Look up slogan in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

A slogan is a memorable motto or phrase used in a political, commercial, religious, and other context as a repetitive expression of an idea or purpose. The word slogan is derived from slogorn which was an Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic sluagh-ghairm tanmay (sluagh "army", "host" + gairm "cry").^[1] Slogans vary from the written and the visual to the chanted and the vulgar. Their simple rhetorical nature usually leaves little room for detail, and a chanted slogan may serve more as social expression of unified purpose, than as communication to an intended audience.

Marketing slogans are often called taglines in the United States or straplines in the U.K. Europeans use the terms baselines, signatures, claims or pay-offs.^[2]

References[link]

v t e Propaganda techniques Ad hominem · Bandwagon effect · Big Lie · Blood libel · Buzzword · Card stacking · Censorship · Code word · Dog-whistle politics · Doublespeak · Euphemism · Framing · Glittering generality · Historical revisionism · Ideograph · Indoctrination · Lawfare · Lesser of two evils principle · Limited hangout · Loaded language · Loosely associated statements · Newspeak · Obscurantism · Plain folks · Public relations · Slogan · Spin · Weasel word

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Panagiotis Stravalexis (Greek: Παναγιώτης Στραβαλέξης) (born 28 September 1979), better known by his stage names Tymvorychos, Paidi Thavma and Taki Tsan, is a Greek music producer, tattoo artist and rapper.^[1] A prominent figure in Greek hip hop, he is the leader of the group Zontanoi Nekroi and also a member of the rap duet Tigre Sporakia (Greek: Τιγρέ Σποράκια), .

In 1999, he released his solo debut album under as Paidi Thavma (Greek: Παιδί Θαύμα, English: Boy Wonder), named Rima Gia Chrima (Greek: Ρίμα Για Χρήμα, English: Rhymes For Money). Apart from that, Taki Tsan was also a founding member of the rap group Tigre Sporakia (Greek: Τιγρέ Σποράκια), which consisted of him and Eisvoleas (Greek: Εισβολέας, English: Invader).

Several albums followed, some of them being solo ones, like Sto Mialo Tou Panagioti Stravaleksi (Greek: Στο Μυαλό Του Παναγιώτη Στραβαλέξη, English: Inside Panagiotis Stravalexis' Mind), released in 2006. Another one was To Scholeio (Greek: Το Σχολείο, English: The School), where he collaborated with another Zontanoi Nekroi member, Charmanis (Greek: Χαρμάνης). In 2009, Tsan released Rima gia Chrima 2, his new double LP.

Biography[link]

1997-1998: Zontani Nekri[link]

In 1997, he formed his group, Zontani Nekri, and started recording tracks with them. They released an EP in 1997, named "ZN Entoles/Stin Chora ton Kaliteron MCs". On 1998, they released their first and only album O Protos Tomos which at that time was considered offensive by a lot of people because in that album the group was dealing with subjects like drugs and violence. As a result, after the first 1,000 sales, 2 songs were removed from the CD which continued to be on sale. Today it is believed to be the greatest Greek Battle Rap album of all time.

1999: Paidi Thavma - Rima gia Chrima[link]

He continued with Rima gia Chrima (English: Rhyme for Money), his solo debut, that was well-received. Many songs of that album today are thought to be classics. This album's style was very different than his previous ZN albums' raw style and had a more personal feeling. It is considered to be one of the best Greek Hip-Hop albums.

2000: Projects that never made it[link]

In 2000, ZN started recording Kata.R.Ypo, a duet album by Ypochthonios and Katachthonios, but never released it because FM Records thought it was . In 2001, they were about to release Charmanis' debut solo named Sisihaha but that project never made it either due to unknown reasons. So, having collected several unreleased songs, they released a compilation album named Thammena Ksechasmena which contained songs from Kata.R.Ypo, a song that did not fit in Rima gia Chrima, the first track that was recorded for Megalos Iroas, Midenistis' first solo album, and some alternate editions of old songs from "O Protos Tomos". As for a second ZN release, many fans wanted to see a new release from their favorite group, but as it seems that can't happen because every member has its own projects and want to do different things in music. The highly anticipated album is called O Deuteros Tomos and will be the sequel of O Protos Tomos.

2003-2004: Tigre Sporakia and Harmanis/Taki Tsan[link]

In 2003, Taki Tsan formed a new group with Isvoleas (a member of the group Alfa Gama) named Tigre Sporakia. They released their first album named Theoria kai Praksi, which was well received by the fans. Taki returned to his raw style and one of the main themes of the album was drugs and money. In 2004, Taki Tsan and Harmanis collaborated to release an album named To Sholio (English: The School). The album was ready in about 11 days and the main producer was DJ ALX.

2005-2006: 3 Mixtapes and one solo album[link]

In 2005, Taki Tsan released 2 mix tapes. One named Underground Mixtape, and one more named Mixtape vol. 1 from IxoSpira. In 2006, he released his last mix tape to date named Misa Lefta/Dipli Magkia which was more like a compilation, containing old and unreleased songs. In the same year, he released his 2nd solo album named Sto Mialo tou Panagioti Stravalexi. It was a major change to his style, containing social and political tracks, as well as things he wanted to share with his fans.

2007-2009: Many lives and Recording of his new album[link]

He has done many lives, 3 with all of the ZN members. He has also released several tracks on the internet, to give us a taste of his upcoming project, named Rima gia Chrima 2009 (sequel to his debut), which was released in December 2009 under the final name "Rima gia Chrima 2", a double album which met a great economical success, as it sold about 5,000 copies.

2009-Present: Rima gia Chrima Tour, TOMAHOK, 2 more mixtapes and Tigre Sporakia the Band[link]

After the release of "Rima gia Chrima 2", Taki Tsan and many of his affiliates began his "Rima gia Chrima Tour" all over Greece, with more than 20 live performances. After the end of the tour, he and Isvoleas started to work on their second project as Tigre Sporakia but this time with a live band with them. The group was renamed Tigre Sporakia the Band and changed their logo. Also at that time, Taki's official website, [takitsan.com] opened for the fans and in order to celebrate the opening, Taki Tsan released a new mixtape, called "Exclusive Mixtape" or "The Lost Mixtape" which was composed by 8 tracks. In 2011, Taki joined TOMAHOK, a new crew which was created by Isvoleas. In the 25th February of the same year, the group's new album, "Onoma kai Pragma" was released through No Label Records and received mixed critics from the fans, because of their changed style. His next mixtape, "Athens' Finest" was given for free download via his site, and was produced by an American beatmaker called Hamma. Taki Tsan now continues to work with Isvoleas at their third album which is to be released in 2012.

Discography with ZN[link]

• 1997 ZN Entoles/Stin Chora ton Kaliteron MCs, EP IHOKRATORIA / FM Records
• 1998 Protos Tomos, IHOKRATORIA / FM Records
• 2001 Thamena Ksehasmena IHOKRATORIA / FM Records
• 2009 The Rare And Unreleased Songs Vol. 1, Gus Productions
• 2009 The Rare And Unreleased Songs Vol. 2, Gus Productions

Solo Discography[link]

• 1999 Stin Athina, CD Single, IHOKRATORIA / FM Records
• 1999 Rima gia Chrima, IHOKRATORIA / FM Records
• 2005 Mixtape Vol. 1, HipHop.Gr
• 2006 Sto Mialo tou Panagioti Stravalexi, IhoSpira / FM Records
• 2009 Ein' O Man, EP, Sporty Magazine
• 2009 Rima gia Chrima 2 IHOKRATORIA / 33 1/3 Entertainment
• 2011 Mixtape Vol. 0
• 2011 The Lost Mixtape
• 2011 Athens Finest Mixtape

Discography with Tigre Sporakia[link]

• 2003 Theoria kai praksi IHOKRATORIA / FM Records
• 2011 Onoma kai Pragma No Label Records

Collaborations[link]

• 2004 To Sxoleio, with Harmanis, IXOSPIRA / FM Records
• 2005 Dipli Magkia, Misa Lefta Treli Ftiaxi, with DJ ALX, IXOSPIRA
• 2010 Gia Ta Paidia, with Diezel, CD Single

Appearances[link]

• 1997 Hontres Douleies, as Timvorixos & Midenistis, FM Records
• 1999 I Ihokratoria Parousiazei Meros A, with Tigre Sporakia, IXOKRATORIA / FM Records
• 1999 En Opsei (Paremvoles), Polydor
• 2000 La Klikaria, Imiz Biz Entertainment, Def Jam/Universal
• 2001 Agnostofovia (Alfa Gama), IXOKRATORIA / FM Records
• 2002 Megalos Iroas (Midenistis), IHOKRATORIA / FM Records
• 2004 The Instrumentals I Like (Eisvoleas)
• 2004 La Sagrada Familia (Goin' Through), Family The Label, Def Jam/Universal
• 2004 Mono Gia Ta Aftia Sou (Dj Alx)
• 2006 Den Ehoun Styl (Dj Alx)
• 2006 Synyparxi (Evnus)
• 2007 Eimai (White Dragon)
• 2009 Airetika Erotikos (Mithridatis), Imiz Biz Entertainment, Legend
• 2009 The Box LP, Part 1 (Cenobite), Cenobite Productions
• 2010 Metaxy Ouranou Kai Gis (Gelos), IXOKRATORIA
• 2010 Grand Champion Hot Joints (Dj The Boy)
• 2010 Gkegke (Eisvoleas), Lyra / Tomahok
• 2010 The Escape Key, IHOKRATORIA
• 2010 Dask1 (Dask)
• 2011 O Rapper Tis Hronias (Dimitris Mentzelos), Imiz Biz Entertainment, IHOKRATORIA, Cenobite Productions, Legend
• 2011 Etsi Tin Vlepo (Skies), Lyra

