A gas turbine, also called a combustion turbine, is a type of internal combustion engine. It has an upstream rotating compressor coupled to a downstream turbine, and a combustion chamber in-between.

Energy is added to the gas stream in the combustor, where fuel is mixed with air and ignited. In the high pressure environment of the combustor, combustion of the fuel increases the temperature. The products of the combustion are forced into the turbine section. There, the high velocity and volume of the gas flow is directed through a nozzle over the turbine's blades, spinning the turbine which powers the compressor and, for some turbines, drives their mechanical output. The energy given up to the turbine comes from the reduction in the temperature and pressure of the exhaust gas.

Energy can be extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air or thrust or any combination of these and used to power aircraft, trains, ships, generators, or even tanks.

History

150: Hero's Engine (''aeolipile'') — Apparently, Hero's steam engine was taken to be no more than a toy, and thus its full potential not realized for centuries.

1500: The "Chimney Jack" was drawn by Leonardo da Vinci: Hot air from a fire rises through a single-stage axial turbine rotor mounted in the exhaust duct of the fireplace and turning the roasting spit by gear/ chain connection.

1551: Taqi al-Din invented a rudimentary form of an impulse steam turbine, which he used to power a self-rotating spit.

1629: Jets of steam rotated an impulse turbine that then drove a working stamping mill by means of a bevel gear, developed by Giovanni Branca.

1678: Ferdinand Verbiest built a model carriage relying on a steam jet for power.

1791: A patent was given to John Barber, an Englishman, for the first true gas turbine. His invention had most of the elements present in the modern day gas turbines. The turbine was designed to power a horseless carriage.

1872: A gas turbine engine was designed by Dr. Franz Stolze, but the engine never ran under its own power.

1894: Sir Charles Parsons patented the idea of propelling a ship with a steam turbine, and built a demonstration vessel, the ''Turbinia'', easily the fastest vessel afloat at the time. This principle of propulsion is still of some use.

1895: Three 4-ton 100 kW Parsons radial flow generators were installed in Cambridge Power Station, and used to power the first electric street lighting scheme in the city.

1899: Charles Gordon Curtis patented the first gas turbine engine in the USA ("Apparatus for generating mechanical power", Patent No. US635,919). 1900: Dr. Sanford Moss submitted a thesis on gas turbines. In 1903, Dr. Moss became an engineer for General Electric's Steam Turbine Department in Lynn, Massachusetts. While there, he applied some of his concepts in the development of the turbosupercharger. His design used a small turbine wheel, driven by exhaust gases, to turn a supercharger. 1903: A Norwegian, Ægidius Elling, was able to build the first gas turbine that was able to produce more power than needed to run its own components, which was considered an achievement in a time when knowledge about aerodynamics was limited. Using rotary compressors and turbines it produced 11 hp (massive for those days). His work was later used by Sir Frank Whittle.

1906: The Armengaud-Lemale turbine engine in France with water-cooled combustion chamber.

1910: Holzwarth impulse turbine (pulse combustion) achieved 150 kilowatts.

1913: Nikola Tesla patents the Tesla turbine based on the boundary layer effect.

1918: One of the leading gas turbine manufacturers of today, General Electric, started their gas turbine division.

1920: The practical theory of gas flow through passages was developed into the more formal (and applicable to turbines) theory of gas flow past airfoils by Dr. A. A. Griffith.

1930: Sir Frank Whittle patented the design for a gas turbine for jet propulsion. The first successful use of his engine was in April 1937.

1932: BBC Brown, Boveri & Cie of Switzerland starts selling axial compressor and turbine turbosets as part of the turbocharged steam generating Velox boiler. Following the gas turbine principle, the steam evaporation tubes are arranged within the gas turbine combustion chamber; the first Velox plant was erected in Mondeville, France.

1934: Raúl Pateras de Pescara patented the free-piston engine as a gas generator for gas turbines.

1936: Hans von Ohain and Max Hahn in Germany were developing their own patented engine design.

1939: First 4 MW utility power generation gas turbine from BBC Brown, Boveri & Cie. for an emergency power station in Neuchâtel, Switzerland.

Theory of operation

Gasses passing through an ideal gas turbine undergo three thermodynamic processes. These are isentropic compression, isobaric (constant pressure) combustion and isentropic expansion. Together these make up the Brayton cycle.

