The Lycaenidae are the second-largest family of butterflies, with about 6000 species worldwide, whose members are also called gossamer-winged butterflies. They constitute about 40% of the known butterfly species.

The family is traditionally divided into the subfamilies of the blues (Polyommatinae), the coppers (Lycaeninae), the hairstreaks (Theclinae) and the harvesters (Miletinae); others include the Lipteninae, Liphyrinae, Curetinae and Poritiinae. A few authorities still include the family Riodinidae within the Lycaenidae. The monotypic former subfamily Styginae represented by ''Styx infernalis'' from the Peruvian Andes has been placed within the subfamily Euselasiinae of the family Riodinidae.

Adults are small, under 5 cm usually, and brightly coloured, sometimes with a metallic gloss. The male's forelegs are reduced in size and lack claws.

Larvae are often flattened rather than cylindrical, with glands that may produce secretions that attract and subdue ants. Their cuticles tend to be thickened. Some larva are capable of producing vibrations and low sounds that are transmitted through the substrates they inhabit. They use these sounds to communicate with ants.

Adult individuals often have hairy antenna-like tails complete with black and white annulated appearance. Many species also have a spot at the base of the tail and some turn around upon landing to confuse potential predators from recognizing the true head orientation. This causes predators to approach from the true head end resulting in early visual detection.

Ecology

Lycaenids are diverse in their food habits and apart from phytophagy, some of them are entomophagous feeding on aphids, scale insects and ant larvae. Some Lycaenids even exploit their association with ants by inducing ants to feed them by regurgitation, a process called trophallaxis. Not all Lycaenid butterflies need ants, but about 75% of species associate with ants. The term used to describe such ant association is myrmecophily. These associations can be mutualistic, parasitic or predatory, depending on the species.

In some species, larvae are attended and protected by ants while feeding on the host plant, and the ants receive sugar-rich honeydew from them, throughout the larval life. In other species, only the first few instars are spent on the plant, and the remainder of the larval lifespan is spent as a predator within the ant nest. It becomes a parasite, feeding on ant regurgitations, or a predator on the ant larvae. The caterpillars pupate inside the ant's nest and the ants continue to look after the pupa. Just before the adult emerges the wings of the butterfly inside the pupal case detach from it, and the pupa becomes silvery. The adult butterfly emerges from the pupa after 3–4 weeks, still inside the ant nest. The butterfly must crawl out of the ant nest before it can expand its wings.

Several evolutionary adaptations enable these associations and they include small glands on the skin of the caterpillars called pore cupola organs. Caterpillars of many species except those of the Riodininae have a gland on the 7th abdominal segment that produces honey dew and is called the dorsal nectary gland (also called Newcomer's gland). An eversible organ called the tentacular organ is present on the 8th abdominal segment (third segment of thorax in the Riodininae) and this is cylindrical and topped with a ring of spikes and emits chemical signals which are believed to help in communicating with ants.

As many as 30% of world's threatened butterflies are lycaenid.

Subfamilies

Many taxonomists include only the Lycaeninae, Poritiinae, Miletinae and Curetinae under the Lycaenidae.

The genus ''Chrysoritis'' is included with Lycaenidae but has not been assigned to a subfamily.

Other classifications notably include the Riodininae (e.g., ''Abisara echerius''). |label2=Miletinae |2= }} |label2=Lycaeninae |2= }} }} }} Phylogeny of the family.

Lipteninae (Afrotropical)

Poritiinae (Oriental)

Liphyrinae (mostly African, some Asian)

* ''Liphyra brassolis'' – Moth Butterfly (largest lycaenid)

Miletinae – Harvesters (mostly African, or Oriental, some Holarctic). Probably all feed on aphids or their secretions.

