Classical music is the art music produced in, or rooted in, the traditions of Western liturgical and secular music, encompassing a broad period from roughly the 11th century to present times. The central norms of this tradition became codified between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common practice period.

European music is largely distinguished from many other non-European and popular musical forms by its system of staff notation, in use since about the 16th century. Western staff notation is used by composers to prescribe to the performer the pitch, speed, meter, individual rhythms and exact execution of a piece of music. This leaves less room for practices such as improvisation and ''ad libitum'' ornamentation, that are frequently heard in non-European art music (as in Indian classical music and Japanese traditional music) and popular music.

The term "classical music" did not appear until the early 19th century, in an attempt to "canonize" the period from Johann Sebastian Bach to Beethoven as a golden age. The earliest reference to "classical music" recorded by the ''Oxford English Dictionary'' is from about 1836.

Characteristics

Given the extremely broad variety of forms, styles, genres, and historical periods generally perceived as being described by the term "classical music," it is difficult to list characteristics that can be attributed to all works of that type. Vague descriptions are plentiful, such as describing classical music as anything that "lasts a long time," a statement made rather moot when one considers contemporary composers who are described as classical; or music that has certain instruments like violins, which are also found in other genres. However, there are characteristics that classical music contains that few or no other genres of music contain.

Literature

The most outstanding and particular characteristic of classical music is that the repertoire tends to be written down. Composers and performers alike are typically highly literate in understanding notation and the written quality of the music has, in addition to preserving the works, led to a high level of complexity within them.

Instrumentation

The instruments used in most classical music were largely invented before the mid-19th century (often much earlier), and codified in the 18th and 19th centuries. They consist of the instruments found in an orchestra, together with a few other solo instruments (such as the piano, harpsichord, and organ). The symphony orchestra is the most widely known medium for classical music. The orchestra includes members of the string, woodwind, brass, and percussion families.

Electric instruments such as the electric guitar appear occasionally in the classical music of the 20th and 21st centuries. Both classical and popular musicians have experimented in recent decades with electronic instruments such as the synthesizer, electric and digital techniques such as the use of sampled or computer-generated sounds, and the sounds of instruments from other cultures such as the gamelan.

None of the bass instruments existed until the Renaissance. In Medieval music, instruments are divided in two categories: loud instruments for use outdoors or in church, and quieter instruments for indoor use. The Baroque orchestra consisted of flutes, oboes, horns and violins, occasionally with trumpets and timpani. Many instruments which are associated today with popular music used to have important roles in early classical music, such as bagpipes, vihuelas, hurdy-gurdies and some woodwind instruments. On the other hand, instruments such as the acoustic guitar, which used to be associated mainly with popular music, have gained prominence in classical music through the 19th and 20th centuries.

While equal temperament became gradually accepted as the dominant musical temperament during the 19th century, different historical temperaments are often used for music from earlier periods. For instance, music of the English Renaissance is often performed in mean tone temperament. Keyboards almost all share a common layout (often called the piano keyboard).

Form

Whereas the majority of popular styles lend themselves to the song form, classical music can also take on the form of the concerto, symphony, sonata, opera, dance music, suite, étude, symphonic poem, and others.

Classical composers often aspire to imbue their music with a very complex relationship between its affective (emotional) content and the intellectual means by which it is achieved. Many of the most esteemed works of classical music make use of musical development, the process by which a musical idea or motif is repeated in different contexts or in altered form. The sonata form and fugue employ rigorous forms of musical development.

Technical execution

Along with a desire for composers to attain high technical achievement in writing their music, performers of classical music are faced with similar goals of technical mastery, as demonstrated by the proportionately high amount of schooling and private study most successful classical musicians have had when compared to "popular" genre musicians, and the large number of secondary schools, including conservatories, dedicated to the study of classical music. The only other genre in the Western world with comparable secondary education opportunities is jazz.

Complexity

Performance of classical music repertoire demands a significant level of technical mastery on the part of the musician; proficiency in sight-reading and ensemble playing, thorough understanding of tonal and harmonic principles, knowledge of performance practice, and a familiarity with the style/musical idiom inherent to a given period, composer or musical work are among the most essential of skills for the classically trained musician.

Works of classical repertoire often exhibit artistic complexity through the use of thematic development, phrasing, harmonization, modulation (change of key), texture, and, of course, musical form itself. Larger-scale compositional forms (such as that of the symphony, concerto, opera or oratorio, for example) usually represent a hierarchy of smaller units consisting of phrases, periods, sections, and movements. Musical analysis of a composition aims at achieving greater understanding of it, leading to more meaningful hearing and a greater appreciation of the composer's style.

Society

Often perceived as opulent or signifying some aspect of upper-level society, classical music has generally never been as popular with working-class society. However, the traditional perception that only upper-class society has access to and appreciation for classical music, or even that classical music represents the upper-class society, may not be true, given that many working classical musicians fall somewhere in the middle-class income range in the United States, and that classical concertgoers and CD buyers are not necessarily upper class. Even in the Classical era, Mozart's opere buffe such as ''Così fan tutte'' were popular with the general public.

Classical music regularly features in pop culture, forming background music for movies, television programs and advertisements. As a result most people in the Western World regularly and often unknowingly listen to classical music; thus, it can be argued that the relatively low levels of recorded music sales may not be a good indicator of its actual popularity. In more recent times the association of certain classical pieces with major events has led to brief upsurges in interest in particular classical genres. A good example of this was the choice of ''Nessun dorma'' from Giacomo Puccini's opera ''Turandot'' as the theme tune for the 1990 FIFA World Cup, which led to a noticeable increase in popular interest in opera and in particular in tenor arias, which led to the huge sellout concerts by The Three Tenors. Such events are often cited as helping to drive increases in the audiences at many classical concerts that have been observed in recent times.

History

The major time divisions of classical music are the early music period, which includes Medieval (500–1400) and Renaissance (1400–1600), the Common practice period, which includes the Baroque (1600–1750), Classical (1750–1830) and Romantic (1815–1910) periods, and the modern and contemporary period, which includes 20th century (1900–2000) and contemporary (1975–current).

The dates are generalizations, since the periods overlapped and the categories are somewhat arbitrary. For example, the use of counterpoint and fugue, which is considered characteristic of the Baroque era, was continued by Haydn, who is classified as typical of the Classical period. Beethoven, who is often described as a founder of the Romantic period, and Brahms, who is classified as Romantic, also used counterpoint and fugue, but other characteristics of their music define their period.

The prefix ''neo'' is used to describe a 20th century or contemporary composition written in the style of an earlier period, such as Classical or Romantic. Stravinsky's ''Pulcinella'', for example, is a neoclassical composition because it is stylistically similar to works of the Classical period.

Roots

The roots of Western classical music lie in early Christian liturgical music, and its influences date back to the Ancient Greeks. Development of individual tones and scales was done by ancient Greeks such as Aristoxenus and Pythagoras. Pythagoras created a tuning system and helped to codify musical notation. Ancient Greek instruments such as the aulos (a reed instrument) and the lyre (a stringed instrument similar to a small harp) eventually led to the modern-day instruments of a classical orchestra. The antecedent to the early period was the era of ancient music from before the fall of the Roman Empire (476 AD). Very little music survives from this time, most of it from Ancient Greece.

Early Period

The Medieval period includes music from after the fall of Rome to about 1400. Monophonic chant, also called plainsong or Gregorian Chant, was the dominant form until about 1100. Polyphonic (multi-voiced) music developed from monophonic chant throughout the late Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, including the more complex voicings of motets. The Renaissance period was from 1400 to 1600. It was characterized by greater use of instrumentation, multiple interweaving melodic lines, and the use of the first bass instruments. Social dancing became more widespread, so musical forms appropriate to accompanying dance began to standardize.

It is in this time that the notation of music on a staff and other elements of musical notation began to take shape. This invention made possible the separation of the composition of a piece of music from its ''transmission''; without written music, transmission was oral, and subject to change every time it was transmitted. With a musical score, a work of music could be performed without the composer's presence. The invention of the movable-type printing press in the 15th century had far-reaching consequences on the preservation and transmission of music.

Typical stringed instruments of the Early Period include the harp, lute, vielle, and psaltery, while wind instruments included the flute family (including recorder), shawm (an early member of the oboe family), trumpet, and the bagpipe. Simple pipe organs existed, but were largely confined to churches, although there were portable varieties. Later in the period, early versions of keyboard instruments like the clavichord and harpsichord began to appear. Stringed instruments such as the viol had emerged by the 16th century, as had a wider variety of brass and reed instruments. Printing enabled the standardization of descriptions and specifications of instruments, as well as instruction in their use.

Common Practice Period

The Common Practice Period is when many of the ideas that make up western classical music took shape, standardized, or were codified. It began with the Baroque era, running from roughly 1600 to the middle of the 18th century. The Classical era followed, ending roughly around 1820. The Romantic era ran through the 19th century, ending about 1910.

Baroque music

Baroque music is characterized by the use of complex tonal counterpoint and the use of a basso continuo, a continuous bass line. Music became more complex in comparison with the songs of earlier periods. The beginnings of the sonata form took shape in the canzona, as did a more formalized notion of theme and variations. The tonalities of major and minor as means for managing dissonance and chromaticism in music took full shape.

During the Baroque era, keyboard music played on the harpsichord and pipe organ became increasingly popular, and the violin family of stringed instruments took the form generally seen today. Opera as a staged musical drama began to differentiate itself from earlier musical and dramatic forms, and vocal forms like the cantata and oratorio became more common. Vocalists began adding embellishments to melodies. Instrumental ensembles began to distinguish and standardize by size, giving rise to the early orchestra for larger ensembles, with chamber music being written for smaller groups of instruments where parts are played by individual (instead of massed) instruments. The concerto as a vehicle for solo performance accompanied by an orchestra became widespread, although the relationship between soloist and orchestra was relatively simple. The theories surrounding equal temperament began to be put in wider practice, especially as it enabled a wider range of chromatic possibilities in hard-to-tune keyboard instruments. Although Bach did not use equal temperament, as a modern piano is generally tuned, changes in the temperaments from the meantone system, common at the time, to various temperaments that made modulation between all keys musically acceptable, made possible Bach's Well-Tempered Clavier.

Classical period music

The Classical period, from about 1750 to 1820, established many of the norms of composition, presentation, and style, and was also when the piano became the predominant keyboard instrument. The ''basic'' forces required for an orchestra became somewhat standardized (although they would grow as the potential of a wider array of instruments was developed in the following centuries). Chamber music grew to include ensembles with as many as 8–10 performers for serenades. Opera continued to develop, with regional styles in Italy, France, and German-speaking lands. The ''opera buffa'', a form of comic opera, rose in popularity. The symphony came into its own as a musical form, and the concerto was developed as a vehicle for displays of virtuoso playing skill. Orchestras no longer required a harpsichord (which had been part of the traditional ''continuo'' in the Baroque style), and were often led by the lead violinist (now called the concertmaster).

Wind instruments became more refined in the Classical period. While double reeded instruments like the oboe and bassoon became somewhat standardized in the Baroque, the clarinet family of single reeds was not widely used until Mozart expanded its role in orchestral, chamber, and concerto settings.

Romantic era music

The music of the Romantic era, from roughly the second decade of the 19th century to the early 20th century, was characterized by increased attention to an extended melodic line, as well as expressive and emotional elements, paralleling romanticism in other art forms. Musical forms began to break from the Classical era forms (even as those were being codified), with free-form pieces like nocturnes, fantasias, and preludes being written where accepted ideas about the exposition and development of themes were ignored or minimized. The music became more chromatic, dissonant, and tonally colorful, with tensions (with respect to accepted norms of the older forms) about key signatures increasing. The art song (or ''Lied'') came to maturity in this era, as did the epic scales of grand opera, ultimately transcended by Richard Wagner's Ring cycle.

In the 19th century, musical institutions emerged from the control of wealthy patrons, as composers and musicians could construct lives independent of the nobility. Increasing interest in music by the growing middle classes throughout western Europe spurred the creation of organizations for the teaching, performance, and preservation of music. The piano, which achieved its modern construction in this era (in part due to industrial advances in metallurgy) became widely popular with the middle class, whose demands for the instrument spurred a large number of piano builders. Many symphony orchestras date their founding to this era. Some musicians and composers were the stars of the day; some, like Franz Liszt and Niccolò Paganini, fulfilled both roles.

The family of instruments used, especially in orchestras, grew. A wider array of percussion instruments began to appear. Brass instruments took on larger roles, as the introduction of rotary valves made it possible for them to play a wider range of notes. The size of the orchestra (typically around 40 in the Classical era) grew to be over 100. Gustav Mahler's 1906 ''Symphony No. 8'', for example, has been performed with over 150 instrumentalists and choirs of over 400.

European cultural ideas and institutions began to follow colonial expansion into other parts of the world. There was also a rise, especially toward the end of the era, of nationalism in music (echoing, in some cases, political sentiments of the time), as composers such as Edvard Grieg, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, and Antonín Dvořák echoed traditional music of their homelands in their compositions.

20th century, modern, and contemporary music

Modernism (1905–1985) marked a period when many composers rejected certain values of the common practice period, such as traditional tonality, melody, instrumentation, and structure. Composers, academics, and musicians developed extensions of music theory and technique. 20th century classical music, encompassing a wide variety of post-Romantic styles composed through the year 1999, includes late Romantic, Modern and Postmodern styles of composition. The term "contemporary music" is sometimes used to describe music composed in the late 20th century through to the present day.

Significance of written notation

Modernist view of the significance of the score

The modernist views hold that Classical music is considered primarily a ''written'' musical tradition, preserved in music notation, as opposed to being transmitted orally, by rote, or by recordings of particular performances. While there are differences between particular performances of a classical work, a piece of classical music is generally held to transcend any interpretation of it. The use of musical notation is an effective method for transmitting classical music, since the written music contains the technical instructions for performing the work. The written score, however, does not usually contain explicit instructions as to how to interpret the piece in terms of production or performance, apart from directions for dynamics, tempo and expression (to a certain extent). This is left to the discretion of the performers, who are guided by their personal experience and musical education, their knowledge of the work's idiom, their personal artistic tastes, and the accumulated body of historic performance practices.

Criticism of the modernist view

Some critics express the opinion that it is only from the mid 19th century, and especially in the 20th century, that the score began to hold such a high significance. Previously, improvisation, rhythmic flexibility, improvisatory deviation from the score and oral tradition of playing was integral to style of music. Yet in the 20th century, this oral tradition and passing on of stylistic features within classical music disappeared. Instead, musicians use the score to play music, yet even given the score, there is considerable controversy about how to perform the works. Some of this controversy relates to the fact that this score-centric approach has led to performing styles that emphasize metrically strict block-rhythms (just as the music is notated in the score).