In a practical gas turbine, gasses are first accelerated in either a centrifugal or radial compressor. These gasses are then slowed using a diverging nozzle known as a diffuser; these processes increase the pressure and temperature of the flow. In an ideal system this is isentropic. However, in practice energy is lost to heat, due to friction and turbulence. Gasses then pass from the diffuser to a combustion chamber, or similar device, where heat is added. In an ideal system this occurs at constant pressure (isobaric heat addition). As there is no change in pressure the specific volume of the gasses increases. In practical situations this process is usually accompanied by a slight loss in pressure, due to friction. Finally, this larger volume of gasses is expanded and accelerated by nozzle guide vanes before energy is extracted by a turbine. In an ideal system these are gasses expanded isentropically and leave the turbine at their original pressure. In practice this process is not isentropic as energy is once again lost to friction and turbulence.

If the device has been designed to power to a shaft as with an industrial generator or a turboprop, the exit pressure will be as close to the entry pressure as possible. In practice it is necessary that some pressure remains at the outlet in order to fully expel the exhaust gasses. In the case of a jet engine only enough pressure and energy is extracted from the flow to drive the compressor and other components. The remaining high pressure gasses are accelerated to provide a jet that can, for example, be used to propel an aircraft.

As with all cyclic heat engines, higher combustion temperatures can allow for greater efficiencies. However, temperatures are limited by ability of the steel, nickel, ceramic, or other materials that make up the engine to withstand high temperatures and stresses. To combat this many turbines feature complex blade cooling systems.

As a general rule, the smaller the engine the higher the rotation rate of the shaft(s) must be to maintain tip speed. Blade tip speed determines the maximum pressure ratios that can be obtained by the turbine and the compressor. This in turn limits the maximum power and efficiency that can be obtained by the engine. In order for tip speed to remain constant, if the diameter of a rotor is reduced by half, the rotational speed must double. For example large Jet engines operate around 10,000 rpm, while micro turbines spin as fast as 500,000 rpm.

Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably less complex than internal combustion piston engines. Simple turbines might have one moving part: the shaft/compressor/turbine/alternative-rotor assembly (see image above), not counting the fuel system. However, the required precision manufacturing for components and temperature resistant alloys necessary for high efficiency often make the construction of a simple turbine more complicated than piston engines.

More sophisticated turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines) may have multiple shafts (spools), hundreds of turbine blades, movable stator blades, and a vast system of complex piping, combustors and heat exchangers.

Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of design. Traditionally, they have been hydrodynamic oil bearings, or oil-cooled ball bearings. These bearings are being surpassed by foil bearings, which have been successfully used in micro turbines and auxiliary power units.

Types of gas turbines

Jet engines

Airbreathing jet engines are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust from the exhaust gases, or from ducted fans connected to the gas turbines. Jet engines that produce thrust primarily from the direct impulse of exhaust gases are often called turbojets, whereas those that generate most of their thrust from the action of a ducted fan are often called turbofans or (rarely) fan-jets.

Gas turbines are also used in many liquid propellant rockets, the gas turbines are used to power a turbopump to permit the use of lightweight, low pressure tanks, which saves considerable dry mass.

Aeroderivative gas turbines

Aeroderivatives are also used in electrical power generation due to their ability to be shut down, and handle load changes more quickly than industrial machines. They are also used in the marine industry to reduce weight. The General Electric LM2500, General Electric LM6000, Rolls-Royce RB211 and Rolls-Royce Avon are common models of this type of machine.

Amateur gas turbines

Increasing numbers of gas turbines are being used or even constructed by amateurs.

In its most straightforward form, these are commercial turbines acquired through military surplus or scrapyard sales, then operated for display as part of the hobby of engine collecting. In its most extreme form, amateurs have even rebuilt engines beyond professional repair and then used them to compete for the Land Speed Record.

The simplest form of self-constructed gas turbine employs an automotive turbocharger as the core component. A combustion chamber is fabricated and plumbed between the compressor and turbine sections.

More sophisticated turbojets are also built, where their thrust and light weight are sufficient to power large model aircraft. The Schreckling design

Auxiliary power units

APUs are small gas turbines designed for auxiliary power of larger machines, such as those inside an aircraft. They supply compressed air for aircraft ventilation (with an appropriate compressor design), start-up power for larger jet engines, and electrical and hydraulic power.

