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Aaron T. Beck
http://wn.com/Aaron_T_Beck -
Abraham A. Brill
http://wn.com/Abraham_A_Brill -
Abraham Maslow
Abraham Harold Maslow (April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was a professor of psychology at Brandeis University who founded humanistic psychology and created Maslow's hierarchy of needs.
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Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura (born December 4, 1925, in Mundare, Alberta, Canada) is a psychologist and the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University. Over a career spanning almost six decades, Bandura has been responsible for groundbreaking contributions to many fields of psychology, including social cognitive theory, therapy and personality psychology, and was also influential in the transition between behaviorism and cognitive psychology. He is known as the originator of social learning theory and the theory of self-efficacy, and is also responsible for the influential 1961 Bobo Doll experiment.
http://wn.com/Albert_Bandura -
Anna Freud
Anna Freud (3 December 1895 – 9 October 1982) was the sixth and last child of Sigmund and Martha Freud. Born in Vienna, she followed the path of her father and contributed to the newly born field of psychoanalysis. Alongside Melanie Klein, she may be considered the founder of psychoanalytic child psychology: as her father put it, child analysis 'had received a powerful impetus through "the work of Frau Melanie Klein and of my daughter, Anna Freud"'. Compared to her father, her work emphasized the importance of the ego and its ability to be trained socially.
http://wn.com/Anna_Freud -
Aristotle
Aristotle (, Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC) was a Greek philosopher, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.
http://wn.com/Aristotle -
B.F. Skinner
http://wn.com/BF_Skinner -
C.S. Peirce
http://wn.com/CS_Peirce -
Carl Jung
Carl Gustav Jung (; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, an influential thinker and the founder of analytical psychology. Jung is often considered the first modern psychologist to state that the human psyche is "by nature religious" and to explore it in depth. Though not the first to analyze dreams, he has become perhaps one of the most well known pioneers in the field of dream analysis. Although he was a theoretical psychologist and practicing clinician, much of his life's work was spent exploring other areas, including Eastern and Western philosophy, alchemy, astrology, sociology, as well as literature and the arts.
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Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers (January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an influential American psychologist and among the founders of the humanistic approach to psychology. Rogers is widely considered to be one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and was honored for his pioneering research with the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions by the American Psychological Association in 1956.
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Charles Sherrington
http://wn.com/Charles_Sherrington -
Danish people
http://wn.com/Danish_people -
Donald O. Hebb
Donald Olding Hebb (July 22, 1904 – August 20, 1985) was a Canadian psychologist who was influential in the area of neuropsychology, where he sought to understand how the function of neurons contributed to psychological processes such as learning. He has been described as the father of neuropsychology and neural networks.
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Donald Winnicott
Donald Woods Winnicott (7 April 1896–28 January 1971) was an English pediatrician, psychiatrist, sociologist and psychoanalyst who was especially influential in the field of object relations theory. He wrote several books and over 200 papers.
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Edward C. Tolman
Edward Chace Tolman (1886 - 1959) was an American psychologist. He was most famous for his studies on behavioral psychology.
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Edward Thorndike
Edward Lee Thorndike (August 31, 1874 – August 9, 1949) was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on animal behavior and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for modern educational psychology. He also worked on solving industrial problems, such as employee exams and testing. He was a member of the board of the Psychological Corporation, and served as president of the American Psychological Association in 1912.
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Edward Titchener
http://wn.com/Edward_Titchener -
Eric Kandel
Eric Richard Kandel (born November 7, 1929) is an Austrian-born American neuroscientist who was a recipient of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research on the physiological basis of memory storage in neurons. He shared the prize with fellow recipients Arvid Carlsson and Paul Greengard.
http://wn.com/Eric_Kandel -
Erich Fromm
Erich SeligmannFunk, Rainer. Erich Fromm: His Life and Ideas. Translators Ian Portman, Manuela Kunkel. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, 2003. ISBN 0-8264-1519-9, ISBN 978-0-8264-1519-6. P. 13:"For a second name he was given that of his grandfather on his father's side–Seligmann Pinchas Fromm, although the registry office in Frankfurt does not record him as Erich Pinchas Fromm, but as Erich Seligmann Fromm. Also his parents addressed his mail to 'Erich S. Fromm.'" Fromm (March 23, 1900 – March 18, 1980) was a German social psychologist, psychoanalyst, humanistic philosopher, and democratic socialist. He was associated with what became known as the Frankfurt School of critical theory.
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Erik Erikson
Erik Erikson (15 June 1902 – 12 May 1994) was a Danish-German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis. His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist.
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Ernest Jones
Alfred Ernest Jones (1 January 1879 – 11 February 1958) was a Welsh neurologist, psychoanalyst and Sigmund Freud’s official biographer. As the first English-language practitioner of psychoanalysis and as President of both of the British Psycho-Analytical Society and the International Psychoanalytic Association in the 1920s and 1930s, Jones exercised unmatched influence in the establishment of its organisations, institutions and publications in the English-speaking world.
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Fritz Perls
Friedrich (Frederick) Salomon Perls (July 8
http://wn.com/Fritz_Perls -
G. Stanley Hall
Granville Stanley Hall (February 1, 1844 -- April 24, 1924) was a pioneering American psychologist and educator. His interests focused on childhood development and evolutionary theory. Hall was the first president of the American Psychological Association and the first president of Clark University.
