tales, many involving trips to Elphame or Elfland (the ''Álfheim'' of Norse mythology), a mystical realm which is sometimes an eerie and unpleasant place. The elf is occasionally portrayed in a positive light, such as the Queen of Elphame in the ballad ''Thomas the Rhymer'', but many examples exist of elves of sinister character, frequently bent on rape and murder, as in the ''Tale of Childe Rowland'', or the ballad ''Lady Isabel and the Elf-Knight'', in which the Elf-Knight bears away Isabel to murder her. Most instances of elves in ballads are male; the only commonly encountered female elf is the Queen of Elfland, who appears in ''Thomas the Rhymer'' and ''The Queen of Elfland's Nourice'', in which a woman is abducted to be a wet-nurse to the queen's baby, but promised that she may return home once the child is weaned. In none of these cases is the elf a spritely character with pixie-like qualities.

English folktales of the early modern period commonly portray elves as small, elusive people with mischievous personalities. They are often portrayed as children with Williams syndrome (which was not recognised as a medical condition but some specialist believe that people were enchanted with their character and appearance that they believed to be magical), usually with fair hair. They are not evil but might annoy humans or interfere in their affairs. They are sometimes said to be invisible. In this tradition, elves became similar to the concept of fairies. As people from the English countryside immigrated to America, they brought elements of English folklore with them, and this particular depiction of elves then evolved in America into the Christmas elves of pop culture.

Successively, the word ''elf'', as well as literary term ''fairy'', evolved to a general denotation of various nature spirits like ''Puck'', ''hobgoblins'', ''Robin Goodfellow'', the English and Scots ''brownie'', the Northumbrian English hob and so forth. These terms, like their relatives in other European languages, are no longer clearly distinguished in popular folklore.

Significant for the distancing of the concept of elves from its mythological origins was the influence from literature. In Elizabethan England, William Shakespeare imagined elves as little people. He apparently considered elves and fairies to be the same race. In ''Henry IV, part 1'', act II, scene iv, he has Falstaff call Prince Henry, "you starveling, you elfskin!", and in his ''A Midsummer Night's Dream'', his elves are almost as small as insects. On the other hand, Edmund Spenser applies ''elf'' to full-sized beings in ''The Faerie Queene''.

The influence of Shakespeare and Michael Drayton made the use of ''elf'' and ''fairy'' for very small beings the norm. In Victorian literature, elves usually appeared in illustrations as tiny men and women with pointed ears and stocking caps. An example is Andrew Lang's fairy tale ''Princess Nobody'' (1884), illustrated by Richard Doyle, where fairies are tiny people with butterfly wings, whereas elves are tiny people with red stocking caps. There were exceptions to this rule however, such as the full-sized elves who appear in Lord Dunsany's ''The King of Elfland's Daughter'' as well as Northern English and Scottish Lowlands folklore (as seen in such tales as The Queen of Elfan's Nourice and other local variants).

American Christmas Elf

In the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland the modern children's folklore of Santa Claus typically includes elves at Christmas; green-clad elves with pointy ears, long noses, and pointy hats as Santa's helpers or hired workers. They make the toys in a workshop located in the North Pole. In this portrayal, elves slightly resemble nimble and delicate versions of the dwarves of Norse mythology as well as the elves in English folktakes in the Victorian period from which they could have derived.

The vision of the small but crafty Christmas elf (possibly derived from the elves of English fairytales of the Victorian period) has come to influence modern popular conception of elves, and sits side by side with the fantasy elves following Tolkien's work (see below). The American cookie company Keebler has long advertised that its cookies are made by elves in a hollow tree, and Kellogg's, who happens to now be the owner of Keebler, uses the elves of Snap, Crackle, and Pop as mascots of Rice Krispies cereal, and the role of elves as Santa's helpers has continued to be popular, as evidenced by the success of the popular Christmas movie ''Elf''. It should be noted that these elves are referred to as elfish or elfin as opposed to elven.