Industrial gas turbines for power generation

Industrial gas turbines differ from aeroderivative in that the frames, bearings, and blading are of heavier construction. Industrial gas turbines range in size from truck-mounted mobile plants to enormous, complex systems. They can be particularly efficient—up to 60%—when waste heat from the gas turbine is recovered by a heat recovery steam generator to power a conventional steam turbine in a combined cycle configuration. They can also be run in a cogeneration configuration: the exhaust is used for space or water heating, or drives an absorption chiller for cooling or refrigeration. Such engines require a dedicated enclosure, both to protect the engine from the elements and the operators from the noise.

The construction process for gas turbines can take as little as several weeks to a few months, compared to years for base load power plants. Their other main advantage is the ability to be turned on and off within minutes, supplying power during peak demand. Since single cycle (gas turbine only) power plants are less efficient than combined cycle plants, they are usually used as peaking power plants, which operate anywhere from several hours per day to a few dozen hours per year, depending on the electricity demand and the generating capacity of the region. In areas with a shortage of base load and load following power plant capacity or low fuel costs, a gas turbine power plant may regularly operate during most hours of the day. A large single cycle gas turbine typically produces 100 to 400 megawatts of power and have 35–40% thermal efficiency.

Compressed air energy storage

One modern development seeks to improve efficiency in another way, by separating the compressor and the turbine with a compressed air store. In a conventional turbine, up to half the generated power is used driving the compressor. In a compressed air energy storage configuration, power, perhaps from a wind farm or bought on the open market at a time of low demand and low price, is used to drive the compressor, and the compressed air released to operate the turbine when required.

Turboshaft engines

Turboshaft engines are often used to drive compression trains (for example in gas pumping stations or natural gas liquefaction plants) and are used to power almost all modern helicopters. The first shaft bears the compressor and the high speed turbine (often referred to as "Gas Generator" or "Ng"), while the second shaft bears the low speed turbine (or "Power Turbine" or "Nf" - the 'f' stands for 'free wheeling turbine' on helicopters specifically due to the fact that the gas generator turbine spins separately from the power turbine). This arrangement is used to increase speed and power output flexibility.

Radial gas turbines

In 1963, Jan Mowill initiated the development at Kongsberg Våpenfabrikk in Norway. Various successors have made good progress in the refinement of this mechanism. Owing to a configuration that keeps heat away from certain bearings the durability of the machine is improved while the radial turbine is well matched in speed requirement.

Scale jet engines

Also known as miniature gas turbines or micro-jets.

With this in mind the pioneer of modern Micro-Jets, Kurt Schreckling, produced one of the world's first Micro-Turbines, the FD3/67.

However, reciprocating engine generators are quicker to respond to changes in output power requirement and are usually slightly more efficient, although the efficiency of microturbines is increasing. Microturbines also lose more efficiency at low power levels than reciprocating engines.

When used in extended range electric vehicles the static efficiency drawback is irrelevant, since the gas turbine can be run at or near maximum power, driving an alternator to produce electricity either for the wheel motors, or for the batteries, as appropriate to speed and battery state. The batteries act as a "buffer" (energy storage) in delivering the required amount of power to the wheel motors, rendering throttle response of the GT completely irrelevant.

There is, moreover, no need for a significant or variable-speed gearbox; turning an alternator at comparatively high speeds allows for a smaller and lighter alternator than would otherwise be the case. The superior power-to-weight ratio of the gas turbine and its fixed speed gearbox, allows for a much lighter prime mover than those in such hybrids as the Toyota Prius (which utilised a 1.8 litre petrol engine) or the Chevrolet Volt (which utilises a 1.4 litre petrol engine). This in turn allows a heavier weight of batteries to be carried. The weight can be made up of more batteries, which allows for a longer electric-only range. Alternatively, the vehicle can use heavier types of batteries such as lead acid batteries (which are cheaper to buy) or safer types of batteries such as Lithium-Iron-Phosphate.

When gas turbines are used in extended-range electric vehicles, like those planned by Land-Rover/Range-Rover in conjunction with Bladon, or by Jaguar also in partnership with Bladon, the very poor throttling response (their high moment of rotational inertia) does not matter, because the gas turbine, which may be spinning at 100,000 rpm, is not directly, mechanically connected to the wheels. It was this poor throttling response that so bedevilled the 1960 Rover gas turbine-powered prototype motor car, which did not have the advantage of an intermediate electric drive train.

Gas turbines accept most commercial fuels, such as petrol, natural gas, propane, diesel, and kerosene as well as renewable fuels such as E85, biodiesel and biogas. However, when running on kerosene or diesel, starting sometimes requires the assistance of a more volatile product such as propane gas - although the new kero-start technology can allow even microturbines fuelled on kerosene to start without propane.