References[link]

External links[link]

• Official Site

Serge Gainsbourg
Background information
Birth name	Lucien Ginsburg
Also known as	Julien Grix[1] Gainsbarre
Born	(1928-04-02)2 April 1928
Origin	Paris, France
Died	2 March 1991(1991-03-02) (aged 62)
Genres	Adult contemporary, jazz, funk, reggae, French rock, French pop, electronic, New Wave, yé-yé
Occupations	poet singer-songwriter actor director artist
Instruments	Vocals, piano, guitar, bass, clavinet, accordion, harmonica
Years active	1957–1991
Labels	Mercury/Universal Records
Website	Serge Gainsbourg

Serge Gainsbourg, born Lucien Ginsburg (French pronunciation: [sɛʁʒ ɡɛ̃sbuʁ]; 2 April 1928 – 2 March 1991)^[2] was a French singer, songwriter, poet, composer, artist, actor and director.^[3] Gainsbourg's extremely varied musical style and individuality make him difficult to categorize. His legacy has been firmly established, and he is often regarded as one of the world's most influential popular musicians.^[4]

Biography[link]

Personal life[link]

He was born Lucien Ginsburg^[5] in Paris, France, the son of Russian Jewish emigrants, Joseph Ginsburg (28 December 1898, Kharkov (Ukraine) – 22 April 1971) and Olga^[6] Bessman (1894 – 16 March 1985), who fled to France after the 1917 Russian Revolution. He had a twin sister, Liliane.^[7][8] His childhood was profoundly affected by the occupation of France by Nazi Germany, during which he and his family, as Jews, were forced to wear the yellow star and eventually flee Paris. Before he was 30 years old, Gainsbourg was a disillusioned painter, but earned his living as a piano player in bars.

He first married Elisabeth "Lize" Levitsky on 3 November 1951, and divorced her in 1957. He married a second time on 7 January 1964, to Françoise-Antoinette "Béatrice" Pancrazzi (b. 28 July 1931), with whom he had two children: a daughter named Natacha (b. 8 August 1964) and a son, Paul (born in spring 1968, after Serge had gotten back together with Béatrice). They divorced in February 1966.

In late-1967, he had a short but ardent love affair with Brigitte Bardot to whom he dedicated the song and album Initials BB.

In mid-1968, Gainsbourg fell in love with the younger English singer and actress Jane Birkin, whom he met during the shooting of the film Slogan. Their relationship lasted over a decade.^[9] In 1971 they had a daughter, the actress and singer Charlotte Gainsbourg. Although many sources state that they were married,^[10] according to their daughter Charlotte this was not the case.^[9] Birkin left Gainsbourg in 1980.

Birkin remembers the beginning of her affair with Gainsbourg: he first took her to a nightclub, then to a transvestite club and afterwards to the Hilton hotel, where he passed out in a drunken stupor. Birkin left Gainsbourg when pregnant with her third daughter, Lou, by the film director Jacques Doillon.^[11]

His last partner was Bambou (Caroline Paulus, grandchild of General Friedrich Paulus). In 1986 they had a son, Lucien (known as Lulu).^[2]

Early work[link]

His early songs were influenced by Boris Vian and were largely in the vein of old-fashioned chanson. Very early, however, Gainsbourg began to move beyond this and experiment with a succession of musical styles: jazz early on, pop in the 1960s, funk, rock and reggae in the 1970s, and electronica in the 1980s.^[2]

Many of his songs contained themes with a morbid or sexual twist in them. An early success, "Le Poinçonneur des Lilas", describes the day in the life of a Paris Métro ticket man whose job it is to stamp holes in passengers' tickets. Gainsbourg describes this chore as so monotonous that the man eventually thinks of putting a hole into his own head and being buried in another.

More success began to arrive when, in 1965, his song "Poupée de cire, poupée de son" was the Luxembourg entry in the Eurovision Song Contest. Performed by French teen and charming singer France Gall, it won first prize. The song was recorded in English as "A Lonely Singing Doll" by British teen idol Twinkle.^[2]

His next song for Gall, "Les Sucettes" ("Lollipops"), caused a scandal in France: Gainsbourg had written the song with double-meanings and strong sexual innuendo, of which the singer was apparently unaware when she recorded it. Whereas Gall thought that the song was about a girl enjoying lollipops, it was really about oral sex. The controversy arising from the song, although a big hit for Gall, threw her career off-track in France for several years.

Gainsbourg arranged other Gall songs and LPs that were characteristic of the late 1960s psychedelic styles, among them Gall's 1968 album. Another of Serge's songs "Boum Bada Boum" was entered in by Monaco in the 1967 contest, sung by Minouche Barelli; it came fifth. He also wrote hit songs for other artists, such as "Comment Te Dire Adieu" for Françoise Hardy.^[2]

In 1969, he released "Je t'aime... moi non plus", which featured explicit lyrics and simulated sounds of female orgasm. The song appeared that year on an LP, Jane Birkin/Serge Gainsbourg. Originally recorded with Brigitte Bardot, it was released with future girlfriend Birkin when Bardot backed out. While Gainsbourg declared it the "ultimate love song," it was considered too "hot"; the song was censored or banned from public broadcast in numerous countries, and in France even the toned-down version was suppressed. The Vatican made a public statement citing the song as offensive. However, despite or perhaps because of all the controversy, it sold well and charted within the top ten in many European countries.

The 1970s[link]

Histoire de Melody Nelson was released in 1971. This concept album, produced and arranged by Jean-Claude Vannier, tells the story of a Lolita-esque affair, with Gainsbourg as the narrator. It features prominent string arrangements and even a massed choir at its tragic climax. The album has proven influential with artists such as Air, David Holmes, Jarvis Cocker, Beck and Dan the Automator.^[12]

In 1975, he released the album Rock Around the Bunker, a rock album written entirely on the subject of the Nazis. Gainsbourg used black comedy, as he and his family suffered during World War II. While a child in Paris, Gainsbourg had worn the yellow badge as the mark of a Jew. Rock Around the Bunker belonged in the mid-1970s "retro" trend.

The next year saw the release of another major work, L'Homme à tête de chou (Cabbage-Head Man), featuring the new character Marilou and sumptuous orchestral themes. Cabbage-Head Man is one of his nicknames, as it refers to his ears. Musically, L'homme à tête de chou turned out to be Gainsbourg's last LP in the English rock style he had favoured since the late 1960s. He would go on to produce two reggae albums recorded in Jamaica (1979 and 1981) and two electronic funk albums recorded in New York (1984 and 1987).

In Jamaica in 1978 he recorded "Aux Armes et cetera", a reggae version of the French national anthem "La Marseillaise", with Robbie Shakespeare, Sly Dunbar, and Rita Marley. This song earned him death threats from right-wing veterans of the Algerian War of Independence who were opposed to certain lyrics. Bob Marley was furious when he discovered that Gainsbourg made his wife Rita sing erotic lyrics.^[13] Shortly afterward, Gainsbourg bought the original manuscript of "La Marseillaise". He replied to his critics that his version was, in fact, closer to the original as the manuscript clearly shows the words "Aux armes et cætera..." for the chorus.

Final years[link]

Tribute graffiti covers the outer wall of Serge Gainsbourg's house on the rue de Verneuil in Paris, looked after by Charlotte Gainsbourg after her father's death

After a turbulent 13-year-long relationship, Jane Birkin left Gainsbourg.^[14] In the 1980s, near the end of his life, Gainsbourg became a regular figure on French TV. His appearances seemed devoted to his controversial sense of humour and provocation. In March 1984, he burned a 500 French franc bill^[15] on television to protest against heavy taxation.^[16] He would show up drunk and unshaven on stage: in April 1986, in Michel Drucker's live Saturday evening show with the American singer Whitney Houston, he exclaimed to the host (in French, and when this was not translated, in English), "I want to fuck her".^[13] The same year, in another talk show interview, he appeared alongside Catherine Ringer, a well known singer who had appeared in pornographic films. Gainsbourg spat out at her, "You're nothing but a filthy whore, a filthy, fucking whore". Ringer scolded back, "Look at you, you're just a bitter old alcoholic. I used to admire you but these days you've become a disgusting old parasite".^[17]

By December 1988, while a judge at a film festival in Val d'Isère, he was extremely intoxicated at a local theatre where he was to do a presentation. While on stage he began to tell an obscene story about Brigitte Bardot and a champagne bottle, only to stagger offstage and collapse in a nearby seat.^[17] Subsequent years saw his health deteriorate. He had to undergo liver surgery, but denied any connection to cancer or cirrhosis. His appearances and releases became sparser as he had to rest and recover in Vezelay. During these final years, he released Love on the Beat, a controversial electronic album with mostly sexual themes in the lyrics, and his last studio album, You're Under Arrest, presented more synth-driven songs.^[2]

His songs became increasingly eccentric during this period, ranging from the anti-drug "Aux Enfants de la Chance" to the highly controversial duet with his daughter Charlotte named "Lemon Incest".^[18] This translates as "Inceste de citron", a wordplay on "un zeste de citron" (a lemon zest). The title demonstrates Gainsbourg's love for puns – another example of which is Beau oui comme Bowie, a song he gave to Isabelle Adjani.