Some quotes that highlight this criticism of modernist overvaluing of the score:

''[...]one of the most stubborn modern misconceptions concerning baroque music is that a metronomic regularity was intended'' (Baroque Interpretation in Grove 5th edition by Robert Donington)

''Too many teachers, conditioned to 20th Century ideas, teach Bach and other Baroque music exactly the wrong way. This leads to what musicologist Sol Babitz calls "sewing machine Bach."'' ''[...] tendency to look alike, sound alike and think alike. The conservatories are at fault and they have been at fault for many years now. Any sensitive musician going around the World has noted the same thing. The conservatories, from Moscow and Leningrad to Juilliard, Curtis and Indiana, are producing a standardized product. [...] clarity, undeviating rhythm, easy technique, "musicianship". I put the word musicianship in quotes, because as often as not, it is a false kind of musicianship – a musicianship that sees the tree and not the forest, that takes care of the detail but ignores the big picture; a musicianship that is tied to the printed note rather than to emotional meaning of a piece.The fact remains that there is a dreadful uniformity today and also an appalling lack of knowledge about the culture and performance traditions of the past.'' (Music Schools Turning out Robots? by Harold C. Schonberg)

Improvisation

Improvisation once played an important role in classical music. A remnant of this improvisatory tradition in classical music can be heard in the cadenza, a passage found mostly in concertos and solo works, designed to allow skilled performers to exhibit their virtuoso skills on the instrument. Traditionally this was improvised by the performer; however, it is often written for (or occasionally by) the performer beforehand. Improvisation is also an important aspect in authentic performances of operas of Baroque era and of bel canto (especially operas of Vincenzo Bellini), and is best exemplified by the ''da capo aria'', a form by which famous singers typically perform variations of the thematic matter of the aria in the recapitulation section ('B section' / the 'da capo' part). An example is Beverly Sills' complex, albeit pre-written, variation of ''Da tempeste il legno infranto'' from Händel's ''Giulio Cesare''.

Its written transmission, along with the veneration bestowed on certain classical works, has led to the expectation that performers will play a work in a way that realizes in detail the original intentions of the composer. During the 19th century the details that composers put in their scores generally increased. Yet the opposite trend – admiration of performers for new "interpretations" of the composer's work – can be seen, and it is not unknown for a composer to praise a performer for achieving a better realization of the original intent than the composer was able to imagine. Thus, classical performers often achieve very high reputations for their musicianship, even if they do not compose themselves. Generally however, it is the composers who are remembered more than the performers.

Another consequence of the primacy of the composer's written score is that this has led to the state, where today improvisation plays a relatively minor role in classical music, in sharp contrast to musicians who lived during the baroque, classical and romantic era. Improvisation in classical music performance was common during both the Baroque era and in the nineteenth, yet lessened strongly during the 2nd half of the 19th and in the 20th centuries. Recently the performance of such music by modern classical musicians has been enriched by a revival of the old improvisational practices. During the classical period, Mozart and Beethoven often improvised the cadenzas to their piano concertos (and thereby encouraged others to do so), but they also provided written cadenzas for use by other soloists. In opera, the practice of singing strictly by the score i.e. ''come scritto'', is famously propagated by Maria Callas, who called this practice 'straitjacketing' and implied that it allows the intention of the composer to be understood better, especially during studying the music for the first time.

Relationship to other music traditions

Popular music

Classical music has often incorporated elements or material from popular music of the composer's time. Examples include occasional music such as Brahms' use of student drinking songs in his ''Academic Festival Overture'', genres exemplified by Kurt Weill's ''The Threepenny Opera'', and the influence of jazz on early- and mid-20th century composers including Maurice Ravel, exemplified by the movement entitled "Blues" in his sonata for violin and piano. Certain postmodern, minimalist and postminimalist classical composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.

There are numerous examples of influence in the opposite direction, including popular songs based on classical music, the use to which ''Pachelbel's Canon'' has been put since the 1970s, and the musical crossover phenomenon, where classical musicians have achieved success in the popular music arena.

Folk music

Composers of classical music have often made use of folk music (music created by musicians who are commonly not classically trained, often from a purely oral tradition). Some composers, like Dvořák and Smetana, have used folk themes to impart a nationalist flavor to their work, while others (like Bartók) have used specific themes lifted whole from their folk-music origins.

Commercialism

Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (either in advertising or in movie soundtracks). In television commercials, several passages have become clichéd, particularly the opening of Richard Strauss' ''Also sprach Zarathustra'' (made famous in the film ''2001: A Space Odyssey'') and the opening section "O Fortuna" of Carl Orff's ''Carmina Burana''; other examples include the ''Dies Irae'' from the Verdi Requiem, Edvard Grieg's ''In the Hall of the Mountain King'' from ''Peer Gynt'', the opening bars of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, Wagner's ''Ride of the Valkyries'' from ''Die Walküre'', Rimsky-Korsakov's "Flight of the Bumblebee", and excerpts of Aaron Copland's ''Rodeo''.

Similarly, movies and television often revert to standard, clichéd snatches of classical music to convey refinement or opulence: some of the most-often heard pieces in this category include Mozart's ''Eine kleine Nachtmusik'', Vivaldi's ''Four Seasons'', Mussorgsky's ''Night on Bald Mountain'', and Rossini's ''William Tell Overture''.

Education

Throughout history, parents have often made sure that their children receive classical music training from a young age. Some parents pursue music lessons for their children for social reasons or in an effort to instill a sense of self-discipline. Some believe that knowledge of important works of classical music is part of a good general education.

During the 1990s, several research papers and popular books wrote on what came to be called the "Mozart effect": an observed temporary, small elevation of scores on certain tests as a result of listening to Mozart's works. The approach has been popularized in a book by Don Campbell, and is based on an experiment published in ''Nature'' suggesting that listening to Mozart temporarily boosted students' IQ by 8 to 9 points. This popularized version of the theory was expressed succinctly by a ''New York Times'' music columnist: "researchers... have determined that listening to Mozart actually makes you smarter." Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000 per year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the co-authors of the original studies of the Mozart effect commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs."

See also

Notes

References

Kennedy, Michael (2006), ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', 985 pages, ISBN 0-19-861459-4

Further reading

Copland, Aaron;(1957) – ''What to listen for in music''. McGraw Hill.-10: 7018981026 (paperback).

Grout, Donald Jay; Palisca, Claude V. (1996) – ''A History of Western Music'', Fifth Edition. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-96904-5 (hardcover).

Hanning, Barbara Russano; Grout, Donald Jay (1998 rev. 2009) – ''Concise History of Western Music''. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-92803-9 (hardcover).

Johnson, Julian (2002). ''Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-514681-6.

Kamien, Roger (2008) – ''Music: An Appreciation'' Sixth Brief Edition ISBN 978-0-07-340134-8

Lihoreau, Tim; Fry, Stephen (2004) – ''Stephen Fry's Incomplete and Utter History of Classical Music''. Boxtree. ISBN 978-0-7522-2534-0

Scholes, Percy Alfred; Arnold, Denis (photographer) (1988) – ''The New Oxford Companion to Music''. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-311316-3 (paperback).

Taruskin, Richard (2005, rev. Paperback version 2009) – ''Oxford History of Western Music''. Oxford University Press (USA). ISBN 978-0-19-516979-9 (Hardback), ISBN 978-0-19-538630-1 (Paperback)

External links

Historical classical recordings from the British Library Sound Archive

Category:European music

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name	Liu Fang
background	non_vocal_instrumentalist
birth date	May 10, 1974
instrument	pipa and guzheng
genre	Chinese music from the classical tradition / Contemporary classical music / World Music
occupation	Soloist
years active	1985-''present''
website	www.philmultic.com }}

Liu Fang () (born 1974) is one of the most prominent ''pipa'' players in the world. Born in Kunming in the Chinese province of Yunnan, she began playing the ''pipa'' at the age of 6. Her first solo public performance was at the age of 9. In 1986, at age 11, she played for Queen Elizabeth II. Her studies at the Shanghai Conservatory of Music broadened her musical range and allowed her to study the ''guzheng''. At the age of 22, Liu Fang immigrated to Canada and is now a Canadian citizen, currently residing in Montreal. The decision to move to Quebec allowed her virtuosic playing to reach a wider international audience. Since 1999, she has performed hundreds of solo concerts featuring Chinese traditional and classical music on her two solo instruments - pipa and guzheng. Her profile has risen due to her rich and deeply spiritual performances as well as a wide ranging repertoire that features music from Chinese classical and folk traditions (including pieces rarely heard) as well as contemporary works from both east and west. Described in the media as the "empress of pipa" (''L'actualité''), "divine mediator" (World), "the greatest ambassadress of the art of the pipa" (La presse), Liu Fang is known as “possessing virtuoso technique, grace and a unique empathy toward the music she plays – whether it is a traditional and folk tune or a modern Western composition” (All Music Guide). "She has an extraordinary focused, poised presence in her manner and her playing. In a lesser player this is just a trained formality; the body of material and techniques for her instruments is extremely highly developed, passed down through centuries. But Liu Fang’s total devotion to her playing has moved her beyond perfect execution to the creativity and flexibility that marks a true musician."(in the ''fRoots'' Magazine, 06.2006).

Apart from her numerous solo concerts, Liu Fang has also many intercultural collaborations in terms of "Silk and Steel Projects", where "Silk" represents the traditional culture of China whereas "steel" is a metaphor for modernity and western culture. Her last album entitled "Silk Sound" (Le son de soie) featured musical dialogues with artists from three different continents and was awarded the grand prize of L'Académie Charles Cros, the French equivalent of the US Recording Academy. Back in 2001, Liu Fang was the only musician to receive the prestigious "Future Generation Millennium Prize" awarded by the Canada Council for the Arts to three artists of different disciplines under 30 years of age. The words of the jury summed up her achievements rather succinctly: "Liu Fang's mastery of the pipa and the guzheng has established her international reputation as a highly talented young interpreter of traditional Chinese music. She aspires to combine her knowledge and practice of eastern traditions with western classical music, contemporary music and improvisation, thereby creating new musical forms, uniting different cultures and discovering new audiences."

Liu Fang has made a number of national and international radio and TV appearances, produced several CDs. Liu Fang was invited as one of the featured artists by BBC World Service for the concert on November 7, 2003 dedicated to World AIDS Day. She performed at the 60th anniversary of UNESCO in Paris on November 16, 2005, and has also been honored by the government of Canada. She has performed with orchestras, string quartets and various instruments the works of many contemporary composers, including R. Murray Schafer, Tan Dun, Philip Glass, Janet Maguire, Ian Wilson, José Evangelista, Zhou Long, Melissa Hui, Diego Luzuriaga, Chen Yi, Toshiyuki Hiraoka, Yoshiharu Takahashi, David Loeb, Hugue Leclair, Simon Bertrand and Chantale Laplante, to mention a few, and has performed frequently with guitarist Michael O'Toole and the violinist Malcolm Goldstein.

Discography

'''Albums solo :'''

''The soul of pipa, vol. 3'' : Pipa Music from Chinese folk traditions, Philmultic, 2006

''Emerging Lotus'' : Chinese traditional guzheng music, Philmultic, 2005

''The soul of pipa, vol. 2'' : Chinese classical Pipa Music: from the ancient to the recent, Philmultic, 2003

''The soul of pipa, vol. 1'' : Chinese Pipa Music from the classical tradition, Philmultic, Canada, 2001

''Chinese Traditional Pipa Music'' : Oliver Sudden Productions Inc, Canada/USA, 1997

'''Collaborations :'''

''Along the Way - Duo pipa & violin'' : Philmultic, 2010

''Changes - Duo pipa & Guitar'' : Philmultic, 2008

''Le son de soie'' : Accords-Croisés/Harmonia Mundi, Paris, 2006

''Mei Hua - Fleur de prunier'' : ATMA Classique, Canada, 2004

''Arabic and Chinese music'' : Liu Fang et Farhan Sabbagh, Philmultic, 2000

''Musique chinoise'' : Solo, duo, et avec orchestre de chambre, Philmultic, 1999

Notes

External links

Liu Fang at CBC TV

Liu Fang live at Dutch TV Vrije Geluiden

Liu Fang Interview at allaboutjazz.com

Liu Fang's official site

Category:1974 births Category:Living people Category:People from Kunming Category:People from Yunnan Category:Chinese musicians Category:People's Republic of China musicians Category:Guzheng players Category:Pipa players Category:Chinese emigrants to Canada Category:Canadian people of Chinese descent Category:Canadian musicians of Asian descent Category:Contemporary classical music performers Category:Musicians from Montreal

de:Liu Fang es:Liu Fang fr:Liu Fang ko:리우 팡 it:Liu Fang nl:Liu Fang ja:劉芳 no:Liu Fang pl:Liu Fang pt:Liu Fang ru:Лю Фан fi:Liu Fang th:หลิว ฟาง zh:劉芳 (音樂家)

name	Tarja Turunen
alt	Turunen has long black hair parted in the middle and is wearing a bright yellow dress.
background	solo_singer
birth name	Tarja Soile Susanna Turunen
born	August 17, 1977Kitee, Finland
city of residence	Buenos Aires, Argentina
instrument	Vocals, piano
genre	Symphonic rock, symphonic metal, classical, classical crossover, Lied
occupation	Singer-songwriter, musician
years active	1996–present
label	Universal, Spinefarm, Nuclear Blast, Roadrunner, NEMS Enterprises, Drakkar Entertainment
associated acts	Nightwish, Beto Vázquez Infinity, Noche Escandinava
website	TarjaTurunen.com }}

Tarja Soile Susanna Turunen Cabuli or Tarja Turunen (), born August 17, 1977, is a Finnish singer-songwriter and composer. She is a full lyric soprano and has a vocal range of three octaves.

She is well-known as a professional classical (art song) singer but best known as the former lead vocalist of the Finnish symphonic metal band Nightwish, which she founded with Tuomas Holopainen and Erno Vuorinen in 1996. Their combination of hard and fast guitar riffs with Turunen's classical lead vocals quickly aroused the enthusiasm of critics and audiences. Their symphonic metal style, soon dubbed "opera metal", inspired many other metal bands and singers.

Turunen was dismissed from the band on October 21, 2005. She started her solo career in 2006 with the release of a Christmas album called ''Henkäys Ikuisuudesta'', which was supported by a classical tour in Finland and Russia. In 2007, Turunen released ''My Winter Storm'', an album featuring various styles, including alternative rock and symphonic metal. Her Storm World Tour supported this album. Turunen released her third album, ''What Lies Beneath'', on September 1, 2010. She performed several concerts in Europe, playing in metal festivals including the Graspop Metal Meeting and the Wacken Open Air, before starting the What Lies Beneath World Tour, scheduled to last until the end of 2012.

Early life

Tarja Turunen was born in the small village of Puhos, near Kitee, Finland. She has an older brother, Toni, and a younger brother, Timo. Her talent for music was first noted when she sang the song ''Enkeli taivaan'' (the Finnish version of ''From Heaven Above to Earth I Come'') in the Kitee church hall at age three. She joined the church choir and started having vocal lessons. At age six, she started playing piano.

At comprehensive school, Turunen performed as a singer for several projects. Her first piano teacher Kirsti Nortia-Holopainen remembered that “Tarja was in a school that had some very musical people. Even then she got to perform a lot. I think she sang in every school function there was.” Her music teacher, Plamen Dimov, later explained that “If you gave Tarja just one note, she immediately got it. With the others, you´d have to practice three, four, five times”. At school she had a tough time, since some girls bullied her because they envied her voice. To solve that problem, Dimov organized projects outside school. At fifteen, Turunen had her first major appearance as a soloist at a church concert in front of a thousand listeners. In 1993 she attended the Senior Secondary School of Art and Music in Savonlinna.

