A silent film is a film with no synchronized recorded sound, especially with no spoken dialogue. In silent films for entertainment the dialogue is transmitted through muted gestures, pantomime and title cards. The idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as film itself, but because of the technical challenges involved, synchronized dialogue was only made practical in the late 1920s with the perfection of the audion amplifier tube and the introduction of the Vitaphone system. After the release of ''The Jazz Singer'' in 1927, "talkies" became more and more commonplace. Within a decade, popular widespread production of silent films had ceased.

Elements (1894 – 1929)[link]

The first projected primary proto-movie was made by Eadweard Muybridge some time between 1877 and 1880. The first narrative film was created by Louis Le Prince in 1888. It was a two-second film of people walking in ''Oakwood streets'' garden, entitled ''Roundhay Garden Scene''. The art of motion pictures grew into full maturity in the "silent era"(1894-1929) before silent films were replaced by "talking pictures" in the late 1920s. Many film scholars and buffs argue that the aesthetic quality of cinema decreased for several years until directors, actors, and production staff adapted to the new "talkies".

The visual quality of silent movies—especially those produced in the 1920s—was often high. However, there is a widely held misconception that these films were primitive and barely watchable by modern standards. This misconception comes as a result of silent films being played back at wrong speed and their deteriorated condition. Many silent films exist only in second- or third-generation copies, often copied from already damaged and neglected film stock. thumb|An early film, depicting a re-enactment of the Battle of Chemulpo Bay (Film produced in 1904 by Edison Studios)|alt=A film of a re-enactment of a naval battle, depicting Russians firing at a Japanese ship with a cannon In addition, many prints may suffer from censorship cuts, resulting in what appears to be poor editing.

Intertitles[link]

As motion pictures eventually increased in length, a replacement was needed for the in-house interpreter who would explain parts of the film. Because silent films had no synchronized sound for dialogue, onscreen intertitles were used to narrate story points, present key dialogue and sometimes even comment on the action for the cinema audience. The ''title writer'' became a key professional in silent film and was often separate from the ''scenario writer'' who created the story. Intertitles (or ''titles'' as they were generally called at the time) often became graphic elements themselves, featuring illustrations or abstract decoration that commented on the action.

Live music and sound[link]

Showings of silent films almost always featured live music, starting with the pianist at the first public projection of movies by the Lumière Brothers on December 28, 1895 in Paris. From the beginning, music was recognized as essential, contributing to the atmosphere and giving the audience vital emotional cues. (Musicians sometimes played on film sets during shooting for similar reasons.) Small town and neighborhood movie theatres usually had a pianist. Beginning in the mid-1910s, large city theaters tended to have organists or ensembles of musicians. Massive theater organs were designed to fill a gap between a simple piano soloist and a larger orchestra. Theatre organs had a wide range of special effects; theatrical organs such as the famous "Mighty Wurlitzer" could simulate some orchestral sounds along with a number of percussion effects such as bass drums and cymbals and sound effects ranging from galloping horses to rolling thunder.

Film scores for early silent films were either improvised or compiled of classical or theatrical repertory music. Once full features became commonplace, however, music was compiled from photoplay music by the pianist, organist, orchestra conductor or the movie studio itself, which included a cue sheet with the film. These sheets were often lengthy, with detailed notes about effects and moods to watch for. Starting with the mostly original score composed by Joseph Carl Breil for D. W. Griffith's groundbreaking epic ''The Birth of a Nation'' (USA, 1915) it became relatively common for the biggest-budgeted films to arrive at the exhibiting theater with original, specially composed scores. However, the first designated full blown scores were composed earlier, in 1908, by Camille Saint-Saëns, for ''The Assassination of the Duke of Guise'' , and by Mikhail Ippolitov-Ivanov, for ''Stenka Razin''.

When organists or pianists used sheet music, they still might add improvisatory flourishes to heighten the drama on screen. Even when special effects were not indicated in the score, if an organist was playing a theater organ capable of an unusual sound effect, such as a "galloping horses" effect, it would be used for dramatic horseback chases.

By the height of the silent era, movies were the single largest source of employment for instrumental musicians (at least in America). But the introduction of talkies, which happened simultaneously with the onset of the Great Depression, was devastating to many musicians.

Some countries devised other ways of bringing sound to silent films. The early cinema of Brazil featured ''fitas cantatas'': filmed operettas with singers performing behind the screen. In Japan, films had not only live music but also the ''benshi'', a live narrator who provided commentary and character voices. The ''benshi'' became a central element in Japanese film, as well as providing translation for foreign (mostly American) movies. The popularity of the ''benshi'' was one reason why silent films persisted well into the 1930s in Japan.

Few film scores survive intact from this period, and musicologists are still confronted by questions when they attempt to precisely reconstruct those that remain. Scores can be distinguished as complete reconstructions of composed scores, newly composed for the occasion, assembled from already existing music libraries, or even improvised.

Interest in the scoring of silent films fell somewhat out of fashion during the 1960s and 1970s. There was a belief in many college film programs and repertory cinemas that audiences should experience silent film as a pure visual medium, undistracted by music. This belief may have been encouraged by the poor quality of the music tracks found on many silent film reprints of the time. More recently, there has been a revival of interest in presenting silent films with quality musical scores, either reworkings of period scores or cue sheets, or composition of appropriate original scores. A watershed event in this context was Kevin Brownlow's 1980 restoration of Abel Gance's ''Napoléon'' (1927), featuring a score by Carl Davis. Brownlow's restoration was later distributed in America re-edited and shortened by Francis Ford Coppola with a live orchestral score composed by his father Carmine Coppola.

In 1984, a restoration of ''Metropolis'' (1927) with new score by producer-composer Giorgio Moroder was another turning point in modern-day interest in silent films. Although the contemporary score, which included pop songs by Freddy Mercury of Queen, Pat Benatar and Jon Anderson of Yes was controversial, the door had been opened for a new approach to presentation of classic "silent" films. One of the few actors of the silent era still active in the 21st century was Dutch-German movie star Johannes Heesters (1903–2011).

Music ensembles currently perform traditional and contemporary scores for silent films. Purveyors of the traditional approach include organists and pianists such as Dennis James, Rick Friend, Chris Elliott, Dennis Scott, Clark Wilson and Jim Riggs. Orchestral conductors such as Gillian B. Anderson, Carl Davis, Carl Daehler, and Robert Israel have written and compiled scores for numerous silent films. In addition to composing new film scores, Timothy Brock has restored many of Charlie Chaplin's scores.

