Veganism is the personal practice of eliminating the use of non-human animal products. Ethical vegans reject the commodity status of animals and the use of animal products for any purpose, while dietary vegans or strict vegetarians eliminate them from their diet only. Another form, environmental veganism, rejects the use of animal products on the premise that the industrial practice is environmentally damaging and unsustainable.

The term "vegan" was coined in England in 1944 by Donald Watson, co-founder of the British Vegan Society, to mean "non-dairy vegetarian"; the society also opposed the use of eggs as food. It extended its definition in 1951 to mean "the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals," and in 1960 H. Jay Dinshah started the American Vegan Society, linking veganism to the Jainist concept of ahimsa, the avoidance of violence against living things.

It is a small but growing movement. In 1997 three percent in the U.S. said they had not used animals for any purpose in the previous two years, and in 2007 two percent in the UK called themselves vegans. The number of vegan restaurants is increasing, and according to the ''Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink'' (2007) the top athletes in certain endurance sports—for instance, the Ironman triathlon and the Ultramarathon—practise raw veganism. Well-planned vegan diets have been found to offer protection against many degenerative conditions, including heart disease. The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada regard such a diet as appropriate for all stages of the life-cycle, though they caution that poorly planned vegan diets can be deficient in vitamin B₁₂, iron, vitamin D, calcium, iodine, and omega-3 fatty acids.

Background

Early history

Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess write that the first ethical argument against eating animals can be traced to the Greek philosopher Pythagorus (c. 570–490 BCE). A believer in the transmigration of souls, Pythagoras warned that eating an animal might involve eating a human soul; therefore, he argued, human beings ought to regard all living beings as kindred souls.

The word "vegetarian" seems to have come into use in England in the early 19th century; ''The Oxford English Dictionary'' attributes one early reference to the actress Fanny Kemble (1809–1893) writing in 1839. The British Vegetarian Society, led by Joseph Brotherton (1783–1857), held its first meeting on September 30, 1847 at Northwood Villa in Ramsgate, Kent, and in 1886 the society published the influential ''A Plea for Vegetarianism'' by the English campaigner Henry Salt (1851–1939)—widely known as the first writer to make the paradigm shift from animal welfare to animal rights. In it, Salt acknowledged that he was a vegetarian, writing that this was a "formidable admission" to make, because "a Vegetarian is still regarded, in ordinary society, as little better than a madman."

Vegetarians who avoided eggs and dairy products, as well as meat, were known simply as strict or total vegetarians. In 1851 an article appeared in the Vegetarian Society's magazine about alternatives to using leather for shoes, which the International Vegetarian Union cites as evidence of the existence in England of another group who wanted to avoid using animal products entirely.

Early 20th century

The first known vegan cookbook, ''No Animal Food'' by Rupert H. Wheldon, was published in England by C.W. Daniel in 1910. In it, Wheldon argued that, "it is obvious that since we should live as to give the greatest possible happiness to all beings capable of appreciating it and as it is an indisputable fact that animals can suffer pain, ''and that men who slaughter animals needlessly suffer from atrophy of all finer feelings'', we should therefore cause no unnecessary suffering in the animal world."

Leah Leneman writes that in 1912 the editor of ''TVMHR'', the journal of the Vegetarian Society's Manchester branch, started a debate among readers as to whether vegetarians ought to avoid eggs and dairy. He summarized the views of the 24 vegetarians who responded, writing: "The defence of the use of eggs and milk by vegetarians, so far as it has been offered here, is not satisfactory. The only true way is to live on cereals, pulse, fruit, nuts and vegetables." The journal wrote in 1923 that the "ideal position for vegetarians is abstinence from animal products," and that most of the society's members were in a transitional stage. In 1935 it wrote that the issue was becoming more pressing with every year.

In 1888 Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) arrived in London to study law. Before he left India his mother asked him to swear an oath that he would eat no meat or eggs. He wrote that after reading Henry Salt's ''A Plea for Vegetarianism'' he was glad he had taken the oath, and that the spread of vegetarianism became his mission. He became friends with other leading vegetarian campaigners, including Anna Kingsford (1846–1888), author of ''The Perfect Way in Diet'' (1881), and in 1931 he addressed a meeting of the Vegetarian Society—attended by Salt—arguing that it ought to promote a meat-free diet as a moral issue, not as an issue of human health. Norman Phelps writes that this was a rebuke to those members of the society who focused on the health benefits. Gandhi argued that "vegetarians had a habit of talking of nothing but food and nothing but disease. I feel that this is the worst way of going about the business. ... I discovered that for remaining staunch to vegetarianism a man requires a moral basis."

Although Gandhi himself continued to drink cow's milk—calling it the tragedy of his life that he could not give it up—Phelps argues that his speech was a call for the society to align itself with Salt's views on animal rights, and a precursor to the ideas of Donald Watson and the first Vegan Society in 1944.

1944: Coining the term "vegan"

In July 1943 Leslie Cross, a member of the Leicester Vegetarian Society, expressed concern in its newsletter, ''The Vegetarian Messenger'', that vegetarians were still eating dairy products. A year later, in August 1944, two of the society's members, Donald Watson (1910–2005) and Elsie "Sally" Shrigley (died 1978), suggested forming a subgroup of non-dairy vegetarians. When the executive committee rejected the idea, they and five others met at the Attic Club in Holborn, London, on November 1 to discuss setting up a separate organization. Suggestions for a concise term to replace "non-dairy vegetarian" included dairyban, vitan, benevore, sanivore, and beaumangeur, but Watson decided on "vegan"—pronounced "veegun" (), with the stress on the first syllable—the first three and last two letters of vegetarian and, as Watson put it in 2004, "the beginning and end of vegetarian." The meeting saw the foundation of the British Vegan Society with 25 members. Fay K. Henderson published ''Vegan Recipes'', the first recipe book with "vegan" in the title, in 1946. The word was first independently published in the ''Oxford Illustrated Dictionary'' in 1962, defined as "a vegetarian who eats no butter, eggs, cheese or milk."