Film work[link]

In 1960 Gainsbourg co-starred with Rhonda Fleming in the Italian film, La Rivolta Degli Schiavi "The Revolt of The Slaves" as Corvino, the Roman Emperor Massimiano's evil henchman.

During his career, he wrote the soundtracks for more than 40 films. In 1996, he received a posthumous César Award for Best Music Written for a Film for Élisa, along with Zbigniew Preisner and Michel Colombier.

He directed four movies: Je t'aime... moi non plus, Équateur, Charlotte For Ever and Stan The Flasher.

He made a brief appearance with Jane Birkin in 1980 in Egon Schiele Exzess und Bestrafung, a film by Herbert Vesely, and also starred at "Les Chemins de Katmandou", with Jane Birkin.

Writing[link]

Gainsbourg wrote a novel entitled Evguénie Sokolov.^[19]

Death and legacy[link]

Serge, Olga and Joseph Gainsbourg's grave

Gainsbourg died on 2 March 1991 of a heart attack. He was buried in the Jewish lot of the Montparnasse Cemetery, in Paris. His funeral brought Paris to a standstill, and French President François Mitterrand said of him, "He was our Baudelaire, our Apollinaire... He elevated the song to the level of art."^[20] His home at the well-known address rue de Verneuil is still covered in graffiti and poems.

Since his death, Gainsbourg's music has reached legendary stature in France. His lyrical brilliance in French has left an extraordinary legacy. His music, always progressive, covered many styles: jazz, ballads, mambo, lounge, reggae, pop (including adult contemporary pop, kitsch pop, yé-yé pop, '80s pop, pop-art pop, prog pop, space-age pop, psychedelic pop, and erotic pop), funk, disco, calypso, Africana, bossa nova, and rock and roll. He has gained a following in the English-speaking world with many non-mainstream artists finding his arrangements highly influential.

One of the most frequent interpreters of Gainsbourg's songs was British singer Petula Clark, whose success in France was propelled by her recordings of his tunes. In 2003, she wrote and recorded La Chanson de Gainsbourg as a tribute to the composer of some of her biggest hits.

His lyrics are collected in the volume Dernières nouvelles des étoiles.

Film biopic[link]

A feature film titled Gainsbourg (Vie héroïque) was released in France in January 2010, which is based on the graphic novel by the writer-director of the film, Joann Sfar. Gainsbourg is portrayed by Eric Elmosnino and Kacey Mottet Klein.

Covers and tributes[link]

• In 1964, Gainsbourg himself did covers of Babatunde Olatunji's drum-heavy tunes "Kiyakiya (Why Do You Run Away?)", "Akiwowo (Chant to the Trainman)" and "Jin-go-lo-ba" which are featured on Olatunji's acclaimed Drums of Passion LP (1959). They appeared, with new French lyrics but otherwise identical in rhythm, melody and overall sound, as "Joanna", "New York – U.S.A." and "Marabout", respectively, on the "Gainsbourg Percussions" album – without any credit given to Olatunji.
• One of the celebrating events of the Year of France in Brazil was a concert in September 2009 called "Gainsbourg Imperial", an event celebrating the music of Serge Gainsbourg. It was performed by Brazilian Samba Big Band Orquestra Imperial, having French maestro Jean-Claude Vannier, English singer Jane Birkin and Brazilian musician and singer Caetano Veloso as special guests.
• Steve Wynn (formerly of The Dream Syndicate) recorded "Bonnie and Clyde" as a duet with Johnette Napolitano of Concrete Blonde on his 1992 solo album, Dazzling Display.
• Belinda Carlisle covered "Bonnie and Clyde" and "Contact" on her 2007 French language album Voila.
• Giddle & Boyd (Giddle Partridge and Boyd Rice) covered "Bonnie and Clyde" on their 2008 EP Going Steady with Peggy Moffitt.
• The first English-language version of a Gainsbourg song was Dionne Warwick's 1965 version of "Mamadou".
• Australian rock musician Mick Harvey released two CDs of Gainsbourg's songs translated into English. Of particular note is "To All the Lucky Kids (Aux Enfants De La Chance)" on Pink Elephants.
• Gainsbourg's song "Bonnie and Clyde" is featured in the burlesque show scene of Rush Hour 3 and in the romantic film Laurel Canyon starring Christian Bale and Kate Beckinsale.
• American indie rock band Luna included a cover of "Bonnie and Clyde" as a hidden track on their 1995 album Penthouse, and their 2001 Luna Live album features a live performance of the song.
• American artist Angel Corpus Christi merged "Je t'aime ... moi non plus" with Lou Reed's "I Wanna Boogie With You" and recorded it as a duet with Dean Wareham.
• Swedish band Sambassadeur covers "La Chanson de Prevert" in French on their self-titled debut album.
• Okkervil River covers "Je suis venu te dire que je m'en vais" in English ("I Came Here to Say I'm Going Away").
• Arcade Fire covered "Poupée de cire, poupée de Son" and also released it as a split 7" single with LCD Soundsystem.
• Beirut often covers "La Javanaise" in their live sets and it is included in the live album Live at the Music Hall of Williamsburg (2009).
• Australian pop singer-songwriter Kylie Minogue extensively sampled his duet with Brigitte Bardot "Bonnie and Clyde" on the song "Sensitized" off her 2007 album X. In 2003, she sampled "Je t'aime... moi non plus" in a modified version of her song "Breathe" (which originally did not contain any samples) for a special one-off live performance at the Hammersmith Apollo in promotion of her album Body Language.
• French rapper MC Solaar sampled "Bonnie and Clyde" in his song "Nouveau Western" on his 1994 album Prose Combat. Renegade Soundwave released "Renegade Soundwave" with the same sample at the same time.
• Irish musician David Holmes covered "Cargo Culte" in his song "Don't Die Just Yet" on his 1997 album Let's Get Killed.
• American emcee Princess Superstar sampled the melody of the songs "Melody" and "Cargo Culte" in the song "You Get Mad At Napster" on her album Princess Superstar Is.
• The Welsh comedy-rap band Goldie Lookin Chain extensively sampled the title track of Gainsbourg's Cannabis film soundtrack for their single "Your Missus Is a Nutter".
• In 1997 Tzadik records released a tribute to Gainsbourg in their Great Jewish Composers series. The album includes covers by John Zorn, Medeski, Martin and Wood, Mike Patton, Fred Frith, Ikue Mori, Marc Ribot and Cyro Baptista.
• On the HBO show Flight of the Conchords, the sequence for the song "A Kiss is Not a Contract" is a tribute to Gainsbourg's video for "Ballade de Melody Nelson".
• The track "Serge" on The Herbaliser's album Take London is about a chance encounter with Gainsbourg 3 days before his death.
• Black Grape's "A Big Day in the North" is based on a sample taken from Initials B.B. and also features samples from "Ford Mustang".
• In the film High Fidelity, when a pair of punks steals from Rob Gordon's record store, one of the things they stole was a Serge Gainsbourg record.
• American hip hop duo The Beatnuts sampled "Melody" on their track "Superbad" off their album The Beatnuts LP.
• Nick Cave sang a duet of "I love you nor do I" with his long time girlfriend Anita Lane. So did Barry Adamson with Anita in 1993 on his release The Negro inside Me with "Je t'aime ... Moi non plus".
• Trumpet player Erik Truffaz did a jazz remake of "Je t'aime, moi non plus".
• Australian psychedelic band Tame Impala covered "Bonnie and Clyde" in their 2011 tour of Europe.
• American hip hop band De La Soul sampled "Les Oubliettes" and "En Melody" on their second album De La Soul Is Dead released in 1991.
• In 2005, the album Monsieur Gainsbourg Revisited was released by Virgin Records. The album consisted of specially-recorded English-language cover versions of Gainsbourg's songs, recorded by artists as diverse as Franz Ferdinand, Portishead, Placebo, Marc Almond, Michael Stipe, Cat Power, Karen Elson, Jarvis Cocker, Kid Loco, Faultline, Françoise Hardy, Tricky, Marianne Faithfull, Sly and Robbie, Gonzales, Feist, Dani, Trash Palace, The Rakes, The Kills, Carla Bruni, James Iha, Kazu Makino, Nina Persson and Nathan Larson.
• Brazilian musician and former Titãs member Ciro Pessoa wrote a song in honor of Gainsbourg, named "Até os Anos 70" ("To the 1970s"). It is present in his 2003 album No Meio da Chuva Eu Grito "Help".