Contemporary music ensembles are helping to introduce classic silent films to a wider audience through a broad range of musical styles and approaches. Some performers create new compositions using traditional musical instruments while others add electronic sounds, modern harmonies, rhythms, improvisation and sound design elements to enhance the film watching experience. Among the contemporary ensembles in this category are Alloy Orchestra, Club Foot Orchestra, Silent Orchestra, Mont Alto Motion Picture Orchestra and The Reel Music Ensemble. Alloy Orchestra, which began performing in 1990, is among the first of the new wave of silent film music ensembles.

Acting techniques[link]

Silent film actors emphasized body language and facial expression so that the audience could better understand what an actor was feeling and portraying on screen. Much silent film acting is apt to strike modern-day audiences as simplistic or campy. The melodramatic acting style was in some cases a habit actors transferred from their former stage experience. The pervading presence of stage actors in film was the cause of this outburst from director Marshall Neilan in 1917: "The sooner the stage people who have come into pictures get out, the better for the pictures." In other cases, directors such as John Griffith Wray required their actors to deliver larger-than-life expressions for emphasis. As early as 1914, American viewers had begun to make known their preference for greater naturalness on screen.

In any case, the large image size and unprecedented intimacy the actor enjoyed with the audience began to affect acting style, making for more subtlety of expression. Actresses such as Mary Pickford in all her films, Eleonora Duse in the Italian film ''Cenere'' (1916), Janet Gaynor in ''Sunrise'', Priscilla Dean in ''Outside the Law'' and ''White Tiger'', and Lillian Gish and Greta Garbo in most of their performances made restraint and easy naturalism in acting a virtue. Directors such as Albert Capellani (a French director who also did work in America directing Alla Nazimova films) and Maurice Tourneur insisted on naturalism in their films. Tourneur had been just such a minimalist in his prior stage productions. By the mid-1920s many American silent films had adopted a more naturalistic acting style, though not all actors and directors accepted naturalistic, low-key acting straight away; as late as 1927, films featuring expressionistic acting styles, such as ''Metropolis'', were still being released. Some viewers liked the flamboyant acting for its escape value, and some countries were later than the United States in embracing naturalistic style in their films. Just as today, a film's success depended upon the setting, the mood, the script, the skills of the director, and the overall talent of the cast.

Projection speed[link]

Until the standardization of the projection speed of 24 frames per second (fps) for sound films between 1926 and 1930, silent films were shot at variable speeds (or "frame rates") anywhere from 12 to 26 fps, depending on the year and studio. "Standard silent film speed" is often said to be 16 fps as a result of the Lumière brothers' Cinematographé, but industry practice varied considerably; there was no actual standard. Cameramen of the era insisted that their cranking technique was exactly 16 fps, but modern examination of the films shows this to be in error, that they often cranked faster. Unless carefully shown at their intended speeds silent films can appear unnaturally fast. However, some scenes were intentionally undercranked during shooting to accelerate the action—particularly for comedies and action films.

Slow projection of a cellulose nitrate base film carried a risk of fire, as each frame was exposed for a longer time to the intense heat of the projection lamp; but there were other reasons to project a film at a greater pace. Often projectionists received general instructions from the distributors on the musical director's cue sheet as to how fast particular reels or scenes should be projected. In rare instances, usually for larger productions, cue sheets specifically for the projectionist provided a detailed guide to presenting the film. Theaters also—to maximize profit—sometimes varied projection speeds depending on the time of day or popularity of a film, and to fit a film into a prescribed time slot.

By using projectors with dual- and triple-blade shutters the projected rate was multiplied two or three times higher than the number of film frames—each frame was flashed two or three times on screen. Early studies by Thomas Edison determined that any rate below 46 images per second "will strain the eye." A three-blade shutter projecting a 16 fps film would slightly surpass this mark, giving the audience 48 images per second. A 35 mm film frame rate of 24 fps translates to a film speed of per second. One reel requires 11 minutes and 7 seconds to be projected at 24 fps, while a 16 fps projection of the same reel would take 16 minutes and 40 seconds; per second.

In the 1950s, many telecine conversions of silent films at grossly incorrect frame rates for broadcast television may have alienated viewers. Film speed is often a vexed issue among scholars and film buffs in the presentation of silents today, especially when it comes to DVD releases of restored films; the 2002 restoration of ''Metropolis'' (Germany, 1927) may be the most fiercely debated example.

Tinting[link]

With the lack of natural color processing available, films of the silent era were frequently dipped in dyestuffs and dyed various shades and hues to signal a mood or represent a time of day. Blue represented night scenes, yellow or amber meant day. Red represented fire and green represented a mysterious atmosphere. Similarly, toning of film (such as the common silent film generalization of sepia-toning) with special solutions replaced the silver particles in the film stock with salts or dyes of various colors. A combination of tinting and toning could be used as an effect that could be striking.

Some films were hand-tinted, such as ''Annabelle Serpentine Dance'' (1894), from Edison Studios. In it, Annabelle Whitford, a young dancer from Broadway, is dressed in white veils that appear to change colors as she dances. Hand coloring was often used in the early "trick" and fantasy films of Europe, especially those by Georges Méliès.

By the beginning of the 1910s, with the onset of feature-length films, tinting was used as another mood setter, just as commonplace as music. The director D. W. Griffith displayed a constant interest and concern about color, and used tinting as a special effect in many of his films. His 1915 epic, ''The Birth of a Nation'', used a number of colors, including amber, blue, lavender, and a striking red tint for scenes such as the "burning of Atlanta" and the ride of the Ku Klux Klan at the climax of the picture. Griffith later invented a color system in which colored lights flashed on areas of the screen to achieve a color effect.

Top grossing silent films in the United States [link]

The following are the silent films from the silent film era that earned the highest gross income in film history. The dollar amounts are not adjusted for inflation.