Fantasy fiction

The fantasy genre in the 20th century grows out of 19th century Romanticism. 19th century scholars such as Andrew Lang and the Grimm brothers collected "fairy-stories" from popular folklore and in some cases retold them freely. A pioneering work of the genre that would come to be known as "fantasy" was ''The King of Elfland's Daughter'', a 1924 novel by Lord Dunsany. ''The Hobbit'' by J. R. R. Tolkien (1937) is seminal, predating the lecture ''On Fairy-Stories'' by the same author by a few years. In the 1939 lecture, Tolkien introduced the term "Fantasy" in a sense of "higher form of Art, indeed the most nearly pure form, and so (when achieved) the most potent". Elves played a central role in Tolkien's legendarium, notably ''The Silmarillion''. Tolkien's writing has such popularity that in the 1960s and afterwards, Elves speaking an Elvish language similar to those in Tolkien's novels (like Quenya, and Sindarin) became staple non-human characters in high fantasy works and in fantasy role-playing games.

Post-Tolkien fantasy elves (popularized by the ''Dungeons & Dragons'' role-playing game) tend to be more beautiful and wiser than humans, with sharper senses and perceptions. They are said to be gifted in magic and mentally sharp and are characterized as lovers of nature, art, and song. Often, they are skilled archers. A hallmark of fantasy elves is their long and pointed ears (a convention begun with a note of Tolkien's that the ears of elves were "leaf-shaped").

References

Jacob Grimm, ''Teutonic Mythology'' (1835).

Marshall Jones Company (1930). ''Mythology of All Races'' Series, Volume 2 ''Eddic'', Great Britain: Marshall Jones Company, 1930, 220-221.

Jolly, Karen Louise. ''Popular Religion in Late Saxon England: Elf Charms in Context''. Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1996.

Coghlan, Ronan. ''Handbook of Fairies'', Milverton, Capall Bann, 2002.

External links

''Wikisource:Prose Edda/Gylfaginning (The Fooling Of Gylfe)'' by Sturluson, Snorri, 13th century Edda, in English. Accessed Apr. 16, 2007

Anderson, H. C.. 1842. ''The Elf of the Rose'' (Danish original: ''Rosen-Alfen'').

Anderson, H. C. 1845. ''The Elfin Hill'' (Danish original: ''Elverhøi'').

Category:English folklore Category:English legendary creatures Category:Germanic paganism Category:Germanic legendary creatures Category:Mythic humanoids Category:Northumbrian folklore Category:Northumbrian folkloric beings

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spouse	Ben Gibbard (2009–present)
relatives	Caleb Deschanel (father)Mary Jo Deschanel (mother)Emily Deschanel (sister) }}

Zooey Claire Deschanel (born January 17, 1980) is an American actress, musician, and singer-songwriter. In 1999, Deschanel made her film debut in ''Mumford'', followed by her breakout role as young protagonist William Miller's troubled older sister Anita in Cameron Crowe's 2000 semi-autobiographical film ''Almost Famous''. Deschanel soon became known for her deadpan or "Manic Pixie Dream Girl" supporting roles in films such as ''Elf'' (2003), ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy'' (2005) ''Failure to Launch'' (2006), and ''Bridge to Terabithia'' (2007). She then began playing lead roles in films, including ''Yes Man'' (2008) and ''(500) Days of Summer'' (2009). She will next headline the new Fox series ''New Girl'' in fall 2011.

For a few years starting in 2001, Deschanel performed in the jazz cabaret act ''If All the Stars Were Pretty Babies'' with fellow actress Samantha Shelton. She plays keyboards, percussion, banjo and ukulele, and has sung in several of her films. Deschanel teamed up with M. Ward to release their debut album ''Volume One'' (recorded with M. Ward under the moniker She & Him) which was released in March 2008. The follow-up album ''Volume Two'' was released in the U.S. in March 2010. She is married to Death Cab for Cutie frontman Ben Gibbard.