Microturbine designs usually consist of a single stage radial compressor, a single stage radial turbine and a recuperator. Recuperators are difficult to design and manufacture because they operate under high pressure and temperature differentials. Exhaust heat can be used for water heating, space heating, drying processes or absorption chillers, which create cold for air conditioning from heat energy instead of electric energy.

Typical microturbine efficiencies are 25 to 35%. When in a combined heat and power cogeneration system, efficiencies of greater than 80% are commonly achieved.

MIT started its millimeter size turbine engine project in the middle of the 1990s when Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics Alan H. Epstein considered the possibility of creating a personal turbine which will be able to meet all the demands of a modern person's electrical needs, just as a large turbine can meet the electricity demands of a small city.

Problems have occurred with heat dissipation and high-speed bearing in these new microturbines. Moreover, their expected efficiency is a very low 5-6%. According to Professor Epstein, current commercial Li-ion rechargeable batteries deliver about 120-150 W·h/kg. MIT's millimeter size turbine will deliver 500-700 W·h/kg in the near term, rising to 1200-1500 W∙h/kg in the longer term.

External combustion

Most gas turbines are internal combustion engines but it is also possible to manufacture an external combustion gas turbine which is, effectively, a turbine version of a hot air engine. Those systems are usually indicated as EFGT (Externally Fired Gas Turbine) or IFGT (Indirectly Fired Gas Turbine).

External combustion has been used for the purpose of using pulverized coal or finely ground biomass (such as sawdust) as a fuel. In the indirect system, a heat exchanger is used and only clean air with no combustion products travels through the power turbine. The thermal efficiency is lower in the indirect type of external combustion; however, the turbine blades are not subjected to combustion products and much lower quality (and therefore cheaper) fuels are able to be used. Indirectly fired systems are now commercially available. BTOLA, an Australian based company is now marketing 250 kW - 2MW units.

Gas turbines in surface vehicles

Gas turbines are often used on ships, locomotives, helicopters, tanks, and to a lesser extent, on cars, buses, and motorcycles.

A key advantage of jets and turboprops for aeroplane propulsion - their superior performance at high altitude compared to piston engines, particularly naturally aspirated ones - is irrelevant in automobile applications. Their power-to-weight advantage, though less critical than for aircraft, is still important.

Gas turbines offer a high-powered engine in a very small and light package. However, they are not as responsive and efficient as small piston engines over the wide range of RPMs and powers needed in vehicle applications. In series hybrid vehicles, as the driving electric motors are mechanically detached from the electricity generating engine, the responsiveness, poor performance at low speed and low efficiency at low output problems are much less important. The turbine can be run at optimum speed for its power output, and batteries and ultracapacitors can supply power as needed, with the engine cycled on and off to run it only at high efficiency. The emergence of the continuously variable transmission may also alleviate the responsiveness problem.

Turbines have historically been more expensive to produce than piston engines, though this is partly because piston engines have been mass-produced in huge quantities for decades, while small gas turbine engines are rarities; however, turbines are mass-produced in the closely related form of the turbocharger.

The turbocharger is basically a compact and simple free shaft radial gas turbine which is driven by the piston engine's exhaust gas. The centripetal turbine wheel drives a centrifugal compressor wheel through a common rotating shaft. This wheel supercharges the engine air intake to a degree that can be controlled by means of a wastegate or by dynamically modifying the turbine housing's geometry (as in a VGT turbocharger). It mainly serves as a power recovery device which converts a great deal of otherwise wasted thermal and kinetic energy into engine boost.

Turbocompound engines (actually employed on some trucks) are fitted with blow down turbines which are similar in design and appearance to a turbocharger except for the turbine shaft being mechanically or hydraulically connected to the engine's crankshaft instead of to a centrifugal compressor, thus providing additional power instead of boost. While the turbocharger is a pressure turbine, a power recovery turbine is a velocity one.

Passenger road vehicles (cars, bikes, and buses)

A number of experiments have been conducted with gas turbine powered automobiles, the largest by Chrysler. More recently, there has been some interest in the use of turbine engines for hybrid electric cars. For instance, a consortium led by micro gas turbine company Bladon Jets has secured investment from the Technology Strategy Board to develop an Ultra Lightweight Range Extender (ULRE) for next generation electric vehicles. The objective of the consortium, which includes luxury car maker Jaguar Land Rover and leading electrical machine company SR Drives, is to produce the world’s first commercially viable - and environmentally friendly - gas turbine generator designed specifically for automotive applications.