For several years Turunen preferred to perform soul music, like her biggest childhood idols, Whitney Houston and Aretha Franklin. Later she listened to songs from the classical singer Sarah Brightman, especially the song ''The Phantom of the Opera'', and decided to focus on that genre of music. At eighteen, she moved to Kuopio to study at the Sibelius Academy.

Musical career

With Nightwish

At Christmas break 1996 former classmate Tuomas Holopainen invited Turunen to join his new acoustic mood music project. She immediately agreed. At the recording session for the first demo Holopainen discovered that due to her classical singing lessons, Turunen's voice had become much more powerful than he recalled from their school days. At the following band practices, Emppu Vuorinen used an electric guitar instead of an acoustic guitar because he felt that it gave a better accompaniment to her voice. Holopainen decided to form Nightwish as a metal band. He later explained that the band members had gradually realised that Turunen's voice had become too dramatic for acoustic mood music. They came to the conclusion that the music had to be massive too. In this way Turunen was a major influence on the musical style of Nightwish.

In September 1997 Nightwish recorded a second demo with "more bombastic, dramatic" songs. Holopainen used this material to convince the Finnish label Spinefarm Records to publish the band's debut album, ''Angels Fall First''. The success of the first album came as a surprise to everyone. As the album hit the top 40 of the Finnish charts, Nightwish started their tour The First Tour of the Angels. That same year, Turunen performed at the Savonlinna Opera Festival for the first time, singing songs from Richard Wagner and Verdi.

Due to her commitment to the band, Turunen was not able to concentrate sufficiently on her schoolwork and interrupted her academic studies. In 1998 Nightwish published their second album, ''Oceanborn''. This album lacked the earlier elements of folk and ambient music, and instead focused on fast, melodic keyboard and guitar lines and Turunen's dramatic voice. In addition to the Oceanborn Europe Tour (1999), Turunen sang solo in Waltari's rock-themed ballet ''Evankeliumi'' (also known as ''Evangelicum'') in several sold-out performances at the Finnish National Opera. In 2000 and 2001 Nightwish recorded ''Wishmaster'' and ''Over the Hills and Far Away'' and toured Europe and South America (the Wishmaster World Tour).

In 2000 Turunen enrolled at the German music university Hochschule für Musik Karlsruhe to gain a professional qualification as a soloist with further specialization in art song. In addition to the good reputation of the university, Turunen chose to go to Karlsruhe because her increased profile in Finland meant that some people at the Finnish university did not take her seriously as a classical singer due to her commitment in a metal band. At Karlsruhe she was accepted as a classical singer who also sang in a metal band. In particular, her professors did not think of it as a flaw. While there, she recorded vocals for Nightwish's 2002 album ''Century Child'' and for Beto Vázquez Infinity. As with the other albums, Holopainen wrote the pieces and sent Turunen the lyrics and a demo recording of the prerecorded instrumental tracks by mail. Using the demo, Turunen designed her vocal lines and the choral passages.

In 2002 Turunen toured South America, performing in the classical Lied concert ''Noche Escandinava'' (''Scandinavian Night'') to sold-out houses. Following this and an exhausting world tour in support of ''Century Child'' (the World Tour of the Century), Nightwish took a hiatus and Turunen returned to Karlsruhe to finish her studies. In 2003 she married the Argentine Marcelo Cabuli, whom she had met on tour while staying in Buenos Aires in 2000. After the hiatus Nightwish recorded the album ''Once''; it was released on October 5, 2004. The album hit No. 1 on the European Top 100 Albums. The band performed in the supporting Once Upon a Tour throughout 2004 and 2005.

For Christmas 2004, Turunen released her first solo single, titled "Yhden Enkelin Unelma" (One Angel's Dream), which sold gold in her native country of Finland. At Christmas 2005 it made a reentry at position one in the Finnish Charts. In spring 2005 she prepared the duet "Leaving You for Me", a collaboration with Martin Kesici, accompanied by a video.

Breakup

The first change in the line up of Nightwish was in September 2001, when bassist Sami Vänskä was fired because Holopainen was no longer able to continue working with him. In the following years the relationship between Holopainen and Turunen's husband and manager Marcelo Cabuli deteriorated. This had an impact on the relationship between Holopainen and Turunen as well. In December 2004 Turunen announced to the band members that she wanted to leave the band after one more album and its subsequent tour, planned for 2006/2007. According to her husband, Turunen had agreed to release her first solo album after the new studio album from Nightwish. After the last concert of the ''Once Upon a Tour'' on October 21, 2005 (which was released on video as ''End of an Era''), Holopainen gave Turunen a letter signed by himself and the other band members informing her that the band did not want to work with her any more. The letter was simultaneously published on the band's website. The letter accused Turunen of having skipped too many rehearsals and of having behaved like a diva, and claimed her husband was partly responsible for her behavior. Turunen responded through an open letter on her website and through some interviews in which she explained her view. She was upset that after nine years of working together, Holopainen had announced the separation via an open letter. She felt the allegations were untrue, and asked that her husband be kept out of the debate. Because of the continuing media interest, Marcelo Cabuli posted a message addressing the situation on the website in February 2006. He asked that anyone who had questions should email him. In June 2006 Cabuli posted a lengthy reply to many of the questions he had received.

Despite the circumstances of the separation, Holopainen's appreciation of Turunen as an artist remained. He explained that he did not search for a similarly trained singer as a successor for Turunen because he considers her to be extraordinarily good in her genre and therefore irreplaceable. He said that one day he would like to reestablish the friendship. In October 2007, Turunen said in an interview that she is very proud of her career with Nightwish. She considers the remaining band members extremely talented and wishes all the best for them and their subsequent lead singer Anette Olzon.

Between 1997 and 2006 she had toured the world with Nightwish, playing in all the continents except Africa and Antarctica. She performed live for more than 500,000 people.

Independent career

In December 2005 Turunen performed several classical concerts in Finland, Germany, Spain, and Romania. Since Turunen expected to participate in another Nightwish album, several Christmas concerts and the release of her Christmas album ''Henkäys Ikuisuudesta'' (Finnish for "breath of eternity") were the only activities scheduled for 2006.

In July 2006 Turunen again played at the Savonlinna Opera Festival, this time as the main act; Turunen sang alongside Finnish tenor Raimo Sirkiä, supported by the Kuopio Symphonic Orchestra. Turunen performed classical arias like "O mio babbino caro" by Puccini, "Libiamo ne' lieti calici" by Verdi and some songs from Andrew Lloyd Webber—"Don't Cry for Me Argentina" and "Phantom of the Opera"—among other songs. In November she performed at the charity concert “Tomorrow's Child” with the Tapiola Choir as a benefit for the UNICEF Children's Fund. On December 6, 2006, Turunen performed a big concert at the Sibelius Hall in Lahti, Finland; it was broadcast live by the Finnish channel YLE TV2 for 450,000 viewers. She was nominated for the Finnish Emma Award as Best Soloist of 2006. Also in 2006, she recorded vocals for her brother Timo Turunen's debut album.

In 2007 Turunen recorded vocals for the track "In The Picture" on the Nuclear Blast All-stars album ''Into the Light'' In spite of speculation to the contrary at the time, Turunen did not focus entirely on classical music after the separation of Nightwish. Since August 2006 she worked on her next solo album, ''My Winter Storm'', the beginning of her solo projects. It was the first time that Turunen had written songs. She was supported by some professional songwriters. The choir and orchestral arrangements were written by film music composer James Dooley.

Turunen released ''My Winter Storm'', an album featuring various styles, including symphonic metal with classical “operatic” lead vocals, in November 2007. The album took the number one spot on the Finnish charts, and went platinum in Finland and double platinum in Russia. In late 2007 Turunen was nominated for an Echo as best newcomer and an Emma for best Finnish artist.

On May 9, 2008, Turunen embarked the Storm World Tour to promote ''My Winter Storm''. She opened the tour by performing at Wave-Gotik-Treffen in Leipzig and ended the tour in 2009 at the O2 Academy Islington in London. In December 2008, the EP ''The Seer'' was released in the UK and the new extended edition of ''My Winter Storm'' released on January 2, 2009.

On November 18, 2009, the Finnish charity Christmas album ''Maailman kauneimmat joululaulut'' (Finnish for "The World's Most Beautiful Christmas Songs") was released; three songs feature Turunen's vocals. In December 2009 she recorded her vocal part for the song "The Good Die Young", a duet with Klaus Meine which is included on the final Scorpions album ''Sting in the Tail''.

Turunen recorded her third album, ''What Lies Beneath'', in 2009 and 2010; it was released on September 1, 2010. The album combined metal with classical “operatic” elements in an out of the box approach. She started the What Lies Beneath World Tour performing in several festivals, including the Wacken Open Air and the Graspop Metal Meeting, with special concerts at Miskolc Opera Festival and at the Masters of Rock, when she performed accompanied by a full orchestra. The tour is scheduled to last until the end of 2012. Also in 2010 she supported Alice Cooper on the German leg of his tour.

On April 12, 2011, Turunen announced that she was planning to record a Classical album live in a church in Finland with the finnish organist Kalevi Kiviniemi. On July 17, 2011, she is scheduled to sing again at the Savonlinna Opera Festival as the main act, accompanied by the Kuopio Symphony Orchestra.

Singing style

Development

Parallel to visiting the music school in Savonlinna, Turunen began serious classical vocal training at 17. After school, she began studying music (with a specialization in church music) at the Sibelius Academy. Due to her commitment with Nightwish, she had to interrupt her academic studies.

From 2001 to 2003 she studied at the music academy Hochschule für Musik Karlsruhe, where she trained as a soloist with further specialization in art song. Turunen originally applied to train as a choir singer. At the audition she attracted the attention of professor Mitsuko Shirai, who encouraged Turunen to apply for soloist training.

As a classical singer, Turunen always sings with classical vocal technique. She explained that in the early days of Nightwish, it was difficult to combine classical technique with the metal sound in a way that gave her liberty of action without damaging her vocal cords. Classical techniques helped her to play with her voice, so she decided not to pursue extra training in rock/pop singing.

Towards the turn of the millennium, the combination of hard and fast guitar riffs with classical female lead vocals attracted a great deal of attention in the metal scene. The new music style of Nightwish quickly aroused the enthusiasm of critics and audiences; this symphonic metal style was soon dubbed "opera metal". Turunen does not see herself as an opera singer. She has sung excerpts from operas at the Savonlinna Opera Festival, but she stresses that singing opera cannot be performed as a side project. She would need special training to perfectly sing an entire opera without a microphone.

When asked how the association between the opera and metal genres may have arisen, Turunen said that despite the obvious differences, the two music styles have some similarities:

From the first Nightwish album ''Angels Fall First'' (1997) on, critics described Turunen's vocals using adjectives such as ''angelic'' or ''valkyrian''. On the following albums the singing was technically more complex. On the Nightwish album ''Oceanborn'' (1998), her classical vocal training was much more noticeable. For the song "Passion and the Opera", Turunen performed a staccato coloratura reminiscent of the aria "Hell's vengeance boils in my heart", sung by the soprano role Queen of the Night in Mozart's opera The Magic Flute. "Sleeping Sun" required a well trained breathing technique. Turunen explained in an interview that when they recorded ''Oceanborn'', she had serious doubts, fearing that she was not yet advanced enough in her studies to have mastered the required techniques.

A challenge of a different kind was the cover version of "Over the Hills and Far Away" (2001), as it required a deeper voice, far below the vocal range of an average soprano. In an interview with ''Breakout'' magazine, she reported that in the studio, the band members were shaken by a paroxysm of laughter as she tried to warm up for the vocal lines. As a side benefit of her efforts, Turunen gradually expanded her vocal range considerably into the lower range, which manifested even more on the following albums.

For the album ''Century Child'' (2002), she experimented with a more "rock" sounding voice, where she maintained the classical singing technique, but, for example, sang with less vibrato. Turunen was not satisifed that she had successfully transitioned to this new style until the album ''Once'' (2004).

This deeper "rock"-sounding voice on ''Once''—as well as on the song "In the Picture" of the album ''Into the Light''—was welcomed by critics as a refreshing change.

Her first solo album ''My Winter Storm'' (2007) contains rock and metal songs as well as songs that resemble classical songs. Turunen uses both her classical singing voice and a rock-sounding voice. In many songs she starts with a rock voice, and then switches for widely arching melodies into a distinctly classical singing voice.

In an interview, she explained that ''My Winter Storm'' was the first album where she had the chance to use her full vocal range.

Register

Turunen's voice type is soprano (more precisely, (full) lyric soprano). Over the course of her career, Turunen has developed a vocal range of three octaves.

Reception

Turunen's voice is described by critics as remarkably powerful and emotional. Sometimes it is stated that her voice is too trained or operatic for metal music, but even critics who do not like classical voices admit that her voice suits the kind of metal songs she sings unusually well.

Until the end of their collaboration, Turunen's singing was a trademark of Nightwish. She was known as the face and voice of Nightwish while bandleader Holopainen was the soul. Turunen was seen as a key to Nightwish's success. She is respected by other musicians of the metal genre and is an influence on their work; for instance, Simone Simons names her as her inspiration to study classical music and apply that vocal style to a metal band.

The media closely covered her very public separation from Nightwish, and Turunen's character became the subject of many media discussions. The band members stated that she had become greedy.

Marcelo Cabuli answered fans' questions related to this topic, stating that the band had agreed on the distribution of earnings in a contract at the formation of Nightwish. Based on that contract, other members got a higher share of royalties, which Turunen has never regretted.

Turunen receives most of her media attention in her homeland of Finland. In December 2003 she was invited by Finnish president Tarja Halonen to celebrate the Finnish Independence Day at the Presidential Palace together with other local celebrities. The event is televised annually live by the state-owned brodcaster, the Finnish Broadcasting Company. In December 2007 she performed different versions of the Finnish national anthem "Maamme" (Finnish: "Our country") accompanied by the Tapiola Sinfonietta, to celebrate the 90th anniversary of Finnish independence. The concert was televised by the Finnish Broadcasting Company for 2 million Finnish viewers. During her solo career, Turunen has sold over 86,000 certified records in Finland, which places her among the top 50 of best-selling female soloists.

In Europe, her popularity is mainly limited to the hard rock and metal scene. She had a broader exposure on November 30, 2007, when she was invited to open the farewell fight of Regina Halmich. Her performance of "I Walk Alone" was televised live by the German television station ZDF for 8.8 million viewers.

Discography

''Henkäys Ikuisuudesta'' (2006)

''My Winter Storm'' (2007)

''What Lies Beneath'' (2010)

References

External links

Tarja's Official Website

Category:1977 births Category:Living people Category:People from Kitee Category:Female heavy metal singers Category:Finnish female singers Category:Finnish heavy metal singers Category:Finnish singer-songwriters Category:Finnish sopranos Category:Women composers Category:Nightwish members

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Mauro Giuseppe Sergio Pantaleo Giuliani (July 27, 1781 – May 8, 1829) was an Italian guitarist, cellist and composer, and is considered by many to be one of the leading guitar virtuosi of the early 19th century.

Biography

Although born in Bisceglie, Giuliani's center of study was in Barletta where he moved with his brother Nicola in the first years of his life. His first instrumental training was on the cello—an instrument which he never completely abandoned—and he probably also studied the violin. Subsequently he devoted himself to the guitar, becoming a very skilled performer on it in a short time. The names of his teachers are unknown, and we cannot be sure of his exact movements in Italy.