Curetinae – Sunbeams (Oriental or Palaearctic)

* ''Curetis thetis'' – Indian Sunbeam

Theclinae – Hairstreaks (usually tailed) and Elfins (not tailed) (global)

* ''Satyrium pruni'' – Black Hairstreak

* ''Atlides halesus'' – Great Purple Hairstreak

* ''Eumaeus atala'' – Atala

Lycaeninae – Coppers (Holarctic)

* ''Lycaena boldenarum'' – Boulder Copper

* ''Lycaena feredayi'' – Glade Copper

* ''Lycaena rauparaha'' – Rauparaha’s Copper

* ''Lycaena salustius'' – Common Copper

* ''Lycaena dispar'' – Large Copper

* ''Lycaena phlaeas'' – Small Copper

* ''Talicada nyseus'' – Red Pierrot

Polyommatinae – Blues (global)

* ''Celastrina neglecta'' – Summer Azure

* ''Celastrina ladon'' – Spring Azure

* ''Cupido comyntas'' – Eastern Tailed-blue

* ''Cupido minimus'' – Small Blue

* ''Euphilotes battoides allyni'' – El Segundo Blue

* ''Euphilotes pallescens arenamontana'' – Sand Mountain Blue

* ''Jameela palmyra''

* ''Jameela albiplaga''

* ''Polyommatus icarus'' – Common Blue

* ''Polyommatus semiargus'' – Mazarine Blue

* ''Glaucopsyche lygdamus'' – Silvery Blue

* ''Glaucopsyche lygdamus palosverdesensis'' – Palos Verdes Blue

* ''Glaucopsyche xerces'' (extinct) – Xerces Blue

* ''Plebejus argus'' – Silver-studded Blue

* ''Maculinea arion'' – Large Blue

* ''Icaricia icarioides fenderi'' – Fender's Blue

* ''Pseudozizeeria maha'' – Pale Grass Blue

Gallery

See also

List of lycaenid genera

References

External links

Tree of Life

BugGuide.net

Family Lycaenidae at Lepidoptera.pro

Category:Butterflies Category:Insect families

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Coordinates	29°57′53″N90°4′14″N
name	Élie Cartan
birth date	April 09, 1869
birth place	Dolomieu, Isère, France
death date	May 06, 1951
death place	Paris, France
nationality
fields	Mathematics
workplaces	University of ParisÉcole Normale Supérieure
alma mater	University of Paris
doctoral advisor	Gaston DarbouxSophus Lie
doctoral students	Charles EhresmannMohsen HashtroodiRadu RoscaKentaro Yano
known for	Lie groups, differential geometry
awards	}}

Élie Joseph Cartan (9 April 1869 – 6 May 1951) was an influential French mathematician, who did fundamental work in the theory of Lie groups and their geometric applications. He also made significant contributions to mathematical physics, differential geometry, and group theory.

He was the father of another influential mathematician, Henri Cartan.

Life

Élie Cartan was born in the village of Dolomieu, Isère, the son of a blacksmith. He became a student at the École Normale Supérieure in Paris in 1888 and obtained his doctorate in 1894. He subsequently held lecturing positions in Montpellier and Lyon, becoming a professor in Nancy in 1903. He took a lecturing position at the Sorbonne in Paris in 1909, becoming professor there in 1912 until his retirement in 1940. He died in Paris after a long illness.

Work

By his own account, in his ''Notice sur les travaux scientifiques'', the main theme of his works (numbering 186 and published throughout the period 1893–1947) was the theory of Lie groups. He began by working over the foundational material on the complex simple Lie algebras, tidying up the previous work by Friedrich Engel and Wilhelm Killing. This proved definitive, as far as the classification went, with the identification of the four main families and the five exceptional cases. He also introduced the algebraic group concept, which was not to be developed seriously before 1950.

He defined the general notion of anti-symmetric differential form, in the style now used; his approach to Lie groups through the Maurer–Cartan equations required 2-forms for their statement. At that time what were called Pfaffian systems (i.e. first-order differential equations given as 1-forms) were in general use; by the introduction of fresh variables for derivatives, and extra forms, they allowed for the formulation of quite general PDE systems. Cartan added the exterior derivative, as an entirely geometric and coordinate-independent operation. It naturally leads to the need to discuss ''p''-forms, of general degree ''p''. Cartan writes of the influence on him of Charles Riquier’s general PDE theory.