The common turbocharger for gas or diesel engines is also a turbine derivative.

Concept cars

The first serious mention investigation of using a gas turbine in cars, was in 1946 when two engineers, Robert Kafka and Robert Engerstein of Carney Associates, a New York engineering firm, came up with the concept where a unique compact turbine engine design would provide power for a rear wheel drive car. After an article appeared in ''Popular Science'', there was no further work, beyond the paper stage.

In 1950, designer F.R. Bell and Chief Engineer Maurice Wilks from British car manufacturers Rover unveiled the first car powered with a gas turbine engine. The two-seater JET1 had the engine positioned behind the seats, air intake grilles on either side of the car, and exhaust outlets on the top of the tail. During tests, the car reached top speeds of 140 km/h (87 mph), at a turbine speed of 50,000 rpm. The car ran on petrol, paraffin (kerosene) or diesel oil, but fuel consumption problems proved insurmountable for a production car. It is on display at the London Science Museum.

American car manufacturer Chrysler demonstrated several prototype gas turbine-powered cars from the early 1950s through the early 1980s. Chrysler built fifty Chrysler Turbine Cars in 1963 and conducted the only consumer trial of gas turbine-powered cars. Their turbines employed unique rotating recuperator that significantly increased efficiency. Chrysler put many cars into the hands of consumers, making this effort a small-scale near-production run.

The original General Motors Firebird was a series of concept cars developed for the 1953, 1956 and 1959 Motorama auto shows, powered by gas turbines.

Toyota demonstrated several gas turbine powered concept cars such as the Century gas turbine hybrid in 1975, the Sports 800 Gas Turbine Hybrid in 1979 and the GTV in 1985. No production vehicles were made. The GT24 engine was exhibited in 1977 without a vehicle.

The fictional Batmobile is often said to be powered by a gas turbine or a jet engine. The 1960s television show vehicle was said to be powered by a turbine engine, with a parachute braking system. For the 1989 ''Batman'' film, the production department built a working turbine vehicle for the Batmobile prop. Its fuel capacity, however, was reportedly only enough for 15 seconds of use at a time.

In the early 1990s Volvo introduced the Volvo Environmental Concept Car(ECC) which was a gas turbine powered hybrid car.

In 1993 General Motors introduced the first commercial gas turbine powered hybrid vehicle--as a limited production run of the EV-1 series hybrid. A Williams International 40 kW turbine drove an alternator which powered the battery-electric powertrain. The turbine design included a recuperator. Later on in 2006 GM went into the EcoJet concept car project with Jay Leno.

At the 2010 Paris Motor Show Jaguar demonstrated its Jaguar C-X75 concept car. This electrically powered supercar has a top speed of and can go from in 3.4 seconds. It uses Lithium-ion batteries to power 4 electric motors which combine to produce some 780 bhp. It will do around 100 miles on a single charge of the batteries but in addition it uses a pair of Bladon Micro Gas Turbines to re-charge the batteries extending the range to some 560 miles.

Racing cars

Rover and the BRM Formula One team joined forces to produce the Rover-BRM, a gas turbine powered coupe, which entered the 1963 24 Hours of Le Mans, driven by Graham Hill and Richie Ginther. It averaged 107.8 mph (173 km/h) and had a top speed of 142 mph (229 km/h). American Ray Heppenstall joined Howmet Corporation and McKee Engineering together to develop their own gas turbine sports car in 1968, the Howmet TX, which ran several American and European events, including two wins, and also participated in the 1968 24 Hours of Le Mans. The cars used Continental gas turbines, which eventually set six FIA land speed records for turbine-powered cars.

For open wheel racing, 1967's revolutionary STP-Paxton Turbocar fielded by racing and entrepreneurial legend Andy Granatelli and driven by Parnelli Jones nearly won the Indianapolis 500; the Pratt & Whitney ST6B-62 powered turbine car was almost a lap ahead of the second place car when a gearbox bearing failed just three laps from the finish line. The next year the STP Lotus 56 turbine car won the Indianapolis 500 pole position even though new rules restricted the air intake dramatically. In 1971 Lotus principal Colin Chapman introduced the Lotus 56B F1 car, powered by a Pratt & Whitney STN 6/76 gas turbine. Chapman had a reputation of building radical championship-winning cars, but had to abandon the project because there were too many problems with turbo lag.