#''The Birth of a Nation'' (1915) - $10,000,000 #''The Big Parade'' (1925) - $6,400,000 #''Ben-Hur'' (1925) - $5,500,000 #''Way Down East'' (1920) - $5,000,000 #''The Gold Rush'' (1925) - $4,250,000 #''The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse'' (1921) - $4,000,000 #''The Circus'' (1928) - $3,800,000 #''The Covered Wagon'' (1923) - $3,800,000 #''The Hunchback of Notre Dame'' (1923) - $3,500,000 #''The Ten Commandments'' (1923) - $3,400,000 #''Orphans of the Storm'' (1921) - $3,000,000 #''For Heaven's Sake'' (1926) - $2,600,000 #''Seventh Heaven'' (1926) - $2,400,000 #''Abie's Irish Rose'' (1928) - $1,500,000

During the sound era[link]

Transition[link]

Although attempts to create sync-sound motion pictures go back to the Edison lab in 1896, the technology became well-developed only in the early 1920s. The next few years saw a race to design, implement, and market several rival sound-on-disc and sound-on-film sound formats, such as Photokinema (1921), Phonofilm (1923), Vitaphone (1926), Fox Movietone (1927), and RCA Photophone (1928).

Although the release of ''The Jazz Singer'' (1927) by Warner Brothers marked the first commercially successful sound film, silent films were the majority of features released in both 1927 and 1928, along with so-called goat-glanded films: silents with a section of sound film inserted. Thus the modern sound film era may be regarded as coming to dominance beginning in 1929.

For a listing of notable silent era films, see ''list of years in film'' for the years between the beginning of film and 1928. The following list includes only films produced in the sound era with the specific artistic intention of being silent.

''Un Chien Andalou'', Salvador Dalí/Luis Buñuel, 1929

''City Girl'', F. W. Murnau, 1930

''Borderline'', Kenneth MacPherson, 1930

''Earth'', Aleksandr Dovzhenko, 1930

''City Lights'', Charlie Chaplin, 1931

''Tabu'', F. W. Murnau, Robert Flaherty, 1931

''I Was Born, But...'', Yasujiro Ozu, 1932

''A Story of Floating Weeds'', Yasujiro Ozu, 1934

''The Goddess'', Wu Yonggang, 1934

''Modern Times'', Charlie Chaplin, 1936

Later homages[link]

Several filmmakers have paid homage to the comedies of the silent era, including Jacques Tati with his ''Les Vacances de Monsieur Hulot'' (1953) and Mel Brooks with ''Silent Movie'' (1976). Taiwanese director Hou Hsiao-Hsien's acclaimed drama ''Three Times'' (2005) is silent during its middle third, complete with intertitles; Stanley Tucci's ''The Impostors'' has an opening silent sequence in the style of early silent comedies. Brazilian filmmaker Renato Falcão's ''Margarette's Feast'' (2003) is silent. Writer / Director Michael Pleckaitis puts his own twist on the genre with ''Silent'' (2007). While not silent, the ''Mr. Bean'' TV show and movies have used the title character's non-talkative nature to create a similar style of humor.

In 1990 Charles Lane directed and starred in ''Sidewalk Stories'', a low budget salute to sentimental silent comedies particularly Charlie Chaplin's ''The Kid''.

The 1999 German film ''Tuvalu'' is mostly silent; the small amount of dialog is an odd mix of European languages, increasing the film's universality. Guy Maddin won awards for his homage to Soviet era silent films with his short ''The Heart of the World'' after which he made a feature-length silent, ''Brand Upon the Brain!'' (2006), incorporating live Foley artists, narration and orchestra at select showings. ''Shadow of the Vampire'' (2000) is a highly fictionalized depiction of the filming of Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau's classic silent vampire movie ''Nosferatu'' (1922). Werner Herzog honored the same film in his own version, ''Nosferatu: Phantom der Nacht'' (1979).

Some films draw a direct contrast between the silent film era and the era of talkies. ''Sunset Boulevard'' shows the disconnect between the two eras in the character of Norma Desmond, played by silent film star Gloria Swanson, and ''Singin' in the Rain'' deals with the period where the people of Hollywood had to face changing from making silents to talkies. Peter Bogdanovich's affectionate 1976 film ''Nickelodeon'' deals with the turmoil of silent filmmaking in Hollywood during the early 1910s, leading up to the release of D. W. Griffith's 1915 epic ''The Birth of a Nation''.

In 1999, the Finnish filmmaker Aki Kaurismäki produced ''Juha'', which captures the style of a silent film, using intertitles in place of spoken dialogue. In India, the 1988 film ''Pushpak'', starring Kamal Hassan, was a black comedy entirely devoid of dialog. The 2007 Australian film ''Dr Plonk'', was a silent comedy directed by Rolf de Heer. Stage plays have drawn upon silent film styles and sources. Actor/writers Billy Van Zandt & Jane Milmore staged their Off-Broadway slapstick comedy ''Silent Laughter'' as a live action tribute to the silent screen era. Geoff Sobelle and Trey Lyford created and starred in ''All Wear Bowlers'' (2004), which started as an homage to Laurel and Hardy then evolved to incorporate life-sized silent film sequences of Sobelle and Lyford who jump back and forth between live action and the silver screen. The 1940 animated film ''Fantasia'', which is eight different animation sequences set to music, can be considered a silent film, with only one short scene involving dialogue. The 1952 espionage film ''The Thief'' has music and sound effects, but no dialogue.

In 2005, the H.P. Lovecraft Historical Society produced a silent film version of Lovecraft's story ''The Call of Cthulhu.'' This film maintained a period-accurate filming style, and was received as both "the best HPL adaptation to date" and, referring to the decision to make it as a silent movie, "a brilliant conceit."

The 2011 French film ''The Artist'', directed by Michel Hazanavicius, plays as a silent film and is set in Hollywood during the silent era. It also includes segments of fictitious silent films starring its protagonists.

The American feature length silent film ''Silent life'' started in 2006, features performances by Isabella Rossellini and Galina Jovovich, mother of Milla Jovovich, will premiere in 2012. The film is based on the life of the silent screen icon Rudolph Valentino, known as the Hollywood's first "Great Lover". After the emergency surgery, Valentino loses his grip of reality and begins to see the recollection of his life in Hollywood from a perspective of a coma - as a silent film shown at a movie palace, the magical portal between life and eternity, between reality and illusion. .