The first vegan society in the United States was founded in 1948 by Dr. Catherine Nimmo of Oceano, California, and Rubin Abramowitz of Los Angeles. Nimmo had been a vegan since 1931, and began distributing the British Vegan Society's ''Vegan'' newsletter to her mailing list within the United States. In 1951 the Vegan Society in the UK broadened its definition of veganism to "the doctrine that man should live without exploiting animals." Leslie Cross, the society's vice-president wrote that veganism is a principle, that it is "not so much about welfare [of animals] as liberation." The society pledged to "seek to end the use of animals by man for food, commodities, work, hunting, vivisection and all other uses involving exploitation of animal life by man." Members were expected to declare themselves in agreement with this, and live as closely to the ideal as they could, but without making specific promises about their own behavior.

In 1957 H. Jay Dinshah (1933–2000), the son of a Parsi from Mumbai, visited a slaughterhouse and read some of Watson's literature. He decided to give up all animal products, and on February 8, 1960, he founded the American Vegan Society (AVS) in Malaga, New Jersey, incorporating Nimmo's society, and explicitly linking veganism to the concept of ''ahimsa'', a Sanskrit word meaning "non-harming." The AVS called it "dynamic harmlessness," and to stress the connection with veganism named its magazine ''Ahimsa''. Two key books explained the philosophy: Dinshah's ''Out of the Jungle: The Way of Dynamic Harmlessness'' (1965), and Victoria Moran's ''Compassion, the Ultimate Ethic: An Exploration of Veganism'' (1985), the latter first published as a series of essays in ''Ahimsa''. Today the word "veganism" is still used to refer either to the plant-based diet, or to a lifestyle that seeks to eliminate animal use entirely. Since 1994 World Vegan Day has been held every November 1, the founding date of the British Vegan Society in 1944.

2000s: Demographics

A 2009 survey for the Vegetarian Resource Group reported that one percent of Americans identified as vegan, and in 2007 a British government survey found the figure in the UK self-identifying as vegan was two percent. In 2005 ''The Times'' estimated there were 250,000 vegans in the UK, and in 2006 ''The Independent'' estimated 600,000. The Netherlands Association for Veganism estimated there were 16,000 vegans in the Netherlands as of 2007, around 0.1 percent of the population.

Vegan diet, clothing, and toiletries

Avoidance of animal products

Ethical vegans entirely reject the commodification of animals. The Vegan Society in the UK will only certify a product as vegan if it is free of animal involvement as far as possible and practical.

An animal product is any material derived from animals, including meat, poultry, seafood, eggs, dairy products, honey, fur, leather, wool, and silk. Other commonly used animal products are beeswax, bone char, bone china, carmine, casein, cochineal, gelatin, isinglass, lanolin, lard, rennet, shellac, tallow, whey, and yellow grease. Many of these may not be identified in the list of ingredients in the finished product. There is disagreement among groups about the extent to which all animal products, particularly products from insects, must be avoided. Neither the Vegan Society nor the American Vegan Society consider the use of honey, silk, or other insect products to be suitable for vegans, while Vegan Action and Vegan Outreach regard that as a matter of personal choice.

Ethical vegans will not use animal products for clothing, toiletries, or any other reason, and will try to avoid ingredients that have been tested on animals. They will not buy fur coats, leather shoes, belts, bags, or wallets, woollen jumpers, or silk scarves. Depending on their economic circumstances, they may donate such items to charity when they become vegan, or use them until they wear out. Cruelty-free clothing is widely available in stores and online. Alternatives to wool include cotton, hemp, rayon, and polyester. Some vegan clothes, particularly shoes, are made of petroleum-based products, which has triggered criticism because of the environmental damage associated with production. In warmer climates, vegans tend to wear shoes made of hemp, linen, or canvas.

Cuisine

:''Further information: Wikibooks Cookbook list of vegan recipes ''

Any plant-based dish may be vegan. Common vegan dishes prepared without animal ingredients include ratatouille, falafel, hummus, veggie burrito, rice and beans, and pasta primavera. Ingredients such as tofu, tempeh, and seitan are widely used in vegan cuisine. Plant cream and plant milk—such as almond milk, grain milk, or soy milk—are used instead of cows' or goats' milk. Vegan recipes will use apple sauce, ground flax seeds, mashed potato, soft tofu, or commercial starch-based egg-substitute products, instead of chickens' eggs.

Meat analogues, or "mock meats," made of soy or gluten—including vegetarian sausage, vegetarian mince, and veggie burgers—are widely available. Cheese analogues can replace cows' and goats' cheese, though vegan cheese does not melt in the same way, because it contains no casein, a protein found in human and non-human animal milk. Joanne Stepaniak writes that cheese substitutes can be made at home, using recipes from ''Vegan Vittles'', ''The Nutritional Yeast Cookbook'', and ''The Uncheese Cookbook''.

The Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine recommends what they call the "Four New Food Groups." They suggest that vegans and vegetarians eat at least three servings of vegetables a day, including dark green, leafy vegetables such as broccoli, and dark yellow and orange such as carrots; five servings of whole grains (bread, rice, pasta); three of fruit; and two of legumes (beans, peas, lentils).

Health arguments

According to the 2010 ''Dietary Guidelines for Americans,'' a report issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, a vegetarian diet is associated with lower levels of obesity and reduced risk of cardiovascular disease. According to the EPIC-Oxford study, vegetarian diets provide large amounts of cereals, pulses, nuts, fruits, and vegetables, which makes them rich in carbohydrates, omega-6 fatty acids, dietary fiber, carotenoids, folic acid, vitamin C, vitamin E and magnesium. The vegan diet is more restricted, and recommendations differ. Poorly planned vegan diets may be low in vitamin B₁₂, calcium, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin D, iron, zinc, riboflavin (vitamin B₂), and iodine. The American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada said in 2003 that properly planned vegan diets were nutritionally adequate for all stages of life, including pregnancy and lactation, and provided health benefits in the treatment and prevention of certain diseases. The Swiss Federal Nutrition Commission and the German Society for Nutrition do not recommend a vegan diet, and caution against it for children, the pregnant, and the elderly.

Physicians John A. McDougall, Caldwell Esselstyn, Neal D. Barnard, Dean Ornish, Michael Greger, and nutritional biochemist T. Colin Campbell, argue that high animal fat and protein diets, such as the standard American diet, are detrimental to health, and that a low-fat vegan diet can both prevent and reverse degenerative diseases such as coronary artery disease and diabetes. A 2006 study by Barnard found that in people with type 2 diabetes, a low-fat vegan diet reduced weight, total cholesterol, and LDL cholesterol, and did so to a greater extent than the diet prescribed by the American Diabetes Association.