Buses

The arrival of the Capstone Microturbine has led to several hybrid bus designs, starting with HEV-1 by AVS of Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1999, and closely followed by Ebus and ISE Research in California, and DesignLine Corporation in New Zealand (and later the United States). AVS turbine hybrids were plagued with reliability and quality control problems, resulting in liquidation of AVS in 2003. The most successful design by Designline is now operated in 5 cities in 6 countries, with over 30 buses in operation worldwide, and order for several hundred being delivered to Baltimore , and NYC.

Brescia Italy is using serial hybrid buses powered by microturbines on routes through the historical sections of the city.

Motorcycles

The MTT Turbine SUPERBIKE appeared in 2000 (hence the designation of Y2K Superbike by MTT) and is the first production motorcycle powered by a turbine engine - specifically, a Rolls-Royce Allison model 250 turboshaft engine, producing about 283 kW (380 bhp). Speed-tested to 365 km/h or 227 mph (according to some stories, the testing team ran out of road during the test), it holds the Guinness World Records for most powerful production motorcycle and most expensive production motorcycle, with a price tag of US$185,000.

Trains

Several locomotive classes have been powered by gas turbines, the most recent incarnation being Bombardier's JetTrain.

Tanks

The German Army's development division, the Heereswaffenamt (Army Ordnance Board), studied a number of gas turbine engines for use in tanks starting in mid-1944. The first gas turbine engines used for armoured fighting vehicle GT 101 was installed in the Panther tank. The second use of a gas turbine in an armoured fighting vehicle was in 1954 when a unit, PU2979, specifically developed for tanks by C. A. Parsons & Co., was installed and trialled in a British Conqueror tank. The Stridsvagn 103 was developed in the 1950s and was the first mass produced main battle tank to use a turbine engine. Since then, gas turbine engines have been used as APUs in some tanks and as main powerplants in Soviet/Russian T-80s and U.S. M1 Abrams tanks, among others. They are lighter and smaller than diesels at the same sustained power output but the models installed to date are less fuel efficient than the equivalent diesel, especially at idle, requiring more fuel to achieve the same combat range. Successive models of M1 have addressed this problem with battery packs or secondary generators to power the tank's systems while stationary, saving fuel by reducing the need to idle the main turbine. T-80s can mount three large external fuel drums to extend their range. Russia has stopped production of the T-80 in favour of the diesel-powered T-90 (based on the T-72), while Ukraine has developed the diesel-powered T-80UD and T-84 with nearly the power of the gas-turbine tank.

A turbine is theoretically more reliable and easier to maintain than a piston engine, since it has a simpler construction with fewer moving parts but in practice turbine parts experience a higher wear rate due to their higher working speeds. The turbine blades are highly sensitive to dust and fine sand, so that in desert operations air filters have to be fitted and changed several times daily. An improperly fitted filter, or a bullet or shell fragment that punctures the filter, can damage the engine. Piston engines (especially if turbocharged) also need well-maintained filters, but they are more resilient if the filter does fail.

Like most modern diesel engines used in tanks, gas turbines are usually multi-fuel engines.

Marine applications

Naval

Gas turbines are used in many naval vessels, where they are valued for their high power-to-weight ratio and their ships' resulting acceleration and ability to get underway quickly.

The first gas-turbine-powered naval vessel was the Royal Navy's Motor Gun Boat ''MGB 2009'' (formerly ''MGB 509'') converted in 1947. Metropolitan-Vickers developed the "Beryl" engine equipping an existing F2/3 jet engine with a power turbine. As the test was successful, the Fast Patrol Boats ''Bold Pioneer'' and ''Bold Pathfinder'' built in 1953 were the first ships created specifically for gas turbine propulsion.

The first large scale, gas-turbine powered ships, were the Royal Navy's Type 81 (Tribal class) frigates, the first of which (HMS ''Ashanti'') was commissioned in 1961.

The Germany Navy launched the first Köln class frigate in 1961 with 2 GTs from BBC in the worlds first combined diesel and gas propulsion system.

The Swedish Navy produced 6 Spica class torpedoboats between 1966 and 1967 powered by 3 Bristol Siddeley Proteus 1282, each delivering 4300 hp. They were later joined by 12 upgraded Norrköping class ships, still with the same engines. With their aft torpedo tubes replaced by antishipping missiles they served as missile boats until the last was retired in 2005.