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Germans
|ref15 =
http://wn.com/Germans -
Harry Harlow
Harry Frederick Harlow (October 31, 1905 – December 6, 1981) was an American psychologist best known for his maternal-separation and social isolation experiments on rhesus monkeys, which demonstrated the importance of care-giving and companionship in social and cognitive development. He conducted most of his research at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where humanistic psychologist Abraham Maslow worked for a time with him.
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Harvey Carr
http://wn.com/Harvey_Carr -
Hermann Ebbinghaus
Hermann Ebbinghaus (January 24, 1850 — February 26, 1909) was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. He was also the first person to describe the learning curve. He was the father of the eminent Neo-Kantian philosopher Julius Ebbinghaus.
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Ivan Pavlov
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (; September 14, 1849 – February 27, 1936) was a Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for research pertaining to the digestive system. Pavlov is widely known for first describing the phenomenon of classical conditioning.
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Jaak Panksepp
Jaak Panksepp (born June 5, 1943) is an Estonian-born American psychologist, a psychobiologist, a neuroscientist, the Baily Endowed Chair of Animal Well-Being Science for the Department of Veterinary and Comparative Anatomy, Pharmacology, and Physiology at Washington State University's College of Veterinary Medicine, and Emeritus Professor of the Department of Psychology at Bowling Green State University. Panksepp coined the term 'affective neuroscience', the name for the field that studies the neural mechanisms of emotion. He is known in the popular press for his research on laughter in non-human animals, such as rats.
http://wn.com/Jaak_Panksepp -
Jacques Lacan
Jacques Marie Émile Lacan () (April 13, 1901 – September 9, 1981) was a French psychoanalyst and psychiatrist who made prominent contributions to psychoanalysis, philosophy, and literary theory. Giving yearly seminars in Paris from 1953 to 1981, Lacan influenced France's intellectuals in the 1960s and the 1970s, especially the post-structuralist philosophers. His interdisciplinary work is Freudian, featuring the unconscious, the castration complex, the ego, identification, and language as subjective perception. His ideas have had a significant impact on critical theory, literary theory, twentieth-century French philosophy, sociology, feminist theory and clinical psychoanalysis (though not on clinical psychology).
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Jane Goodall
Dame Jane Morris Goodall, DBE (born Valerie Jane Morris-Goodall on 3 April 1934), is a British primatologist, ethologist, anthropologist, and UN Messenger of Peace. Considered to be the world's foremost expert on chimpanzees, Goodall is best known for her 45-year study of social and family interactions of wild chimpanzees in Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania. She is the founder of the Jane Goodall Institute and has worked extensively on conservation and animal welfare issues.
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Jean Piaget
Jean Piaget (; (9 August 1896 – 16 September 1980) was a Swiss developmental psychologist known for his epistemological studies with children. His theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology".
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Jerome Bruner
Jerome Seymour Bruner (born October 1, 1915) is an American psychologist who has contributed to cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology, as well as to history and to the general philosophy of education. Bruner is currently a senior research fellow at the New York University School of Law. He received his B.A. in 1937 from Duke University and his Ph.D. from Harvard University in 1941 under the guidance of Gordon Allport.
http://wn.com/Jerome_Bruner -
John B. Watson
John Broadus Watson (January 9, 1878 – September 25, 1958) was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism, after doing research on animal behavior. He also conducted the controversial "Little Albert" experiment.
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John Bowlby
John Bowlby (26 February 1907–2 September 1990) was a British psychologist, psychiatrist and psychoanalyst, notable for his interest in child development and for his pioneering work in attachment theory.
http://wn.com/John_Bowlby -
John Dewey
John Dewey (October 20, 1859 – June 1, 1952) was an American philosopher, psychologist and educational reformer whose ideas have been influential in education and social reform. Dewey, along with Charles Sanders Peirce and William James, is recognized as one of the founders of the philosophy of pragmatism and of functional psychology. He was a major representative of the progressive and progressive populist philosophies of schooling during the first half of the 20th century in the USA.
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Joseph E. LeDoux
Joseph E. LeDoux (born 1949), a neuroscientist, is the Henry and Lucy Moses Professor of Science, and Professor of Neuroscience and Psychology at New York University. He is also the director of the Center for the Neuroscience of Fear and Anxiety, multi-university Center in New York City devoted to using animal research to understand pathological fear and anxiety in humans. He received his Ph.D. in 1977 at the State University of New York at Stony Brook.
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Karen Horney
Karen Horney ( in English) born Danielsen (16 September 1885 – 4 December 1952) was a German psychoanalyst and psychiatrist of Norwegian and Dutch descent. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views, particularly his theory of sexuality, as well as the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis and its genetic psychology. As such, she is often classified as Neo-Freudian.
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Karl Popper
Karl Raimund Popper, CH, FRS, FBA (28 July 1902 – 17 September 1994) was an Austro-British philosopher and a professor at the London School of Economics. He is widely regarded as one of the greatest philosophers of science of the 20th century; he also wrote extensively on social and political philosophy.