Early life

Born in Los Angeles in 1980, Zooey Deschanel is the daughter of cinematographer/director Caleb Deschanel and actress Mary Jo Deschanel (née Weir). She is of French (from her paternal grandfather) and Irish descent. She was named after Zooey Glass, the male protagonist of J. D. Salinger's 1961 novella ''Franny and Zooey''. Her older sister, Emily Deschanel, is also an actress and stars in the TV series ''Bones''.

Deschanel lived in Los Angeles, but spent much of her childhood traveling because her father shot films on location; she later said that she "hated all the traveling ... I'm really happy now that I had the experience, but at the time I was just so miserable to have to leave my friends in Los Angeles and go to places where they didn't have any food I liked or things I was used to." She attended Crossroads, a private preparatory school in Santa Monica, California, where she befriended future co-stars Jake Gyllenhaal and Kate Hudson. She sang throughout high school, planning to pursue a career in musical theatre. She attended Northwestern University for seven months before dropping out to work as an actress.

Career

Acting

Deschanel appeared in a guest role on the television series ''Veronica's Closet'' before making her film debut in Lawrence Kasdan's 1999 comedy ''Mumford'', and later in the year she appeared (non-singing) in the music video for The Offspring's single "She's Got Issues". In her second film, director Cameron Crowe's semi-autobiographical ''Almost Famous'' (2000), Deschanel played Anita Miller, the protagonist's rebellious older sister. The film received critical praise, but was not a box office success. She also appeared in Jimmy Fallon's "Idiot Boyfriend" music video as his lead girl.

Deschanel played supporting roles in a series of films that include ''Manic'' (2001), with Don Cheadle and Joseph Gordon-Levitt, ''Big Trouble'' (2002), with Tim Allen and Rene Russo, ''Abandon'' (2002) alongside Katie Holmes, Benjamin Bratt and Melanie Lynskey, and ''The Good Girl'' (2002) alongside Jennifer Aniston and Jake Gyllenhaal. In late 2002, ''The New York Times'' reported that Deschanel was "one of Hollywood's most sought-after young stars," and the ''Los Angeles Times'' wrote in early 2003 that Deschanel had become a recognizable type, due to "her deadpan, sardonic and scene-stealing [film] performances" as the protagonist's best friend. Deschanel objected to her typecasting, arguing, "A lot of these roles are just a formula idea of somebody's best friend, and it's like, I don't even have that many friends. In high school, I stayed home all the time, so I don't know how I'm everybody's best friend now."

Deschanel appeared in ''Frasier'', starring as Roz's out-of-control cousin, Jen, in the season 10 episode 'Kissing Cousin' in 2002. That year, she also appeared in the film ''The New Guy'' as Nora, the guitar player in the lead character's band, Suburban Funk.

After turning down several supporting roles, Deschanel played her first lead role in ''All the Real Girls'' (2003). Her performance as Noel, a sexually curious 18-year-old virgin who has a life-changing romance with an aimless 22-year-old, received critical praise, and she received an Independent Spirit nomination for Best Actress. Later in 2003, Deschanel played a deadpan department store worker opposite Will Ferrell in the comedy ''Elf'', which became a box office hit.

In 2004, Deschanel starred in ''Eulogy'', and in 2005 as Trillian in the film adaptation of Douglas Adams' science fiction novel ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy''. Also in 2005, she played the main character, Reese Holden in the film ''Winter Passing'' with supporting role from Will Ferrell. Deschanel then played Sarah Jessica Parker's neurotic roommate in ''Failure to Launch'' (2006), and appeared on four episodes of the Showtime television series ''Weeds'' from 2006 to 2007, playing Andy Botwin's quirky ex-girlfriend, Kat. In September 2006, ''Variety'' announced that Deschanel would play 1960s singer Janis Joplin in the film ''The Gospel According to Janis'', to be co-written and directed by Penelope Spheeris. Deschanel planned to sing all of Joplin's songs, and took four months of singing lessons "to approximate Joplin's gritty vocals." The film, scheduled to begin shooting on November 13, 2006, was postponed indefinitely. However, the project is now back on track and will be released in 2012.