The Finnish Navy issued two Turunmaa class corvettes, Turunmaa and Karjala, in 1968. They were equipped with one 22,000 shp Rolls-Royce Olympus TMB3 gas turbine and three Wärtsilä marine diesels for slower speeds. They were the fastest vessels in the Finnish Navy; they regularly achieved 35 knot speeds, with 37.3 knots on sea trials. The Turunmaas were paid off in 2002. ''Karjala'' is today a museum ship in Turku, and ''Turunmaa'' serves as a floating machine shop and training ship for Satakunta Polytechnical College.

The next series of major naval vessels were the four Canadian Iroquois class helicopter carrying destroyers first commissioned in 1972. They used 2 ft-4 main propulsion engines, 2 ft-12 cruise engines and 3 Solar Saturn 750 kW generators.

The first U.S. gas-turbine powered ships were the U.S. Coast Guard's ''Hamilton''-class High Endurance Cutters the first of which (USCGC ''Hamilton'') commissioned in 1967. Since then, they have powered the U.S. Navy's ''Perry''-class frigates, ''Spruance''-class and ''Arleigh Burke''-class destroyers, and ''Ticonderoga''-class guided missile cruisers. USS ''Makin Island'', a modified ''Wasp''-class amphibious assault ship, is to be the Navy's first amphibious assault ship powered by gas turbines. The marine gas turbine operates in a more corrosive atmosphere due to presence of sea salt in air and fuel and use of cheaper fuels.

Non-military maritime

Gas turbines have been used experimentally to power seagoing commercial vessels since about 1949 (Anglo Saxon Petroleum oil tanker "Auris").

The United States Maritime Commission were looking for options to update WWII Liberty ships and heavy duty gas turbines were one of those selected. In 1956 the "John Sergeant" was lengthened and installed with a General Electric 6600 SHP HD gas turbine, reduction gearing and a variable pitch propeller. It operated for 9700 hours using residual fuel for 7000 hours. The success of this trial opened the way for more development by GE on the use of HD gas turbines for marine use with heavy fuels. The "John Sergeant" was scrapped in 1972 at Portsmouth PA.

Boeing launched its first passenger-carrying waterjet-propelled hydrofoil Boeing 929, in April 1974. Those ships were powered by twin Allison gas turbines of the KF-501 series.

Between 1970 and 1982, Seatrain Container Lines operated a scheduled container service across the North Atlantic with four container ships of 26,000 tonnes deadweight tonnage (DWT). Those ships were powered by twin Pratt & Whitney gas turbines of the FT 4 series. The four ships in the class were named "Euroliner", "Eurofreighter", "Asialiner" and "Asiafreighter". They operated a transatlantic container service between ports on the eastern seaboard of the United States and ports in north west Europe. Following the dramatic OPEC(Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries) price increases of the mid-nineteen seventies, operations were constrained by rising fuel costs. Some modification of the engine systems on those ships was undertaken to permit the burning of a lower grade of fuel (i.e., marine diesel). The modifications were partially successful. It was proved that particular fuel could be used in a marine gas turbine but, savings made were less than anticipated due to increased maintenance requirements. After 1982 the ships were sold, then re-engined with more economical diesel engines. Because the new engines were much larger, there was a consequential loss of some cargo space.

The first passenger ferry to use a gas turbine was the GTS ''Finnjet'', built in 1977 and powered by two Pratt & Whitney FT 4C-1 DLF turbines, generating 55 MW and propelling the ship to a speed of 31 knots. However, the Finnjet also illustrated the shortcomings of gas turbine propulsion in commercial craft, as high fuel prices made operating her unprofitable. After four years of service additional diesel engines were installed on the ship to reduce running costs during the off-season. Another example of commercial usage of gas turbines in a passenger ship is Stena Line's HSS class fastcraft ferries. HSS 1500-class ''Stena Explorer'', ''Stena Voyager'' and ''Stena Discovery'' vessels use COGAG setups of twin GE LM2500 plus GE LM1600 power for a total of 68 MW. The slightly smaller HSS 900-class ''Stena Charisma'', uses twin ABB–STAL GT35 turbines rated at 34,000 kW gross. The ''Stena Discovery'' was withdrawn from service in 2007, another victim of too high fuel costs.

In July 2000 the Millennium became the first cruise ship to be propelled by gas turbines, in a Combined Gas and Steam Turbine configuration. The liner RMS Queen Mary 2 uses a Combined Diesel and Gas Turbine configuration.