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Klaus Holzkamp
Klaus Holzkamp (November 30, 1927 – November 1, 1995) was a German psychologist. He worked as a professor at the Free University of Berlin. He took a central role in defining critical psychology based on the works of Karl Marx. Holzkamp's main message is that mainstream psychology serves the interest of the power elite by disregarding the ability of humans to change their life circumstances. In a standard scientific study in the field of psychology the test setting is taken as a given, unchangeable fact, while in real life people may organize themselves and transform society.
http://wn.com/Klaus_Holzkamp -
Kurt Koffka
Kurt Koffka (Berlin, March 18, 1886 - Northampton, November 22, 1941) was a German psychologist. He was born and educated in Berlin and earned his PhD there in 1909 as a student of Carl Stumpf. In addition to his studies in Berlin, Koffka also spent one year at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland where he developed his strong fluency in English, a skill that later served him well in his efforts to spread Gestalt psychology beyond German borders. Koffka was already working at the University of Frankfurt when Max Wertheimer arrived in 1910 and invited Koffka to participate as a subject in his research on the phi phenomenon.
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Lev Vygotsky
Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky (, born Lev Simyonovich Vygodsky; – June 11, 1934) was a Soviet psychologist and the founder of cultural-historical psychology.
http://wn.com/Lev_Vygotsky -
Lewis Goldberg
Lewis R. Goldberg is an American personality psychologist and a professor emeritus at the University of Oregon who is closely associated
http://wn.com/Lewis_Goldberg -
Ludwig Binswanger
Ludwig Binswanger (April 13, 1881 – February 5, 1966) was a Swiss psychiatrist and pioneer in the field of existential psychology. His grandfather (also named Ludwig Binswanger) was founder of the "Bellevue Sanatorium" in Kreuzlingen, and his uncle Otto Binswanger was a professor of psychiatry at the University of Jena.
http://wn.com/Ludwig_Binswanger -
Mark Jarzombek
Mark Jarzombek (born 1954) is a US-born architectural historian, author and critic. Since 1995 he has served as Director of the History Theory Criticism Section of the Department of Architecture at MIT, Cambridge MA, United States.
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Marko Marulić
Marko Marulić (Split, 18 August 1450 - Split, 5 January 1524) was a Croatian national poet and Christian humanist, known as the Crown of the Croatian Medieval Age and the father of the Croatian Renaissance. He signed his works as Marko Marulić Splićanin ("Marko Marulić of Split"), Marko Pečenić, Marcus Marulus Spalatensis, or Dalmata. He was also the first who defined and used the notion of psychology, which is today in current use.
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Martin Heidegger
Martin Heidegger (September 26, 1889 – May 26, 1976; ) was an influential German philosopher known for his existential and phenomenological explorations of the "question of Being." His best-known book, Being and Time, is considered to be one of the most important philosophical works of the 20th century. Heidegger has been influential beyond philosophy, in literature, psychology, and artificial intelligence.
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Max Wertheimer
Max Wertheimer (April 15, 1880 – October 12, 1943) was a Czech-born psychologist who was one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology, along with Kurt Koffka and Wolfgang Köhler.
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Noam Chomsky
Avram Noam Chomsky ( or ; born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, and political activist. He is an Institute Professor and professor emeritus of linguistics at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Chomsky is well known in the academic and scientific community as one of the fathers of modern linguistics, and a major figure of analytic philosophy. Since the 1960s, he has become known more widely as a political dissident and an anarchist, referring to himself as a libertarian socialist. Chomsky is the author of more than 100 books and has received worldwide attention for his views, despite being typically absent from the mainstream media.
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Phineas Gage
Phineas P. Gage (July 9?, 1823 – May 21, 1860)
http://wn.com/Phineas_Gage -
Plato
:For other uses, see Plato (disambiguation) and Platon (disambiguation).
http://wn.com/Plato -
Raymond Cattell
Raymond Bernard Cattell (Hilltop in England, 20 March 1905 – Honolulu, 2 February 1998) was a British and American psychologist known for his exploration of many areas in psychology. These areas included: the basic dimensions of personality and temperament, a range of cognitive abilities, the dynamic dimensions of motivation and emotion, the clinical dimensions of personality, patterns of group and social behavior, applications of personality research to psychotherapy and learning theory, predictors of creativity and achievement, and many scientific research methods for exploring and measuring these areas. Cattell was famously productive throughout his 92 years, authoring and co-authoring over 50 books and 500 articles, and over 30 standardized tests. According to a widely cited ranking, he was the 16th most influential and eminent psychologist of the 20th century.
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Rollo May
Rollo May (April 21, 1909 – October 22, 1994) was an American existential psychologist. He authored the influential book Love and Will during 1969. He is often associated with both humanistic psychology and existentialist philosophy. May was a close friend of the theologian Paul Tillich. His works include Love and Will and The Courage to Create, the latter title honoring Tillich's The Courage to Be.
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Ronald A. Fisher
http://wn.com/Ronald_A_Fisher -
Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud (), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6 May 1856 – 23 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who founded the psychoanalytic school of psychiatry. Freud is best known for his theories of the unconscious mind and the defense mechanism of repression, and for creating the clinical practice of psychoanalysis for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient, technically referred to as an "analysand", and a psychoanalyst. Freud is also renowned for his redefinition of sexual desire as the primary motivational energy of human life, as well as for his therapeutic techniques, including the use of free association, his theory of transference in the therapeutic relationship, and the interpretation of dreams as sources of insight into unconscious desires. He was an early neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, and a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the history, interpretation and critique of culture.