Early studios[link]

The early studios were located in the New York City area. In December 1908, Edison led the formation of the Motion Picture Patents Company in an attempt to control the industry and shut out smaller producers. The "Edison Trust,” as it was nicknamed, was made up of Edison, Biograph, Essanay Studios, Kalem Company, George Kleine Productions, Lubin Studios, Georges Méliès, Pathé, Selig Studios, and Vitagraph Studios, and dominated distribution through the General Film Company. The Motion Picture Patents Co. and the General Film Co. were found guilty of antitrust violation in October 1915, and were dissolved. Edison Studios were first in West Orange, New Jersey (1892), they were moved to the Bronx, New York (1907). Fox (1909) and Biograph (1906) started in Manhattan, with studios in St George Staten Island. Others films were shot in Fort Lee, New Jersey. The first westerns were filmed at Scott's Movie Ranch. Cowboys and Indians galloped across Fred Scott's movie ranch in South Beach, Staten Island), which had a frontier main street, a wide selection of stagecoaches and a 56-foot stockade. The island provided a serviceable stand-in for locations as varied as the Sahara desert and a British cricket pitch. War scenes were shot on the plains of Grasmere, Staten Island. ''The Perils of Pauline'' and its even more popular sequel ''The Exploits of Elaine'' were filmed largely on the island. So was the 1906 blockbuster ''Life of a Cowboy,'' by Edwin S. Porter. Companies and filming moved to the west coast around 1911.

Preservation and lost films[link]

Many early motion pictures are lost because the nitrate film used in that era was extremely unstable and flammable. Additionally, many films were deliberately destroyed because they had little value in the era before home video. It has often been claimed that around 75% of silent films have been lost, though these estimates may be inaccurate due to a lack of numerical data. Major silent films presumed lost include ''Saved from the Titanic'' (1912); ''The Apostle'', the world's first animated feature film (1917); ''Cleopatra'' (1917); ''Arirang'' (1926); ''Gentlemen Prefer Blondes'' (1927); ''The Great Gatsby'' (1926); and ''London After Midnight'' (1927). Though most lost silent films will never be recovered, some have been discovered in film archives or private collections.

In 1978 in Dawson City, Yukon, a bulldozer uncovered buried reels of nitrate film during excavation of a landfill. Dawson City was once the end of the distribution line for many films. The retired titles were stored at the local library until 1929 when the flammable nitrate was used as landfill in a condemned swimming pool. Stored for 50 years under the permafrost of the Yukon, the films turned out to be extremely well preserved. Included were films by Pearl White, Harold Lloyd, Douglas Fairbanks, and Lon Chaney. These films are now housed at the Library of Congress. The degradation of old film stock can be slowed through proper archiving, or films can be transferred to CD-ROM or other digital media for preservation. Silent film preservation has been a high priority among film historians.

See also[link]

:Category:Silent films

:Category:Silent film actors

Classic Images

Laurel and Hardy films

List of film formats

German Expressionism

''Kammerspielfilm''

List of silent films released on 8 mm or Super 8 mm film

Lost films

Melodrama

Sound film

Sound stage

Tab show

At the Moving Picture Ball (Song about silent film stars)

References[link]

Further reading[link]

Davis, Lon. ''Silent Lives''. BearManor Media, Albany, 2008. ISBN 1-59393-124-7.

The Late Hollywood Silent Film Melodrama Special Issue, ''Film International'', Issue, 54, Volume 9, Number 6 (2011), Jeffrey Crouse (editor). Extensive analyses include those by: George Toles, "'Cocoon of Fire: Awakening to Love in Murnau's ''Sunrise''"; Diane Stevenson, "Three Versions of ''Stella Dallas''"; and Jonah Corne's "Gods and Nobodies: Extras, the October Jubilee, and Von Sternberg's ''The Last Command''." There are also featured film and book reviews pertaining to silent film.

nan:Bô-siaⁿ tiān-iáⁿ

* Film

ar:سينما صامتة ast:Cine mudu az:Səssiz film zh-min-nan:Bô-siaⁿ tiān-iáⁿ bg:Нямо кино ca:Cinema mut cs:Němý film cy:Ffilm fud da:Stumfilm de:Stummfilm et:Tummfilm es:Cine mudo eo:Muta filmo eu:Zinema mutu fa:فیلم صامت fr:Cinéma muet ko:무성 영화 hy:Համր կինո hr:Nijemi film is:Þögul mynd it:Film muto he:ראינוע lv:Mēmais kino lb:Stommfilm hu:Némafilm ms:Filem senyap nl:Stomme film ja:サイレント映画 no:Stumfilm nn:Stumfilm pl:Film niemy pt:Filme mudo ksh:Stommfilm ro:Film mut ru:Немое кино simple:Silent movie sk:Nemý film sr:Неми филм sh:Nijemi film fi:Mykkäelokuva sv:Stumfilm tl:Pelikulang tahimik ta:ஊமைப்படம் tr:Sessiz film uk:Німе кіно vi:Phim câm zh-yue:默片 zh:无声电影

There are many people in history who are commonly appended with the phrase "''the Great''", or who were called that or an equivalent phrase in their own language. Other languages have their own suffixes such as ''e Bozorg'' and ''e azam'' in Persian and Urdu respectively.

In Persia, the title "the Great" at first seems to be a colloquial version of the Old Persian title "Great King". This title was first used by the conqueror Cyrus II of Persia.

The Persian title was inherited by Alexander III of Macedon (336–323 BC) when he conquered the Persian Empire, and the epithet "Great" eventually became personally associated with him. The first reference (in a comedy by Plautus) assumes that everyone knew who "Alexander the Great" was; however, there is no earlier evidence that Alexander III of Macedon was called "''the Great''".

The early Seleucid kings, who succeeded Alexander in Persia, used "Great King" in local documents, but the title was most notably used for Antiochus the Great (223–187 BC).

Later rulers and commanders began to use the epithet "the Great" as a personal name, like the Roman general Pompey. Others received the surname retrospectively, like the Carthaginian Hanno and the Indian emperor Ashoka the Great. Once the surname gained currency, it was also used as an honorific surname for people without political careers, like the philosopher Albert the Great.

As there are no objective criteria for "greatness", the persistence of later generations in using the designation greatly varies. For example, Louis XIV of France was often referred to as "The Great" in his lifetime but is rarely called such nowadays, while Frederick II of Prussia is still called "The Great". A later Hohenzollern - Wilhelm I - was often called "The Great" in the time of his grandson Wilhelm II, but rarely later.