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

• 1958: Du chant à la une
• 1959: N° 2
• 1961: L'Étonnant Serge Gainsbourg
• 1962: N° 4
• 1963: Confidentiel
• 1964: Percussions
• 1967: Anna
• 1968: Serge Gainsbourg – Brigitte Bardot: Bonnie & Clyde (compilation)
• 1968: Initials B.B.
• 1969: Jane Birkin/Serge Gainsbourg
• 1970: Cannabis (instrumental)
• 1971: Histoire de Melody Nelson
• 1973: Vu de l'extérieur
• 1975: Rock around the bunker
• 1976: Je t'aime... moi non plus – Ballade de Johnny-Jane (instrumental)
• 1976: L'Homme à la tête de chou
• 1977: Madame Claude
• 1977: Goodbye Emmanuelle (instrumental)
• 1979: Aux armes et cætera
• 1980: Je vous aime (only 3 pieces sung by Gainsbourg)
• 1980: Enregistrement public au Théâtre Le Palace (live)
• 1981: Mauvaises nouvelles des étoiles
• 1984: Love On The Beat
• 1986: Live (Casino de Paris)
• 1986: Putain de film ! – B.O.F. Tenue de soirée
• 1987: You're Under Arrest
• 1988: Le Zénith de Gainsbourg (live)
• 1994: De Gainsbourg à Gainsbarre (11 CD box set)

Tribute albums and posthumous releases[link]

• 1997: Great Jewish Music: Serge Gainsbourg (tribute album)
• 1997: Comic Strip
• 2001: Gainsbourg Forever (integral box set)
• 2001: Le Cinéma de Gainsbourg (box set)
• 2001: I Love Serge: Electronicagainsbourg (remix album)
• 2005: Monsieur Gainsbourg Revisited (tribute album)
• 2008: Classé X (compilation)
• 2011: Best Of Gainsbourg: Comme Un Boomerang (2 CD compilation)

Singles[link]

• "Black Trombone" (1962)
• "La Javanaise" (1963)
• "Couleur Café" (1964)
• "New York U.S.A." (1964)
• "Les Sucettes" (1966)
• "Hold Up" (1967)
• "Initials B.B." (1967)
• "Bonnie and Clyde" (1968) (Brigitte Bardot et Serge Gainsbourg)
• "Je t'aime... moi non plus" (1969) (Jane Birkin avec Serge Gainsbourg)
• "La Décadanse" (1971) (Jane Birkin et Serge Gainsbourg)
• "Je suis venu te dire que je m'en vais" (1973)
• "L'Homme à Tête de Chou" (1976)
• "Marilou" (1976)
• "Sea, Sex and Sun" (1978)
• "Aux armes et caetera" (1979)
• "Lola Rastaquouère" (1979)
• "Dieu fumeur de havanes" (1980) (Catherine Deneuve & Serge Gainsbourg)
• "Sorry Angel" (1984)
• "Lemon Incest" (1985) (Charlotte & Gainsbourg)
• "You're Under Arrest" (1987)
• "Mon légionnaire" (1987)
• "Requiem pour un con" (1991)
• "Élisa" (1995)
• "La Noyée"

Singles written for other artists

• "Les Incorruptibles" (1965) – Petula Clark
• "Poupée de cire, poupée de son" (1965) – France Gall
• "Baby Pop" (1966) – France Gall
• "Comment te dire adieu?" (1968) – Françoise Hardy
• "Dis-lui toi que je t'aime" (1990) – Vanessa Paradis
• "White and Black Blues" (1990) – Joëlle Ursull (lyrics by Gainsbourg)
• "La Gadoue" (1995) – Jane Birkin

Notes[link]

References[link]

• Serge Gainsbourg: View From The Exterior by Alan Clayson (1998). Sanctuary. ISBN 978-1-86074-222-4
• Serge Gainsbourg: A Fistful of Gitanes by Sylvie Simmons (2002). Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-81183-8

External links[link]

• Serge Gainsbourg official site (French)
• Serge Gainsbourg at the Internet Movie Database
• Serge Gainsbourg discography at Discogs
• The lyrics of Serge Gainsbourg in English

Jello Biafra
Jello Biafra at Fusion Festival 2010
Background information
Birth name	Eric Reed Boucher
Also known as	Occupant, Count Ringworm, Osama McDonald
Born	(1958-06-17) June 17, 1958 (age 54) Boulder, Colorado, U.S.
Genres	Punk rock, spoken word
Occupations	Musician, speaker, record label director, Green Party politician
Instruments	Vocals
Years active	1976–present
Labels	Alternative Tentacles
Associated acts	Dead Kennedys, The Melvins, No WTO Combo, D.O.A., Lard, Al Jourgensen, Ministry, Pennywise, The Offspring, Pansy Division, Leftöver Crack, Nomeansno, Sepultura, Tool, Revolting Cocks, Napalm Death, Brujeria, Mojo Nixon, 1000 Homo DJs, Métal Urbain, Body Count, Tumor Circus, Butthole Surfers, Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine
Website	AlternativeTentacles.com Alternative Tentacles myspace

Jello Biafra (born Eric Reed Boucher; June 17, 1958, Boulder, Colorado) is an American musician, spoken word artist and leading figure of the Green Party of the United States. Biafra first gained attention as the lead singer and songwriter for San Francisco punk rock band Dead Kennedys. After he left the band, he took over the influential independent record label Alternative Tentacles, which he had co-founded in 1979 with Dead Kennedys bandmate East Bay Ray. Although now focused primarily on spoken word, he has continued as a musician in numerous collaborations.

Politically, Biafra is a member of the Green Party of the United States^[1] and actively supports various political causes. He ran for the party's Presidential nomination in 2000, finishing second to Ralph Nader.^[2] He is a staunch believer in free society, which is not to be confused with libertarianism or voluntary society (voluntaryism), who utilizes shock value and^[1] advocates direct action and pranksterism in the name of political causes. Biafra is known to use absurdist media tactics, in the leftist tradition of the Yippies, to highlight issues of civil rights and social justice.

Early life[link]

Eric Boucher was born in Boulder, Colorado, to parents Stanley Boucher, a psychiatric social worker and poet, and Virginia Boucher, a librarian, who worked two cubicles away from Ed Sauer.^{[citation needed]} He also had a sister, Julie J. Boucher, the Associate Director of the Library Research Service at the Colorado State Library (who died in a mountain-climbing accident on October 12, 1996).^[3] As a child, Eric Boucher developed an interest in international politics that was encouraged by his parents. An avid news watcher, one of his earliest memories was of the John F. Kennedy assassination.^[4] Biafra says he has been a fan of rock music since first hearing it in 1965, when his parents accidentally tuned in to a rock radio station. During the 1970s, he became involved in activism in reaction to several events of the era including the Vietnam War, the Chicago 7 trial, and the Kent State shootings.^[5]

He began his career in music in January 1977 as a roadie for the punk rock band The Ravers (who later changed their name to The Nails), soon joining his friend John Greenway in a band called The Healers. The Healers became infamous locally for their mainly improvised lyrics and avant garde music. In the autumn of that year, he began attending the University of California, Santa Cruz.^[6] He studied acting and the history of Paraguay before leaving to become involved in San Francisco, California's punk scene.

Musical career[link]

The Dead Kennedys[link]

In June 1978, he responded to an advertisement placed in a store by guitarist East Bay Ray, stating "Guitarist wants to form punk band",^[7] and together they formed the Dead Kennedys. He began performing with the band under the stage name Occupant,^{[citation needed]} but soon began to use his current stage name, a combination of the brand name Jell-O and the short-lived African state Biafra. Biafra wrote the band's lyrics, most of which were political in nature and displayed a sardonic, sometimes absurdist, sense of humor despite their serious subject matter. In the tradition of UK anarcho-punk bands like Crass, the Dead Kennedys were one of the first US punk bands to write politically-themed songs. The lyrics Biafra wrote helped popularize the use of humorous lyrics in hardcore. Biafra cites Joey Ramone as the inspiration for his use of humor in his songs (as well as being the musician who made him interested in punk rock), noting in particular songs by The Ramones such as "Beat on the Brat" and "Now I Wanna Sniff Some Glue".^[8]

Biafra initially attempted to compose music on guitar, but his lack of experience on the instrument and his own admission of being "a fumbler with my hands" led Dead Kennedys bassist Klaus Flouride to suggest that Biafra simply sing the parts he envisioned to the band.^[9] Biafra sang his riffs and melodies into a tape recorder, which he brought to the band's rehearsal and/or recording sessions. This later became a problem when the other members of the Dead Kennedys sued Biafra over royalties and publishing rights.^{[clarification needed]} By all accounts, including his own, Biafra is not a conventionally-skilled musician,^[9] though he and his collaborators (Joey Shithead of D.O.A. in particular) attest that he is a skilled composer^[10] and his work, particularly with the Dead Kennedys, is highly respected by punk-oriented critics and fans.

	Holiday in Cambodia noicon "Holiday in Cambodia" by the Dead Kennedys from Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables
Problems listening to this file? See media help.

Jello Biafra with the Dead Kennedys

Biafra's first popular song was the first single by the Dead Kennedys, "California Über Alles". The song, which spoofed California governor Jerry Brown, was the first of many political songs by the group and Biafra. The song's popularity resulted in its being covered by other musicians, such as The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy (who rewrote the lyrics to parody Pete Wilson), John Linnell of They Might Be Giants and Six Feet Under on their Graveyard Classics album of cover versions. Not long after, the Dead Kennedys had a second and bigger hit with "Holiday in Cambodia" from their debut album Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables. Allmusic cites this song as "possibly the most successful single of the American hardcore scene"^[11] and Biafra counts it as his personal favorite Dead Kennedys song.^[12] Minor hits from the album included "Kill the Poor" (about potential abuse of the then-new neutron bomb) and a satirical cover of Elvis Presley's "Viva Las Vegas".