With these basics — Lie groups and differential forms — he went on to produce a very large body of work, and also some general techniques such as moving frames, that were gradually incorporated into the mathematical mainstream.

In the ''Travaux'', he breaks down his work into 15 areas. Using modern terminology, they are these:

# Lie groups # Representations of Lie groups # Hypercomplex numbers, division algebras # Systems of PDEs, Cartan–Kähler theorem # Theory of equivalence # Integrable systems, theory of prolongation and systems in involution # Infinite-dimensional groups and pseudogroups # Differential geometry and moving frames # Generalised spaces with structure groups and connections, Cartan connection, holonomy, Weyl tensor # Geometry and topology of Lie groups # Riemannian geometry # Symmetric spaces # Topology of compact groups and their homogeneous spaces # Integral invariants and classical mechanics # Relativity, spinors

See also

Cartan connection, Cartan connection applications

Cartan matrix

Cartan's theorem

Cartan subalgebra

Cartan's equivalence method

Einstein–Cartan theory

Integrability conditions for differential systems

CAT(''k'') space

Cartan–Dieudonné theorem

Cartan–Hadamard theorem

Publications

References

M.A. Akivis & B.A. Rosenfeld (1993) ''Élie Cartan (1869–1951)'', translated from Russian original by V.V. Goldberg, American Mathematical Society ISBN 0-8218-4587-X .

External links

Shiing-Shen Chern and Claude Chevalley, ''Élie Cartan and his mathematical work'', Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 58 (1952), 217-250.

Category:1869 births Category:1951 deaths Category:People from Isère Category:French mathematicians Category:19th-century mathematicians Category:20th-century mathematicians Category:Differential geometers Category:Alumni of the École Normale Supérieure Category:Members of the French Academy of Sciences Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society

az:Elie Kartan bn:এলি কারতঁ bs:Élie Cartan ca:Élie Cartan de:Élie Cartan es:Élie Cartan fr:Élie Cartan hr:Élie Cartan it:Élie Joseph Cartan ht:Elie Cartan nl:Élie Cartan ja:エリ・カルタン pl:Élie Cartan pt:Élie Cartan ro:Élie Cartan ru:Картан, Эли Жозеф sk:Élie Cartan uk:Елі Жозеф Картан zh:埃利·嘉当

Coordinates	29°57′53″N90°4′14″N
Birth date	December 08, 1864
Birth place	Fère-en-Tardenois, Aisne, France
Death date	October 19, 1943
Parents	Louis ProsperLouise Athanaïse Cécile Cerveaux
Relations	Paul Claudel
Alma mater	Académie Colarossi
Influences	Alfred Boucher, Jessie Lipscomb, Auguste Rodin }}

Camille Claudel (8 December 1864 – 19 October 1943) was a French sculptor and graphic artist. She was the elder sister of the poet and diplomat Paul Claudel.

Early years

Camille Claudel was born in Fère-en-Tardenois, Aisne, in northern France, the second child of a family of farmers and gentry. Her father, Louis Prosper, dealt in mortgages and bank transactions. Her mother, the former Louise Athanaïse Cécile Cerveaux, came from a Champagne family of Catholic farmers and priests. The family moved to Villeneuve-sur-Fère while Camille was still a baby. Her younger brother Paul Claudel was born there in 1868. Subsequently they moved to Bar-le-Duc (1870), Nogent-sur-Seine (1876), and Wassy-sur-Blaise (1879), although they continued to spend summers in Villeneuve-sur-Fère, and the stark landscape of that region made a deep impression on the children. Camille moved with her mother, brother and younger sister to the Montparnasse area of Paris in 1881, her father having to remain behind, working to support them.