He married Maria Giuseppe del Monaco, and they had a child, Michael, born in Barletta in 1801. After that he was probably in Bologna and Trieste for a brief stay; by the summer of 1806, fresh from his studies of counterpoint, cello and guitar in Italy, he had moved to Vienna without his family. Here he began a relationship with a certain Fräulein Willmuth, with whom he had a daughter, Maria, in 1807.

In Vienna he became acquainted with the classical instrumental style. In 1807 Giuliani began to publish compositions in the classical style. His concert tours took him all over Europe. Everywhere he went he was acclaimed for his virtuosity and musical taste. He achieved great success and became a musical celebrity, equal to the best of the many instrumentalists and composers who were active in the Austrian capital city at the beginning of the 19th century.

Giuliani defined a new role for the guitar in the context of European music. He was acquainted with the highest figures of Austrian society and with notable composers such as Rossini and Beethoven, and cooperated with the best active concert musicians in Vienna. In 1815 he appeared with Johann Nepomuk Hummel (followed later by Ignaz Moscheles), the violinist Joseph Mayseder and the cellist Joseph Merk, in a series of chamber concerts in the botanical gardens of Schönbrunn Palace, concerts that were called the "Dukaten Concerte", after the price of the ticket, which was a ducat. This exposure gave Giuliani prominence in the musical environment of the city. Also in 1815, he was the official concert artist for the celebrations of the Congress in Vienna. Two years earlier, on the 8th of December, 1813, he had played (probably cello) in an orchestra for the first performance of Beethoven's Seventh Symphony.

In Vienna, Giuliani had minor success as a composer. He worked mostly with the publisher Artaria, who published the large part of his works for guitar, but he had dealings with all the other local publishers, who spread his compositions all over Europe. He developed here a teaching reputation as well; among his numerous students were Bobrowicz and Horetzky.

In 1819 Giuliani left Vienna, mainly for financial reasons: his property and bank accounts were confiscated to pay his debtors. He returned to Italy, spending time in Trieste and Venice, and finally settling in Rome. He brought with him his daughter Emilia, who was born in 1813. She was educated at the nunnery ''L'adorazione del Gesù'' from 1821 to 1826, together with Giuliani's illegitimate daughter Maria. In Rome he did not have much success; he published a few compositions and gave only one concert.

In July 1823 he began a series of frequent trips to Naples to be with his father, who was seriously ill. In the Bourbon city of Naples Giuliani would find a better reception to his guitar artistry, and there he was able to publish other works for guitar with local publishers.

In 1826 he performed in Portici before Francesco I and the Bourbon court. In this time, which we could call Giuliani's Neapolitan period, he appeared frequently in duo concert with his daughter Emilia, who had become a skilled performer on the guitar. Toward the end of 1827 the health of the musician began to fail; he died in Naples on 8 May 1829. The news of his death created much of a stir in the Neapolitan musical environment.

Quotes

and pathetic a description as to make it appear the natural characteristic of the instrument. In a word, he made the instrument sing."|Philip James Bone|The guitar and mandolin, 1914 (page 127)}}

Works

Theme and variations

As a guitar composer he was very fond of the theme and variations— an extremely popular form in Vienna. He had a remarkable ability to weave a melody into a passage with musical effect while remaining true to the idiom of the instrument.

One example of this ability is to be found in his Variations on a theme of Handel, Op. 107. This popular theme, known as ''"The Harmonious Blacksmith"'', appears in the ''Aria'' from Handel's Suite no. 5 in E for harpsichord.

Another example is Giuliani's ''Sei variazioni sull'aria "A Schisserl und a Reindl"'', op. 38, which is a set of variations on the Austrian Folkslied ''A Schisserl und a Reindl, is åll mein Kuchlg'schirr'', used in the play ''Der Kaufmannsbude'' (1796), with music by Johann Baptist Henneberg (1768–1822) and text by Schikaneder; and in the play ''Der Marktschreyer'' (1799), with music by Franz Xaver Süssmayr (1766–1803) and text by Friedrich Karl Lippert. (Beethoven used the same theme in his work op.105, number 3 for flute and piano.)

His three-movement sonata Op. 15 is a clever, witty work and one of the most developed examples of the genre for guitar

The several sets of extended ''Rossiniana'' reside at the pinnacle of nineteenth-century operatic pot pourri for guitar.

Giuliani's achievements as a composer were numerous. Giuliani's 150 compositions for guitar with opus number constitute the nucleus of the nineteenth-century guitar repertory. He composed extremely challenging pieces for solo guitar as well as works for orchestra and Guitar-Violin and Guitar-Flute duos.

Outstanding pieces by Giuliani include his three guitar concertos (op. 30-36 and 70); a series of six fantasias for guitar solo, op. 119-124, based on airs from Rossini operas and entitled the "Rossiniane"; several sonatas for violin and guitar and flute and guitar; a quintet, op. 65, for strings and guitar; some collections for voice and guitar, and a Grand Overture written in the Italian style. He also transcribed many symphonic works, both for solo guitar and guitar duo. One such transcription arranges the overture to ''The Barber of Seville'' by Rossini, for two guitars. There are further numerous didactic works, among which is a method for guitar that is used frequently by teachers to this day.

Today, Giuliani's concertos and solo pieces are performed by professionals and still demonstrate the ability of the guitarist to play the piece, as well as Giuliani's natural ability as a composer for the classical guitar.

Original Sources of Themes

Giuliani arranged many 19th century opera themes for the guitar, e.g. from the opera Semiramide by Gioachino Rossini. His work ''Le Rossiniane'', also include numerous themes from the operas of Rossini.

Themes in Giuliani's ''Le Rossiniane''

''Rossiniana I'', op. 119

:Introduction (Andantino) :“Assisa a piè d’un salice” (Otello) :“Languir per una bella”, Andante grazioso (L’Italienne à Alger) :“Con gran piacer, ben mio”, Maestoso (L’Italienne à Alger) :”Caro, caro ti parlo in petto”, Moderato (L’Italienne à Alger) :“Cara, per te quest’anima”, Allegro Vivace (Armida)

''Rossiniana II'', op. 120

:Introduction (Sostenuto) :“Deh ! Calma, o ciel”, Andantino sostenuto (Otello) :“Arditi all’ire”, Allegretto innocente (Armida) :“Non più mesta accanto al fuoco”, Maestoso (Cendrillon) :“Di piacer mi balza il cor”, (La pie voleuse) :“Fertilissima Regina”, Allegretto (Cendrillon)

''Rossiniana III'', op. 121

:Introduction (Maestoso Sostenuto) :“Un soave non so che” (Cendrillon) :“Oh mattutini albori!”, Andantino (La dame du lac) :“Questo vecchio maledetto”, (Le Turc en Italie) :“Sorte! Secondami”, Allegro (Zelmira) :“Cinto di nuovi allori”, Maestoso (Ricciardo et Zoraïde)

''Rossiniana IV'', op. 122

:Introduction (Sostenuto-Allegro Maestoso) :“Forse un dì conoscerete”, Andante (La pie voleuse) :“Mi cadono le lagrime” (La pie voleuse) :“Ah se puoi così lasciarmi”, Allegro Maestoso (Moïse en Egypte) :“Piacer egual gli dei”, Maestoso (Mathilde de Shabran) :“Voglio ascoltar” (La pierre de touche)

''Rossiniana V'', op. 123

:Introduction (Allegro con brio) :“E tu quando tornerai”, Andantino mosso (Tancrède) :“Una voce poco fa” (Le Barbier de Séville) :“Questo è un nodo avviluppato”, Andante sostenuto (Cendrillon) :“Là seduto l’amato Giannetto”, Allegro (La pie voleuse) :“Zitti zitti, piano piano”, Allegro (Le Barbier de Séville)

''Rossiniana VI'', op. 124

:Introduction (Maestoso) :“Qual mesto gemito”, Larghetto (Sémiramis) :“Oh quante lagrime finor versai”, Maestoso (La dame du lac) :“Questo nome che suona vittoria”, Allegro brillante (Le siège de Corinthe)

List of compositions

Instruments used by Giuliani

Of the instruments used by Giuliani, there are known, guitars made by ''possibly:'' Gennaro Fabricatore, (Naples 1809)     (now in the collection of Gianni Accornero)At the bottom of the guitar, one can see the initials M G. The guitarcase also has the initials M G. ''briefly:'' Pons l'Aîné (Joseph Pons), (Paris 1812)This Pons guitar was made for Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria in Paris 1812, and later given to Giuliani: is known to have been in Giuliani's possession only briefly. Giuliani later gave it to the amateur guitarist Christopher Bilderbeck de Monte as a present. However, Giuliani did not often play this 1812 guitar: it hardly shows signs of use. ''unlikely:'' Pons l'Aîné (Joseph Pons), (Paris 1825)     (now in the collection of Gianni Accornero)The back cover of a CD claims ''"Giuliani's original Guitar Pons l'Aîné 1825"''.. Though this is probably a deceptive and possibly intentionally ambiguous claim. Gianni Accornero wrote the CD's liner notes about the guitar, and claims: ''"This instrument is in actual fact identical to the one which Joseph had made for Empress Marie-Louise of Habsburg, the wife of Napoleon, who later gave it to Giuliani. This instrument became one of his favourites. Not only the model is the same, but also are the different types of wood used for its construction."'' However Paul Pleijsier is critical of these claims; and has found flaws and inconsistencies in Accornero's claims. Pleijsier states that there is no evidence that Giuliani ever played the 1825 Pons.Eduardo Catemario (the performer on the CD) has insinuated ''"E' interessante notare che questa Pons è molto simile (per non dire identica) a quella di Giuliani"'',.

Books about Mauro Giuliani

Biographies

Nicola Giuliani: ''Mauro Giuliani, Ascesa e declino del virtuoso della chitarra (Guitar virtuoso: his hearly life and final decline)'' 2005, ISBN 8887618062

Nicola Giuliani: ''La sesta corda. Vita narrata di Mauro Giuliani'', Bari, Levante, 2008 ("La Puglia nei documenti", 12). ISBN 9788879494953

Thomas F Heck: ''Mauro Giuliani : virtuoso guitarist and composer.'' Publisher: Columbus : Editions Orphée, 1995. (English) ISBN 0-936186-87-9 OCLC 32394767 / Publisher: New Haven, 1970. OCLC: 125002

Nicola Giuliani: ''Omaggio a Mauro Giuliani : l'Orfeo della Puglia'' Type: Italian : Book Book Publisher: [S.l. : s.n.], 1999. OCLC: 45035045

Marco Riboni: Mauro Giuliani (1782-1829) : profilo biografico-critico ed analisi delle trascrizioni per chitarra Type: Italian : Book Book : Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Publisher: Anno accademico 1990-1991. OCLC: 32930581

Marco Riboni: Mauro Giuliani (1781–1829) : profilo biografico-critico ed analisi delle trascrizioni per chitarra Type: English : Book Book Publisher: [S.l. : s.n.], 1992. OCLC: 69237592

Brian Jeffery: Introduction and indexes Type: English : Book Book Publisher: London : Tecla Editions, ©1988. OCLC: 24958769

Filippo E Araniti: Nuove acquisizioni sull'opera e sulla vita di Mauro Giuliani : gli anni del soggiorno napoletano (1824–1829) Type: Italian : Book Book Publisher: Barletta-Trani : Regione Puglia-Assessorato Pubblica Istruzione, 1993. OCLC: 42716282

Thomas Fitzsimons Heck: The birth of the classic guitar and its cultivation in Vienna, reflected in the career and compositions of Mauro Giuliani (d.1829) ; Thematic catalogue of the complete works of Mauro Giuliani.Type: English : Book Book Publisher: New Haven, Conn. : Yale University, 1970. OCLC: 53726031

Brian Jeffery: Introductions and indexes by Mauro Giuliani. Type: English : Book Book.Publisher: Penderyn, South Wales : Tecla Editions, ©1988. OCLC: 52613698

Antonio Lasada: The butterfly, op. 30 by Mauro Giuliani. Type: English : Book Book. Publisher: Sydney : J. Albert & Son, 1976. ISBN 0-909700-90-7 OCLC: 27600649

Thomas Fitz / Simons Heck: The birth of the classic guitar and its cultivation in Vienna reflected in the career and compositions of Mauro Giuliani (d. 1829) Type: English : Book Book. Publisher: [S.l. : s.n.], 1970. OCLC: 65932060

Eduardo Caliendo: Metodo per chitarra by Mauro Giuliani. Type: Italian : Book Book. Publisher: Ancona ; Milano : Edizioni musicali Bèrben, [1978], ©1964.OCLC: 23479377

Mauro Giuliani: 25 etudes [Múscia]. Type: Spanish : Book Book.Publisher: Japon : Zen-On music, [19--]. OCLC: 70134885

Gaspare Spontini; Mauro Giuliani; Brian Jeffery; Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart; Vincenzo Bellini: Three operatic overtures arranged for two guitars : Spontini's La Vestale, Mozart's La Clemenza di Tito, and Bellini's Il Pirata : Wo0, 2G-1, 2, 4. Type: English : Book Book. Publisher: London : Tecla Editions, ©1986. ISBN 0-906953-83-9 OCLC: 38002311

Tomasina Soto Michel: Survey of program music in early romantic guitarists, 1800-1850. Type: English : Book Book : Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Publisher: 1994. OCLC: 30986316

Joseph Zuth: 24 [i.e. Vierundzwanzig] Studien für Gitarre, op. 100 by Mauro Giuliani; Type: German : Book Book Publisher: Mainz : B. Schott's Söhne ; New York : Schott Music Corp., 1929. OCLC: 41699112

Joseph J Gonzales; Johann Sebastian Bach: Recital document. Type: English : Book Book : Thesis/dissertation/manuscript. Publisher: 1995. OCLC: 33850916

Hans Ritter: 24 [i.e. Vierundzwanzig] Etüden für Gitarre, op. 48 by Mauro Giuliani; Type: German : Book Book Publisher: Mainz : B. Schott's Söhne ; New York : Schott Music Corp., [19--] OCLC: 41699167

Ludwig van Beethoven: Beethoven-Festnummer der Oesterreichischen Gitarre-Zeitschrift Type: German : Book Book Publisher: Wien : Kunstdruckerie Frisch & Co., 1927. OCLC: 40961302

Antonio Francesco Gori; Liuba Giuliani: Type: Italian : Book Book Publisher: Roma : Consiglio nazionale delle ricerche, ©1987. OCLC: 20634181

Analysis

Yvonne Regina Chavez: ''The flute and guitar duos of Mauro Giuliani'' Book: Thesis/dissertation/manuscript Publisher: 1991. (English) OCLC: 24571012

Roger West Hudson: The orchestration of the guitar concerto : a comparison of the Concerto in A major, op. 30, by Mauro Giuliani and the Concierto del sol by Manuel Ponce. Type: English : Book Book : Thesis/dissertation/manuscript. Publisher: 1992.OCLC: 31118635

Heike Vajen Rossiniana no. 6 op. 124 by Mauro Giuliani.Type: German : Book Book. Publisher: Celle : Moeck, (1986). OCLC: 46051295

Volker Höh: Sonata op. 15 : Fingersatz by Mauro Giuliani. Type: Book Book Publisher: Celle : Moeck, 1989. OCLC: 46095695

Horacio Ceballos: Sonata Op. 15 [Música] by Mauro Giuliani. Type: Spanish : Book Book. Publisher: Buenos Aires, Argentina : RICORDI, 1977. OCLC: 70134745

Kurt L Schuster: Performing Joseph Haydn's Divertimento a quattro, opus 2, no. 2 and Mauro Giuliani's Grand sonata eroica, opus 150. Type: English : Book Book : Thesis/dissertation/manuscript. Publisher: 1989.: 20402277

References

External links

Biography (''The guitar and mandolin'' by Philip James Bone, 1914)

Associazione Giuliani

Found: A Giuliani Guitar, Kept In A London Bank Since 1816 by Paul Pleijsier, 2001

Information (Tecla Editions)

Sheetmusic

Rischel & Birket-Smith's Collection of guitar music 1 Det Kongelige Bibliotek, Denmark

Boije Collection The Music Library of Sweden

George C. Krick Collection of Guitar Music Washington University

GFA Archive

maurogiuliani.free.fr

creativeguitar.org (sheetmusic largely compiled from the above primary sources)

Free scores at the Mutopia Project

Images of Giuliani

Image (www.beethoven-haus-bonn.de)

Images (NYPL Digital Gallery)

Image (Gallica)

image (ref.)