In 2007, Deschanel appeared in two children's films: ''Bridge to Terabithia'', in which she played Jesse's quirky music teacher, and the animated film ''Surf's Up'', in which she voiced a penguin named Lani Aliikai. She played DG, the lead in the Sci Fi Channel miniseries ''Tin Man'', a re-imagined science fiction version of L. Frank Baum's children's book ''The Wonderful Wizard of Oz''. ''Tin Man'' aired on Sci Fi in December 2007. Deschanel also narrated the children's book ''Players in Pigtails''.

On April 27, 2008, she performed on ''The Simpsons'', playing the role of Mary, Cletus's daughter, and in June that year, she starred opposite Mark Wahlberg in M. Night Shyamalan's poorly received environmental thriller ''The Happening.''

In 2008, Deschanel starred in ''Gigantic'', and later that year in the comedy film ''Yes Man'', opposite Jim Carrey.

Deschanel was next seen as the title character in the 2009 award winning romantic-drama-comedy ''(500) Days of Summer'', opposite Joseph Gordon-Levitt (for a second time after ''Manic''). The film, about the development and demise of a relationship, received widespread praise and was directed by long-time commercial and music video director Marc Webb. The film received a Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Motion Picture (Comedy or Musical), but was ultimately defeated by ''The Hangover''.

Deschanel guest starred in a Christmas 2009 episode of ''Bones'' as Brennan's never-before-seen cousin. In the first-ever on-screen pairing of the Deschanel sisters, Zooey portrayed Margaret Whitesell, a distant relative of Emily's Dr. Temperance Brennan. Brennan's father, Max Keenan (guest star Ryan O'Neal), invites Margaret to spend Christmas with him and his daughter.

In 2010, Deschanel secured the role of Belladonna in the fantasy comedy film ''Your Highness'' alongside Natalie Portman and James Franco. Deschanel will star in the pilot for the HBO series ''I'm with the Band: Confessions of a Groupie'', in which she plays the role of Pamela Des Barres, who wrote a memoir based on her own experience as a former groupie. She is also set to appear in the new Fox series ''New Girl'', created by Elizabeth Meriwether.

Film-related music

''The New Guy'' (2002) was the first of Deschanel's films in which she sang onscreen. In ''Elf'', she sings with Will Ferrell in the bathroom shower scene on "Baby, It's Cold Outside", and was also heard singing it on the soundtrack with Leon Redbone. Her piano composition "Bittersuite" was used thematically in the dark, off-beat 2004 dramedy ''Winter Passing'', in which she starred alongside Will Ferrell and Ed Harris. Subsequently, Deschanel also sings in ''Winter Passing'' ("My Bonnie Lies over the Ocean").

Others include: the television musical ''Once Upon a Mattress'' ("An Opening For a Princess", "In a Little While", "Normandy", and "Yesterday I Loved You"); an old cabaret song in ''The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford''; and the 2007 short film ''Raving'' ("Hello, Dolly!").

Deschanel and the cast of school children sing the Steve Earle song "Someday" and War's "Why Can't We Be Friends?" in the 2007 film ''Bridge to Terabithia''.

In the film ''Yes Man'', Deschanel sings several songs featured in the film and on the film soundtrack, and is shown singing "Uh-Huh" and "Sweet Ballad" alongside San Franciscan all-girl electro soul-punk group Von Iva in a fictional band called "Munchausen by Proxy."

In ''(500) Days of Summer'' Deschanel sings a cover of Please, Please, Please Let Me Get What I Want by The Smiths—it also appears on the soundtrack of the film, as performed by She and Him. She also sing a cover of Sugar Town by Nancy Sinatra. ''(500) Days of Summer'' director Marc Webb also directed Deschanel and Gordon-Levitt in a music video, ''Bank Dance'', with the She & Him song Why Do You Let Me Stay Here.

Deschanel sings "The Greatest Most Beautiful Love Song in All the Land" with James Franco in the film ''Your Highness''. She also appears in a number of songs (with M. Ward) on the soundtrack album for the 2011 release of Disney's ''Winnie the Pooh''. Deschanel will also write and sing the theme song to her upcoming TV series New Girl.