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Stanley Milgram
Stanley Milgram (August 15, 1933 – December 20, 1984) was an American social psychologist most notable for his controversial study known as the Milgram Experiment. The study was conducted in the 1960s during Milgram's professorship at Yale. Milgram was influenced by the events of the Nazi Holocaust to carry out an experiment that would prove the relationship between obedience and authority. Shortly after the obedience experiment, Milgram conducted the small-world experiment (the source of the six degrees of separation concept) while at Harvard.
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Steven Blankaart
Steven Blankaart (24 October 1650, Middelburg - 23 February 1704, Amsterdam), was a Dutch physician, iatro-chemist, and entomologist, who worked on the same field as Jan Swammerdam. Blankaart proved the existence of a capillary system, as had been suggested by Leonardo da Vinci, by spouting up bloodvessels, though he failed to realize the true significance of his findings. He is known for his development of injection techniques for this study and for writing the first Dutch book on child medicine. Blankaart translated works of John Mayow.
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Sándor Ferenczi
Sándor Ferenczi (7 July 1873, Miskolc, Hungary – 22 April 1933, Budapest, Hungary) was a Hungarian psychoanalyst.
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Søren Kierkegaard
Søren Aabye Kierkegaard ( or ; ) (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855) was a deeply religious Danish Theologian who took an interest in the new culture developing in the first half of the nineteenth century. The Age of Reason had replaced the age of faith established by the Holy Roman Empire. Kierkegaard devoted his life to the affirmation of the Lutheran faith against Reason and all forms of speculation in the realm of Christianity. In 1842 he heard every philosopher say, "Everything must be doubted," so he began doubting everything until he heard the philosphers say, "One must not waste time on doubting, but must just begin straight away on philosophy." He had been brought up to believe that "even an ordinary person endeavors to do what he says, though it may happen that he does something else through ignorance, because he does not understand himself. Yet this cannot happen with the philosopher." Four years later he wrote, "it should immediately be borne in mind that the issue is not about the truth of Christianity but about the individual’s relation to Christianity, consequently not about the indifferent individual’s systematic eagerness to arrange the truths of Christianity in paragraphs but rather about the concern of the infinitely interested individual with regard to his own relation to such a doctrine".
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Thales
Thales of Miletus (; , Thalēs; 624 BC – c. 546 BC) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher from Miletus in Asia Minor, and one of the Seven Sages of Greece. Many, most notably Aristotle, regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition. According to Bertrand Russell, "Western philosophy begins with Thales." Thales attempted to explain natural phenomena without reference to mythology and was tremendously influential in this respect. Almost all of the other pre-Socratic philosophers follow him in attempting to provide an explanation of ultimate substance, change, and the existence of the world—without reference to mythology. Those philosophers were also influential, and eventually Thales' rejection of mythological explanations became an essential idea for the scientific revolution. He was also the first to define general principles and set forth hypotheses, and as a result has been dubbed the "Father of Science".
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Thomas Kuhn
Thomas Samuel Kuhn (surname ; July 18, 1922 – June 17, 1996) was an American physicist who wrote extensively on the history of science and developed several important notions in the sociology and philosophy of science.
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Wilhelm Wundt
Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt (16 August 1832 - 31 August 1920) was a German medical doctor, psychologist, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. He is widely regarded as the "father of experimental psychology". In 1879, Wundt founded one of the first formal laboratories for psychological research at the University of Leipzig.
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William James
:This article is about the American psychologist and philosopher. For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation)
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Wolfgang Kohler
http://wn.com/Wolfgang_Kohler
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Croatia
Croatia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Croatia (Croatian: Republika Hrvatska ), is a country in Central Europe and Southeastern Europe at the crossroads of the Pannonian Plain, the Balkans, and the Adriatic Sea. Its capital and largest city is Zagreb. Croatia borders Slovenia to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Bosnia and Herzegovina to the southeast, Serbia to the east, and Montenegro to the southeast.
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Leipzig University
http://wn.com/Leipzig_University -
MIT
http://wn.com/MIT -
Persian Empire
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United States
The United States of America (also referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to the east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories in the Caribbean and Pacific.