Category:1781 births Category:1828 deaths Category:Italian composers Category:Romantic composers Category:Composers for the classical guitar Category:Italian classical guitarists

bg:Мауро Джулиани de:Mauro Giuliani es:Mauro Giuliani fr:Mauro Giuliani fur:Maur Gjuliani it:Mauro Giuliani he:מאורו ג'וליאני la:Maurus Giuliani ja:マウロ・ジュリアーニ nn:Mauro Giuliani pl:Mauro Giuliani pt:Mauro Giuliani ru:Джулиани, Мауро sk:Mauro Giuliani fi:Mauro Giuliani sv:Mauro Giuliani uk:Мауро Джуліані

Frédéric François Chopin (; Polish: ''Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin''; 22 February or 1 March 1810 – 17 October 1849) was a Polish composer, virtuoso pianist, and music teacher of French–Polish parentage. He was one of the great masters of Romantic music and has been called "the poet of the piano".

Chopin was born in Żelazowa Wola, a village in the Duchy of Warsaw. A renowned child-prodigy pianist and composer, he grew up in Warsaw and completed his musical education there. Following the Russian suppression of the Polish November 1830 Uprising, he settled in Paris as part of the Polish Great Emigration. He supported himself as a composer and piano teacher, giving few public performances. From 1837 to 1847 he carried on a relationship with the French woman writer George Sand. For most of his life, Chopin suffered from poor health; he died in Paris in 1849 at the age of 39.

The vast majority of Chopin's works are exclusively for solo piano, the most notable exceptions being his two piano concertos. His compositions are technically demanding but emphasize nuance and expressive depth. Chopin invented the musical form known as the instrumental ballade and made major innovations to the piano sonata, mazurka, waltz, nocturne, polonaise, étude, impromptu, scherzo, and prélude.

Life

Childhood

Chopin's father was Nicolas Chopin, a Frenchman from Lorraine who had emigrated to Poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen and had served in Poland's National Guard during the Kościuszko Uprising (1794). In France he had been baptized ''Nicolas'' but later, living in Poland, he used the Polish form of his given name, ''Mikołaj''. He subsequently tutored children of the aristocracy, including the Skarbeks, whose poorer relative, Justyna Krzyżanowska, he married. The wedding took place at the 16th-century parish church in Brochów on 2 June 1806. (Justyna's brother would become the father of American Union General Włodzimierz Krzyżanowski.)

Frédéric Chopin was the couple's second child and only son. (The eldest child, Ludwika, was to become his first piano teacher, and several decades later was to repatriate his heart from Paris.) He was born at Żelazowa Wola, forty-six kilometres west of Warsaw, in what was the Duchy of Warsaw. The parish baptismal record, discovered in 1892, gives his birthday as 22 February 1810, but a date one week later, 1 March, was stated by the composer and his family as his birthday; according to Chopin in a letter of 16 January 1833 to the chairman of the Polish Literary Society in Paris, he was "born 1 March 1810 at the village of Żelazowa Wola in the Province of Mazowsze." He was baptized on Easter Sunday, 23 April 1810, in the same Brochów church where his parents had married. The parish register cites his given names in the Latin form ''Fridericus Franciscus''; in Polish, he was ''Fryderyk Franciszek''. His godfather was Fryderyk Skarbek (1792–1866), a former pupil of Nicolas Chopin—a prison reformer who would design the Pawiak Prison of later ill fame, and great-great-uncle of World War II SOE agent Krystyna Skarbek; the godfather's son Józef Skarbek would, in 1841, marry Frédéric Chopin's erstwhile fiancée Maria Wodzińska.

In October 1810, when Chopin was seven months old, the family moved to Warsaw, where his father had accepted an offer from lexicographer Samuel Linde to teach French at the Warsaw Lyceum. The school was housed in the Saxon Palace, and the Chopin family lived on the palace grounds. In 1817 Grand Duke Constantine requisitioned the Saxon Palace for military purposes, and the Lyceum was moved to the Kazimierz Palace, which also hosted the newly founded Warsaw University. The family lived in a spacious second-floor apartment in an adjacent building. Chopin attended the Warsaw Lyceum from 1823 to 1826.

The Polish spirit, culture and language pervaded the Chopins' home, and as a result the son would never, even in Paris, perfectly master the French language. Louis Énault, a biographer, borrowed George Sand's phrase to describe Chopin as being "more Polish than Poland".

Others in Chopin's family were musically talented. Chopin's father played the flute and violin; his mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the elite boarding house that the Chopins maintained. As a result Frederic became conversant with music in its various forms at an early age.

Józef Sikorski, a musician and Chopin's contemporary, recalls in his ''Memoirs about Chopin'' (''Wspomnienie Chopina'') that, as a child, Chopin wept with emotion when his mother played the piano. By six, he was already trying to reproduce what he heard or make up new melodies. He received his earliest piano lessons not from his mother but from his older sister Ludwika (in English, "Louise").

Chopin's first professional piano tutor, from 1816 to 1822, was the Czech Wojciech Żywny. Though the youngster's skills soon surpassed his teacher's, Chopin later spoke highly of Żywny. Seven-year-old "little Chopin" (''Szopenek'') began giving public concerts that soon prompted comparisons with Mozart as a child and with Beethoven.

That same year, seven-year old Chopin composed two Polonaises, in G minor and B-flat major. The first was published in the engraving workshop of Father Izydor Józef Cybulski (composer, engraver, director of an organists' school, and one of the few music publishers in Poland); the second survives as a manuscript prepared by Nicolas Chopin. These small works were said to rival not only the popular ''polonaises'' of leading Warsaw composers, but the famous ''Polonaises'' of Michał Kleofas Ogiński. A substantial development of melodic and harmonic invention and of piano technique was shown in Chopin's next known ''Polonaise'', in A-flat major, which the young artist offered in 1821 as a name-day gift to Żywny.

About this time, at the age of eleven, Chopin performed in the presence of Alexander I, Tsar of Russia, who was in Warsaw to open the ''Sejm'' (Polish Parliament).

As a child, Chopin displayed an intelligence that was said to absorb everything and make use of everything for its development. He early showed remarkable abilities in observation and sketching, a keen wit and sense of humor, and an uncommon talent for mimicry. A story from his school years recounts a teacher being pleasantly surprised by a superb portrait that Chopin had drawn of him in class.

In those years, Chopin was sometimes invited to the Belweder Palace as playmate to the son of Russian Poland's ruler, Grand Duke Constantine, and charmed the irascible duke with his piano-playing. (A few years later, the Duke would flee the Belweder, just in the nick of time, at the very opening of the November 1830 Uprising, escaping the Polish officer cadets who rode up through the Royal Baths Park from their barracks in an effort to capture him.)

Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz attested to "little Chopin's" popularity in his dramatic eclogue, "''Nasze Verkehry''" ("Our Intercourse", 1818), in which the eight-year-old featured as a motif in the dialogues.

In the 1820s, when teenage Chopin was attending the Warsaw Lyceum and Warsaw Conservatory, he spent every vacation away from Warsaw: in Szafarnia (1824 – perhaps his first solo travel away from home – and 1825), Duszniki (1826), Pomerania (1827) and Sanniki (1828).

At the village of Szafarnia (where he was a guest of Juliusz Dziewanowski, father of schoolmate Dominik Dziewanowski) and at his other vacation venues, Chopin was exposed to folk melodies that he later transmuted into original compositions. His missives home from Szafarnia (the famous self-styled "Szafarnia Courier" letters), written in a very modern and lively Polish, amused his family with their spoofing of the Warsaw newspapers and demonstrated the youngster's literary gift.

An anecdote describes how Chopin helped quiet rowdy children by first improvising a story and then lulling them to sleep with a ''berceuse'' (lullaby) – after which he woke everyone with an ear-piercing chord.

Education

Chopin, tutored at home until he was thirteen, enrolled in the Warsaw Lyceum in 1823, but continued studying piano under Żywny's direction. In 1825, in a performance of the work of Ignaz Moscheles, he entranced the audience with his free improvisation, and was acclaimed the "best pianist in Warsaw".

In the autumn of 1826, Chopin began a three-year course of studies with the Silesian composer Józef Elsner at the Warsaw Conservatory, which was affiliated with the University of Warsaw (hence Chopin is counted among that university's alumni). Chopin's first contact with Elsner may have been as early as 1822; it is certain that Elsner was giving him informal guidance by 1823, and in 1826 Chopin officially began studying music theory, figured bass, and composition with Elsner.

In year-end evaluations, Elsner noted Chopin's "remarkable talent" and "musical genius". As had Żywny, Elsner observed, rather than influenced or directed, the development of Chopin's blossoming talent. Elsner's teaching style was based on his reluctance to "constrain" Chopin with "narrow, academic, outdated" rules, and on his determination to allow the young artist to mature "according to the laws of his own nature".

In 1827 the family moved to lodgings just across the street from Warsaw University, in the south annex of the Krasiński Palace at Krakowskie Przedmieście 5 (what is now the Warsaw Academy of Fine Arts). Here the parents continued running their elite boarding house for male students. Young Chopin would live here until he left Warsaw in 1830. (In 1837–39, artist and poet Cyprian Norwid would live there while he studied painting at the Academy of Fine Arts; later he would pen the famous poem, "Chopin's Piano", about Russian troops' 1863 defenestration of the instrument.) The Chopin family's parlor (''salonik Chopinów'') is now maintained as a museum open to the public; it was in this parlor that Chopin first played many of his early compositions.

In 1829, Polish portraitist Ambroży Mieroszewski executed a set of five portraits of Chopin family members (the youngest daughter, Emilia, had died in 1827): Chopin's parents, his elder sister Ludwika, younger sister Izabela, and, in the first known portrait of him, the composer himself. (The originals perished in World War II; only black-and-white photographs remain.) In 1913, French musicologist and Chopin biographer Édouard Ganche would write that this painting of the precocious composer showed "a youth threatened by tuberculosis. His skin is very white, he has a prominent Adam's apple and sunken cheeks, even his ears show a form characteristic of consumptives." Chopin's younger sister Emilia had already died of tuberculosis at the age of fourteen, and their father would succumb to the same disease in 1844.

According to Polish musicologist and Chopin biographer Zdzisław Jachimecki, comparison of the juvenile Chopin with any earlier composer is difficult because of the originality of the works that Chopin was composing already in the first half of his life. At a comparable age, Bach, Mozart and Beethoven had still been apprentices, while Chopin was perceived by peers and audiences to be already a master who was pointing the path to the coming age.

Chopin himself never gave thematic titles to his instrumental works, but identified them simply by genre and number. His compositions were, however, often inspired by emotional and sensual experiences in his own life. One of his first such inspirations was a beautiful young singing student at the Warsaw Conservatory and later a singer at the Warsaw Opera, Konstancja Gładkowska. In letters to his friend Tytus Woyciechowski, Chopin indicated which of his works, and even which of their passages, were influenced by his erotic transports. His artist's soul was also enriched by friendships with such leading lights of Warsaw's artistic and intellectual world as Maurycy Mochnacki, Józef Bohdan Zaleski and Julian Fontana.

Youth

In September 1828, eighteen-year-old Chopin struck out for the wider world in the company of a family friend, the zoologist Feliks Jarocki, who planned to attend a scientific convention in Berlin. There Chopin enjoyed several unfamiliar operas directed by Gaspare Spontini, attended several concerts, and saw Carl Friedrich Zelter, Felix Mendelssohn and other celebrities. On his return trip, he was a guest of Prince Antoni Radziwiłł, governor of the Grand Duchy of Posen – himself an accomplished composer and aspiring cellist. For the Prince and his piano-playing daughter Wanda, Chopin composed his Introduction and Polonaise brillante in C major for cello and piano, Op. 3.

Back in Warsaw, in 1829, Chopin heard Niccolò Paganini play and met the German pianist and composer Johann Nepomuk Hummel. In August the same year, three weeks after completing his studies at the Warsaw Conservatory, Chopin made a brilliant debut in Vienna. He gave two piano concerts and received many favorable reviews – in addition to some that criticized the "small tone" that he drew from the piano.

This was followed by a concert, in December 1829, at the Warsaw Merchants' Club, where Chopin premièred his Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor, Op. 21; and by his first performance, on 17 March 1830, at the National Theater, in Warsaw, of his Piano Concerto No. 1 in E minor, Op. 11. In this period he also began writing his first ''Études'' (1829–32).

Chopin's successes as a performer and composer opened the professional door for him to western Europe, and on 2 November 1830, seen off by friends and admirers, with a ring from Konstancja Gładkowska on his finger and carrying with him a silver cup containing soil from his native land, Chopin set out, writes Jachimecki, "into the wide world, with no very clearly defined aim, forever." He headed for Austria, intending to go on to Italy. Later that month, in Warsaw, the November Uprising broke out, and Chopin's friend and traveling companion, the future industrialist and art patron Tytus Woyciechowski, returned to Poland to enlist. Chopin, now alone in Vienna, writes Jachimecki, "afflicted by nostalgia, disappointed in his hopes of giving concerts and publishing, matured and acquired spiritual depth. From a romantic... poet... he grew into an inspired national bard who intuited the past, present and future of his country. Only now, at this distance, did he see all of Poland from the proper perspective, and understand what was great and truly beautiful in her, the tragedy and heroism of her vicissitudes."

When in September 1831 Chopin learned, while traveling from Vienna to Paris, that the uprising had been crushed, he poured "profanities and blasphemies, resembling the final verses of Konrad's improvisation," in his native Polish language into the pages of a little journal that he kept secret to the end of his life. He expressed fear for the safety of his family and other civilians, especially the womenfolk at risk of outrages by the Russian troops; mourned the death of "kindly [General] Sowiński" (to whose wife he had dedicated a composition); damned the French for not having come to the aid of the Poles; and expressed dismay that God had permitted the Russians to crush the Polish insurgents – "or are you [God] yourself a Russian?" These outcries of a tormented heart found musical expression in his Scherzo in B minor, Op. 20, and his "Revolutionary Étude", in C minor, Op. 10, No. 12.