Rulers[link]

Abbas I of Persia (1571–1629), Shah of Iran

Akbar (1542–1605), ruler of the Mughal Empire of South Asia, mainly India

Alain I of Albret (1440–1522), French aristocrat

Alexander the Great (356-323 BC), King of Macedonia, Persia, Greece, Egypt, and all of Mesopotamia

Alexander I of Georgia (1386–1446), King of Georgia

Alfonso III of León (c. 848-910), King of León, Galicia and Asturias

Alfred the Great (848/849-899), King of Wessex

Antiochus III the Great (c. 241–187 BC), ruler of the Seleucid Empire

Ashoka the Great (c. 304–232 BC), Indian emperor of the Maurya dynasty

Ashot I of Iberia “the Great”(died 826/830), presiding prince of Iberia (modern Georgia),

Askia Mohammad I (c. 1442–1538), ruler of the Songhai Empire

Bhumibol Adulyadej (born 1927), King of Thailand

Bolesław I Chrobry (967-1025), sometimes called "the Great", first King of Poland

Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the following section)

Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (1736–1809), founder and ruler of the Rattanakosin Kingdom (in what is now Thailand)

Cnut the Great (c. 985 or 995-1035), King of Denmark, England, Norway and parts of Sweden

Casimir III the Great (1310–1370), King of Poland

Catherine the Great (1729–1796), Empress of Russia

Chandragupta II (reigned 375-413/415), also known as Vikramaditya, ruler of the Gupta empire in India

Charlemagne (died 814), King of the Franks and Emperor of the Romans

Chulalongkorn (1853–1910), King of Siam (now Thailand)

Chlothar II (584-629), King of Neustria and King of the Franks

Conrad, Margrave of Meissen (c. 1097-1157), Margrave of Meissen

Constantine I (c. 272-337), Roman emperor

Cyaxares the Great (c. 625-585 BC), third king of Media

Cyrus the Great (c. 600 BC or 576 BC–530 BC), founder and ruler of the Persian or Achaemenid Empire

Darius the Great (550 – 486 BC), third ruler of the Persian Empire

Devapala (died 850), ruler of the Pala Empire in the Indian subcontinent

Dionysius I, Greek tyrant of Syracuse

Ferdinand I of León and Castile (c. 1015–1065), King of León and Count of Castile

Frederick the Great (1712–1786), King of Prussia

Genghis Khan (1162?-1227), founder and Great Khan of the Mongol Empire

Gero (c. 900–965), ruler of Marca Geronis, a very large march in Europe

Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden (1594–1632), King of Sweden, founder of the Swedish Empire, and noted military leader

Gwanggaeto the Great, King of Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea

Hanno the Great, the name of three leaders of Carthage, in the 4th, 3rd, and 2nd centuries BC

Henry I, Duke of Burgundy (946–1002)

Henry IV of France (1553–1610), King of France and King of Navarre

Herod the Great (73/74 BC-4 BC), King of Judea

Hugh the Great (898-956), Duke of the Franks and Count of Paris

Hugh Magnus of France (1007–1025), co-King of France

Hugh I, Count of Vermandois (1057–1101)

Humphrey I de Bohun (died c. 1123), Anglo-Norman aristocrat

Ivan III of Russia (1440–1505), Tsar of Russia

John I of Portugal (1358–1433), King of Portugal and the Algarve

John II of Aragon (1398–1479), King of Aragon and, through his wife, King of Navarre

Justinian I (483-565), Byzantine Emperor

Kamehameha I (c. 1758-1819), first King of Hawai'i

Kanishka (died c. 127), ruler of the Kushan Empire in Central Asia and parts of India

Kvirike III of Kakheti (1010–1029), King of Kakheti in eastern Georgia

Kublai Khan (1215–1294), Mongol ruler in the 13th century and Emperor of China; founder of the Yuan Dynasty

Llywelyn the Great (c. 1172–1240), Prince of Gwynedd and de facto ruler of most of Wales

Louis I of Hungary (1326–1382), King of Hungary, Croatia and Poland

Mangrai the Great (1238–1317), Lanna, northern Thailand

Emperor Meiji (1852–1912), Emperor of Japan

Mircea I of Wallachia (1355–1418)

Mithridates II of Parthia (died 88 BC), ruler of the Parthian Empire (in present day Iran)

Mithridates VI of Pontus (134 BC–63 BC), ruler of Pontus and the Bosporan Kingdom

Mstislav I of Kiev (1076–1132), Grand Prince of Kievan Rus

Naresuan (1555–1605), King of Ayutthaya

Narai (1633–1688), King of Ayutthaya (in what is now modern Thailand)

Odo the Great (died c. 735), Duke of Aquitaine

Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor (912-973)

K'inich Janaab' Pakal (603-683), ruler of the Mayan city-state of Palenque

Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa (1123–1186), King of Sri Lanka

Peter Krešimir IV of Croatia (died 1075), King of Croatia

Peter the Great (1672–1725), Tsar of Russia

Peter III of Aragon (1239–1285), King of Aragon and King of Sicily

Pompey (106 BC-48 BC), military and political leader of the late Roman Republic, rival of Julius Caesar

Radama I (1793–1828), first king of greater Madagascar

Raja Raja Chola I (c. 947-1014), Indian emperor of the Cholas.