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University of Berlin
http://wn.com/University_of_Berlin
- abduction (logic)
- Abraham A. Brill
- Abraham Maslow
- adaptation
- Agency (philosophy)
- aging
- Albert Bandura
- analysis of variance
- Ancient Egypt
- Ancient Greece
- animal
- animal cognition
- Anna Freud
- anthropology
- antipositivism
- António Damásio
- anxiety
- Applied science
- Aristotle
- attention
- automaticity
- B.F. Skinner
- basic research
- behavior
- behavioral scientist
- behaviorism
- behaviorist
- Belmont Report
- Bernard Luskin
- biology
- Brain damage
- C.S. Peirce
- Carl Jung
- Carl Rogers
- case study
- case-control study
- causal
- Charles Sherrington
- chemistry
- chimpanzee
- Clark L. Hull
- Clinical psychology
- cognition
- cognitive
- cognitive psychology
- cognitive revolution
- cognitive science
- cognitive scientist
- computer science
- Computer simulation
- confounding
- Connectionism
- Consciousness
- covariate
- critical theory
- Croatia
- crossover study
- Danish people
- death
- deductive reasoning
- depth psychologist
- depth psychology
- Descartes' Error
- determinism
- Donald O. Hebb
- Donald Winnicott
- Douglas Watt
- dream interpretation
- dynamic systems
- eclecticism
- education
- Edward C. Tolman
- Edward Thorndike
- Edward Titchener
- effect size
- ego psychology
- emotion
- empirical
- empirical method
- Eric Kandel
- Erich Fromm
- Erik Erikson
- Ernest Jones
- ethics
- ethnography
- ethology
- evolution
- existential
- existential therapy
- experiment
- experiments
- explanation
- factor analysis
- family therapy
- forensic psychology
- free will
- Fritz Perls
- G. Stanley Hall
- George A. Miller
- geoscience
- Germans
- Gestalt psychology
- Gestalt therapy
- Gregg Henriques
- grounded theory
- group dynamics
- Group therapy
- Hans Eysenck
- Harry Harlow
- Harvey Carr
- health psychology
- hepatitis
- Hermann Ebbinghaus
- Hermeneutics
- hippocampus
- History of China
- History of India
- Holocaust
- Human behavior
- Human brain
- human nature
- Human sexuality
- humanism
- humanities
- hypothalamus
- hypotheses
- Hypothesis testing
- implicit memory
- independent variable
- inductive reasoning
- information
- internment
- intersubjectivity
- interview
- introspection
- Ivan Pavlov
- Jaak Panksepp
- Jacques Lacan
- Jane Goodall
- Jean Piaget
- Jerome Bruner
- John B. Watson
- John Bowlby
- John Dewey
- Joseph E. LeDoux
- Karen Horney
- Karl Popper
- Klaus Holzkamp
- knowledge
- Kurt Koffka
- laboratory
- laboratory rat
- language
- language acquisition
- learned helplessness
- learning
- legal psychology
- Leipzig University
- Lev Vygotsky
- Lewis Goldberg
- libido
- linguist
- logistic regression
- logotherapy
- Loneliness
- Longitudinal studies
- longitudinal study
- Ludwig Binswanger
- Mark Jarzombek
- Mark Solms
- Marko Marulić
- Martin Heidegger
- Martin Seligman
- mathematical logic
- Max Wertheimer
- media psychology
- Melanie Klein
- memory
- mental function
- mental health
- Mental illness
- mental process
- microsociology
- Milgram experiment
- MIT
- moral development
- motivation
- myth
- Müller-Lyer illusion
- natural sciences
- natural selection
- Neo-Freudian
- nervous system
- neural network
- neuro-psychoanalysis
- neuropsychologist
- neuroscience
- neuroticism
- New Scientist
- New York Times
- Noam Chomsky
- null-hypothesis
- Nuremberg Code
- object relations
- Oliver Sacks
- On the Soul
- operant conditioning
- P value
- pain
- paradigm
- perception
- Persian Empire
- persuasion
- phenomenology
- philosophical
- philosophy
- philosophy of mind
- Phineas Gage
- physics
- physiological
- physiologist
- physiology
- Pierre Cabanis
- Plato
- pleasure
- positive psychology
- positivism
- practitioner
- problem solving
- prosocial behavior
- psychiatry
- psychoanalysis
- psychodynamics
- psychologist
- psychometric
- psychonomics
- psychopathology
- psychophysiology
- psychotherapy
- psychoticism
- publication bias
- qualitative research
- quasi-experiment
- questionnaire
- Raymond Cattell
- reaction time
- reasoning
- rebirthing
- Recept
- reparenting
- rhesus macaque
- Rollo May
- Ronald A. Fisher
- school
- school psychology
- science
- scientific debate
- scientific method
- self-actualization
- self-concept
- sensibility
- sexual selection
- Sigmund Freud
- Simon & Schuster
- social behavior
- Social cognition
- social neuroscience
- social sciences
- social scientist
- social structure
- Social Work
- Sociology
- soul (spirit)
- space science
- spatial learning
- sport psychology
- Stanley Milgram
- statistical
- stereotype
- Steven Blankaart
- stochastic process
- subject (philosophy)
- subliminal message
- symbol
- Sándor Ferenczi
- Søren Kierkegaard
- taboo
- teaching
- technology
- Thales
- Thalidomide
- thinking
- Thomas Kuhn
- thought
- tool
- Trait theorist
- trait theory
- true experiment
- unconscious mind
- United States
- University of Berlin
- Viktor Frankl
- Wayne C. Booth
- Wilhelm Wundt
- William James
- Wolfgang Kohler
- World War II
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PS Vita Out In Japan & New MW3 Modes - IGN Daily Fix 12.16.11
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:25
- Published: 17 Dec 2011
- Uploaded: 22 Dec 2011
- Author: IGNentertainment
Join host Naomi Kyle for your daily fix of the hottest gaming news! On today's episode, Naomi discusses the Vita's release in Japan; the addition of community playlists to Modern Warfare 3; the sad yet inevitable closing of the MMO, Star Wars Galaxies (RIP); the arrival of free games on the 3DS; and details on how you can win a Sony Tablet S! To make sure you don't miss out on a single episode of The Daily Fix, subscribe to the show: www.youtube.com And click on the links below for the full stories featured in this episode: Vita Release vita.ign.com New Mode for MW3 xbox360.ign.com RIP Star Wars Galaxies pc.ign.com Free Games on 3DS! ds.ign.com Friday Giveaway www.ign.com
http://wn.com/PS_Vita_Out_In_Japan_New_MW3_Modes__IGN_Daily_Fix_121611
Distort, Warp, & Layer Effects - You Suck at Photoshop
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:47
- Published: 21 Dec 2007
- Uploaded: 21 Dec 2011
- Author: MyDamnChannel
MORE: www.MyDamnChannel.com Follow us on Twitter: www.twitter.com Like us on Facebook: www.facebook.com Donnie Hoyle pulls a digital end-around on a restraining order and vandalizes a Vanagon. 2008 Webby Award Winner Best How-to Series Best Comedy Series - People's Voice Best How-to Series - People's Voice
http://wn.com/Distort,_Warp,_Layer_Effects__You_Suck_at_Photoshop
It's Official- PlayStation Vita is Here!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:51
- Published: 06 Jun 2011
- Uploaded: 21 Dec 2011
- Author: PlayStation
PlayStation is delivering you all the exciting PlayStation Vita content released at E3. Subscribe to the PlayStation YouTube channel today!