Paris

Chopin arrived in Paris in late September 1831, still uncertain whether he would settle there for good. In fact he would never return to Poland, becoming one of many expatriates of the Polish Great Emigration. In February 1832 Chopin gave a concert that garnered universal admiration. The influential musicologist and critic François-Joseph Fétis wrote in ''Revue musicale'': "Here is a young man who, taking nothing as a model, has found, if not a complete renewal of piano music, then in any case part of what has long been sought in vain, namely, an extravagance of original ideas that are unexampled anywhere..." Only three months earlier, in December 1831, Robert Schumann, reviewing Chopin's ''Variations on "La ci darem la mano"'', Op. 2 (variations on a theme from Mozart's opera ''Don Giovanni''), had written: "Hats off, gentlemen! A genius."

After his Paris concert ''début'' in February 1832, Chopin realized that his light-handed keyboard technique was not optimal for large concert spaces. However, later that year he was introduced to the wealthy Rothschild banking family, whose patronage opened doors for him to other private salons.

In Paris, Chopin found artists and other distinguished company, as well as opportunities to exercise his talents and achieve celebrity, and before long he was earning a handsome income teaching piano to affluent students from all over Europe. He formed friendships with Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, Vincenzo Bellini, Ferdinand Hiller, Felix Mendelssohn, Heinrich Heine, Eugène Delacroix, Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, Alfred de Vigny, and Charles-Valentin Alkan.

Though an ardent Polish patriot, in France he used the French versions of his given names and traveled on a French passport, possibly to avoid having to rely on Imperial Russian documents. The French passport was issued on 1 August 1835, after Chopin had become a French citizen.

In Paris, Chopin seldom performed publicly. In later years he generally gave a single annual concert at the Salle Pleyel, a venue that seated three hundred. He played more frequently at salons – social gatherings of the aristocracy and artistic and literary elite – but preferred playing at his own Paris apartment for small groups of friends. His precarious health prevented his touring extensively as a traveling virtuoso, and beyond playing once in Rouen, he seldom ventured out of the capital. His high income from teaching and composing freed him from the strains of concert-giving, to which he had an innate repugnance. Arthur Hedley has observed that "As a pianist Chopin was unique in acquiring a reputation of the highest order on the basis of a minimum of public appearances—few more than thirty in the course of his lifetime."

In 1835 Chopin went to Carlsbad, where, for the last time in his life, he met with his parents. En route through Saxony on his way back to Paris, he met old friends from Warsaw, the Wodzińskis. He had made the acquaintance of their daughter Maria, now sixteen, in Poland five years earlier, and fell in love with the charming, intelligent, artistically talented young woman. The following year, in September 1836, upon returning to Dresden after having vacationed with the Wodzińskis at Marienbad, Chopin proposed marriage to Maria. She accepted, and her mother Countess Wodzińska approved in principle, but Maria's tender age and Chopin's tenuous health (in the winter of 1835–1836 he had been so ill that word had circulated in Warsaw that he had died) forced an indefinite postponement of the wedding. The engagement remained a secret to the world and never led to the altar. Chopin finally placed the letters from Maria and her mother in a large envelope, on which he wrote the Polish words ''"Moja bieda"'' ("My sorrow").

Chopin's feelings for Maria left their traces in his Waltz in A-flat major, "The Farewell Waltz", Op. 69, No. 1, written on the morning of his September departure from Dresden. On his return to Paris, he composed the Étude in F minor, the second in the Op. 25 cycle, which he referred to as "a portrait of Maria's soul." Along with this, he sent Maria seven songs that he had set to the words of Polish Romantic poets Stefan Witwicki, Józef Zaleski and Adam Mickiewicz.

After Chopin's matrimonial plans ended, Polish countess Delfina Potocka appeared episodically in Chopin's life as muse and romantic interest. He dedicated to her his Waltz in D flat major, Op. 64, No. 1, the famous "Minute Waltz".

During his years in Paris, Chopin participated in a small number of public concerts. The list of the programs' participants provides an idea of the richness of Parisian artistic life during this period. Examples include a concert on 23 March 1833, in which Chopin, Liszt and Hiller performed J. S. Bach's concerto for three harpsichords; and, on 3 March 1838, a concert in which Chopin, his pupil Adolphe Gutman, Alkan, and Alkan's teacher Pierre Joseph Zimmerman performed Alkan's arrangement, for eight hands, of Beethoven's 7th symphony.

Chopin was also involved in the composition of Liszt's ''Hexaméron''; Chopin's was the sixth (and last) variation on Bellini's theme.

George Sand

In 1836, at a party hosted by Countess Marie d'Agoult, mistress of friend and fellow composer Franz Liszt, Chopin met French author and feminist Amandine Aurore Lucille Dupin, the Baroness Dudevant, better known by her pseudonym, George Sand. Sand's earlier romantic involvements had included Jules Sandeau (their literary collaboration had spawned the pseudonym ''George Sand''), Prosper Mérimée, Alfred de Musset, Louis-Chrystosome Michel, the writer Charles Didier, Pierre-François Bocage and Félicien Mallefille.

Chopin initially felt an aversion to Sand. He declared to Ferdinand Hiller: "What a repulsive woman Sand is! But is she really a woman? I am inclined to doubt it." Sand, however, in a candid thirty-two page letter to Count Wojciech Grzymała, a friend to both her and Chopin, admitted strong feelings for the composer. In her letter she debated whether to abandon a current affair in order to begin a relationship with Chopin, and attempted to gauge the currency of his previous relationship with Maria Wodzińska, which she did not intend to interfere with should it still exist. By the summer of 1838, Chopin's and Sand's involvement was an open secret.

A notable episode in their time together was a turbulent and miserable winter on Majorca (8 November 1838 to 13 February 1839), where they, together with Sand's two children, had gone in the hope of improving Chopin's deteriorating health. However, after discovering the couple were not wedded, the deeply religious people of Majorca became inhospitable, making accommodations difficult to find; this compelled the foursome to take lodgings in a scenic yet stark and cold former Carthusian monastery in Valldemossa.

Chopin also had problems having his Pleyel piano sent to him. It arrived from Paris on 20 December but was held up by customs. (Chopin wrote on 28 December: "My piano has been stuck at customs for 8 days... They demand such a huge sum of money to release it that I can't believe it.") In the meantime Chopin had a rickety rented piano on which he practiced and may have composed some pieces.

On 3 December, he complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in Majorca: "I have been sick as a dog during these past two weeks. Three doctors have visited me. The first said I was going to die; the second said I was breathing my last; and the third said I was already dead."

On 4 January 1839, George Sand agreed to pay 300 francs (half the demanded amount) to have the Pleyel piano released from customs. It was finally delivered on 5 January. From then on Chopin was able to use the long-awaited instrument for almost five weeks, time enough to complete some works: some Preludes, Op. 28; a revision of the Ballade No. 2, Op. 38; two Polonaises, Op. 40; the Scherzo No. 3, Op. 39; the Mazurka in E minor from Op. 41; and he probably revisited his Sonata No. 2, Op. 35. The winter in Majorca is still considered one of the most productive periods in Chopin's life.

During that winter, the bad weather had such a serious effect on Chopin's health and chronic lung disease that, in order to save his life, the entire party were compelled to leave the island. The beloved French piano became an obstacle to a hasty escape. Nevertheless, George Sand managed to sell it to a French couple (the Canuts), whose heirs are the custodians of Chopin's legacy on Majorca and of the Chopin cell-room museum in Valldemossa.

The party of four went first to Barcelona, then to Marseille, where they stayed for a few months to recover. In May 1839, they headed to Sand's estate at Nohant for the summer. In autumn they returned to Paris, where initially they lived apart; Chopin soon left his apartment at 5 rue Tronchet to move into Sand's house at 16 rue Pigalle. The four lived together at this address from October 1839 to November 1842, while spending most summers until 1846 at Nohant. In 1842, they moved to 80 rue Taitbout in the Square d'Orléans, living in adjacent buildings.

It was around this time that we have evidence of Chopin's playing an instrument other than the piano. At the funeral of the tenor Adolphe Nourrit, who had jumped to his death in Naples but whose body was returned to Paris for burial, Chopin played an organ transcription of Franz Schubert's lied ''Die Gestirne''.

During the summers at Nohant, particularly in the years 1839–43, Chopin found quiet but productive days during which he composed many works. They included his Polonaise in A flat major, Op. 53, the "Heroic", one of his most famous pieces. Sand describes Chopin's tumultuous creative process, filled with emotion, weeping, complaints, and hundreds of changes of concept eventually returning to the initial inspiration, on an evening in Nohant with friend Eugène Delacroix:

As the composer's illness progressed, Sand became less of a lover and more of a nurse to Chopin, whom she called her "third child." In the years to come she would maintain her friendship with Chopin while often affectionately venting her impatience in letters to third parties, referring to him as a "child," a "little angel," a "sufferer" and a "beloved little corpse."

thumb|upright|Chopin. Daguerreotype, 1846 or 1847.In 1845, as Chopin's health continued to deteriorate, a serious problem emerged in his relations with Sand. Those relations were further soured in 1846 by problems involving her daughter Solange and the young sculptor Auguste Clésinger. In 1847 Sand published her novel ''Lucrezia Floriani'', whose main characters – a rich actress and a prince in weak health – could be interpreted as Sand and Chopin; the story was uncomplimentary to Chopin, who could not have missed the allusions as he helped Sand correct the printer's galleys. In 1847 he did not visit Nohant. Mutual friends attempted to reconcile them, but the composer was unyielding.

One of these friends was mezzo-soprano Pauline Viardot. Sand had based her 1843 novel ''Consuelo'' on Viardot, and the three had spent many hours at Nohant. An outstanding opera singer, Viardot was also an excellent pianist who had initially wanted the piano to be her career and had taken lessons with Liszt and Anton Reicha. Her friendship with Chopin was based on mutual artistic esteem and similarity of temperament. The two had often played together; he had advised her on piano technique and had assisted her in writing a series of songs based on the melodies of his mazurkas. He in turn had gained from Viardot some first-hand knowledge of Spanish music.

In 1847, Sand and Chopin quietly ended their ten year relationship. Count Wojciech Grzymała, who followed their romance from the beginning, commented, "If (Chopin) had not had the misfortune of meeting G.S. [George Sand], who poisoned his whole being, he would have lived to be Cherubini's age." Chopin died at thirty-nine; his friend Cherubini died in Paris in 1842 at the age of eighty-one. The two composers are buried four meters apart at Père Lachaise Cemetery.

Final years

Chopin's public popularity as a virtuoso waned, as did the number of his pupils. In February 1848 he gave his last Paris concert. In April, with the Revolution of 1848 underway in Paris, he left for London, where he performed at several concerts and at numerous receptions in great houses. This tour was suggested to Chopin by his Scottish pupil and sometime secretary, Jane Stirling and her elder sister, the widowed Mrs. Katherine Erskine. Jane Stirling also made all the necessary arrangements and provided much of the necessary funding.

Toward the end of the summer he was invited by Jane Stirling to visit Scotland, staying at Calder House near Edinburgh and the castle (Johnstone, in Renfrewshire, near Glasgow), both owned by Jane Stirling's family members. It was by then being rumored, even internationally, that Miss Stirling and Chopin would soon announce their engagement but apparently Chopin had no amorous feelings for her. While in Edinburgh he also spent time at 10 Warriston Crescent, residing at the home of the Polish GP, Dr. Adam Łyszczyński, and being treated by him. He was generally so weak that Łyszczyński or his servant had to carry Chopin up and down stairs. He gave a single concert in Edinburgh, at the Hopetoun Rooms on Queen Street (now Erskine House).

In late October 1848, at the home of Dr. Łyszczyński, Chopin wrote out his last will and testament—"a kind of disposition to be made of my stuff in the future, if I should drop dead somewhere," he wrote his friend Wojciech Grzymała. In his thoughts he was now constantly with his mother and sisters, and conjured up for himself scenes of his native land by playing his adaptations of its folk music on cool Scottish evenings at Miss Stirling's castle.

Chopin made his last public appearance on a concert platform at London's Guildhall on 16 November 1848, when, in a final patriotic gesture, he played for the benefit of Polish refugees. His appearance on this occasion proved to be a well-intentioned mistake, as most of the participants were more interested in the dancing and refreshments than in Chopin's piano artistry, which cost him much effort and physical discomfort.

At the end of November, Chopin returned to Paris. He passed the winter in unremitting illness, but in spite of it he continued seeing friends and visited the ailing Adam Mickiewicz, soothing the Polish poet's nerves with his playing. He no longer had the strength to give lessons, but he was still keen to compose. He lacked money for the most essential expenses and for his physicians. He had to sell off his more valuable furnishings and belongings.

On 24 March 2011, Warsaw's Frédéric Chopin Museum recovered long-lost letters belonging to the composer. The letters are dated from 1845 to 1848, and describe his daily life and his cello sonata in G minor, opus 65. The letters were up for display at the Frédéric Chopin Museum until 25 April 2011.

Death

Feeling ever more poorly, Chopin longed to have a family member with him. In June 1849 his sister Ludwika Jędrzejewicz, who had given him his first piano lessons, agreed to come to Paris.

In September 1849, Chopin took a very beautiful, sunny apartment at Place Vendôme 12. The second-floor, seven-room apartment had previously housed the Russian embassy; Chopin could not afford it, but Jane Stirling, his wealthy Scottish pupil, rented it for him. On 15 October, when his condition took a marked turn for the worse, his numerous visitors were asked to leave, and a handful of his closest friends remained with him. A couple of times during those last two days, they thought that the end had come, but the composer was able to catch his breath again. He asked Delfina Potocka to play sonatas and prayed and called out to God, though only a few days earlier he had refused confession, saying that he did not believe in it. He complained that George Sand had promised that he "would die in her arms." He asked for a piece of paper and wrote: ''"Comme cette terre m'étouffera, je vous conjure de faire ouvrir mon corps pour [que] je ne sois pas enterré vif."'' ("As this earth will suffocate me, I implore you to have my body opened so that I will not be buried alive.")

On Wednesday 17 October, after midnight, the physician leaned over him and asked whether he was suffering greatly. "Not any more," Chopin replied. He died a few minutes before two o'clock in the morning.

Frédéric Chopin's illness and the cause of his death remained unclear and consequently have become a matter of medical argument. His death certificate stated the cause as tuberculosis. In 2008 an alternative cause of Chopin's death would be proposed: cystic fibrosis. In counterpoint, it can well be argued that survival with cystic fibrosis in the 19th century until the age of 39 was virtually impossible, without modern respiratory therapy and medical support. A full review of the possible causes of Chopin's long illness has recently been published. Given the contextual facts, it is much more likely that Chopin suffered from pulmonary tuberculosis.