The Dead Kennedys received some controversy in the spring of 1981 over the single "Too Drunk to Fuck". The song became a big hit in Britain, and the BBC feared that it would manage to be a big enough hit to appear among the top 30 songs on the national charts, requiring a mention on Top of the Pops. However, the single peaked at number 31 in the charts.^[5]

Later albums also contained memorable songs, but with less popularity than the earlier ones. The EP In God We Trust, Inc. contained the song "Nazi Punks Fuck Off!" as well as "We've Got A Bigger Problem Now", a rewritten version of "California Über Alles" about Ronald Reagan. Punk musician and scholar Vic Bondi considers the latter song to be the song that "defined the lyrical agenda of much of hardcore music, and represented its break with punk".^[13] The band's most controversial album, Frankenchrist, brought with it the song "MTV Get Off the Air", which accused MTV of promoting poor quality music and sedating the public. The album also contained a controversial poster by Swiss surrealist artist H. R. Giger entitled Penis Landscape.

The Dead Kennedys toured widely during their career, starting in the late 1970s. They began playing mostly at southern Californian clubs (most notably the Whisky a Go Go), but eventually they moved to major clubs across the country, including CBGB in New York. Later, they played to larger audiences such as at the 1980 Bay Area Music Awards (where they played the notorious "Pull My Strings" for the only time), and headlined the 1983 Rock Against Reagan festival.^[14]

On May 7, 1994, people who believed Biafra was a "sell out" attacked him at the 924 Gilman Street club in Berkeley, California. Biafra claims that he was attacked by a man nicknamed Cretin, who crashed into him while moshing. The crash injured Biafra's leg, causing an argument between the two men. During the argument, Cretin pushed Biafra to the floor and five or six friends of Cretin assaulted Biafra while he was down, yelling "Sellout rock star, kick him", and attempting to pull out his hair.^[15] Biafra was later hospitalized with serious injuries.^[16] The attack derailed Biafra's plans for both a Canadian spoken-word tour and an accompanying album, and the production of Pure Chewing Satisfaction was halted. However, Biafra returned to the Gilman club a few months after the incident to perform a spoken-word performance as an act of reconciliation with the club.^[17]

Biafra has been a prominent figure of the Californian punk scene and was one of the founding members of the San Francisco hardcore punk community. Many later hardcore bands have cited the Dead Kennedys as a major influence.^[18] Hardcore punk author Steven Blush describes Biafra as hardcore's "biggest star" who was a "powerful presence whose political insurgence and rabid fandom made him the father figure of a burgeoning subculture [and an] inspirational force [who] could also be a real prick... Biafra was a visionary, incendiary [performer]."^[19]

After the Dead Kennedys disbanded, Biafra's new songs were recorded with other bands, and he released only spoken word albums as solo projects. These collaborations had less popularity than Biafra's earlier work. However, his song "That's Progress", originally recorded with D.O.A. for the album Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors, received considerable exposure when it appeared on the album Rock Against Bush, Vol. 1.

Obscenity prosecution[link]

In April 1986, police officers raided his house in response to complaints by the Parents Music Resource Center (PMRC).^[20] In June 1986, L.A. deputy city attorney Michael Guarino, working under City Attorney James Hahn, brought Biafra to trial in Los Angeles for distributing "harmful material to minors" in the Dead Kennedys album Frankenchrist.^[21] In actuality, the dispute was about neither the music nor the lyrics from the album, but rather the print of the H. R. Giger poster Landscape XX (Penis Landscape) included with the album. Biafra believes the trial was politically motivated; it was often reported that the PMRC took Biafra to court as a cost-effective way of sending a message out to other musicians with content considered offensive in their music.^[22]

Music author Reebee Garofalo argued that Biafra and Alternative Tentacles may have been targeted because the label was a "small, self-managed and self-supported company that could ill afford a protracted legal battle."^[23] Facing the possible sentence of a year in jail and a $2000 fine, Biafra, Dirk Dirksen, and Suzanne Stefanac founded the No More Censorship Defense Fund, a benefit made up of several punk rock bands, to help pay for his legal fees, which neither he nor his record label could afford. The jury deadlocked 5 to 7 in favor of acquittal, prompting a mistrial; despite a motion to re-try the case, the judge ordered all charges dropped.^{[citation needed]} The Dead Kennedys disbanded during the trial, in December 1986, due to the mounting legal costs; in the wake of their disbandment, Biafra made a career of his spoken word performances. His early spoken word albums focused heavily on the trial (especially in High Priest of Harmful Matter), which made him renowned for his anti-censorship stance.

Biafra has a cameo role in the 1988 film Tapeheads. He plays an FBI agent who arrests the two protagonists (played by Tim Robbins and John Cusack). Whilst arresting them his character asks "Remember what we did to Jello Biafra?" lampooning the obscenity prosecution.

On March 25, 2005, Biafra appeared on the U.S. radio program This American Life, "Episode 285: Know Your Enemy", which featured a phone call between Jello Biafra and Michael Guarino, the prosecutor in the Frankenchrist trial. The episode was about Guarino's change of opinion and the reconciliation between Guarino and Biafra.

Lawsuit by former band members and reunion activities[link]

In October 1998, former members of the Dead Kennedys sued Biafra for nonpayment of royalties. According to Biafra, the suit resulted from his refusal to allow one of the band's most well known singles, "Holiday in Cambodia", to be used in a commercial for Levi's Dockers; Biafra opposes Levi's because he believes that they use unfair business practices and sweatshop labor.^[24] The three former members claimed that their motive had nothing to do with advertising, and that they had filed suit because Biafra had denied them royalties and failed to promote their albums. Biafra maintained that he had never denied them royalties, and that he himself had not even received royalties for rereleases of their albums or "posthumous" live albums which had been licensed to other labels by the Decay Music partnership. Decay Music denied this charge and have posted what they say are his cashed royalty checks.^[25] Biafra also complained about the songwriting credits in new reissues and archival live albums of songs that Biafra claims he composed himself to the entire band. In May 2000, a jury found Biafra liable for fraud and malice and ordered him to pay $200,000, including $20,000 in punitive damages, to the band members.^[26] After an appeal by Biafra’s lawyers, in June 2003, the California Court of Appeal unanimously upheld all the conditions of the 2000 verdict against Biafra and Alternative Tentacles.^[27]

The other band members reunited in 2001 without Biafra under the name of "DK Kennedys" (later returning to the original band name), replacing Biafra first with Brandon Cruz, then with Jeff Penalty, and finally with Ron "Skip" Greer. Biafra himself has openly criticized his former bandmates' legal tactics and reunion tours, most notably in the song "Those Dumb Punk Kids (Will Buy Anything)", which he performed with The Melvins.

Other bands[link]

In 1988, Biafra, with Al Jourgensen and Paul Barker of the band Ministry, and Jeff Ward, formed Lard. The band became yet another side project for Ministry, with Biafra providing vocals and lyrics. According to a March 2009 interview with Jourgensen, he and Biafra are working on a new Lard album, which is being recorded in Jourgensen's El Paso studio.^[28] While working on the film Terminal City Ricochet in 1989, Biafra did a song for the film's soundtrack with D.O.A.. As a result, Biafra worked with D.O.A. on the album Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors. Biafra also worked with Nomeansno on the soundtrack, which led to their collaboration on the album The Sky Is Falling and I Want My Mommy the following year. Biafra also provided lyrics for the song "Biotech is Godzilla" for Sepultura's 1993 album Chaos A.D..

In 1999, Biafra and other members of the anti-globalization movement protested the WTO Meeting of 1999 in Seattle. Along with other prominent West Coast musicians, he formed the short-lived band the No WTO Combo to help promote the movement's cause. The band was originally scheduled to play during the protest, but the performance was canceled due to riots. The band performed a short set the following night at the Showbox in downtown Seattle (outside the designated area), along with the hiphop group Spearhead. No WTO Combo later released a CD of recordings from the concert, entitled Live from the Battle in Seattle.

As of late 2005, Biafra was performing with the band The Melvins under the name "Jello Biafra and the Melvins", though fans sometimes refer to them as "The Jelvins." Together they have released two albums, and have been working on material for a third collaborative release, much of which was premiered live at two concerts at the Great American Music Hall in San Francisco during an event called Biafra Five-O, commemorating Biafra's 50th birthday, the 30th anniversary of the founding of the Dead Kennedys, and the beginning of legalized same-sex marriage in California. Biafra is also working with a new band known as Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine, which includes Ralph Spight of Victims Family on guitar and Billy Gould of Faith No More on bass. This group debuted during Biafra Five-O.

In 2011, Biafra appeared in a singular concert event with an all-star cast of Southern musicians including members from Cowboy Mouth, Dash Rip Rock, Mojo Nixon and Down entitled, "Jello Biafra and the New Orleans Raunch & Soul All Stars" who performed an array of classic Soul covers to a packed house at the 12-Bar in New Orleans, Louisiana.^[29]

Alternative Tentacles[link]

In June 1979, Biafra co-founded the record label Alternative Tentacles, with which the Dead Kennedys released their first single, "California Über Alles".^[30] The label was created to allow the band to release albums without having to deal with pressure from major labels to change their music (although the major labels were not willing to sign the band due to their songs being deemed too controversial).^[31] After dealing with Cherry Red in the UK and IRS Records in the US for their first album Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables, the band released all later albums (and later pressings of Fresh Fruit) on Alternative Tentacles (with the exception of live albums released after the band's break-up, which the other band members compiled from recordings in the band partnership's vaults without Biafra's input or endorsement)^{[citation needed]}. Biafra has been the owner of the company ever since its founding, though he does not receive a salary for his position (Biafra has referred to his position in the company as "absentee thoughtlord").^[12]

Biafra is an ardent collector of unusual vinyl records of all kinds, from 1950s and 1960s ethno-pop recordings by the likes of Les Baxter and Esquivel to vanity pressings that have circulated regionally, to German crooner Heino; he cites his always growing collection as one of his biggest musical influences. In 1993 he gave an interview to RE/Search Publications for their second Incredibly Strange Music book focusing primarily on these records. His heavy interest in such recordings (often categorized as outsider music) eventually led to his discovery of the prolific (and schizophrenic) singer/songwriter/artist Wesley Willis, whom he signed to Alternative Tentacles in 1994, preceding Willis' major label deal with American Recordings. His collection grew so large that on October 1, 2005, Biafra donated a portion of his collection to an annual yard sale co-promoted by Alternative Tentacles and held at their warehouse in Emeryville, California.^[32]

In 2006, along with Alternative Tentacles employee and The Frisk lead singer Jesse Luscious, Biafra began co-hosting The Alternative Tentacles Batcast, a downloadable podcast hosted by alternativetentacles.com. The show primarily focuses on interviews with artists and bands that are currently signed to the Alternative Tentacles label, although there are also occasional episodes where Biafra devoted the show to answering fan questions.