In marine racing applications the 2010 C5000 Mystic catamaran Miss Gieco uses two Lycoming t-55 turbines for its power system. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_GEICO

Advances in technology

Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced since its inception and continues to evolve; research is active in producing ever smaller gas turbines. Computer design, specifically CFD and finite element analysis along with material advances, has allowed higher compression ratios and temperatures, more efficient combustion and better cooling of engine parts.

On the emissions side, the challenge in technology is increasing turbine inlet temperature while reducing peak flame temperature to achieve lower NOx emissions to cope with the latest regulations. In May 2011, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries achieved a turbine inlet temperature of 1,600 °C on a 320 megawatt gas turbine, 460 MW in gas turbine combined-cycle power generation applications in which gross thermal efficiency exceeds 60%.

Additionally, compliant foil bearings were commercially introduced to gas turbines in the 1990s. They can withstand over a hundred thousand start/stop cycles and eliminated the need for an oil system. On another front, microelectronics and power switching technology have enabled commercially viable micro turbines for distributed and vehicle power.

Advantages and disadvantages of gas turbine engines

Reference for this section:

Advantages of gas turbine engines

Very high power-to-weight ratio, compared to reciprocating engines;

Smaller than most reciprocating engines of the same power rating.

Moves in one direction only, with far less vibration than a reciprocating engine.

Fewer moving parts than reciprocating engines.

Low operating pressures.

High operation speeds.

Low lubricating oil cost and consumption.

Can run on a wide variety of fuels.

Disadvantages of gas turbine engines

Cost is very high

Less efficient than reciprocating engines at idle speed

Longer startup than reciprocating engines

Less responsive to changes in power demand compared to reciprocating engines

See also

Air-start system

Axial compressor

Balancing machine

Centrifugal compressor

Pneumatic motor

Distributed generation

Gas turbine-electric locomotive

Gas turbine locomotive

Gas turbine modular helium reactor

Wind turbine

References

Further reading

Stationary Combustion Gas Turbines including Oil & Over-Speed Control System description

"Aircraft Gas Turbine Technology" by Irwin E. Treager, Professor Emeritus Purdue University, McGraw-Hill, Glencoe Division, 1979, ISBN 0-07-065158-2.

"Gas Turbine Theory" by H.I.H. Saravanamuttoo, G.F.C. Rogers and H. Cohen, Pearson Education, 2001, 5th ed., ISBN 0-13-015847-X.

R. M. "Fred" Klaass and Christopher DellaCorte, "The Quest for Oil-Free Gas Turbine Engines," SAE Technical Papers, No. 2006-01-3055, available at: http://www.sae.org/technical/papers/2006-01-3055.

"Model Jet Engines" by Thomas Kamps ISBN 0 9510589 9 1 Traplet Publications

Aircraft Engines and Gas Turbines, Second Edition" by Jack L. Kerrebrock, The MIT Press, 1992, ISBN 0-262-11162-4.

"Forensic Investigation of a Gas Turbine Event " by John Molloy, M&M; Engineering

External links

"New Era In Power To Turn Wheels" ''Popular Science'', December 1939, early article on operations of gas turbine power plants, cutaway drawings

Technology Speed of Civil Jet Engines

MIT Gas Turbine Laboratory

MIT Microturbine research

California Distributed Energy Resource guide - Microturbine generators

Introduction to how a gas turbine works from "how stuff works.com"

Aircraft gas turbine simulator for interactive learning"

* Category:Compressors Category:Turbomachinery Category:Turbines Category:Thermodynamics Category:Fluid dynamics Category:Aerodynamics Category:Marine propulsion Category:Norwegian inventions

ar:عنفة غازية bg:Газова турбина ca:Turbina de gas cs:Plynová turbína (tepelný motor) de:Gasturbine es:Turbina de gas fa:توربین گاز fr:Turbine à gaz ga:Gástuirbín gl:Turbina a gas ko:가스 터빈 hi:गैस टर्बाइन hr:Plinska turbina id:Turbin gas it:Turbina a gas he:טורבינת גז li:Gaasturbine hu:Gázturbina ms:Turbin gas nl:Gasturbine ja:ガスタービンエンジン no:Gassturbin nn:Gassturbin pl:Turbina gazowa pt:Turbina a gás ro:Turbină cu gaze ru:Газовая турбина sk:Plynová turbína fi:Kaasuturbiini sv:Gasturbin ta:எரிவளிச் சுழலி tr:Gaz türbinli motorlar uk:Газова турбіна ur:عنفۂ فارغہ vi:Động cơ tuốc bin khí zh:燃氣渦輪發動機