http://wn.com/It's_Official_PlayStation_Vita_is_Here!
Mitsubishi Lancer Evo IX MR 870+Ps@11.000rpm (Boost 14psi)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 3:14
- Published: 29 Oct 2011
- Uploaded: 22 Dec 2011
- Author: speednationTV
Rare, beautiful and extremely fast Lancer Evo IX MR that develops 870+Ps running on Pump gas and low boost of 14psi! For the full article, photos and tech specs of the car visit: www.speednation.tv Music: Dj Kas - Requiem for a Dream (Dubstep mix) Shot on: Canon EOS 60D, Panasonic HDC-SD 700, GoPro HD Motorsports Hero www.speednation.tv Follow us on Facebook Magazine: www.facebook.com
http://wn.com/Mitsubishi_Lancer_Evo_IX_MR_870+Ps@11000rpm_Boost_14psi
PS Vita Gameplay
Uncharted Golden Abyss,Rayman Origins,Micheal Jackson: The Experience, FIFA World Class Soccer, Virtua Tennis 4,Little Deviants,Escape Plan,Wipeout 2048,MVC3. by S2PMagVideo
http://wn.com/PS_Vita_Gameplay
IGDaily - Khail and Matt Talk about Boobs, also PS Vita, DoA 5, Bodycount, Minecraft 1.8! - 9/14/11
www.youtube.com Click here to watch yesterday's IGDaily! IGDaily - Khail and Matt Talk about Boobs, also PS Vita, DoA 5, Bodycount, Minecraft 1.8! - 9/14/11 Kovic is out getting shoes which means Khail and Matt are stepping in, which also means we are going to talk about boobs. Tits and gaming, it's your favorite show ever. Enjoy the news. Best Link Ever youtu.be Vita: blog.machinima.com XBLA: blog.machinima.com DoA 5: blog.machinima.com Bodycount: blog.machinima.com Minecraft: blog.machinima.com Trailers: blog.machinima.com Sign up for the Inside Gaming Newsletter! www.machinima.com Check out the Inside Gaming Blog! blog.machinima.com Visit the Inside Gaming Facebook Page! www.facebook.com Follow Inside Gaming on Twitter! www.twitter.com This video will show you... HOW TO see Scarlett Johansson HOW TO find Kovic HOW TO be Japanese - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Like Machinima on Facebook! facebook.com Prove your gaming skills on the Respawn Army app therespawnarmy.com FOR MORE MACHINIMA, GO TO www.youtube.com FOR MORE GAMEPLAY, GO TO: www.youtube.com FOR MORE SPORTS GAMEPLAY, GO TO: www.youtube.com FOR MORE MMO & RPG GAMEPLAY, GO TO: www.youtube.com FOR MORE TRAILERS, GO TO: www.youtube.com TAGS: Machinima Inside Gaming Daily IGD Khail Anonymous Matt Dannevik Lost Kovic Tokyo Game Show TGS Sony Conference PS Vita Ultimate Marvel Vs. Capcom 3 Launch Final Fantasy X HD Zone of Enders Metal gear Solid Collection Xbox Live <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/IGDaily__Khail_and_Matt_Talk_about_Boobs,_also_PS_Vita,_DoA_5,_Bodycount,_Minecraft_18!__9/14/11
Extreme (Photoshop) Makeover
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:29
- Published: 28 Oct 2006
- Uploaded: 21 Dec 2011
- Author: therebelution
A photographer and designer shows the photo retouching process in detail.
http://wn.com/Extreme_Photoshop_Makeover
PS Vita - Uncharted Golden Abyss (Video Walk-thru with John Garvin)
John Garvin, writer and director of Uncharted: Golden Abyss runs you through some of the highlights of the two levels showcased at the Tokyo Game Show 2011.