Rajendra Chola I (reigned 1014–1044), Tamil King of India

Ramesses II (reigned 1279 BC – 1213 BC), considered the greatest pharaoh of Ancient Egypt

Ram Khamhaeng (around 1237 to 1247-1298), King of Sukhothai (in present day Thailand)

Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona (1082–1131), also Count of Provence and various other counties

Rhodri the Great (c. 820–878), King of Gwynedd (in present day Wales)

Roman the Great (after 1160-1205), Grand Prince of Kiev

Saladin (c. 1138-1193), Kurdish Sultan of Egypt and Syria, founder of the Ayyubid dynasty, and victor over the Crusaders

Samudragupta (c. 335–375), ruler of the Gupta empire in the Indian subcontinent

Sancho III of Navarre (c. 992-1035), King of Kingdom of Navarre

Sargon of Akkad (died c. 2215 BC), ruler of the Akkadian Empire

Sejong the Great (1397–1450), Korean king

Shapur II (309-379), king of the Sassanid Empire, Persia

Simeon I of Bulgaria (864/865-927), ruler of the First Bulgarian Empire

Stephen III of Moldavia (1433–1504), Prince of Moldavia (Romania)

Stephen Uroš IV Dušan of Serbia (c. 1308-1355), King of Serbia and Emperor of the Serbs and Greeks

Taksin (1734–1782), King of the Thonburi Kingdom (Thailand)

Tamar (1160-1123), Queen of the Georgian Empire

Timur (1336–1405), better known as Tamerlane, founder of the Timurid Dynasty

Theobald II, Count of Champagne (1090–1151), Count of Blois and of Chartres as Theobald IV, Count of Champagne and of Brie

Theodoric the Great (454-526), King of the Ostrogoths, regent of the Visigoths and a viceroy of the Byzantine Empire

Theodosius I (347-395), Roman emperor

Tigranes the Great (140-55 BC), Emperor of Armenia

Tiridates III of Armenia (285-339), King of Armenia

Umar (c. 586 to 590–644), second caliph of the Muslim Empire

Valdemar I of Denmark (1131–1182), King of Denmark

Valentinian I (364-375), Roman Emperor

Vladimir I of Kiev (c. 958-1015), ruler of Kievan Rus

Vytautas (c. 1350-1430), archduke of the Lithuanian Grand Duchy

William I, Count of Burgundy (1020–1087), Count of Burgandy and Mâcon

William V, Duke of Aquitaine (969-1030), also Count of Poitou

Xerxes I (519-465 BC), King of Kings of the Achaemenid Empire (Persia)

Yu the Great (c. 2200-2100 BC), legendary ruler in ancient China

Religious figures[link]

Abraham the Great of Kashkar (ca. 492-586), monk and saint of the Assyrian Church of the East

Abraham Kidunaia (died c. 366, hermit, priest, and Christian saint of Mesopotamia

Albertus Magnus (1193/1206–1280), medieval German philosopher and theologian

Anthony the Great (c. 251–356), early Christian saint of Egypt

Babai the Great (c. 551–628), Assyrian church leader

Basil of Caesarea (330-379), Greek bishop and theologian

Bruno the Great (925–965), Archbishop of Cologne and Duke of Lotharingia (also listed in the previous section)

Euthymius the Great (377-473), abbot and Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox saint

Gertrude the Great (1256-c. 1302), German Benedictine, mystic, theologian and Roman Catholic saint

Pope Gregory I (c. 540-604)

Hiyya the Great, 3rd-century rabbi, Palestine

Pope John Paul II (1920–2005)

Pope Leo I (c. 391 or 400-461)

Macarius of Egypt (c. 300-391), Egyptian hermit

Pope Nicholas I (c. 800-867)

Photius I of Constantinople (c. 810–c. 893), Eastern Orthodox saint and Patriarch of Constantinople

William of Maleval (died 1157), founder of the Catholic congregation of Williamites

Other[link]

Beli Mawr, a figure in medieval Welsh literature and genealogies

Emmy the Great, folk singer

Matteo Rosso the Great, Roman politician and father of Pope Nicholas III

Prokop the Great, Hussite general in Bohemia

See also[link]

Epithet

List of monarchs by nickname

List of nicknames of European Royalty and Nobility: G-I

James, son of Zebedee, also known as James the Greater, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus

Ajax (mythology), called Ajax the Greater

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, whose common honorific "Mahatma" means "Great Soul"

Notes[link]

Category:Monarchs Great, List of people known as The Category:Greatest Nationals Category:Epithets

bs:Spisak osoba znanih kao Veliki id:Daftar tokoh dengan gelar yang Agung jv:Daftar pamimpin ingkang dipun paringi julukan Ingkang Agung la:Magnus lt:Sąrašas:Žmonės, vadinami Didžiaisiais ja:称号に大が付く人物の一覧 ru:Великий (прозвище) sl:Seznam ljudi z vzdevkom Veliki sv:Lista över personer kallade den store th:รายพระนามกษัตริย์ที่ได้รับสมัญญานามมหาราช vi:Đại đế

name	Oscar Micheaux
birth name	Oscar Devereaux Micheaux
birth date	January 02, 1884
birth place	Metropolis, Illinois, USA
death date	March 25, 1951
death place	Charlotte, North Carolina, USA
occupation	Director, author
spouse	Alice B. Russell (1892–1984)
awards	Directors Guild of America Awards1986 Golden Jubilee Special AwardHollywood Walk of Fame6721 Hollywood Boulevard }}

Oscar Devereaux Micheaux (January 2, 1884 – March 25, 1951) was an American author, film director and independent producer of more than 44 films. Although the short-lived Lincoln Motion Picture Company produced some films, he is regarded as the first major African-American feature filmmaker, the most successful African-American filmmaker of the first half of the twentieth century and the most prominent producer of race films. He produced both silent films and "talkies" after the industry changed to incorporate speaking actors.

Early life and education[link]

Micheaux was born on a farm in Metropolis, Illinois on January 2, 1884 He was the fifth child born to Calvin S. Michaux and Belle Michaux, who had a total of thirteen. In his later years, Micheaux added the “e” to his last name. Calvin Michaux was originally from Kentucky, and his father had been a slave. The family appeared to have been associated with French colonists because of its surname, possibly French Huguenots who had settled in Virginia in 1700, and whose descendants took slaves west migrated into Kentucky.

Micheaux was born during a time of social instability when African Americans were trying to succeed in a world dominated by whites. Micheaux struggled with social oppression as a young boy, which he reflected in writing in later years. To give their children education, his parents relocated to the city for better schooling. Micheaux attended a well-established school for several years before the family eventually ran into money troubles and were forced to relocate back to the farm. Unhappy, Micheaux became rebellious and discontented. His struggles caused internal problems within his family. Micheaux’s father was not happy with him and sent him away to do marketing within the big city. Micheaux found pleasure in this job because he was able to speak to many new people and learned many people skills that he would later reflect within his films.

When Micheaux was 16 years old, he moved to Chicago, Illinois to live with his brother, who was then working as a waiter. Micheaux became dissatisfied with what he viewed as his brother’s way of living “the good life”, so he rented his own place and found a job in the stockyards, which he found difficult. Micheaux worked many different jobs, moving from the stockyards to the steel mills.