Non-film music

In 2001 Deschanel formed If All the Stars Were Pretty Babies, a jazz cabaret act with fellow actress Samantha Shelton. The pair performed around Los Angeles.

In March 2007, Deschanel contributed vocals to two songs "Slowly" and "Ask Her to Dance" on the album ''Nighttiming'' by Jason Schwartzman's band Coconut Records. In May 2007, singer/songwriter M. Ward, who had previously performed with Deschanel onstage, said that he was "just finishing work" on her debut album, which will feature songs written by Deschanel and produced by Ward. ''Fox'' reported that Deschanel and Ward were recording under the moniker She & Him, and that the album, titled ''Volume One'', would be released by Merge Records on March 18, 2008.

An article on Pitchfork Media in December 2009 confirmed a March 23, 2010, release date for the second She & Him album, ''Volume Two''. In spring of 2010, She & Him went on tour in the USA and Europe in support of ''Volume Two'', .

Deschanel and M. Ward both featured on ''The Place We Ran From'', the 2010 album by Snow Patrol member Gary Lightbody's side project, Tired Pony. Deschanel contributed vocals to the tracks "Get On the Road" and "Point Me at Lost Islands", while M. Ward contributed vocals and guitar to the track "Held in the Arms of Your Words" and guitar to the track "That Silver Necklace".

Deschanel also recorded "The Fabric of My Life" for a 2009 advertising campaign for Cotton Incorporated.

Deschanel also performed "God Bless America" during the seventh inning stretch during game three of the National League Championship Series between the Philadelphia Phillies and San Francisco Giants on October 19, 2010 at AT&T; Park in San Francisco, California.

Deschanel contributed a cover of Buddy Holly's "It's So Easy" for the upcoming tribute album, ''Listen to Me: Buddy Holly'' to be released on September 6, 2011.

Other work

Deschanel was a judge for the ninth Independent Music Awards.

She has signed on to represent Rimmel.

In May 2011, she launched HelloGiggles an entertainment website geared towards women with producer Sophia Rossi and writer Molly McAleer.

Personal life

Deschanel—who is allergic to eggs, dairy, and wheat gluten—formerly adhered to a vegan diet and was featured on episode eight of the first season of Bravo's ''Top Chef Masters'' in which the chefs participating in the competition were challenged to cater a vegan lunch party for her family and friends using no eggs, dairy, soy, or gluten. However, according to a recent interview with ''Health'' magazine, she had to come off the diet because her food sensitivities made it too difficult for her to stay healthy as a vegan. She also stated that she has attention deficit disorder. In September 2009, Deschanel married fellow musician Ben Gibbard, lead vocalist for The Postal Service and Death Cab for Cutie.

Filmography

! Year	! Title	! Role	Notes
1998	''Veronica's Closet''	Elena	Episode: "Veronica's Fun and Pirates Are Crazy"
1999		Nessa Watkins
2000	''Almost Famous''	Anita Miller
2001		Tracy
2002	''''	Cheryl
2002		Samantha Harper
2002		Jenny Herk
2002	''''	Nora
2002	''Sweet Friggin' Daisies''	Zelda	Short film
2002	''Frasier''	Jen
2003	''Whatever We Do''	Nikki	Short film
2003	''All the Real Girls''	Noel
2003	''It's Better to Be Wanted for Murder Than Not to Be Wanted at All''	Gas Station Girl
2003	''House Hunting''	Christy	Short film
2003		Jovie
2004	''Cracking Up''	Heidi	Episode: "Birds Do It"
2004		Kate Collins
2005	''''
2005	''American Dad!''	Candy Striper Stripper / French Maid (voice)	Episode: "Stan Knows Best"
2005	''Winter Passing''	Reese Holden
2005	''Once Upon a Mattress''	Lady Larken	TV movie
2006	''Failure to Launch''	Kit
2006		Cheryl
2006–2007		Kat	4 episodes
2007	''''	Frances
2007	''''	Kate
2007		Ms. Edmunds
2007		Miss Pussy Katz
2007		Katie	Short film
2007		Lani Aliikai (voice)
2007	''''	Dorothy Evans
2007		DG	TV miniseries
2008		Happy Lolly
2008	''''	Mary (voice)	Episode: "Apocalypse Cow"
2008	''''	Alma Moore
2008		Allison
2009	''(500) Days of Summer''	Summer Finn	Nominated – Satellite Award
2009		Margaret Whitesell
2010	''Funny or Die Presents''	Mary Todd Lincoln	''Drunk History'' sketch; "Drunk History Vol. 5 w/ Will Ferrell, Don Cheadle & Zooey Deschanel"
2010	''Havin' a Summah''		Video short
2011	''Our Idiot Brother''	Natalie	Completed
2011	''Your Highness''	Belladonna
2011	''New Girl''	Jessica Day	Fall TV series