Creative period

Fascinated with stone and soil as a child, as a young woman she studied at the Académie Colarossi with sculptor Alfred Boucher. (At the time, the École des Beaux-Arts barred women from enrolling to study.) In 1882, Claudel rented a workshop with other young women, mostly English, including Jessie Lipscomb. Alfred Boucher became her mentor and provided inspiration and encouragement to the next generation of sculptors such as Laure Coutan and Claudel. The latter was depicted in "Camille Claudel lisant" by Boucher and later she herself sculpted a bust of her mentor. Before moving to Florence and after having taught Claudel and others for over three years, Boucher asked Auguste Rodin to take over the instruction of his pupils. This is how Rodin and Claudel met and their tumultuous and passionate relationship started.

Around 1884, she started working in Rodin's workshop. Claudel became a source of inspiration, his model, his confidante and lover. She never lived with Rodin, who was reluctant to end his 20-year relationship with Rose Beuret. Knowledge of the affair agitated her family, especially her mother, who never completely agreed with Claudel's involvement in the arts. As a consequence, she left the family house. In 1892, after an unwanted abortion, Claudel ended the intimate aspect of her relationship with Rodin, although they saw each other regularly until 1898.

Beginning in 1903, she exhibited her works at the Salon des Artistes français or at the Salon d'Automne.

It would be a mistake to assume that Claudel's reputation has survived simply because of her once notorious association with Rodin. The novelist and art critic Octave Mirbeau described her as "A revolt against nature: a woman genius". Her early work is similar to Rodin's in spirit, but shows an imagination and lyricism quite her own, particularly in the famous ''Bronze Waltz'' (1893). ''The Mature Age'' (1900) whilst interpreted by her brother as a powerful allegory of her break with Rodin, with one figure ''The Implorer'' that was produced as an edition of its own, has also been interpreted in a less purely autobiographical mode as an even more powerful representation of change and purpose in the human condition.

Her onyx and bronze small-scale ''Wave'' (1897) was a conscious break in style with her Rodin period, with a decorative quality quite different from the "heroic" feeling of her earlier work.

In the early years of the 20th Century, Claudel had patrons, dealers, and some commercial success.

Composer Claude Debussy has also been romantically linked to Claudel, but this was later proven as being false. Nevertheless, Debussy kept a copy of Claudel's ''La Valse'' on his mantel.

Illness

After 1905 Claudel appeared to be mentally ill. She destroyed many of her statues, disappeared for long periods of time, and exhibited signs of paranoia and was diagnosed as having schizophrenia. She accused Rodin of stealing her ideas and of leading a conspiracy to kill her. After the wedding of her brother (who had supported her until then) in 1906 and his return to China, she lived secluded in her workshop.

Confinement

Her father, who approved of her career choice, tried to help her and supported her financially. When he died on 2 March 1913, Claudel was not informed of his death. On 10 March 1913 at the initiative of her brother, she was admitted to the psychiatric hospital of Ville-Évrard in Neuilly-sur-Marne. The form read that she had been "voluntarily" committed, although her admission was signed by a doctor and her brother. There are records to show that while she did have mental outbursts, she was clear-headed while working on her art. Doctors tried to convince the family that she need not be in the institution, but still they kept her there.

In 1914, to be safe from advancing German troops, the patients at Ville-Évrard were at first relocated to Enghien. On 7 September 1914 Camille was transferred with a number of other women, to the Montdevergues Asylum, at Montfavet, six kilometres from Avignon. Her certificate of admittance to Montdevergues was signed on 22 September 1914; it reported that she suffered "from a systematic persecution delirium mostly based upon false interpretations and imagination".

For a while, the press accused her family of committing a sculptor of genius. Her mother forbade her to receive mail from anyone other than her brother. The hospital staff regularly proposed to her family that Claudel be released, but her mother adamantly refused each time. On 1 June 1920, physician Dr. Brunet sent a letter advising her mother to try to reintegrate her daughter into the family environment. Nothing came of this.