The 12-year Oxford Vegetarian Study of 11,000 subjects recruited between 1980 and 1984 indicated that vegans had lower total- and LDL-cholesterol concentrations than did meat-eaters. Death rates were lower in non-meat eaters than in meat eaters; mortality from ischemic heart disease was positively associated with eating animal fat and with dietary cholesterol levels. The study also suggested that vegans in the UK may be at risk of iodine deficiency because of deficiencies in the soil.

According to the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada, diets that avoid meat tend to have lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E, and phytochemicals. People who avoid meat are reported to have lower body mass index than those following the average Canadian or American diet. From this follows lower death rates from ischemic heart disease, lower blood cholesterol levels, lower blood pressure, and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer.

A 1999 meta-analysis of five studies comparing vegetarian and non-vegetarian mortality rates in Western countries found the mortality rate due to ischemic heart disease 26 percent lower among vegans compared to regular meat eaters, but 34 percent lower among lacto-ovo vegetarians (vegetarians who eat dairy products and eggs) and pescetarians (those who eat fish but no other meat). The lower rate of protection for vegans compared to pescetarians or lacto-ovo vegetarians is believed to be linked to higher levels of homocysteine, which is caused by insufficient vitamin B12, and it is believed that vegans who get sufficient B12 should show even lower risk of ischemic heart disease than lacto-ovo vegetarians. No significant difference in mortality was found from other causes.

Vitamin B₁₂, iodine, choline

The Vegan Society and Vegan Outreach recommend that vegans eat foods fortified with B₁₂ or take a supplement. B₁₂ is a bacterial product that cannot be found reliably in plant foods, and is needed for the formation and maturation of red blood cells and the synthesis of DNA, and for normal nerve function; a deficiency can lead to a number of health problems, including megaloblastic anemia. Iodine supplementation may be necessary for vegans in countries where salt is not typically iodized, where it is iodized at low levels, or where, as in Britain or Ireland, dairy products are relied upon for iodine delivery because of low levels in the soil. Iodine can be obtained from most vegan multivitamins or from regular consumption of seaweeds, such as kelp. Vegans may also be at risk of choline deficiency and may benefit from choline supplements.

Iron, calcium, vitamin D

Iron deficiency may lead to anemia. Iron is less well absorbed from vegetarian diets (10 percent absorption from vegetarian diets, versus 18 percent from an omnivorous diet); vegetarians who exclude all animal products may need almost twice as much dietary iron each day than non-vegetarians. On the other hand, the iron status of omnivores and vegans appears to be similar, and body absorption processes may adjust to low intakes over time by enhancing absorption efficiency. Molasses is a high-iron food source and many vegans take it in spoonfuls as an iron supplement.

Vegans are advised to eat three servings per day of a high-calcium food, such as fortified soy milk, almonds, hazelnuts, and take a calcium supplement as necessary. The EPIC-Oxford study suggested that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures over meat eaters and vegetarians, likely because of lower dietary calcium intake, but that vegans consuming more than 525 mg/day had a risk of fractures similar to other groups. A 2009 study of bone density found the bone density of vegans was 94 percent that of omnivores, but deemed the difference clinically insignificant.

Another study in 2009 by the same researchers examined over 100 vegan post-menopausal women, and found their diet had no adverse effect on bone mineral density (BMD) and no alteration in body composition. Biochemist T. Colin Campbell suggested in ''The China Study'' (2005) that osteoporosis is linked to the consumption of animal protein because, unlike plant protein, animal protein increases the acidity of blood and tissues, which is then neutralized by calcium pulled from the bones. Cornell wrote that his China-Cornell-Oxford study of nutrition in the 1970s and 1980s found that, in rural China, "where the animal to plant ratio [for protein] was about 10 percent, the fracture rate is only one-fifth that of the U.S."

Regarding vitamin D, Vegan Outreach writes that the only significant natural sources in foods are from fatty fish, such as cod liver oil, mackerel, salmon, and sardines; eggs, if the chickens have been fed vitamin D; and mushrooms if treated with UVB rays. Vegans are therefore advised to use supplements, though light-skinned people can obtain adequate amounts by spending 15–30 minutes in sunlight every few days. Dark-skinned people need significantly more sunlight to obtain the same amount of vitamin D, and sunlight exposure may be difficult in some parts of the world during winter, in which case supplements are recommended.

Pregnancies and children

The American Dietetic Association considers well-planned vegan diets "appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy and lactation," but recommends that vegan mothers supplement for iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B₁₂. Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers has been linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children. Some research suggests that the essential omega-3 fatty acid α-linolenic acid and its derivatives should also be supplemented in pregnant and lactating vegan mothers, since they are very low in most vegan diets, and the metabolically related docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is essential to the developing visual and central nervous system. Pregnant vegans may need to supplement choline.

A maternal vegan diet has been associated with low birth weight, and a five times lower likelihood of having twins than those who eat animal products, though the article cited concludes that it is the consumption of dairy products by non-vegans that increases the likelihood of conceiving twins, especially in areas where growth hormone is fed to dairy cattle. Several cases of severe infant or child malnutrition, and some infant fatalities, have been associated with poorly planned, restrictive vegan diets, often insufficient in calories. Dr. Amy Lanou, nutrition director of the Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, and an expert witness for the prosecution in one case, wrote that vegan diets are "not only safe for babies; they're healthier than ones based on animal products." She wrote that "the real problem was that [the child] was not given enough food of any sort."

Eating disorders

The American Dietetic Association indicates that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders, but that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, rather that "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder." Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.

Dietary, ethical, and environmental perspectives

Dietary veganism

Dietary vegans eat an entirely plant-based diet—either for health reasons or out of concern for animal welfare—but may continue to use animal products for other purposes. The Associated Press reported in January 2011 that veganism was moving from marginal to mainstream in the United States, with vegan books such as ''Skinny Bitch'' (2005) becoming best sellers, and several celebrities exploring vegan diets. According to the AP, over half the 1,500 chefs polled in 2011 by the National Restaurant Association included vegan entrees, and chain restaurants are starting to mark vegan items on their menus.

Oprah Winfrey went vegan for 21 days in 2008, and in 2011 asked her 378 production staff to go vegan for one week. Former U.S. president Bill Clinton adopted a vegan diet in 2010 after cardiac surgery; his daughter, Chelsea, was already a vegan. His diet followed the advice of Dean Ornish, Caldwell Esselstyn, and T. Colin Campbell: mostly beans, legumes, vegetables, and fruit, and a daily drink of almond milk, fruit and protein powder. In November 2010 ''Bloomberg Businessweek'' reported that a growing number of American CEOs were becoming vegan, such as Steve Wynn, Mortimer Zuckerman, Russell Simmons, and Steve Jobs.