Spoken word[link]

Biafra in an appearance in Aarau, Switzerland

Biafra first became a spoken word artist in January 1986, starting with a performance at University of California, Los Angeles. In his performance he combined his sense of humor with his political beliefs, much in the same way that he did with the lyrics to his songs. Biafra has held this career since, but did not begin recording spoken word records until after the disbanding of the Dead Kennedys.

His ninth spoken word album, In the Grip of Official Treason, was released in October 2006.

Biafra was also featured in the British band Pitchshifter's song As Seen on TV reciting the words of dystopian futuristic radio advertisements.

Politics[link]

Mayoral campaign[link]

In the autumn of 1979, Biafra ran for mayor of San Francisco, using the Jell-O ad campaign catchphrase, "There's always room for Jello", as his campaign slogan. Having entered the race before creating a campaign platform, Biafra later wrote his platform on a napkin while attending a Pere Ubu concert where Dead Kennedy's drummer Ted told Biafra, "Biafra, you have such a big mouth that you should run for Mayor." As he campaigned, Biafra wore campaign T-shirts from his opponent Quentin Kopp's previous campaign and at one point vacuumed leaves off the front lawn of another opponent, current U.S. Senator Dianne Feinstein, to mock her publicity stunt of sweeping streets in downtown San Francisco for a few hours. He also made a whistlestop campaign tour along the BART line. Supporters committed equally odd actions; two well known signs held by supporters said "If he doesn't win I'll kill myself" and "What if he does win?"^[34]

In San Francisco any individual could legally run for mayor if a petition was signed by 1500 people or pay $1500. Biafra paid $900 and got signatures over time and eventually became a legal candidate, meaning he received statements put in voters pamphlets and equal news coverage.

His platform included unconventional points such as forcing businessmen to wear clown suits within city limits, erecting statues of Dan White (who assassinated Mayor George Moscone and City Supervisor Harvey Milk in 1978) all over town and allowing the parks department to sell eggs and tomatoes with which people could pelt them, hiring out of job workers, due to a tax initiative, to become pan handlers in wealthy neighborhoods (one being where Diannne Feinstein lives), and a citywide ban on cars (although the latter point was not considered completely outlandish by many voters at the time, as the city was suffering from serious pollution).^[31] Biafra has expressed irritation that these parts of his platform attained such notoriety, preferring instead to be remembered for serious proposals such as legalizing squatting in vacant, tax-delinquent buildings and requiring police officers to keep their jobs by running for election voted by the people of the neighborhoods they patrol.^[34]

He finished fourth out of a field of ten, receiving 3.79% of the vote (6,591 votes); the election ended in a runoff that did not involve him (Feinstein was declared the winner).

Presidential campaign[link]

Biafra discussing politics

In 2000, the New York State Green Party drafted Biafra as a candidate for the Green Party presidential nomination, and a few supporters were elected to the party's nominating convention in Denver, Colorado. Biafra chose death row inmate Mumia Abu-Jamal as his running mate. Despite the fact that his address to the convention was positively received, the party overwhelmingly chose Ralph Nader as the presidential candidate with 295 of the 319 delegate votes. Biafra finished in a second place tie with Stephen Gaskin; both received 10 votes.

Biafra, along with a camera crew (dubbed by Biafra as "The Camcorder Truth Jihad"), later reported for the Independent Media Center at the Republican and Democratic conventions. Biafra detailed these events in his album Become The Media, which has resulted in his being credited with coining the slogan "Don't hate the media, become the media". Indymedia and related alternative media often use this line, or the now more apt "Don't hate the media, be the media."

Post-2000[link]

After losing the 2000 nomination, Jello became highly active in Ralph Nader's presidential campaign, as well as in 2004 and 2008.

During the 2008 campaign Jello played at rallies^[35] and answered questions for journalists in support of Ralph Nader. After Barack Obama won the general election, Jello wrote an open letter making suggestions on how to run his term as president.^[36]

Boycott of Israel[link]

In the summer of 2011 Jello Biafra and his band were scheduled to play at the Barby Club in Tel Aviv. They came under heavy pressure by the pro-Palestinian Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions (BDS) campaign, and finally decided to cancel the gig – after a debate which according to Biafra "deeply tore at the fabric of our band (,,,) This whole controversy has been one of the most intense situations of my life - and I thrive on intense situations". Biafra then decided to travel to Israel and the Palestinian Occupied Territories, at his own expense, and talk with Israeli and Palestinian activists as well as with fans disappointed at his cancellation. In the article stating his conclusions he wrote: "I will not perform in Israel unless it is a pro-human rights, anti-occupation event that does not violate the spirit of the boycott. Each artist must decide this for themselves. I am staying away for now, but am also really creeped out by the attitudes of some of the boycott hardliners, and hope someday to find a way to contribute something positive here. I will not march or sign on with anyone who is more interested in making threats than making friends.

"I do not regret speaking out. It has been quite a learning experience along the way. I can't very well shut up now. It's as if I've been covered with someone else's chewing gum, and I'll never be able to scrape it all off. As my friend said, "it gets in your blood" - and it has definitely gotten in mine.

I loved Tel Aviv, and Jerusalem was hardly the "dead city" at night that some Tel Aviv hipsters claim it is. I want to go back. I want to play. But I, too, am as sickened as the next person that not all the cool people I met in the West Bank can cross into Israel and enjoy Tel Aviv - or even worship in Jerusalem. That unnecessary checkpoints prevent them from reaching their farms, schools or even hospitals. Forty-four years of brutal occupation has done no more to solve the problem than the United States has accomplished in its War on Drugs. You can't just keep almost four million people in prison." ^[37]

Personal life[link]

Biafra married Therese Soder, aka Ninotchka, lead singer of San Francisco-area punk band The Situations on October 31, 1981.^[38] The wedding was conducted by Flipper vocalist/bassist Bruce Loose, who became a Universal Life Church minister just to conduct the ceremony, which took place in a graveyard.^[39] The wedding reception, which members of Flipper, Black Flag, and D.O.A. attended, was held at director Joe Rees' Target Video studios.^[40] The marriage ended in 1986.

Musical samples[link]

	I Wanna Be A Drug Sniffing Dog noicon "I Wanna Be A Drug Sniffing Dog" by Lard from Pure Chewing Satisfaction Ban Everything noicon "Ban Everything" by Jello Biafra from Beyond the Valley of the Gift Police Yuppie Cadillac noicon "Yuppie Cadillac" by Jello Biafra and the Melvins from Never Breathe What You Can't See Full mp3 file from Alternative Tentacles' website
Problems listening to these files? See media help.

Partial discography[link]

For a more complete list, see the Jello Biafra discography.

Dead Kennedys[link]

• 1980 - Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables
• 1981 - In God We Trust, Inc.
• 1982 - Plastic Surgery Disasters
• 1985 - Frankenchrist
• 1986 - Bedtime for Democracy
• 1987 - Give Me Convenience OR Give Me Death

Spoken word[link]

• 1987 - No More Cocoons
• 1989 - High Priest of Harmful Matter: Tales From the Trial
• 1991 - I Blow Minds for a Living
• 1994 - Beyond the Valley of the Gift Police
• 1998 - If Evolution Is Outlawed, Only Outlaws Will Evolve
• 2000 - Become the Media
• 2002 - The Big Ka-Boom, Pt. 1
• 2002 - Machine Gun in the Clown's Hand
• 2006 - In the Grip of Official Treason

Lard[link]

• 1989 - The Power of Lard
• 1990 - I Am Your Clock
• 1990 - The Last Temptation of Reid
• 1997 - Pure Chewing Satisfaction
• 2000 - 70's Rock Must Die

Jello Biafra and the Guantanamo School of Medicine[link]

• 2009 - The Audacity of Hype
• 2011 - Enhanced Methods of Questioning

Collaborations[link]