Discography

Solo & duets

"Baby, It's Cold Outside" with Leon Redbone – ''Elf'' soundtrack

"Sugar Town" – ''(500) Days of Summer'' soundtrack

five tracks on the soundtrack album to the 2011 release of Disney's ''Winnie the Pooh''

"The Greatest Most Beautiful Love Song in All the Land" with James Franco – ''Your Highness'' soundtrack

Munchausen By Proxy

:''Munchausen By Proxy is a fictional band that appears in the film'' Yes Man.

"Sweet Ballad" featuring Zooey Deschanel & Von Iva – ''Yes Man'' soundtrack

"Uh-Huh" featuring Zooey Deschanel & Von Iva – ''Yes Man'' soundtrack

"Keystar" featuring Zooey Deschanel & Von Iva – ''Yes Man'' soundtrack

"Yes Man" featuring Zooey Deschanel & Von Iva – ''Yes Man'' soundtrack

She & Him

Studio albums ''Volume One'' (March 18, 2008) No.71 US

''Volume Two'' (March 23, 2010) No.6 US

Singles

"Why Do You Let Me Stay Here?" (January, 2008)

"Have Yourself A Merry Little Christmas" (December, 2009)

"In the Sun" (February, 2010)

"Thieves" (June, 2010)

Soundtrack

"I Put A Spell On You" (January 30, 2009) Starbucks' ''Sweetheart'' CD

"When I Get To The Border" (2007) on ''The Go-Getter'' soundtrack

"Please, Please, Please, Let Me Get What I Want" (2009) on ''(500) Days of Summer'' soundtrack

Tired Pony

"Get on the Road" ''The Place We Ran From''

"Point Me at Lost Islands" ''The Place We Ran From''

References

External links

Category:1980 births Category:Living people Category:Actors from Los Angeles, California Category:American people of French descent Category:American female singers Category:American film actors Category:American keyboardists Category:American musicians of French descent Category:American musicians of Irish descent Category:American singer-songwriters Category:American television actors Category:Models from California Category:Musicians from Los Angeles, California Category:People from the Greater Los Angeles Area Category:Singers from California Category:American pop singer-songwriters

cs:Zooey Deschanelová da:Zooey Deschanel de:Zooey Deschanel es:Zooey Deschanel fa:زویی دشانل fr:Zooey Deschanel gv:Zooey Deschanel ko:조이 데이셔넬 id:Zooey Deschanel it:Zooey Deschanel he:זואי דשנל hu:Zooey Deschanel nl:Zooey Deschanel ja:ズーイー・デシャネル no:Zooey Deschanel pl:Zooey Deschanel pt:Zooey Deschanel ro:Zooey Deschanel ru:Дешанель, Зоуи sq:Zooey Deschanel sh:Zooey Deschanel fi:Zooey Deschanel sv:Zooey Deschanel th:ซูอี้ เดสชาแนล tr:Zooey Deschanel uk:Зоуї Дешанель zh:柔伊·黛絲香奈

Coordinates	35°10′″N33°22′″N
Name	Graham Hancock
Birth date	August 02, 1950
Birth place	Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
Death date
Resting place coordinates
Nationality	British
Citizenship	British
Known for	Author, ''The Sign and the Seal'', ''Fingerprints of the Gods'', ''The Message of the Sphinx''
Alma mater	Durham University
Occupation	Author
Footnotes	}}

Graham Hancock (born 2 August 1950 in Edinburgh, Scotland) is a British writer and journalist. Hancock specialises in unconventional theories involving ancient civilisations, stone monuments or megaliths, altered states of consciousness, ancient myths and astronomical/astrological data from the past. One of the main themes running through many of his books is the possible global connection with a "mother culture" from which he believes all ancient historical civilizations sprang.