Many people who had not been present at Chopin's death would later claim to have been there. "Being present at Chopin's death," writes Tad Szulc, "seemed to grant one historical and social cachet." Those actually around his bed appear to have included his sister Ludwika Jędrzejewicz, Princess Marcelina Czartoryska, Solange and Auguste Clésinger (George Sand's daughter and son-in-law), Chopin's friend and former pupil Adolf Gutmann, his friend Thomas Albrecht, and his confidant, Polish Catholic priest Father Aleksander Jełowicki. Later that morning, Clésinger made Chopin's death mask and a cast of his left hand, to which Chopin had given prominence in his compositions. Before the funeral, pursuant to his dying wish, his heart was removed. It was preserved in alcohol (perhaps brandy) to be returned to his homeland, as he had requested. His sister smuggled it in an urn to Warsaw, where it was later sealed within a pillar of the Holy Cross Church on Krakowskie Przedmieście, beneath an epitaph sculpted by Leonard Marconi, bearing an inscription from ''Matthew'' VI:21: "For where your treasure is, there will your heart be also." Chopin's heart has reposed there – except for a period during World War II, when it was removed for safekeeping – within the church that was rebuilt after its virtual destruction during the 1944 Warsaw Uprising. The church stands only a short distance from Chopin's last Polish residence, the Krasiński Palace at Krakowskie Przedmieście 5. The funeral, to be held at the Church of the Madeleine in Paris, was delayed almost two weeks, until 30 October. Chopin had requested that Mozart's ''Requiem'' be sung. The ''Requiem'' had major parts for female voices, but the Church of the Madeleine had never permitted female singers in its choir. The Church finally relented, on condition that the female singers remain behind a black velvet curtain.

The soloists in the ''Requiem'' included the bass Luigi Lablache – who had sung the same work at the funerals of Haydn and Beethoven, and had also sung at Bellini's funeral – and Chopin's and George Sand's friend, the mezzo-soprano Pauline Viardot. Also played were Chopin's Préludes No. 4 in E minor and No. 6 in B minor. The organist was Franz Liszt.

The funeral was attended by nearly three thousand people, but George Sand was not among them.

The funeral procession traversed the considerable distance from the church, in the center of town, adjacent to the Opera, to Père Lachaise Cemetery at the city's eastern edge. It was led by the dean of the Polish Great Emigration, the aged Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski; immediately after the casket, which was borne by shifts of artists (including Eugène Delacroix, cellist Auguste Franchomme and pianist Camille Pleyel), walked Chopin's sister Ludwika.

Chopin was interred at Père Lachaise Cemetery, in accordance with his wishes. At the graveside, the ''Funeral March'' from his Sonata No. 2 in B flat minor, Op. 35, was played, in Napoléon Henri Reber's instrumentation.

Chopin's tombstone, featuring the muse of music, Euterpe, weeping over a broken lyre, was designed and sculpted by Auguste Clésinger. The expenses of the funeral and monument, in the amount of five thousand francs, were covered by Jane Stirling, who also paid for Chopin's sister's return to Warsaw. Jane Stirling wore black mourning dresses for a long time thereafter (some sources say for the rest of her life).

Chopin's grave attracts numerous visitors and is consistently decorated with flowers, even in winter.

Memorials

In 1909, to celebrate Chopin's centenary, the Russian composer Sergei Lyapunov wrote a "symphonic poem in memory of Chopin", titled ''Zhelazova Vola'', Op. 37 (), a reference to Chopin's birthplace.

In 1926 a bronze statue of Chopin, designed by sculptor Wacław Szymanowski in 1907, was erected in the upper part of Warsaw's Royal Baths (''Łazienki'') Park, adjacent to Ujazdów Avenue (''Aleje Ujazdowskie''). The statue was originally to have been installed in 1910, on the centenary of Chopin's birth, but its execution was delayed by controversy about the design, then by the outbreak of World War I.

On 31 May 1940, during the German occupation of Poland in World War II, the statue was destroyed by the Nazis. It was reconstructed after the war, in 1958. Since 1959, free piano recitals of Chopin's compositions have been performed at the statue's base on summer Sunday afternoons. The stylized willow over Chopin's seated figure echoes a pianist's hand and fingers. Until 2007, the statue was the world's tallest monument to Chopin.

A 1:1-scale replica of Szymanowski's ''Art Nouveau'' statue is found in Warsaw's sister city of Hamamatsu, Japan. There are also preliminary plans to erect another replica along Chicago's lakefront in addition to a different sculpture commemorating the artist in Chopin Park for the 200th anniversary of Chopin's birth.

A bronze bust memorializing Chopin stands at Symphony Circle outside Kleinhans Music Hall in Buffalo, New York.

There are numerous other monuments to Chopin around the world. The most recent, by a small margin taller than the Warsaw statue, is a modernistic bronze sculpture by Lu Pin in Shanghai, China, that was unveiled on 3 March 2007.

The world's oldest monographic music competition, the International Chopin Piano Competition, founded in 1927, is held every five years in Warsaw.

Established in 1954, the Fryderyk Chopin Museum is housed in Warsaw's Ostrogski Palace, seat of the Fryderyk Chopin Society. Refurbished for the 200th anniversary (2010) of Chopin's birth, the Fryderyk Chopin Museum is the most modern museum in Poland.

Periodically the ''Grand prix du disque de F. Chopin'' is awarded for notable Chopin recordings, both remastered and newly recorded work.

Named for the composer are the largest Polish music conservatory, the Fryderyk Chopin University of Music in Warsaw; Warsaw Chopin Airport; the Chopin crater on Mercury; and asteroid 3784 Chopin.

Music

The great majority of Chopin's compositions were written for the piano as solo instrument; all of his extant works feature the piano in one way or another. Chopin, according to Arthur Hedley, "had the rare gift of a very personal melody, expressive of heart-felt emotion, and his music is penetrated by a poetic feeling that has an almost universal appeal.... Present-day evaluation places him among the immortals of music by reason of his insight into the secret places of the heart and because of his awareness of the magical new sonorities to be drawn from the piano."

It is very difficult to characterise Chopin's oeuvre briefly. Robert Schumann, speaking of Chopin's Sonata in B-flat minor, wrote that "he alone begins and ends a work like this: with dissonances, through dissonances, and in dissonances," and in Chopin's music he discerned "cannon concealed amid blossoms." Franz Liszt, in the opening of his biography about Chopin (Life of Chopin), termed him a "gentle, harmonious genius." Thus disparate have been the views on Chopin's music. The first systematic, if imperfect, study of Chopin's style came in F. P. Laurencin's 1861 ''Die Harmonik der Neuzeit''. Laurencin concluded that "Chopin is one of the most brilliant exceptional natures that have ever stridden onto the stage of history and life, he is one who can never be exhausted nor stand before a void. Chopin is the musical progone of all progones until now."

According to Tad Szulc, though technically demanding, Chopin's works emphasize nuance and expressive depth rather than sheer virtuosity. Vladimir Horowitz referred to Chopin as "the only truly great composer for the piano."

Chopin's music for the piano combined a unique rhythmic sense (particularly his use of rubato), frequent use of chromaticism, and counterpoint. This mixture produces a particularly fragile sound in the melody and the harmony, which are nonetheless underpinned by solid and interesting harmonic techniques. He took the new salon genre of the nocturne, invented by Irish composer John Field, to a deeper level of sophistication. Three of Chopin's twenty-one ''Nocturnes'' were published only after his death in 1849, contrary to his wishes. He also endowed popular dance forms, such as the Polish ''mazurek'' and the Viennese Waltz, with a greater range of melody and expression.

Chopin's mazurkas, while based somewhat on the traditional Polish dance (the ''mazurek''), were different from the traditional variety in that they were suitable for concerts halls as well as dance settings. With his mazurkas, Chopin brought a new sense of nationalism, which was an idea that other composers writing both at the same time as, and after, Chopin would also incorporate into their compositions. Chopin’s nationalism was a great influence and inspiration for many other composers, especially Eastern Europeans, and he was one of the first composers to clearly express nationalism through his music. Furthermore, he was the first composer to take a national genre of music from his home country and transform it into a genre worthy of the general concert-going public, thereby creating an entirely new genre.

Chopin was the first to write ballades and scherzi as individual pieces. He also took the example of Bach's preludes and fugues, transforming the genre in his own Préludes. Chopin reinvented the étude, expanding on the idea and making it into a gorgeous, eloquent and emotional showpiece. He also used his ''Études'' to teach his own revolutionary style, for instance playing with the weak fingers (3, 4, and 5) in fast figures (Op. 10, No. 2), playing in octaves (Op 25, No.10) and playing black keys with the thumb (Op. 10, No. 5).

Influence

Several of Chopin's pieces have become very well known—for instance the ''Revolutionary Étude'' (Op. 10, No. 12), the ''Minute Waltz'' (Op. 64, No. 1), and the third movement of his ''Funeral March'' Sonata No. 2 (Op. 35), which is often used as an iconic representation of grief. Chopin himself never named an instrumental work beyond genre and number, leaving all potential extra-musical associations to the listener; the names by which we know many of the pieces were invented by others. The ''Revolutionary Étude'' was not written with the failed Polish uprising against Russia in mind; it merely appeared at that time. The ''Funeral March'' was written before the rest of the sonata within which it is contained, but the exact occasion is not known; it appears not to have been inspired by any specific personal bereavement. Other melodies have been used as the basis of popular songs, such as the slow section of the ''Fantaisie-Impromptu'' (Op. posth. 66) and the first section of the Étude, Op. 10, No. 3. These pieces often rely on an intense and personalised chromaticism, as well as a melodic curve that resembles the operas of Chopin's day – the operas of Gioachino Rossini, Gaetano Donizetti, and especially Vincenzo Bellini. Chopin used the piano to recreate the gracefulness of the singing voice, and talked and wrote constantly about singers.

Chopin's style and gifts became increasingly influential. Robert Schumann was a huge admirer of Chopin's music, and he used melodies from Chopin and even named a piece from his suite ''Carnaval'' after Chopin. This admiration was not generally reciprocated, although Chopin did dedicate his Ballade No. 2 in F major to Schumann.

Franz Liszt was another admirer and personal friend of the composer, and he transcribed for piano six of Chopin's Polish songs. However, Liszt denied that he wrote ''Funérailles'' (subtitled "October 1849", the seventh movement of his piano suite ''Harmonies poétiques et religieuses'' of 1853) in memory of Chopin. Though the middle section seems to be modeled on the famous octave trio section of Chopin's Polonaise in A flat major, Op. 53, Liszt said the piece had been inspired by the deaths of three of his Hungarian compatriots in the same month. However, Liszt's Hungarian Rhapsody No. 2 in C-sharp minor borrows heavily from the "funeral march" third movement of Chopin's Piano Sonata No. 2 in B-flat minor. This influence can be seen in the first segment of Liszt's piece: this section expands on Chopin's minimalist melody.

Johannes Brahms and the younger Russian composers, too, found inspiration in Chopin's examples. Chopin's technical innovations became influential. His Préludes (Op. 28) and Études (Opp. 10 and 25) rapidly became standard works, and inspired both Liszt's ''Transcendental Études'' and Schumann's ''Symphonic Studies''. Alexander Scriabin was also strongly influenced by Chopin; for example, his 24 Preludes, Op. 11, are inspired by Chopin's Op. 28.

Jeremy Siepmann, in his biography of the composer, lists pianists whose recordings of Chopin are generally acknowledged to be among the greatest Chopin performances ever preserved: Vladimir de Pachmann, Raoul Pugno, Ignacy Jan Paderewski, Moriz Rosenthal, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Alfred Cortot, Ignaz Friedman, Raoul Koczalski, Arthur Rubinstein, Mieczysław Horszowski, Claudio Arrau, Vlado Perlemuter, Vladimir Horowitz, Dinu Lipatti, Vladimir Ashkenazy, Martha Argerich, Maurizio Pollini, Murray Perahia, Krystian Zimerman, Evgeny Kissin.

Arthur Rubinstein said the following about Chopin's music and its universality:

Style

Although Chopin lived in the 19th century, he was educated in the tradition of Beethoven, Haydn, Mozart and Clementi; he used Clementi's piano method with his own students. He was also influenced by Hummel's development of virtuoso, yet Mozartian, piano technique. Chopin cited Bach and Mozart as the two most important composers in shaping his musical outlook.

The series of seven Polonaises published in his lifetime (another nine were published posthumously), beginning with the Op. 26 pair, set a new standard for music in the form, and were rooted in Chopin's desire to write something to celebrate Polish culture after the country had fallen into Russian control. The Polonaise in A major, Op. 40, No. 1, the "Military," and the Polonaise in A-flat major, Op. 53, the "Heroic," are among Chopin's best-loved and most-often-played works.

Chopin also wrote 24 different preludes as a tribute to J. S. Bach's "The Well Tempered Clavier." Chopin's preludes move up the circle-of-fifths, whereas Bach uses the chromatic scale to create a prelude in every major and minor tonality achievable on the clavier.

Rubato

Chopin's music is well known for benefiting from ''rubato'' (which was how he himself performed his music), as opposed to a strictly regular playing. Yet there is usually call for caution when the music is performed with wobbly, over-exaggerated, ''inappropriate'' "rubato" (e.g. attempting to justify insecure playing, with reference to expressive rubato).

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However, while some can provide restrictive quotes about Chopin such as the above, often to the effect that "the accompanying hand always played in strict tempo", these quotes need to be considered in better context in terms both of the time when they were made and of the situations that may have prompted the original writer to set down the thoughts. Constantin von Sternberg (1852–1924) has written: }}

There are also views of contemporary writers such as Hector Berlioz.

This suggests that Chopin is not to be found at commonly encountered ''one-sided'' extremes. The unbalanced views are:

that Chopin requires metronomic rhythm in the left hand;

that insecure performances of Chopin can be justified with reference to rubato;

that performances with particular inflections, that result from technical limits/insecurities rather than a performer's intentions, can be justified with reference to rubato.

Some performers' (and piano-schools') "too strongly held one-sided views on Chopin's way of playing rubato" may account for some unsatisfactory interpretations of his music.

Romanticism

Chopin is considered one of the great masters of Romantic music.

Chopin regarded most of his contemporaries with indifference, though he had many acquaintances who were associated with romanticism in music, literature, and the fine arts—many of them via his liaison with George Sand. Chopin's music is, however, considered by many to epitomise the Romantic style. The relative classical purity and discretion in his music, with little extravagant exhibitionism, partly reflects his reverence for Bach and Mozart.

Chopin never indulged in explicit "scene-painting" in his music, or used programmatic titles. He castigated publishers who renamed his compositions in this way.

Nationalism

Chopin's Polish biographer Zdzisław Jachimecki notes that "Chopin at every step demonstrated his Polish spirit – in the hundreds of letters that he wrote in Polish, in his attitude to Paris' [Polish] émigrés, in his negative view of all that bore the official stamp of the powers that occupied Poland." Likewise Chopin composed music to accompany Polish texts but never musically illustrated a single French or German text, though he numbered among his friends several great French and German poets.

According to his English biographer Arthur Hedley, Chopin "found within himself and in the tragic story of Poland the chief sources of his inspiration. The theme of Poland's glories and sufferings was constantly before him, and he transmuted the primitive rhythms and melodies of his youth into enduring art forms."

In asserting his own Polishness, Chopin, according to Jachimecki, exerted "a tremendous influence [toward] the nationalization of the work of numerous later composers, who have often personally – like the Czech Smetana and Norway's Grieg – confirmed this opinion..."

The Hungarian composer Franz Liszt, Chopin's contemporary, referred to Chopin's Polish homeland when he wrote that Chopin "may be ranked first among musicians who have had an individual poetic sense of a particular nation." He referred to Chopin as "a Polish artist." Composer Robert Schumann acknowledged the strength of Chopin's personal reaction to Russia's suppression of the November 1830 Uprising when he wrote that in Chopin's music one found "guns buried among the flowers."

Some Polish writers have used, for Chopin's surname, the Polonized phonetic spelling, "''Szopen''" (pronounced ).