• 1990 - Supernaut with 1000 Homo DJs - "Hey Asshole" (credited as Count Ringworm)
• 1990 - Last Scream of the Missing Neighbors with D.O.A.
• 1990 - In Case You Didn't Feel Like Showing Up by Ministry (appears on the video release where he recites his own version of the Pledge of Allegiance)
• 1991 - The Sky is Falling and I Want My Mommy with Nomeansno
• 1991 - Tumor Circus with Steel Pole Bath Tub by Tumor Circus
• 1992 - Body Count with Body Count - "Freedom of Speech"
• 1993 - Chaos A.D. with Sepultura - "Biotech Is Godzilla" (credited on the lyrics)
• 1994 - Prairie Home Invasion with Mojo Nixon
• 1995 - Raza Odiada with Brujeria - "Raza Odiada (Pito Wilson)" (as the voice of Pete Wilson)
• 1997 - Helter Skelter with The D.O.C. - "Secret Plan"
• 1997 - Ixnay on the Hombre with The Offspring - "Disclaimer"
• 1998 - Every Home a Prison with Coldcut
• 2000 - Deviant with Pitchshifter - "As Seen on T.V."
• 2000 - Live from the Battle in Seattle with No WTO Combo
• 2001 - Nation with Sepultura - "Politricks"
• 2004 - Never Breathe What You Can't See with The Melvins (credited on the inner sleeve as Osama McDonald)
• 2005 - The Code Is Red...Long Live the Code with Napalm Death - "The Great and the Good"
• 2005 - Sieg Howdy! with The Melvins (credited on the inner sleeve as J Lo)
• 2005 - 13 Ft. and Rising with Throw Rag - "Children of the Secret State"
• 2005 - Hell's Winter with Cage - "Grand Ol' Party Crash" (credited on the Cage as the voice of George W. Bush)
• 2006 - J'Irai Chier dans Ton Vomi with Métal Urbain
• 2006 - Cocked and Loaded with Revolting Cocks - "Dead End Streets" and "Viagra Culture"
  (credited on the inner sleeve as Jello Biafra as well as all of his former stage names including Occupant, Smegma Pigvomit, Osama McDonald, and J Lo)
• 2006 - Rio Grande Blood with Ministry - "Ass Clown"
• 2007 - Deadline with Leftöver Crack - "Baby-Punchers"
• 2008 - Everybody Make Some Noise! with The A.K.A.s
• 2009 - All Sewn Up: A Tribute to Patrik Fitzgerald with Motorpsycho - "Punch"
• 2009 - That's So Gay with Pansy Division - "Average Men"

Filmography[link]

• 1977 - This Is America, Pt. 2
• 1978 - Massacre at Central High
• 1981 - Urgh! A Music War
• 1983 - Anarchism in America
• 1986 - Lovedolls Superstar, directed by Dave Markey
• 1987 - Household Affairs, directed & filmed by Allen Ginsberg
• 1988 - Tapeheads, directed by Bill Fishman
• 1990 - Terminal City Ricochet
• 1991 - Highway 61, directed by Bruce McDonald
• 1994 - Skulhedface, directed by Melanie Mandl
• 1997 - Mary Jane's Not a Virgin Anymore, directed by Sarah Jacobson
• 1999 - The Widower
• 1999 - Virtue
• 2001 - Plaster Caster
• 2002 - Bikini Bandits, directed by Steve and Peter Grasse
• 2004 - Death and Texas
• 2004 - Punk: Attitude
• 2005 - We Jam Econo: The Story Of The Minutemen
• 2006 - Punk's Not Dead, directed by Susan Dynner
• 2006 - Whose War?, directed by Donald Farmer
• 2007 - American Drug War: The Last White Hope, directed by Kevin Booth
• 2008 - Nerdcore Rising, directed by Negin Farsad
• 2009 - Open Your Mouth And Say Mr.Chi Pig, directed by Sean Patrick Shaul
• 2010 - A Man Within, directed by Yony Leyser

References and footnotes[link]

External links[link]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Jello Biafra

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Jello Biafra

• Jello Biafra at the Internet Movie Database
• Jello Biafra at AllRovi
• Biafra's label Alternative Tentacles

Noam Chomsky

Noam Chomsky visiting Vancouver, British Columbia in 2004
Other names	Avram Noam Chomsky
Born	(1928-12-07) December 7, 1928 (age 83) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Era	20th / 21st-century philosophy
Region	Western philosophy
School	Generative linguistics, Analytic philosophy
Main interests	Linguistics · Psychology Philosophy of language Philosophy of mind Politics · Ethics
Notable ideas	Generative grammar, universal grammar, transformational grammar, government and binding, X-bar theory, Chomsky hierarchy, context-free grammar, principles and parameters, Minimalist program, language acquisition device, poverty of the stimulus, Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem, Chomsky Normal Form, propaganda model[1]
Influenced by Dwight Macdonald,[2] Pāṇini, Bertrand Russell,[3] Ludwig Wittgenstein, John Dewey, Mikhail Bakunin, Wilhelm von Humboldt, Adam Smith, Zellig Harris, Rudolf Rocker, Immanuel Kant, René Descartes, George Orwell, C. West Churchman, Alan Turing, W. V. O. Quine, Russian literature, Hebrew literature[4]
Influenced Colin McGinn, Edward Said, Christopher Hitchens, Steven Pinker, Peter Ludlow, Tanya Reinhart, Morris Halle, Gilbert Harman, Jerry Fodor, Howard Lasnik, Robert Fisk, Neil Smith, Ray Jackendoff, Norbert Hornstein, Jean Bricmont, Marc Hauser, Norman Finkelstein, Robert Lees, Hugo Chavez, Mark Baker, Julian Boyd, Ray C. Dougherty, Derek Bickerton, Amy Goodman, Michael Albert

Avram Noam Chomsky (/ˈnoʊm ˈtʃɒmski/; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher,^[5][6] cognitive scientist, historian, and activist. He is an Institute Professor and Professor (Emeritus) in the Department of Linguistics & Philosophy at MIT, where he has worked for over 50 years.^[7] Chomsky has been described as the "father of modern linguistics"^[8][9][10] and a major figure of analytic philosophy.^[5] His work has influenced fields such as computer science, mathematics, and psychology.^[11][12]

Ideologically identifying with anarcho-syndicalism and libertarian socialism, Chomsky is known for his critiques of U.S. foreign policy^[13] and contemporary capitalism,^[14] and he has been described as a prominent cultural figure.^[15] His media criticism has included Manufacturing Consent: The Political Economy of the Mass Media (1988), co-written with Edward S. Herman, an analysis articulating the propaganda model theory for examining the media.

According to the Arts and Humanities Citation Index in 1992, Chomsky was cited as a source more often than any other living scholar from 1980 to 1992, and was the eighth most cited source overall.^{[16][17][18][19]} Chomsky is the author of over 100 books.^[20] He is credited as the creator or co-creator of the Chomsky hierarchy, the universal grammar theory, and the Chomsky–Schützenberger theorem.

Life and career[link]

Chomsky was born on December 7, 1928, to Jewish parents in the affluent East Oak Lane neighborhood of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the elder son of noted professor of Hebrew at Gratz College and IWW (Industrial Workers of the World) member William Chomsky (1896–1977), a native of Ukraine. His mother, Elsie Chomsky (née Simonofsky)—a native of what is present-day Belarus—grew up in the United States and, unlike her husband, spoke "ordinary New York English". Chomsky's parents' first language was Yiddish,^[21] but Chomsky said it was "taboo" in his family to speak it.^[21] Although Chomsky's mother was part of the radical activism in the 1930s, he was influenced largely by his uncle who, having never passed 4th grade, owned a newsstand that acted as an "intellectual center [where] professors of this and that argu[ed] all night".^[22] Chomsky was influenced also by being a part of a Hebrew-based, Zionist organization, as well as by hanging around anarchist bookstores.^[22]

He describes his family as living in a sort of "Jewish ghetto", split into a "Yiddish side" and "Hebrew side", with his family aligning with the latter and bringing him up "immersed in Hebrew culture and literature", though he means more a "cultural ghetto than a physical one".^[23] Chomsky also describes tensions he experienced with Irish Catholics and German Catholics and anti-semitism in the mid-1930s. He recalls "beer parties" celebrating the fall of Paris to the Nazis.^[23] In a discussion of the irony of his staying in the 1980s in a Jesuit House in Central America, Chomsky explained that during his childhood, "We were the only Jewish family around. I grew up with a visceral fear of Catholics. They're the people who beat you up on your way to school. So I knew when they came out of that building down the street, which was the Jesuit school, they were raving anti-Semites. So childhood memories took a long time to overcome."^[24]

Chomsky remembers the first article he wrote was at age 10 while a student at Oak Lane Country Day School about the threat of the spread of fascism, following the fall of Barcelona in the Spanish Civil War. From the age of 12 or 13, he identified more fully with anarchist politics.^[25]

A graduate of Central High School of Philadelphia, Chomsky began studying philosophy and linguistics at the University of Pennsylvania in 1945, taking classes with philosophers such as C. West Churchman and Nelson Goodman and linguist Zellig Harris. Harris's teaching included his discovery of transformations as a mathematical analysis of language structure (mappings from one subset to another in the set of sentences). Chomsky referred to the morphophonemic rules in his 1951 master's thesis—The Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew—as transformations in the sense of Carnap's 1938 notion of rules of transformation (vs. rules of formation), and subsequently reinterpreted the notion of grammatical transformations in a very different way from Harris, as operations on the productions of a context-free grammar (derived from Post production systems). Harris's political views were instrumental in shaping those of Chomsky.^[26] Chomsky earned a BA in 1949 and an MA in 1951.