Ethical veganism

Ethical vegans see veganism as a philosophy, lifestyle, and set of principles, not simply a diet. Bob Torres, author of ''Vegan Freak'' (2005), writes that ethical veganism consists of "living life consciously as an anti-speciesist." Joanne Stepaniak, author of ''Being Vegan'' (2000), argues that to place the qualifier "dietary" before "vegan" dilutes its meaning—like using the term "secular Catholic" for people who want to practise only some aspects of Catholicism. She writes that people should not call themselves vegan simply because they have embraced the diet: "Practising a vegan diet no more qualifies someone as vegan than eating kosher food qualifies someone as Jewish."

The philosophical debate about the moral basis of veganism reflects a division of viewpoints within animal rights theory between a rights-based or deontological approach, and a utilitarian/consequentialist one. Tom Regan, professor emeritus of philosophy at North Carolina State University, is a rights-theorist who argues that animals possess inherent value as "subjects-of-a-life"—because they have beliefs and desires, an emotional life, memory, and the ability to initiate action in pursuit of goals—and therefore must be viewed as ends in themselves, not a means to an end. He argues that the right of subjects-of-a-life not to be harmed can be overridden only when outweighed by other valid moral principles, but that the reasons cited for eating animal products—pleasure, convenience, and the economic interests of farmers—are not weighty enough to override the animals' moral rights.

Peter Singer, professor of bioethics at Princeton University, approaches the issue from a utilitarian perspective. He argues that there is no moral or logical justification for refusing to count animal suffering as a consequence when making ethical decisions, and that the limit of sentience is "the only defensible boundary of concern for the interests of others." He does not contend that killing animals is wrong in principle, but that from a consequentialist standpoint it should be rejected unless necessary for survival. He therefore advocates both veganism and improved conditions for farm animals to reduce animal suffering. Singer is not concerned about what he calls trivial infractions of vegan principles, arguing that personal purity is not the issue. He supports what is known as the "Paris exemption": if you find yourself in a fine restaurant, allow yourself to eat what you want, and if you're in a strange place without access to vegan food, going vegetarian instead is acceptable.

Gary L. Francione, professor of law at Rutgers School of Law-Newark, is a rights-theorist. He argues that "all sentient beings should have at least one right—the right not to be treated as property," and that adopting veganism must be the unequivocal baseline for anyone who sees nonhuman animals as having intrinsic moral value; to fail to do so is like arguing for human rights while continuing to own human slaves. He writes that there is no coherent difference between eating meat and dairy or eggs; animals used in the dairy and egg industries live longer, are treated worse, and end up in the same slaughterhouses. Francione is critical of consequentialist positions that admit of occasional exceptions to vegan principles; see below.

Carol J. Adams, the vegan-feminist writer, has used the concept of the absent referent to describe what she calls a psycho-social detachment between the consumer and the consumed. She wrote in ''The Sexual Politics of Meat'' (1990), described by ''The New York Times'' as a bible of the vegan community: "Behind every meal of meat is an absence: the death of the animal whose place the meat takes. The 'absent referent' is that which separates the meat eater from the animal and the animal from the end product. The function of the absent referent is to keep our 'meat' separated from any idea that she or he was once an animal, to keep the 'moo' or 'cluck' or 'baa' away from the meat, to keep ''something'' from being seen as having been some''one''."

right|thumb|150px|alt=photograph|Law professor Gary Francione opposes Singer's flexible approach.

Debate about the "Paris exemption"

Singer's support for the "Paris exemption"—the acceptance of flexibility on special occasions, or when vegan food is hard to find—is part of a debate within the animal rights movement about the extent to which it ought to promote strict veganism without exception. The positions are reflected by the divide between the animal protectionist side—represented by Singer and PETA's consequentialist approach—which argues that incremental change can achieve real reform, and the abolitionist—represented by Francione's emphasis on rights—which argues that apparent welfare reform serves only to persuade the public that animal use is morally unproblematic. Singer said in 2006 that the movement should be more tolerant of people who choose to use animal products if they are careful about making sure the animals had a decent life. Bruce Friedrich of PETA argued in the same year that a strict adherence to veganism can become an obsession. Veganism should not be dogma, he wrote:

[W]e all know people whose reason for not going vegan is that they "can't" give up cheese or ice cream. ... Instead of encouraging them to stop eating all other animal products besides cheese or ice cream, we preach to them about the oppression of dairy cows. Then we go on about how we don’t eat sugar or a veggie burger because of the bun, even though a tiny bit of butter flavor in a bun contributes to significantly less suffering than any non-organic fruit or vegetable does or a plastic bottle or about 100 other things that most of us use. Our fanatical obsession with ingredients not only obscures the animals’ suffering—which was virtually non-existent for that tiny modicum of ingredient—but also nearly guarantees that those around us are not going to make any change at all. So, we’ve preserved our personal purity, but we’ve hurt animals—and that’s anti-vegan.

Francione writes that this position is similar to arguing that, because human rights abuses can never be eliminated entirely, we should not safeguard human rights in situations we control. By failing to ask a server whether something contains animal products, in the interest of avoiding a fuss, he argues that we reinforce the idea that the moral rights of animals are a matter of convenience. He concludes from this that the PETA/Singer position fails even on its own consequentialist terms.

Environmental veganism

Resources and the environment

People who adopt veganism for environmental reasons often do so because it consumes fewer resources and causes less environmental damage. Organizations such as PETA point out that animal agriculture is linked to climate change, water pollution, land degradation, a decline in biodiversity, and that a commercially available animal-based diet uses more land, water, and energy than a strictly vegetarian one.

The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization released a report in November 2006 linking animal agriculture to environmental damage. The report, ''Livestock's Long Shadow'', concluded that the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) was one of the two or three most significant contributors to the planet's most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. According to the report, it is responsible for at least 18 percent of the world's greenhouse gas emissions, as measured in CO₂ equivalents, with Robert Goodland and Jeff Anhang of ''World Watch'' magazine placing the figure in 2009 at high as 51 percent. A 2006 study by Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, assistant professors of geophysics at the University of Chicago, found that one person switching from the average American diet to a vegan diet would reduce CO₂ emissions by 1,485 kg per year.