http://wn.com/PS_Vita__Uncharted_Golden_Abyss_Video_Walk-thru_with_John_Garvin
Awesome Eyes in Photoshop
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:27
- Published: 16 May 2008
- Uploaded: 21 Dec 2011
- Author: IceflowStudios
iceflowstudios.com Easily use Photoshop to change the color of someone's eye! For more tutorials, head to iceflowstudios.com Music Kevin MacLeod
http://wn.com/Awesome_Eyes_in_Photoshop
PS Vita - Little Big Planet (gamescom 2011)
eu.playstation.com Take Sackboy with you on an adventure powered by your own imagination. Explore a quirky new adventure that mixes classic LittleBigPlanet platforming with innovative touch-based mini-games. Get to grips with brand new, accessible tools to create unique touch-based gameplay. Become a hit in the LittleBigPlanet community by sharing your masterpieces with PS Vita fans via PlayStation Network.
http://wn.com/PS_Vita__Little_Big_Planet_gamescom_2011
PS Vita - Virtua Tennis™ 4
The dazzling console tennis experience in the palm of your hand. Play unbelievable shots using precise, intuitive touch controls across all game modes -- including the two-player Touch Versus option on one system Wow international tennis fans on your journey from zero to hero in a full career mode Choose from 22 top players, 33 stunning stadiums and ten addictive mini-games. Share stats, chat and play online matches via PlayStation Network, and upload your own face into the game using the front camera.
http://wn.com/PS_Vita__Virtua_Tennis™_4
Playstation Vita: Official Trailer (E3 2011)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 2:42
- Published: 07 Jun 2011
- Uploaded: 21 Dec 2011
- Author: IGNentertainment
See all the highlights from the highly anticipated Playstation Vita, the final form of the PSP2 aka NGP, straight from the Sony Conference at E3 2011. IGN's YouTube is just a taste of our content. Get more: www.ign.com Want this week's top videos? Sign up go.ign.com
http://wn.com/Playstation_Vita_Official_Trailer_E3_2011
Start/Select - PS Vita dated, Xbox Live on Windows 8
Straight out of TGS we get the official word on the PS Vita's Japanese launch, and Microsoft takes a second stab at Xbox Live on Windows.
http://wn.com/Start/Select__PS_Vita_dated,_Xbox_Live_on_Windows_8
PS Vita - WipEout 2048
The future of racing -- at your fingertips. Speed your way across exclusive tracks, races and game modes, extensive community features and multiplayer matches via cross-play with PlayStation 3. Touch and tilt your way to victory - tilt to steer, use the rear touch pad to accelerate and talk to the on-board computer to fire voice-activated weapons. Blast through a comprehensive online campaign mode, then take your racing online via PlayStation Network and enjoy new objective-based games with your friends.
http://wn.com/PS_Vita__WipEout_2048
IGDaily - PS Vita, 3DS, NFL Blitz, Saint's Row Music Video, RCVR - 10/19/11
www.youtube.com Click here to watch IGDaily - Scrolls, XIII, Battlefield 3, SoulCalibur V - 10/18/11 IGDaily - PS Vita, 3DS, NFL Blitz, Saint's Row Music Video, RCVR - 10/19/11 You love random, and that's what this episode has. Nothing really makes sense today, and that's just how I like it. So deal with it, and enjoy your news. Best Link Ever: youtu.be Vita: bit.ly 3DS: bit.ly RCVR: bit.ly Blitz: bit.ly Saint's Row: youtu.be Twitter: www.twitter.com Facebook: www.facebook.com Newsletter: www.insidegamingdaily.com Blog blog.machinima.com - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - This video will show you... HOW TO go Wub Wub HOW TO censor things HOW TO RCVR all the things - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Like Machinima on Facebook! facebook.com Prove your gaming skills on the Respawn Army app therespawnarmy.com FOR MORE MACHINIMA, GO TO www.youtube.com FOR MORE GAMEPLAY, GO TO: www.youtube.com FOR MORE SPORTS GAMEPLAY, GO TO: www.youtube.com FOR MORE MMO & RPG GAMEPLAY, GO TO: www.youtube.com FOR MORE TRAILERS, GO TO: www.youtube.com TAGS: IGDaily Machinima Inside Gaming Daily IGD Adam Kovic Matt Dannevik Playstation PS Vita Launch Date February 22nd Release NFL Blitz is Coming Back January 2012 Downloadable XBLA PSN $15 Football Tackle Nintendo Holding Another 3DS Conference NYCC New York Comic Con Coverage Mario kart Zelda Skyward Sword Kirby Assassin's Creed Revelations Interview Weird <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/IGDaily__PS_Vita,_3DS,_NFL_Blitz,_Saint's_Row_Music_Video,_RCVR__10/19/11
"PS I Love You" Movie Trailer
A young widow (Hilary Swank) discovers that her late husband (Gerard Butler) has left her 10 messages intended to help ease her pain and start a new life. A Warner Brothers Film.
http://wn.com/PS_I_Love_You_Movie_Trailer
LittleBigPlanet (PS®Vita)
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 1:58
- Published: 07 Jun 2011
- Uploaded: 21 Dec 2011
- Author: PlayStation
PlayStation is delivering you all the exciting PlayStation Vita game trailers from this year's E3. Check out the official trailer for the all new LittleBigPlanet game. Remember to subscribe to the PlayStation YouTube channel today!
http://wn.com/LittleBigPlanet_PS®Vita
WAT-AAH!, The Exclusive Beverage Partner of Beyonce's "Let's Move" Nationwide Program!