In 1949, he married linguist Carol Schatz. They remained married for 59 years until her death from cancer in December 2008.^[27] The couple had two daughters, Aviva (b. 1957) and Diane (b. 1960), and a son, Harry (b. 1967). With his wife Carol, Chomsky spent time in 1953 living in HaZore'a, a kibbutz in Israel. Asked in an interview whether the stay was "a disappointment" Chomsky replied, "No, I loved it"; however, he "couldn't stand the ideological atmosphere" and "fervent nationalism" in the early 1950s at the kibbutz, with Stalin being defended by many of the left-leaning kibbutz members who chose to paint a rosy image of future possibilities and contemporary realities in the USSR.^[28] Chomsky notes seeing many positive elements in the commune-like living of the kibbutz, in which parents and children lived together in separate houses, and when asked whether there were "lessons that we have learned from the history of the kibbutz", responded,^[29][30] that in "some respects, the kibbutzim came closer to the anarchist ideal than any other attempt that lasted for more than a very brief moment before destruction, or that was on anything like a similar scale. In these respects, I think they were extremely attractive and successful; apart from personal accident, I probably would have lived there myself – for how long, it's hard to guess."

Chomsky received his PhD in linguistics from the University of Pennsylvania in 1955. He conducted part of his doctoral research during four years at Harvard University as a Harvard Junior Fellow. In his doctoral thesis, he began to develop some of his linguistic ideas, elaborating on them in his 1957 book Syntactic Structures, one of his best-known works in linguistics.

Chomsky joined the staff of MIT in 1955 and in 1961 was appointed full professor in the Department of Modern Languages and Linguistics (now the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy). From 1966 to 1976 he held the Ferrari P. Ward Professorship of Modern Languages and Linguistics, and in 1976 he was appointed Institute Professor. As of 2010, Chomsky has taught at MIT continuously for 55 years.

In February 1967, Chomsky became one of the leading opponents of the Vietnam War with the publication of his essay, "The Responsibility of Intellectuals",^[31] in The New York Review of Books. This was followed by his 1969 book, American Power and the New Mandarins, a collection of essays that established him at the forefront of American dissent. His far-reaching criticisms of U.S. foreign policy and the legitimacy of U.S. power have raised controversy,^[32][33] and he is frequently sought out for his views by publications and news outlets internationally. In 1977 he delivered the Huizinga Lecture in Leiden, the Netherlands, under the title: Intellectuals and the State.

Chomsky has received death threats because of his criticisms of U.S. foreign policy.^[34] He was also on a list of planned targets created by Theodore Kaczynski, better known as the Unabomber; during the period that Kaczynski was at large, Chomsky had all of his mail checked for explosives.^[34] He states that he often receives undercover police protection, in particular while on the MIT campus, although he does not agree with the police protection.^[34]

Chomsky resides in Lexington, Massachusetts, and travels often, giving lectures on politics.

Thought[link]

Linguistics[link]

Chomskyan linguistics, beginning with his Syntactic Structures, a distillation of his Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955, 75), challenges structural linguistics and introduces transformational grammar. This approach takes utterances (sequences of words) to have a syntax characterized by a formal grammar; in particular, a context-free grammar extended with transformational rules.

Perhaps his most influential and time-tested contribution to the field is the claim that modeling knowledge of language using a formal grammar accounts for the "productivity" or "creativity" of language. In other words, a formal grammar of a language can explain the ability of a hearer-speaker to produce and interpret an infinite number of utterances, including novel ones, with a limited set of grammatical rules and a finite set of terms. He has always acknowledged his debt to Pāṇini for his modern notion of an explicit generative grammar, although it is also related to rationalist ideas of a priori knowledge.

It is a popular misconception that Chomsky proved that language is entirely innate, and that he discovered a "universal grammar" (UG). In fact, Chomsky simply observed that while a human baby and a kitten are both capable of inductive reasoning, if they are exposed to exactly the same linguistic data, the human child will always acquire the ability to understand and produce language, while the kitten will never acquire either ability. Chomsky labeled whatever the relevant capacity the human has that the cat lacks the "language acquisition device" (LAD) and suggested that one of the tasks for linguistics should be to figure out what the LAD is and what constraints it puts on the range of possible human languages. The universal features that would result from these constraints are often termed "universal grammar" or UG.^[35]

The Principles and Parameters approach (P&P)—developed in his Pisa 1979 Lectures, later published as Lectures on Government and Binding (LGB)—makes strong claims regarding universal grammar: that the grammatical principles underlying languages are innate and fixed, and the differences among the world's languages can be characterized in terms of parameter settings in the brain (such as the pro-drop parameter, which indicates whether an explicit subject is always required, as in English, or can be optionally dropped, as in Spanish), which are often likened to switches. (Hence the term principles and parameters, often given to this approach.) In this view, a child learning a language need only acquire the necessary lexical items (words, grammatical morphemes, and idioms), and determine the appropriate parameter settings, which can be done based on a few key examples.

Proponents of this view argue that the pace at which children learn languages is inexplicably rapid, unless children have an innate ability to learn languages. The similar steps followed by children all across the world when learning languages, and the fact that children make certain characteristic errors as they learn their first language, whereas other seemingly logical kinds of errors never occur (and, according to Chomsky, should be attested if a purely general, rather than language-specific, learning mechanism were being employed), are also pointed to as indications of innateness.

More recently, in his Minimalist Program (1995), while retaining the core concept of "principles and parameters," Chomsky attempts a major overhaul of the linguistic machinery involved in the LGB model, stripping from it all but the barest necessary elements, while advocating a general approach to the architecture of the human language faculty that emphasizes principles of economy and optimal design, reverting to a derivational approach to generation, in contrast with the largely representational approach of classic P&P.

Chomsky's ideas have had a strong influence on researchers of language acquisition in children, though many researchers in this area such as Elizabeth Bates^[36] and Michael Tomasello^[37] argue very strongly against Chomsky's theories, and instead advocate emergentist or connectionist theories, explaining language with a number of general processing mechanisms in the brain that interact with the extensive and complex social environment in which language is used and learned.

His best-known work in phonology is The Sound Pattern of English (1968), written with Morris Halle (and often known as simply SPE). This work has had a great significance for the development in the field. While phonological theory has since moved beyond "SPE phonology" in many important respects, the SPE system is considered the precursor of some of the most influential phonological theories today, including autosegmental phonology, lexical phonology and optimality theory. Chomsky no longer publishes on phonology.

Generative grammar[link]

The Chomskyan approach towards syntax, often termed generative grammar, studies grammar as a body of knowledge possessed by language users. Since the 1960s, Chomsky has maintained that much of this knowledge is innate, implying that children need only learn certain parochial features of their native languages.^[38] The innate body of linguistic knowledge is often termed universal grammar. From Chomsky's perspective, the strongest evidence for the existence of Universal Grammar is simply the fact that children successfully acquire their native languages in so little time. Furthermore, he argues that there is an enormous gap between the linguistic stimuli to which children are exposed and the rich linguistic knowledge they attain (the "poverty of the stimulus" argument). The knowledge of Universal Grammar would serve to bridge that gap.

Chomsky's theories have been immensely influential within linguistics, but they have also received criticism. One recurring criticism of the Chomskyan variety of generative grammar is that it is Anglocentric and Eurocentric, and that often linguists working in this tradition have a tendency to base claims about Universal Grammar on a very small sample of languages, sometimes just one. Initially, the Eurocentrism was exhibited in an overemphasis on the study of English. However, hundreds of different languages have now received at least some attention within Chomskyan linguistic analyses.^{[39][40][41][42][43]} In spite of the diversity of languages that have been characterized by UG derivations, critics continue to argue that the formalisms within Chomskyan linguistics are Anglocentric and misrepresent the properties of languages that are different from English.^[44][45][46] Thus, Chomsky's approach has been criticized as a form of linguistic imperialism.^[47] In addition, Chomskyan linguists rely heavily on the intuitions of native speakers regarding which sentences of their languages are well-formed. This practice has been criticized on general methodological grounds. Some psychologists and psycholinguists,^[who?] though sympathetic to Chomsky's overall program, have argued that Chomskyan linguists pay insufficient attention to experimental data from language processing, with the consequence that their theories are not psychologically plausible. Other critics (see language learning) have questioned whether it is necessary to posit Universal Grammar to explain child language acquisition, arguing that domain-general learning mechanisms are sufficient.

Today there are many different branches of generative grammar; one can view grammatical frameworks such as head-driven phrase structure grammar, lexical functional grammar, and combinatory categorial grammar as broadly Chomskyan and generative in orientation, but with significant differences in execution.

Chomsky hierarchy[link]

Chomsky is famous for investigating various kinds of formal languages and whether or not they might be capable of capturing key properties of human language. His Chomsky hierarchy partitions formal grammars into classes, or groups, with increasing expressive power, i.e., each successive class can generate a broader set of formal languages than the one before. Interestingly, Chomsky argues that modeling some aspects of human language requires a more complex formal grammar (as measured by the Chomsky hierarchy) than modeling others. For example, while a regular language is powerful enough to model English morphology, it is not powerful enough to model English syntax. In addition to being relevant in linguistics, the Chomsky hierarchy has also become important in computer science (especially in compiler construction and automata theory).^[48] Indeed, there is an equivalence between the Chomsky language hierarchy and the different kinds of automata. Thus theorems about languages are often dealt with as either languages (grammars) or automata.

An alternate method of dealing with languages is based upon Formal Power series.^[49] Formal Power series as well as the relationship between languages and semi-groups continued to occupy M. P. Schützenberger at the Sorbonne. Formal Power Series are similar to the Taylor Series one encounters in a course on Calculus, and it is especially useful for languages where words (terminal symbols) are commutative.^[50]

Politics[link]

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