After Micheaux was “swindled out of two dollars” by an employment agency, he decided to become his own boss. His first business was a small shoeshine stand, which he set up at a white suburban barbershop, away from Chicago competition. Micheaux learned the basic strategies of business and started to save money. He became a Pullman porter on the major railroads. At that time, Pullman porters were considered prestigious jobs for African-Americans, as they were relatively well-paid, secure and gave freedom of travel and acquaintance. This job was an informal college education for Micheaux. He profited financially, and also gained contacts and knowledge about the world through traveling, as well as a greater understanding for business. When he left the position, Micheaux had seen much of the United States, had a couple thousand dollars saved in his bank account, and made a number of connections with wealthy white people that would prove to be to his benefit in future endeavors.

After working as a porter, Micheaux worked as a homesteader in Dallas, South Dakota. This experience inspired his first novels and films. His neighbors on the frontier were all white. “Some recall that [Micheaux] rarely sate at table with his white neighbors”. Micheaux’s years as a homesteader allowed him to learn more about human relations and farming, a time in his life full of tests and experiments. While farming, Micheaux wrote articles and submitted them to press. ''The Chicago Defender'' published one of his earliest articles.

Marriage and family[link]

In South Dakota, Micheaux married Orlean McCracken, whose family proved to be complex and burdensome. Orlean became unhappy with their living arrangements and felt that Micheaux did not pay enough attention to her. She gave birth while he was away on business. She was reported to have emptied their bank accounts and fled. While Micheaux was away, Orlean’s father sold his property and took Micheaux’s money. Micheaux attempted unsuccessfully to get his wife and property back. Although he had saved up a lot of money through his job as a Pullman Porter, Micheaux lost his money during this time. After many failed attempts to recover some of these assets, he needed to move onto his next career and make some money fast.

Writing and film career[link]

It was at this point that Micheaux decided to become a writer and, eventually, a filmmaker, in a new industry.

Micheaux wrote seven novels. In 1913, 1000 copies of his first book, ''The Conquest: The Story of a Negro Homesteader'' were printed. He published the book anonymously, for unknown reasons. It was based on his experiences as a homesteader and the failure of his first marriage, and was essentially an autobiography about his early life. Although character names have been changed, the protagonist is named Oscar Devereaux. His theme was about African Americans' realizing their potential and succeeding in areas in which they may have been previously denied access.

Micheaux had a major career as a film producer and director: he produced over 40 films, which drew audiences throughout the US as well as internationally. In 1918, his novel ''The Homesteader'', dedicated to Booker T. Washington, attracted the attention of George Johnson, the manager of the Lincoln Motion Picture Company in Los Angeles. After Johnson offered to make ''The Homesteader'' into a new feature film, negotiations and paperwork became contentious between him and Micheaux. Micheaux wanted to be directly involved in the adaptation of his book as a movie, but Johnson resisted and never produced the film.

Instead, Micheaux founded the Micheaux Film and Book Company of Sioux City and Chicago; its first project was the production of ''The Homesteader'' as a feature film. Micheaux contacted wealthy white connections from his earlier career as a porter, and sold stock for his company at $75 to $100 a share. Micheaux hired actors and actresses and decided to premiere just when Chicago was celebrating the return of troops from war. The film and Micheaux received high praise from film critics. One article credited Micheaux with “a historic breakthrough, a creditable, dignified achievement”. Some members of the Chicago clergy criticized the film as libelous. ''The Homesteader'' became widely known as Micheaux’s breakout film; it helped him become widely known as a writer and a filmmaker.

In addition to writing and creating his own films from then on, Micheaux also adapted the works of different writers as silent pictures. Many of Micheaux’s films were open, blunt and thought-provoking regarding certain racial issues of that time. Micheaux once commented, “It is only by presenting those portions of the race portrayed in my pictures, in the light and background of their true state, that we can raise our people to greater heights”. Financial hardships during the Great Depression eventually made it impossible for Micheaux to keep producing films, and he returned to writing.

Significant films[link]

Micheaux’s first novel ''The Conquest'' was adapted to film and re-titled, ''The Homesteader''. This film, which met with critical and commercial success, was first produced in 1918. This film revolves around a man named Jean Baptiste. Baptiste, who is called the Homesteader, falls in love with many white women but resists marrying them out of his loyalty to become a prominent figure for his race. He sacrifices love to show his masculinity and be a key symbol for his fellow African Americans. Baptiste then in turn looks for love within his own race and marries an African American woman. Relations between Baptiste and his wife progressively deteriorate and become increasingly tense. Eventually, Baptiste is not allowed to see his wife. She ultimately stabs her father and herself for keeping them apart and although Baptiste is accused of the crime he is ultimately cleared. An old love helps Baptiste through his troubles and they eventually marry after learning she is actually a mulatto. This story deals very extensively with race relationships and this conflict within African Americans of feeling weak or inferior.

Micheaux’s second silent film was ''Within Our Gates'', produced in 1920. Although sometimes considered Micheaux’s response to the film ''Birth of a Nation'', Micheaux maintained that he created the film as a response to the widespread instability following World War I. ''Within Our Gates'' revolved around the main character, Sylvia Landry, a school teacher. In a flashback, we see that Sylvia grows up as the adopted daughter of a sharecropper. When Sylvia’s father confronts their white landlord because he feels that he owes the family money, a fight ensues and somewhere along the way, the white landlord is shot by another white man. However, Sylvia’s black father is accused and he and his wife are cruelly lynched. This scene represents Micheaux’s thoughts about the dynamics of the racial hierarchy found within the south.

Sylvia is almost raped by the landowner’s brother but discovers that he is her father. This mini flashback scene serves to show that lower- and middle-class African Americans are hardworking people who are being terrorized and unfairly treated by white people. Micheaux always depicts African Americans as being serious and reaching for higher education. Before the flashback scene, we see that Sylvia goes to Boston to find funding for her southern school attended by many African-American children. On her journey, she is hit by the car of a rich white woman who decides to give the school $50,000.