Works

Over 230 Chopin works survive; some compositions from early childhood have been lost. All his known works involved the piano. Only a few ranged beyond solo-piano music, as either piano concertos or chamber music.

Chopin composed:

58 mazurkas

27 études (twelve in the Op. 10 cycle, twelve in the Op. 25 cycle, and three in a collection without an opus number)

27 preludes

21 nocturnes

20 waltzes

18 polonaises, including one with orchestral accompaniment and one for cello and piano accompaniment

5 rondos

4 ballades

4 impromptus

4 scherzi

4 sets of variations, including ''Souvenir de Paganini''

3 écossaises

3 piano sonatas

2 concerti for piano and orchestra, Op. 11 and 21

He also composed: a fantaisie, an ''Allegro de concert'' (which is possibly the remnant of an incomplete concerto), a barcarole, a berceuse, a bolero, a tarantelle, a contredanse, a fugue, a cantabile, a lento, a Funeral march, and a ''Feuille d'album''.

Chopin's other works include: a krakowiak for piano and orchestra; ''Variations on "Là ci darem la mano"'' for piano and orchestra; fantasia on themes from Polish songs with accompanying orchestra; a trio for violin, cello and piano; a sonata for cello and piano; a ''Grand Duo in E major'' for cello and piano on themes from Giacomo Meyerbeer's opera ''Robert le diable'', co-written with Auguste Franchomme; and 19 Polish songs for voice and piano.

Opus numbers

The last opus number that Chopin himself used was 65, allocated to the Cello Sonata in G minor.

Chopin expressed a deathbed wish that all his unpublished manuscripts be destroyed. However, at the request of the composer's mother and sisters, his pianist friend and musical executor Julian Fontana selected 23 unpublished piano pieces and grouped them into eight opus numbers (Opp. 66–73). These works were published in 1855.

In 1857, 17 Polish songs which Chopin wrote at various stages of his life were collected and published as Op. 74—the order within that opus having little regard to the actual order of composition. Two other songs were published in 1910.

Works that have been published since 1857 have not received opus numbers. Instead, alternate catalog designations have been applied to them.

Publishing

Chopin published much of his music simultaneously in Germany, France, and England. While this certainly earned the composer triple exposure and likely a good sum of revenue, the discrepancies between these three (or more) editions can be quite the conundrum. Ever the romantic, Chopin lived in a constant state of inspiration and improvisation, and was certainly prone to editing and revising his own music even after sending final drafts to his publishers. Especially considering that all published editions of his work during his lifetime were in fact proofed and approved by the composer himself, this is a popular source of anxiety amongst pianists and scholars.

How is one to know what the composer truly meant and wanted when we are presented with autographs and first drafts bearing the composer’s approval that differ in content? Details such as phrase markings, dynamics, fingerings, even the notes themselves are often subject to suspicion. The several editions of the time had different ways of dealing with this problem; the Germans of course believed that their version was infallible, the French called Chopin their own, having spent most of his adult life based in Paris, and the English publisher (a German who largely copied the French editions) annoyed Chopin by insisting on adding flowery titles to his pieces. Nearly 200 years later, the state of affairs in regards to Chopin editions has turned over a new leaf.

Today, several scholarly editions exist that attempt to organize the vast array of sources and compile the information in one presentable volume, notably the Paderewski and Polish National editions which contain lengthy and scholarly explanations and discussions regarding choices and sources. Even so, it is ultimately up to the taste of an editor as to which version of which piece suits them most at the given time, and perhaps Chopin himself faced the same dilemma, resulting in the variations we have today.

TV documentaries

In 2010, the 90-min. BBC TV documentary ''Chopin – The Women Behind The Music'' explores Chopin's life, notably his encounters with the singers who enchanted the composer with their voices. The BBC announcement for the premiere refers to Jenny Lind as the "Swedish opera star, who so affected Chopin in the final years of his life." Another documentary about Chopin was realized by Angelo Bozzolini and Roberto Prosseda for Italian Television in 2010: "Fryderik Chopin". Featuring interviews with Martha Argerich, Vladimir Ashkenazy, Daniel Barenboim, Charles Rosen, it is currently distributed by Euroarts.

Fiction

Possibly the first venture into fictional treatments of Chopin's life was a fanciful operatic version of some of its events. This opera, entitled ''Chopin'', was written by Giacomo Orefice and produced in Milan in 1901. Orefice incorporated Chopin's music, arranged as arias; the operatic arrangements have been described as "coarse". Various arias have been recorded by well-known singers, but the opera has long been out of the repertoire. Orefice also applied an operatic treatment to one of George Sand's novels, ''Consuelo''.

Chopin's life and his relations with George Sand have been fictionalized in film. The 1945 biopic ''A Song to Remember'' earned Cornel Wilde an Academy Award nomination as Best Actor for his portrayal of the composer. Other film treatments have included: ''Impromptu'' (1991), starring Hugh Grant as Chopin; ''La note bleue'' (1991); and ''Chopin: Desire for Love'' (2002). The 1975 Ken Russell film ''Lisztomania'' outlandishly portrayed Chopin and Sand's relationship as dominant and submissive, with Sand fulfilling the role of dominatrix over Chopin's submissive attitude.

Another reference to Chopin in cinema occurs in Ingmar Bergman's ''Autumn Sonata''. The difference of interpretation of Chopin's Prelude No. 2 in A minor by the pianist Charlotte Andergast and her daughter Eva constitutes a major scene in the film.

Kate Beaton did a series of comics starring Chopin and Liszt, focusing on a fictionalized account of their friendship.

Chopin is the main character in the console role-playing game titled Eternal Sonata.

See also

Cyprian Norwid

Maria Kalergis

''Salon Frédéric Chopin'' in Paris

Toruń gingerbread (young Chopin's enthusiasm for the Polish confection).

Chopin's disease

List of Poles

Notes

Bibliography

Tad Szulc, ''Chopin in Paris: the Life and Times of the Romantic Composer'', New York, Scribner, 1998, ISBN 0-684-82458-2.

Zdzisław Jachimecki, "Chopin, Fryderyk Franciszek," ''Polski słownik biograficzny'', vol. III, Kraków, Polska Akademia Umiejętności, 1937, pp. 420–26.

Arthur Hedley ''et al.'', "Chopin, Frédéric (François)," ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 15th ed., 2005, vol. 3, pp. 263–64.

Édouard Ganche, ''Frédéric Chopin: sa vie et ses œuvres'' (Frédéric Chopin: His Life and Works), Mercure de France, 1913.

Gastone Belotti, ''Chopin, l'uomo'' (Chopin the Man), 3 vols., Milan, Sapere, 1974.

Gastone Belotti, ''Chopin'', Turin, EDT, 1984, ISBN 88-7063-033-1.

Gerald Abraham, "Chopin Frédéric," ''Encyclopedia Americana'', 1986 ed., vol. 6, pp. 627–28.

Adam Zamoyski, ''Chopin: a Biography'', New York, Doubleday, 1980, ISBN 0-385-13597-1.

Michałowski, Kornel, and Jim Samson, ''Chopin, Fryderyk Franciszek'', Grove Music Online, edited by L. Macy (accessed 31 October 2006) (subscription access)

Benita Eisler, ''Chopin's Funeral'', Abacus, 2004.

''[The Book of the Second International Musicological Congress, Warsaw, 10–17 October 1999:] Chopin and His Work in the Context of Culture'', studies edited by Irena Poniatowska, vols. 1–2, Warsaw, 2003.

Samson, Jim. ''The Cambridge Companion to Chopin.'' New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Jean-Jacques Eigeldinger, ''Chopin: Pianist and Teacher, as Seen by His Pupils'', Cambridge University Press, 1989, ISBN 0-521-36709-3.

Samson, Jim. ''The Music of Chopin.'' Boston: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1985.

André Maurois, ''Leila: the Life of George Sand'', translated by Gerard Hopkins, Penguin, 1980 (c 1953).

Jan Zygmunt Jakubowski, ed., ''Literatura polska od średniowiecza to pozytywizmu'' (Polish Literature from the Middle Ages to Positivism), Warsaw, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1979, ISBN 83-01-00201-8.

George Richard Marek and Maria Gordon-Smith, ''Chopin: A Biography'', New York, Harper & Row, 1978.

''Chopin's Letters'', collected by Henryk Opieński, translated by E.L. Voynich, New York, 1973.

''The Book of the First International Musicological Congress Devoted [to] the Works of Frederick Chopin, Warsaw, 16–22 February 1960'', edited by Zofia Lissa, Warsaw, PWN, 1963.

''Selected Correspondence of Fryderyk Chopin'', collected and annotated by B.E. Sydow, translated and edited by Arthur Hedley, London, 1962.

Krystyna Kobylańska, ''Chopin in His Own Land: Documents and Souvenirs'', Kraków, P.W.M., 1955.

David Ewen, ''Ewen's Musical Masterworks: The Encyclopedia of Musical Masterpieces'', 2nd ed., New York, ARCO Publishing Company, 1954.

Artur Szklener, "''Fryckowe lato: czyli wakacyjne muzykowanie Chopina''" ("Fritz's Summers: Chopin's Musical Vacations"), ''Magazyn Chopin: Miesięcznik Narodowego Instytutu Fryderyka Chopina'' (Chopin Magazine: Monthly of the Fryderyk Chopin National Institute), no. 4, 2010, pp. 8–9.

Maria Barcz, "''Etiuda paryska''" ("Paris Étude"), ''Gwiazda Polarna'' (The Pole Star), vol. 101, no. 17 (14 August 2010), pp. 15–16.

Chopin and Other Musical Essays (1889) by Henry T. Finck

Jeffrey Kallberg, “Chopin in the Marketplace: Aspects of the International Music Publishing Industry in the First Half of the Nineteenth Century,” Notes 39, no. 3 (March 1983): 539.

Kazimierz Wierzyński, ''The Life and Death of Chopin'', translated from the Polish by Norbert Guterman, foreword by Arthur Rubinstein, New York, Simon and Schuster, 1949.

External links

''Klasikal.com'', Website dedicated to classical music. Includes video performances and sheet music of every composition of Frédéric Chopin.

''The Chopin Project'', A guide to Chopin's solo keyboard music, with individual entries, on-demand audio, essays, quotes, references, biographies, and abundant links.

''The Chopin Society'', The website of the Chopin Society in London provides information about their monthly concerts, membership of the Society, and offers insights into the life of the composer.

''Chopin Music'', Website and forum devoted to the life and works of Chopin: biographies, study guides, recordings, sheet music.

''Chopin: the poet of the piano'', A favourite Chopin place since 1999 with biography, images, complete music and score, discussion forum, work list and analysis, quizzes and contests, noted interpreters/great pianists...

''Internet Chopin Information Centre'', Chopin portal including calendar, catalogues, other information about Chopin, Chopin on the Web, and pianists' biographical notes.

''Chopin.pl'', website under the auspices of Warsaw-based Fryderyk Chopin Society. Contains a biography, an outline of Chopin's works and musical style and pictures of original manuscripts.

''Bachtrack.com'', Listings of live concerts of Chopin's music at Bachtrack, also see anniversary page at

''Frédéric Chopin and Samuel Barber'', ArtsEditor.com opinion article 2010: Certain composers are so ubiquitous that to celebrate them seems unnecessary, especially as many others languish in relative obscurity. Still, every few years the public is reminded of the anniversary of a particular composer's birth, prompting a slew…

Biographies

Biography of Chopin at Fryderyk Chopin Society's website

Frédéric Chopin biography

Brief Chopin essay at ''Classical Music Pages''

Biographies (Project Gutenberg e-texts):

*''Life of Chopin'', book by his friend Franz Liszt

*''Frederick Chopin as a Man and Musician'', by Frederick Niecks

*''Chopin: The Man and his Music'', by James Huneker

Music scores

Chopin scores from Mutopia Project

''Chopin Early Editions'', a collection of over 400 first and early printed editions of musical compositions by Frédéric Chopin published before 1881.

''Chopin's First Editions Online'' features an interface that allows three navigable scores to be open simultaneously in frames to facilitate comparison.

Recordings

Performances by Angela Lear: 'The Chopin Collection' volumes 1–5, include rarely-heard original variants.

www.200chopin.com, Recordings by all Deutsche Grammophon and Decca artists, full track streaming for free: Argerich, Freire, Pollini, Zimerman, Pires, Wang, Ott etc.

Performances by Daniel Wnukowski: 'Heroic' polonaise, 2 nocturnes, 1 scherzo, 1 prelude

Performances by Michael Sayers: Preludes Op. 28 Nos. 1 and 20

Performances by Donald Betts: 3 ballades, 3 études, 2 nocturnes, 1 mazurka

Performances by Paul Cantrell from In the Hands

Performances by Alberto Cobo: Sonata No. 3, Ballade No. 1 and Fantasie-Impromptu, Sonata No. 2, Scherzo No. 2, Prelude No. 16

Various performers from PianoParadise (some links are broken)

MIDI files from Kunst der Fuge

Preludes No. 4 and No. 6 arranged for voices, guitar, and bass by the John Link Project

Performances of works by Frédéric Chopin in MP3 and MIDI formats at Logos Virtual Library

Free Chopin Downloads (MP3 and WMA)

the original Chopin Chopin as played by Angela Lear from autograph manuscripts. ''"Hear what Chopin really intended"'' BBC Music Magazine; ''"...Her Chopin recitals were altogether exceptional for perfect interpretation and maximum faithfulness to Chopin's intentions'' " Le Matin.

Chopin selected works (MP3)

Piano Society – A short biography and some free recordings in MP3 format, performed by Chiara Bertoglio, Roberto Carnevale, Eric Clark, Alexander Djordjevic, Ken Sasaki, Robert Ståhlbrand, Evelina Vorontsova

Miscellaneous

Chopin With A Polish Touch, audio report by National Public Radio

Narodowy Instytut Fryderyka Chopina, Warsaw, Poland

Memorial Page at FindaGrave

University of Michigan Chopin Project

Chopin Works Review

International Fryderyk Chopin Piano Competition

Chopin2010 a/k/a "The Chopin Currency", a daily compendium of Chopiniana: news, reviews, videos, blogs, and more leading up to the Chopin Bicentennial in 2010

Valldemossa, Majorca small town whose major asset is the remains of The Royal Chartreuse of Jesus Nazareth where Chopin lived for a short period with George Sand (the memories of this period are recorded in her book ''Winter in Majorca'') in 1838/1839.

The International Foundation Can Mossenya – Friends of Jorge Luis Borges, Historic estate, a significant part of The Royal Chartreuse of Jesus of Nazareth

The safekeeping of a large collection of original Chopin manuscripts, including Concerto in F-minor among a total of 49 compositions and other priceless Polish art treasures in Canada during World War II, is documented by new research in 2004–2005 which was published in ''Chopin in the World''.

Category:1810 births Category:1849 deaths Category:Polish classical pianists Category:Polish composers Category:French composers Category:Romantic composers Category:19th-century composers Category:Child classical musicians Category:French music educators Category:University of Warsaw alumni Category:Activists of the Great Emigration Category:Polish expatriates in France Category:Polish people of French descent Category:Polish Roman Catholics Category:People from Sochaczew County Category:People from Warsaw Category:19th-century Polish people Category:Infectious disease deaths in France Category:Deaths from tuberculosis Category:Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery

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