Biography

Born in Edinburgh, Scotland, Hancock's formative years were spent in India, where his father worked as a surgeon. Having returned to the UK, he graduated from Durham University in 1973, receiving a First Class Honours degree in Sociology.

As a journalist, Hancock worked for many British papers, such as ''The Times'', ''The Sunday Times'', ''The Independent'', and ''The Guardian''. He was co-editor of New Internationalist magazine from 1976–1979 and East Africa correspondent of ''The Economist'' from 1981-1983.

Works

His books include ''Lords of Poverty'', ''The Sign and the Seal'', ''Fingerprints of the Gods'', ''Keeper of Genesis'' (released in the US as ''Message of the Sphinx''), ''The Mars Mystery'', ''Heaven's Mirror'' (with wife Santha Faiia), ''Underworld: The Mysterious Origins of Civilization'', and ''Talisman: Sacred Cities, Secret Faith'' (with co-author Robert Bauval). In 1996 he appeared in The Mysterious Origins of Man. He also wrote and presented the documentaries ''Underworld: Flooded Kingdoms of the Ice Age'' (2002) and ''Quest for the Lost Civilisation'' (1998) shown on Channel 4. In Hancocks's book ''Talisman: Sacred Cities, Secret Faith'', co-authored with Robert Bauval, the two put forward "a version of the old Jewish-Masonic plot so beloved by ultra-right-wing conspiracy theorists." They suggest a connection between the pillars of Solomon's Temple and the Twin Towers, and between the Star of David and The Pentagon.

Hancock's most recent non-fiction book, ''Supernatural: Meetings With the Ancient Teachers of Mankind'', was published in the UK in October 2005 and in the US in 2006. In it, Hancock examines paleolithic cave art in the light of David Lewis-Williams' neuropsychological model, exploring its relation to the development of the fully-modern human mind.

His first novel, ''Entangled: The Eater of Souls'', the first in a fantasy series, was published in the UK in April 2010 and in the US in October 2010. The novel makes use of Hancock's prior research interests and as he has noted, "What was there to lose, I asked myself, when my critics already described my factual books as fiction?"

Although his books have sold more than five million copies worldwide and have been translated into twenty-seven languages, his methods and conclusions have found little support among academics.

Often criticised for being a pseudoarchaeologist, Hancock has never claimed that he has formal training in archaeology, or that he is an archeologist. He sees himself as a journalist who asks questions based upon observation and as someone who provides a counterbalance to what he perceives as the "unquestioned" acceptance and support given to orthodox views by the education system, the media, and by society at large.

Orion Correlation Theory

One of the many recurring themes in several of Hancock's works has been an exposition on the "Orion Correlation Theory" (or OCT) , first put forward by Belgian writer Robert Bauval and then further expounded in collaborative works with Hancock, as well as in their separate publications.

BBC ''Horizon'' controversy

BBC 2's ''Horizon'' TV series broadcast a programme, "Atlantis Reborn", on 4 November 1999 that challenged the ideas presented by Hancock. It detailed one of Hancock's claims that the arrangement of an ancient temple complex was designed to mirror astronomical features and attempted to demonstrate that the same thing could be done with perhaps equal justification using famous landmarks in New York. It also ''alleged'' that Hancock had selectively moved or ignored the locations of some of the temples to fit his own theories (see below).

Hancock claimed he was misrepresented by the programme, and he and Robert Bauval made complaints to the Broadcasting Standards Commission against the way ''Horizon'' had portrayed them and their work. Eight points were raised by Hancock, two by Bauval (one of which duplicated a complaint of Hancock's). This included the complaint that:

"''The programme attempted to create the impression that he [Hancock] was an intellectual fraudster who had put forward half baked theories and ideas in bad faith, and that he was incompetent to defend his own arguments."''