Within the film, Micheaux depicts educated and professional people as light-skinned, symbolizing the elite status of the generally mixed-race people who were free before the Civil War, and poor people as dark-skinned. However, these light-skinned people also represent the villains of the story. This film takes place within the Jim Crow era, and contrasts rural and urban experiences for the African-American populations. In creating a contemporary setting, Micheaux explores the suffering of African Americans in the present day, without explaining how the situation arose in history. Some feared that this film would cause even more unrest within society, while others believed that it would open up the public’s eyes into the unjust practices pertaining to the black and white communities. Protests against the film continued until the day it released. The film continued to create controversy and was censored or banned from some theatres.

Death[link]

Micheaux died on March 25, 1951 in Charlotte, NC. The cause of death was heart failure. He is buried in Great Bend Cemetery in Great Bend, Kansas.

Themes[link]

Micheaux's films typically featured outlooks on contemporary black life, specifically those that dealt with relationships between blacks and whites, and the journey for blacks to become more successful within society. His films also reflect his ideologies and life experiences. Journalist Richard Gehr once commented, “Micheaux appears to have only one story to tell- his own- and he tells it repeatedly”. Micheaux sought to create films that would act as a response to white people’s demeaning outlooks towards African Americans. Micheaux aimed to create complex characters and was never interested in simplicity. His own life experiences acted as the main ties between all of his different works. As Micheaux grew up in the uncertain social climate of southern Illinois, he understood the relationships between African Americans and whites, and how each group of people somewhat misunderstood the other.

Style[link]

Micheaux pursued moderation within his films and created what has been called a “middle-class cinema”. His form of cinema was designed to be relatable to middle class and lower-class audiences. Micheaux once said,

“My results…might have been narrow at times, due perhaps to certain limited situations, which I endeavored to portray, but in those limited situations, the truth was the predominate characteristic. It is only by presenting those portions of the race portrayed in my pictures, in the light and background of their true state, that we can raise our people to greater heights. I am too imbued with the spirit of Booker T. Washington to engraft false virtues upon ourselves, to make ourselves that which we are not”.

Legacy and honors[link]

By the 1990s, a number of prominent African American filmmakers had emerged, such as Spike Lee, Robert Townsend, Eddie Murphy, and Melvin Van Peebles. Films by these directors shared some of the same themes that were common in Micheaux’s films.

The Oscar Micheaux Award for excellence was established.

The Oscar Micheaux Sociey at Duke University continues to honor his work and educate about his legacy.

Historian and biographer Betti Carol VanEpps-Taylor said: “Thanks to the tireless efforts and dedication of the film scholars, the African American artists and entrepreneurs, and the great grandchildren of the Rosebud homesteaders, a new generation of writers, film makers, earnest young entrepreneurs, and the descendants of those who settled the Rosebud will glimpse again Micheaux’s undying vision- appropriately modified in language to encompass our growing egalitarianism- 'that a colored man can be anything'.”

1987, Micheaux was recognized with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.

1989 the Directors Guild of America honored Micheaux with a Golden Jubilee Special Award.

The Producers Guild created an annual award in his name.

1989, the Black Filmmakers Hall of Fame gave him a posthumous award. Gregory, South Dakota holds an annual Oscar Micheaux Film Festival.

A documentary was made about Micheaux, called ''Midnight Ramble: Oscar Micheaux and the Story of Race Movies'' (2004). Its title refers to the early 20th-century practice of some white cinemas screening films for African-American audiences only at matinees and midnight. The documentary was produced by Pamela Thomas, directed by Pearl Bowser and Bestor Cram, and written by Clyde Taylor. It was first aired on the PBS show, The American Experience, in 1994.

2002, scholar Molefi Kete Asante included Oscar Micheaux on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans. On June 22, 2010 the US Postal Service issued a 44-cent, Oscar Micheaux commemorative stamp. 2011, the Taubman Museum of Art in Roanoke, Virginia created a category for donors, the Micheaux Society, in honor of Micheaux.

Works [link]

Filmography[link]

''The Homesteader'' (1919)

''Within Our Gates'' (1919)

''Symbol of the Unconquered'' (1920)

''The Brute'' (1920)

''Son of Satan'' (1922)

''The Dungeon'' (1922)

''The Gunsaulus Mystery'' (1922)

''The Virgin of the Seminole'' (1922)

''Deceit'' (1923)

''Jasper Landry's Will'' (1923)

''Body and Soul'' (1924)

''The Spider's Web'' (1926)

''The Millionaire'' (1927)

''When Men Betray'' (1928)

''Thirty Years Later'' (1928)

''Wages of Sin'' (1929)

''Darktown Revue'' (1930)

''A Daughter of the Congo'' (1930)

''Easy Street'' (1930)

''The Exile'' (1931)

''Black Magic'' (1932)

''Ten Minutes to Live'' (1932)

''Veiled Aristocrats'' (1932)

''Ten Minutes to Kill'' (1933)

''The Girl From Chicago'' (1933)

''Harlem After Midnight'' (1934)

''Lem Hawkins' Confession'' (1935) also released as ''Murder in Harlem''

''Temptation'' (1936)

''Underworld'' (1936)

''God's Step Children'' (1938)

''Swing!'' (1938)

''Birthright'' (1939)

''Lying Lips'' (1939)

''The Notorious Elinor Lee'' (1940)

''The Betrayal'' (1948)

Books [link]

References[link]

Further reading[link]

Lupack, Barbara Tepa (2004). "Black Pioneer: Oscar Micheaux." In: ''Homo Narrans. Texts and Essays in Honor of Jerome Klinkowitz''. Ed. Zygmunt Mazur and Richard Utz. Cracow: Jagiellonian University Press. pp. 125–37 ISBN 83-233-1896-4.

}}

External links[link]

Oscar Micheaux web site hosted by the Barton County Arts Council in Great Bend, Kansas

Bibliography of books and articles about Micheaux via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center

"Black Cinema: Micheaux Must Go On," an article about Micheaux by ''Time'' film critic Richard Corliss

Stace England & The Salt Kings Original Song ''Within Our Gates'' With Film Clips

Oscar Micheaux commemorative stamp at USPS

Category:1884 births Category:1951 deaths Category:African American film directors Category:African American writers Category:American film directors Category:American screenwriters Category:American short story writers Category:Film studio executives Category:People from Massac County, Illinois Category:Race films Category:Religious skeptics

de:Oscar Micheaux es:Oscar Micheaux fr:Oscar Micheaux it:Oscar Micheaux simple:Oscar Micheaux