Greenhouse gas emissions are not limited to animal husbandry. Plant-based sources such as rice cultivation cause similar problems. A 2007 study that simulated the land use for various diets for the geography of New York State concluded that, although vegetarian diets used the smallest amount of land ''per capita'', a low-fat diet that included some meat and dairy—less than of meat/eggs per day, significantly less than that consumed by the average American—could support slightly more people on the same available land than could be fed on some high-fat vegetarian diets, since animal food crops are grown on lower quality land than are crops for human consumption.

Debate over animals killed in crop harvesting

Steven Davis, a professor of animal science at Oregon State University, argued in 2001 that the least-harm principle, a moral concept endorsed by Tom Regan, does not require giving up all meat, because a plant-based diet would not kill fewer animals than one containing beef from grass-fed ruminants. Davis wrote that cultivating crops also kills animals, because when a tractor traverses a field, animals are accidentally destroyed. Based on a study finding that wood mouse populations dropped from 25 per hectare to five per hectare after harvest (attributed to migration and mortality), Davis estimated that 10 animals per hectare are killed from crop farming every year. If all of cropland in the continental United States were used for a vegan diet, then approximately 500 million animals would die each year. But if half the cropland were converted to ruminant pastureland, he estimated that only 900,000 animals would die each year—assuming people switched from the eight billion poultry killed each year to beef, lamb, and dairy products.

Davis's analysis was criticized in 2003 by Gaverick Matheny and Andy Lamey in the ''Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics''. Matheny argued that Davis had miscalculated the number of animal deaths based on land area rather than per consumer, and incorrectly equated "the harm done to animals … to the number of animals killed." Matheny argued that per-consumer, a vegan diet would kill fewer wild animals than a diet adhering to Davis's model, and that vegetarianism "likely allows a greater number of animals with lives worth living to exist." Lamey argued that Davis's calculation of harvesting-related deaths was flawed because based on two studies; one included deaths from predation, which is "morally unobjectionable" for Regan, and the other examined production of a nonstandard crop, which Lamey argued has little relevance to deaths associated with typical crop production. Lamey also argued, like Matheny, that accidental deaths are ethically distinct from intentional ones, and that if Davis includes accidental animal deaths in the moral cost of veganism, he must also evaluate [claimed] increased human deaths associated with his proposed diet, which Lamey argued leaves "Davis, rather than Regan, with the less plausible argument."

See also

Artificial leather

Edenic diet

Fruitarianism

Health food restaurant

Lacto / Ovo / Ovo-lacto vegetarianism

Low carbon diet

Macrobiotic diet

Pescetarianism

Roger Crab (1621–1680)

Semi-vegetarianism

Veganarchism

Veg*n

Vegan organic gardening

Vegan Prisoners Support Group

Vegetarianism and religion

Vegetarianism and wine

Notes

Further reading

;Vegan societies

American Vegan Society, accessed February 1, 2011.

Brazilian Vegan Society, accessed February 1, 2011.

Indian Vegan, accessed February 5, 2011.

Japan Vegan Society, accessed February 20, 2011.

South African Vegan Society, accessed February 1, 2011.

The Vegan Society (UK), accessed February 1, 2011.

The Vegan Society of Australia, accessed February 1, 2011.

Uruguayan Vegan and Vegetarian Union, accessed February 1, 2011.

Vegan Ireland, accessed February 7, 2011.

Vegankind (IRAN), accessed forum February 1, 2011.

;Organizations

Vegan Action, administrators of vegan product certification in the U.S. and Canada, accessed February 1, 2011.

Abolition of Speciesism, New Zealand, accessed February 1, 2011.

Vegan Outreach, creators of the "Why Vegan?" pamphlet, accessed February 1, 2011.

Farm Sanctuary, accessed February 1, 2011.

Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, accessed February 1, 2011.

The Vegetarian and Vegan Foundation, accessed February 1, 2011.

People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA), accessed February 1, 2011.

Movement for Compassionate Living, accessed February 1, 2011.

;Resources

American Dietetic Association. A new food guide for North American vegetarians, 2003, accessed February 1, 2011.

Vegan Health, Vegan Outreach, accessed February 1, 2011.

Vegan nutrition, Vegan Society, accessed February 1, 2011.

"A Diet For All Reasons" - Video, a 1993 lecture by Michael Klaper MD, accessed February 1, 2011.

Vegan Village, accessed February 4, 2011.

;Recipes

Cest la Vegan, accessed March 1, 2011.

Healthy Happy Life, accessed March 1, 2011.

FFVK, accessed March 1, 2011.

Vegan Yum Yum, accessed March 1, 2011.

Veganish, accessed April 16, 2011.

;Articles and books

Marcus, Erik. ''Veganism: The New Ethics of Eating''. McBooks Press, 2000.

Pollan, Michael. "An Animal's Place," ''The New York Times'' Magazine, November 10, 2002.

Riston, Joseph. ''An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food, as a Moral Duty''. London: Wilks and Taylor, 1802.

Safran Foer, Jonathan. ''Eating Animals''. Hamish Hamilton, 2010.

Steiner, Gary. "Animal, Vegetable, Miserable", ''The New York Times'', November 21, 2009.

Wheldon, Rupert H. ''No Animal Food''. London, 1910.

Category:Vegetarianism Category:Animal rights Category:Intentional living Category:Nutrition Category:Diets Category:Ethical theories

ar:نباتية صرفة ast:Veganismu ca:Veganisme cs:Veganství da:Veganisme de:Veganismus el:Αυστηρή χορτοφαγία es:Veganismo eo:Veganismo eu:Beganismo fa:وگنیسم fr:Véganisme gl:Veganismo ko:비거니즘 id:Veganisme it:Veganismo he:טבעונות lv:Vegānisms lb:Veganismus lt:Veganizmas li:Veganisjme hu:Veganizmus nl:Veganisme ja:ヴィーガニズム no:Veganisme pl:Weganizm pt:Veganismo ro:Veganism ru:Веганство simple:Veganism sk:Vegánstvo sr:Veganstvo fi:Veganismi sv:Veganism tl:Beganismo tr:Vegan uk:Веганізм zh:純素食主義

name	Ellen DeGeneres
birth name	Ellen Lee DeGeneres
birth date	January 26, 1958
birth place	Metairie, Louisiana, United States
active	1981 – present
medium	Stand-up, television, film, books
nationality	American
subjects	Observational comedy, celebrity comedy, political comedy, family comedy, everyday life
influences	Steve Martin, Woody Allen, Bob Newhart, Johnny Carson
spouse	Portia de Rossi (2008–present)
domesticpartner	Anne Heche (1997–2000)Alexandra Hedison (2001–2004)

}}

Ellen Lee DeGeneres (; born January 26, 1958) is an American stand-up comedian, television host and actress. She hosts the syndicated talk show ''The Ellen DeGeneres Show''.