Paul Claudel visited her every few years, though he referred to her in the past tense. In 1929 Jessie Lipscomb visited her and insisted "it was not true" that Claudel was insane. Rodin's friend, Mathias Morhardt, insisted that Paul was a "simpleton" who had "shut away" his sister of genius.

Camille Claudel died on 19 October 1943, after having lived 30 years in the asylum at Montfavet (known then as the Asile de Montdevergues, now the modern psychiatric hospital Centre Hospitalier de Montfavet), and without a visit from her mother or sister (her mother died on 20 June 1929). Her body was interred in the cemetery of Monfavet. No one from the family attended the ceremony (only a few members from the hospital staff). Later her remains were buried in a communal grave (the body was never claimed by her family).

Legacy

Though she destroyed much of her art work, about 90 statues, sketches and drawings survive.

Some authors argue that Henrik Ibsen based his last play, 1899's ''When We Dead Awaken'', on Rodin's relationship with Claudel.

In 1951, Paul Claudel organized an exhibition at the Musée Rodin, which continues to display her sculptures. A large exhibition of her works was organized in 1984. In 2005 a large art display featuring the works of Rodin and Claudel was exhibited in Quebec City, Canada and Detroit, Michigan, USA. In 2008, the Musée Rodin organized a retrospective exhibition including more than 80 of her works.

The publication of several biographies in the 1980s sparked a resurgence of interest in her work.

''Camille Claudel'' (1988) was a dramatization of her life based largely on historical records. Directed by Bruno Nuytten, co-produced by Isabelle Adjani, starring herself as Claudel and Gérard Depardieu as Rodin, the film was nominated for two Academy Awards in 1989.

In 2003, plans were announced to turn the Claudel family home at Nogent-sur-Seine into a museum, which was negotiating to buy works from the Claudel family. These include 70 pieces by Camille Claudel, including a bust of Rodin.

Seattle playwright S.P. Miskowski's ''La Valse'' (2000) is a well-researched look at Claudel's life.

Composer Wildhorn and lyricist Knighton's musical ''Camille Claudel'' was produced by Goodspeed Musicals at The Norma Terris Theatre in Chester, Connecticut in 2003.

In 2005, Sotheby's sold a second edition ''La Valse'' (1905, Blot, number 21) for $932,500. In a 2009 Paris auction, Claudel's ''Le Dieu Envolé'' (1894/1998, Valsuani, signed and numbered 6/8) has a high estimate of $180,000, while a comparable Rodin sculpture, ''L'eternelle Idole'' (1889/1930, Rudier, signed) has a high estimate of $75,000.

In 2007, the band The Poison Control Center released a song simply titled "Camille Claudel", for which Claudel's relationship with Rodin and his reluctance to part ways with Rose Beuret is the basis of.

See also

:Category:Sculptures by Camille Claudel

Notes

Bibliography

Ayral-Clause, Odile. ''Camille Claudel: A Life''. New York: Abrams, 2002.

Lenormand-Romain, Antoinette et al. ''Camille Claudel and Rodin: Fateful Encounter''. New York: Gingko Press, 2005.

Rivière, Anne & Bruno Gaudichon. ''Camille Claudel: Catalogue raisonné''. Paris: Adam Biro, 2001.

External links

Review of 2008 Claudel exhibition at Musee Rodin, Paris

''Camille Claudel and Rodin: Fateful Encounter'' at Detroit Institute of Arts 2005

Claudel pages, including biography and timeline, at rodin-web.org

Camille Claudel at artcyclopedia.com

Camille Claudel: a Life of Struggle

Camille Claudel, Of Dreams and Nightmares

Camille Claudel: a Life of Struggle

Camille Claudel, Of Dreams and Nightmares !- This link is broken-

An Eye on Art: ''L'Age Mûr''

Ron Schuler's Parlour Tricks: Camille Claudel

CBC interview for the 2005 exhibition in Quebec

Category:1864 births Category:1943 deaths Category:People from Aisne Category:French artists' models Category:French sculptors Category:French women artists Category:People with schizophrenia

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