The BSC dismissed all but one of the complaints. Overall, the BSC concluded that "the programme makers acted in good faith in their examination of the theories of Mr Hancock and Mr Bauval". The complaint which was upheld was that '"The programme ''unfairly omitted one of their arguments in rebuttal of a speaker who criticised the theory'' of a significant correlation between the Giza pyramids and the belt stars of the constellation Orion (the "correlation theory")"', which the Commission did find to be unfair. That speaker was the astronomer Edwin Krupp. Krupp accused Bauval of somehow fudging the maps of Orion and the Pyramids by placing them "upside down" in order to make the theory work. Krupp's argument hinges on the modern convention that 'north is up and south is down' in map-making. In interviews filmed with Horizon, Hancock and Bauval provided detailed rebuttals to Krupp and argued that the ancient Egyptians had made the Pyramids correlate in the most obvious and intuitive manner with the three stars of Orion's Belt: Lower Egypt is ''North'' and Upper Egypt is ''South''. Krupp's criticism was rejected by two prominent British astronomers, Dr. Percy Seymour of Plymouth University and Dr. Archie Roy, professor Emeritus at Glasgow University. ''Horizon'' subsequently offered to broadcast a revised transmission of the programme which takes into account the larger point which was found in the writers' favour. This went to air under the name ''Horizon: Atlantis Reborn Again'' on 14 December 2000.

Cultural references

In 2009, Roland Emmerich released his blockbuster disaster movie 2012 citing ''Fingerprints of the Gods'' in the credits as an inspiration for the film, stating: "I always wanted to do a biblical flood movie, but I never felt I had the hook. I first read about the Earth's Crust Displacement Theory in Graham Hancock's ''Fingerprints of the Gods''." Also in 2009, author Geoff Stray released his best-selling book "Beyond 2012: Catastrophe or Awakening?" in which he sites Graham Hancock as one of his inspirations and as a guidepost to point others to do their own investigation into the wonder of ancient societies.

Books

Published in the United Kingdom as

See also

Archaeoastronomy

Erich von Däniken

Mythology

Zahi Hawass

References

External links

The Official Graham Hancock Website

Broadcasting Standards Commission – Synopsis of adjudication. Horizon: Atlantis Reborn (November 4, 1999)

Horizon: Atlantis Reborn and the Broadcasting Standards Commission The BBC's response to the Horizon programme debate.

Brass, M., nd, ''An analysis of the quality of Graham Hancock's "science"'', The Antiquity of Man Web Site.

Brass, M., 2002, ''Tracing Graham Hancock's Shifting Cataclysm'', Skeptical Inquirer. vol. 26, no. 4: 45-49.

Carroll, R. T., 2009, ''Atlantis'', The Skeptic’s Dictionary website.

Fagan, N., nd, ''An Answer to Graham Hancock'' and ''Analysis of Hancock's Position Statement on C-14 Dating'', Papers, In the Hall of Ma’at website.

Tonkin, S., nd, ''Some Astronomical Errors of Graham Hancock'', The Astronomical Unit website.

Flemming, N., nd, ''Review of Flooded Kingdoms of the Ice Age'', Papers, In the Hall of Ma’at website.

The Big Idea: Graham Hancock

Category:1950 births Category:Atlantis Category:Living people Category:British non-fiction writers Category:Pseudoarchaeology Category:Pseudohistory Category:Alumni of Durham University Category:2012 theorists

ca:Graham Hancock da:Graham Hancock de:Graham Hancock es:Graham Hancock fr:Graham Hancock it:Graham Hancock ja:グラハム・ハンコック no:Graham Hancock pl:Graham Hancock pt:Graham Hancock ru:Хэнкок, Грэм sk:Graham Hancock sv:Graham Hancock ta:கிரஹாம் ஹான்கோக் zh:葛瑞姆·汉卡克