DeGeneres has hosted both the Academy Awards and the Primetime Emmys. As a film actress, she starred in ''Mr. Wrong'', appeared in ''EDtv'' and ''The Love Letter'', and provided the voice of Dory in the Disney-Pixar animated film ''Finding Nemo'', for which she was awarded a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actress, the first and only time a voice performance won a Saturn Award. She was a judge on ''American Idol'' for one year, having joined the show in its ninth season. She also starred in two television sitcoms, ''Ellen'' from 1994 to 1998 and ''The Ellen Show'' from 2001 to 2002. During the fourth season of ''Ellen'' in 1997, DeGeneres came out publicly as a lesbian in an appearance on ''The Oprah Winfrey Show''. Shortly afterwards, her character Ellen Morgan also came out to a therapist played by Winfrey, and the series went on to explore various LGBT issues including the coming out process. She has won thirteen Emmys and numerous other awards for her work and charitable efforts.

In November 2011, Secretary of State Hillary Clinton named her a Special Envoy for Global AIDS Awareness.

Early life and education

DeGeneres was raised in Metairie, Louisiana, the daughter of Elizabeth Jane DeGeneres (née Pfeffer), a speech therapist, and Elliott Everett DeGeneres, an insurance agent. She has one brother, Vance DeGeneres, who is a producer and musician. She is of French, English, German and Irish descent. DeGeneres was raised as a Christian Scientist until the age of thirteen. In 1973 DeGeneres's parents filed for separation and were divorced the following year. Shortly after, Betty Jane remarried Roy Gruessendorf, who worked as a salesman. Betty Jane and Ellen moved with Gruessendorf from the New Orleans area to Atlanta, Texas. Vance stayed with their birth father.

DeGeneres graduated from Atlanta High School in May 1976, after completing her first years of high school at Grace King High School in Metairie, Louisiana. She moved back to New Orleans to attend the University of New Orleans, where she majored in communication studies. After one semester, she left school to do clerical work in a law firm with her cousin Laura Gillen. She also held a job selling clothes at the chain store the Merry-Go-Round at the Lakeside Shopping Center. Other working experiences included J.C. Penney, being a waitress at TGI Friday's and another restaurant, a house painter, a hostess, and a bartender. She relates much of her childhood and career experiences in her comedic work.

Ancestry

On a February 9, 2011 episode of ''The Ellen DeGeneres Show'', DeGeneres told her studio audience via a letter from the New England Genealogical Society that she is Kate Middleton's 15th cousin via their shared common ancestor Thomas Fairfax.

Stand-up comedy

DeGeneres started performing stand-up comedy at small clubs and coffee houses. By 1981 she was the emcee at Clyde's Comedy Club in New Orleans. DeGeneres cites Woody Allen and Steve Martin as her main influences at this time. In the early 1980s she began to tour nationally, being named Showtime's ''Funniest Person in America'' in 1982. In 1986 she appeared for the first time on the ''Tonight Show'' with Johnny Carson, who likened her to Bob Newhart. When Carson invited her over for an onscreen chat after her performance, she became the first comedienne in the show's history to be treated this way.

Film career

Early screen work

Television and film work in the late 1980s and early 1990s included roles on television in ''Open House'' and in the film ''Coneheads''.

''Ellen's Energy Adventure''

DeGeneres starred in a series of films for a show named ''Ellen's Energy Adventure'', which is part of the Universe of Energy attraction and pavilion at Walt Disney World's Epcot. The film also featured Bill Nye, Alex Trebek, Michael Richards, and Jamie Lee Curtis. The show revolved around DeGeneres's falling asleep and finding herself in an energy-themed version of ''Jeopardy!'', playing against an old rival, portrayed by Curtis, and Albert Einstein. The next film had DeGeneres hosting an educational look at energy, co-hosted with Nye. The ride first opened on September 15, 1996, as ''Ellen's Energy Crisis'' but was quickly renamed to the more positive-sounding ''Ellen's Energy Adventure''.

Television career

''Ellen'' (1994–1998)

DeGeneres's comedy material became the basis of the successful 1994–1998 sitcom ''Ellen'', named ''These Friends of Mine'' during its first season. The ABC show was popular in its first few seasons due in part to DeGeneres's style of observational humor; it was often referred to as a "female ''Seinfeld''."

''Ellen'' reached its height of popularity in February 1997, when DeGeneres made her homosexuality public on ''The Oprah Winfrey Show''. Subsequently her character on the sitcom came out of the closet in April to her therapist, played by Oprah Winfrey, revealing that she is gay. The coming-out episode, titled "The Puppy Episode", was one of the highest-rated episodes of the show. Later episodes of the series did not match its popularity, and after declining ratings, the show was canceled. DeGeneres returned to the stand-up comedy circuit, and later re-established herself as a successful talk show host.

''The Ellen Show''

DeGeneres returned to series television in 2001 with a new CBS sitcom, ''The Ellen Show''.

''The Ellen DeGeneres Show''

DeGeneres launched a daytime television talk show, ''The Ellen DeGeneres Show'' in September 2003. Amid a crop of several celebrity-hosted talk shows surfacing at the beginning of that season, such as those of Sharon Osbourne and Rita Rudner, her show has consistently risen in the Nielsen ratings and received widespread critical praise. It was nominated for 11 Daytime Emmy Awards in its first season, winning four, including Best Talk Show. The show has won 25 Emmy Awards in its first three seasons on the air. DeGeneres is known for her dancing and singing with the audience at the beginning of the show and during commercial breaks. She often gives away free prizes and trips to her studio audience with the help of her sponsors.

DeGeneres celebrated her thirty-year class reunion by flying her graduating class to California to be guests on her show in February 2006. She presented Atlanta High School with a surprise gift of a new electronic LED marquee sign.

In May 2006, DeGeneres made a surprise appearance at the Tulane University commencement in New Orleans. Following George H. W. Bush and Bill Clinton to the podium, she came out in a bathrobe and furry slippers. "They told me everyone would be wearing robes," she said. Ellen then went on to make another commencement speech at Tulane in 2009.

The show broadcast for a week from Universal Studios Orlando in March 2007. Skits included DeGeneres going on the Hulk Roller Coaster Ride and the Jaws Boat Ride.

In May 2007, DeGeneres was placed on bed rest due to a torn ligament in her back. She continued hosting her show from a hospital bed, tended to by a nurse, explaining "the show must go on, as they say." Guests sat in hospital beds as well.

On May 1, 2009, DeGeneres celebrated her 1000th episode, featuring celebrity guests such as Oprah, Justin Timberlake, and Paris Hilton, among others.

''American Idol''

On September 9, 2009, it was confirmed that DeGeneres would replace Paula Abdul as a judge of the ninth season of ''American Idol''. Her role started after the contestant auditions, at the beginning of "Hollywood Week". It is reported that DeGeneres also signed a contract to be a judge on the show for at least five seasons. She made her ''American Idol'' debut on February 9, 2010.

On July 29, 2010, DeGeneres and Fox executives announced that the comedienne would be departing from the series after one season. In a statement, DeGeneres said that the series "didn't feel like the right fit for me".

Award shows

2001 Emmy Awards

DeGeneres received wide exposure on November 4, 2001 when she hosted the televised broadcast of the Emmy Awards. Presented after two cancellations due to network concerns that a lavish ceremony following the September 11, 2001 attacks would appear insensitive, the show required a more somber tone that would also allow viewers to temporarily forget the tragedy. DeGeneres received several standing ovations for her performance that evening, which included the line: "What would bug the Taliban more than seeing a gay woman in a suit surrounded by Jews?"

In August 2005, DeGeneres hosted the 2005 Primetime Emmy Awards ceremony held on September 18, 2005. This was three weeks after Hurricane Katrina, making it the second time she hosted the Emmys following a national tragedy. She also hosted the Grammy Awards in 1996 and in 1997.

79th Academy Awards

On September 7, 2006, DeGeneres was selected to host the 79th Academy Awards ceremony, which took place on February 25, 2007. This makes her the first openly gay or lesbian person to have hosted the event. During the Awards show, DeGeneres said, "What a wonderful night, such diversity in the room, in a year when there's been so many negative things said about people's race, religion, and sexual orientation. And I want to put this out there: If there weren't blacks, Jews and gays, there would be no Oscars, or anyone named Oscar, when you think about that." Reviews of her hosting gig were positive, with one saying, "DeGeneres rocked, as she never forgot that she wasn't just there to entertain the Oscar nominees but also to tickle the audience at home." Regis Philbin said in an interview that "the only complaint was there's not enough Ellen."

DeGeneres was nominated for an Emmy Award as host of the Academy Awards broadcast.

2007 Writers Guild strike

DeGeneres, like many actors who are also writers, is a member of both the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA) and the Writers Guild of America (WGA). Thus, although DeGeneres verbally supported the 2007 WGA strike, she did not support it when she crossed the picket line the day after the strike began. Her representatives said she was competing with other first-run syndicated shows during the competitive November sweeps period, and that she could not break her contracts or risk her show's losing its time slot. As a show of solidarity with the strikers, DeGeneres omitted her monologue during the strike, typically written by WGA writers. The WGA condemned her while the AFTRA defended her.

Other ventures

Voice acting

DeGeneres lent her voice to the role of Dory, a fish with short-term memory loss, in the summer 2003 hit animated Disney/Pixar film ''Finding Nemo''. The film's director, Andrew Stanton, claimed that he chose Ellen because she "changed the subject five times before one sentence had finished" on her show. For her performance as Dory, DeGeneres won the Saturn Award from the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films for "Best Supporting Actress"; "Favorite Voice from an Animated Movie" from the Nickelodeon Kids Choice Awards; and the Annie Award from the International Animated Film Association for "Outstanding Voice Acting". She was also nominated for a Chicago Film Critics Association Award in the "Best Supporting Actress" category. She also provided the voice of the dog in the prologue of the Eddie Murphy feature film ''Dr. Dolittle''. Her win of the Saturn Award marked the first and only time the Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films has given the acting award for a voice performance.

Commercial spokeswoman

In November 2004, DeGeneres appeared, dancing, in an ad campaign for American Express. Her most recent American Express commercial, a two-minute black-and-white spot in which she works with animals, debuted in November 2006 and was created by Ogilvy and Mather. In 2007, the commercial won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Commercial.

DeGeneres began working with Cover Girl Cosmetics in September 2008, for which she has been criticized, as her animal-friendly values clash with Procter and Gamble's (the maker of Cover Girl Cosmetics) animal testing. Her face is the focus of new Cover Girl advertisements starting in January 2009. The beauty campaign will be DeGeneres's first.

In Spring 2012, DeGeneres becomes the spokesperson for J.C. Penney in a tour and advertising campaign.

Eleveneleven

On May 26, 2010, Ellen announced on her show that she was starting her own record label entitled "eleveneleven". Ellen explained her choice of name, claiming that she often sees the number 11:11 when looking at her clocks, that she found Greyson on the 11th, and that the singer's soccer jersey has the number 11. She mentioned that she had been looking for videos of performances on YouTube to start her label. The acts thus far signed to the label are Greyson Chance, Tom Andrews, and Jessica Simpson.

Personal life

DeGeneres was in a relationship (1997–2000) with actress Anne Heche. From 2001 to 2004, DeGeneres and actress/director/photographer Alexandra Hedison were in a relationship. They appeared on the cover of ''The Advocate'' after their separation had already been announced to the media.

Since 2004, DeGeneres has had a relationship with Portia de Rossi. After the overturn of the same-sex marriage ban in California, DeGeneres announced on a May 2008 show that she and de Rossi were engaged, and gave de Rossi a three-carat pink diamond ring. They were married on August 16, 2008 at their home, with nineteen guests including their mothers. The passage of Proposition 8 cast doubt on the legal status of their marriage but a subsequent California Supreme Court judgment validated it because it occurred before November 4, 2008.

DeGeneres and de Rossi live in Beverly Hills, with three dogs and four cats, and both are vegan. DeGeneres served as campaign ambassador to Farm Sanctuary's Adopt-A-Turkey Project in 2010, asking people to start "a new tradition by adopting a turkey instead of eating one" at Thanksgiving.

On August 6, 2010, de Rossi filed a petition to legally change her name to Portia Lee James DeGeneres The petition was granted on September 23, 2010.

In her book ''Love, Ellen'', DeGeneres's mother Betty DeGeneres describes being initially shocked when her daughter came out as a lesbian, but has become one of her strongest supporters, an active member of Parents & Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG) and spokesperson for the Human Rights Campaign's Coming Out Project.

In 2007, ''Forbes'' estimated DeGeneres's net worth at US$65 million.

She is a fan of the National Football League, and has shown particular support for the New Orleans Saints and the Green Bay Packers. In 2011, she attended a Saints practice dressed as Packers Hall of Famer Don Hutson.

Filmography

Film

Year	Film	Role	Notes
1990	''Arduous Moon''	Herself	Short film
1991	''Wisecracks''	Herself	Documentary
1993		Coach
1994		Herself	Short film
		Herself	Short film
	Martha Alston
	''Goodbye Lover''	Sgt. Rita Pompano
	Prologue Dog
	''EDtv''	Cynthia
	Janet Hall
	''Pauly Shore Is Dead''	Herself
''Finding Nemo''	Dory	Voice
Year	Film	Role	Notes
1988	''Women of the Night''	Herself
1989		Margo Van Mete	Episode: "The Bad Seed" Episode: "Let's Get Physicals"
1992	''[[Laurie Hill">Annie Award
2004	''My Short Film''	Herself	Short film

Television

Year	Film	Role	Notes
1988	''Women of the Night''	Herself
1989		Margo Van Mete	Episode: "The Bad Seed" Episode: "Let's Get Physicals"
1992	''[[Laurie Hill''	Nancy MacIntyre	Episode: "Pilot" Episode: "The Heart Thing" Episode: "Walter and Beverly"
1994–1998
1995		Dr. Whitman
1998	''Mad About You''	Nancy Bloom
	''Ellen DeGeneres: The Beginning''	Herself	Comedy special
''If These Walls Could Talk 2''	Kal	Segment: "2000"
2001		Operator	Segment: "Reaching Normal"
2001	''Will & Grace''	Sister Louise
2001–2002	''The Ellen Show''	Ellen Richmond
	''Ellen DeGeneres: Here and Now''	Herself	Comedy special
''MADtv''	Herself
2003–present	''The Ellen DeGeneres Show''	Herself	TV show
	''E! True Hollywood Story''	Herself
	Herself
2005		Herself
	''Ellen's Really Big Show''	Herself
''Sesame Street''	Herself	Episode: "The Tutu Spell" ''(uncredited)''
''Forbes 20 Richest Women in Entertainment''	Herself
''The Bachelorette''	Herself
2007–2008	''American Idol''	Herself	Episode: "Idol Gives Back
2008	''Ellen's Even Bigger Really Big Show''	Herself	Comedy special
	''Ellen's Bigger, Longer & Wider Show''	Herself	Comedy special
	Guest Judge
2010	''[[American Idol''	Judge
2010	''The Simpsons''	Herself	Episode: "Judge Me Tender"

Discography

Year	Album	Notes
1996	''Ellen Degeneres: Taste This''	Stand-up comedy Live CD

Awards and honors

;Daytime Emmy Awards

Outstanding Talk Show, ''The Ellen DeGeneres Show'' – 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2011

Outstanding Talk Show Host, ''The Ellen DeGeneres Show'' – 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008

Outstanding Special Class Writing, ''The Ellen DeGeneres Show'' – 2005, 2006, 2007

;Emmy Awards

Outstanding Writing in a Comedy Series, ''Ellen:'' "The Puppy Episode" – 1997

;People's Choice Awards

Favorite Funny Female Star – 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008

Favorite Talk Show Host – 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010

Favorite Yes I Chose This Star – 2008

;Kids' Choice Awards

Favorite Voice from an Animated Movie – 2004

; Tulane University President's Medal 2009

; Women in Film Crystal + Lucy Awards 2000 Lucy Award, actor, If These Walls Could Talk 2, in recognition of her excellence and innovation in her creative works that have enhanced the perception of women through the medium of television.

Bibliography

References

External links

The Ellen DeGeneres Show's official website

Category:1958 births Category:Living people Category:20th-century actors Category:21st-century actors Category:Actors from Louisiana Category:American film actors Category:American Christian Scientists Category:American people of English descent Category:American people of French descent Category:American people of German descent Category:American people of Irish descent Category:American philanthropists Category:American stand-up comedians Category:American television actors Category:American television talk show hosts Category:American vegans Category:Annie Award winners Category:Daytime Emmy Award winners Category:Emmy Award winners Category:GLAAD Media Awards winners Category:Lesbian actors Category:LGBT comedians from the United States Category:LGBT rights activists from the United States Category:LGBT television personalities from the United States Category:People from New Orleans, Louisiana Category:Reality television judges Category:Saturn Award winners Category:University of New Orleans alumni Category:Women comedians

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position	Goalie
catches	Left
height ft	5
height in	10
weight lb	175
played for	Boston BruinsChicago Black HawksLos Angeles KingsAlberta/Edmonton OilersPhoenix Roadrunners
birth date	August 05, 1942
birth place	Delisle, SK, CAN
career start	1963
career end	1976 }}

John Wayne "Jack" Norris (born August 5, 1942) is a former professional ice hockey goaltender. Although never drafted, Norris went on to play parts of four seasons in the NHL, along with another four seasons in the WHA. He broke into the NHL in the 1964–65 season, playing 23 games as the backup to Eddie Johnston, but lost his spot the following season to Gerry Cheevers. Norris was subsequently dealt to the Chicago Black Hawks, where he played ten games over two seasons. Norris spent significant time in the minor leagues before eventually joining the Los Angeles Kings as the backup to Denis DeJordy. After spending the 1971–72 season in the minor leagues, Norris joined the Alberta Oilers of the WHA. He spent two seasons as the starter in Edmonton and two more with the Phoenix Roadrunners before retiring in 1976.

References

Category:1942 births Category:Living people Category:Boston Bruins players Category:Canadian ice hockey goaltenders Category:Chicago Blackhawks players Category:Edmonton Oilers (WHA) players Category:Los Angeles Kings players Category:People from Delisle, Saskatchewan

fr:Jack Norris