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 4:12
- Published: 03 May 2011
- Uploaded: 22 Dec 2011
- Author: wataahISg00d
WAT-AAH! Joins Forces With NAB Education Foundation and Beyonce as the Exclusive Beverage Partner of the 'Let's Move! Flash Workout' Event Dedicated to Fight Childhood Obesity! Beyonce made a surprise appearance at PS 161 Pedro Albizu Campos middle school in Harlem TODAY to lead the middle school students in her dance routine video "Move Your Body"! WAT-AAH! was there keeping the Beyonce and the students hydrated! DRINK WAT-AAH! FEEL SUP-AAH!
http://wn.com/WAT-AAH!,_The_Exclusive_Beverage_Partner_of_Beyonce's_Let's_Move_Nationwide_Program!
Adobe Photoshop CS5 - My Top 5 Favorite Features
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 9:14
- Published: 09 Apr 2010
- Uploaded: 21 Dec 2011
- Author: terrywhitetechblog
Adobe has released the NEW Creative Suite 5 and I thought I would share with you my Top 5 Favorite Features in Photoshop CS5. There are certainly many more new features than you'll see here, but these are definitely among my favorites. Learn more at adobe.com/creativesuite or creativesuitepodcast.com
http://wn.com/Adobe_Photoshop_CS5__My_Top_5_Favorite_Features
Compositing and Selecting Hair in Photoshop CS5
- Order: Reorder
- Duration: 5:10
- Published: 16 Apr 2010
- Uploaded: 20 Dec 2011
- Author: terrywhitetechblog
Adobe Photoshop CS5 has a GREAT NEW Feature called Edge Detection that will finally allow you to quickly make selections of images with both hard and soft edges. In this episode of the Adobe Creative Suite Podcast I'll show you how easy and fast you can composite two images together even if there is hair involved. See more and download these videos at creativesuitepodcast.com
http://wn.com/Compositing_and_Selecting_Hair_in_Photoshop_CS5
IGDaily - Bethesda, Mass Effect 3, PS Vita, Nintendo - 10/27/11
www.youtube.com Click here to watch IGDaily - Grand Theft Auto V News! Battlefield 3 Launch Debauchery! Nightwing Trailer! - 10/26/11 IGDaily - Bethesda, Mass Effect 3, PS Vita, Nintendo - 10/27/11 YOU WANT ACTION!!!!! WE GOT ACTION!!! Special guest Michael Bay comes in to direct our cold open!!! Did I say Michael Bay??? It's not him, so don't get your hopes up. Enjoy your news. Bethesda: bit.ly Mass Effect 3: bit.ly PSVita: bit.ly Nintendo: bit.ly Trailers: bit.ly Twitter: www.twitter.com Facebook: www.facebook.com Newsletter: www.insidegamingdaily.com Blog blog.machinima.com - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - This video will show you... HOW TO direct HOW TO make action HOW TO lose a shit ton of money - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Like Machinima on Facebook! facebook.com Prove your gaming skills on the Respawn Army app therespawnarmy.com FOR MORE MACHINIMA, GO TO www.youtube.com FOR MORE GAMEPLAY, GO TO: www.youtube.com FOR MORE SPORTS GAMEPLAY, GO TO: www.youtube.com FOR MORE MMO & RPG GAMEPLAY, GO TO: www.youtube.com FOR MORE TRAILERS, GO TO: www.youtube.com TAGS: IGDaily Machinima Inside Gaming Daily IGD Adam Kovic Matt Dannevik Mr Sark Seananners Action Movie Shootout Michael Bay AK-47 Gunshots Explosions Bethesda Denied Legal Stuff Against Fallout MMO Developer Lawyers Phoenix Wright Nintendo Loses A Lot of Money 923 Million Mass Effect 3 Co-Op Hands On Blog Commander Shepard <b>...</b>
http://wn.com/IGDaily__Bethesda,_Mass_Effect_3,_PS_Vita,_Nintendo__10/27/11
YogTrailers - Little Big Planet on PS Vita
More games like this please!
http://wn.com/YogTrailers__Little_Big_Planet_on_PS_Vita
photo: Creative Commons / AniRaptor2001
19 Dec 2011
Lamborghini doesn't need an introduction - more so with the recent launch of the Aventador in India! So here's an idea which will not only help you get into the Lamborghini showroom and feast...
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photo: Creative Commons / Nocturne Noir
16 Dec 2011
LONDON--(BUSINESS WIRE)--China is considered as one the most attractive travel and tourism destinations worldwide. The country’s recent hosting of major international events like the 2008 Summer...
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photo: WN / james
16 Dec 2011
Tokyo. Sony's long-awaited PlayStation Vita portable game machine hits stores in Japan on Saturday, with the company predicting brisk sales even though the launch has missed much of the holiday...
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PS Tells Contractor to Finish Othaya Hospital
23 Dec 2011
PS Vita UK game and accessory prices revealed
23 Dec 2011
TechRadar
Sony has officially announced UK and European prices for PS Vita accessories and games, but also revealed no 32GB memory card will be available at launch. A launch line-up of 25 games has been unveiled for the US, but not the full final list for PAL regions (Europe, New Zealand and Australia). We...
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PS Vita Launch Titles
23 Dec 2011
The Examiner
Sony released the list of North American launch titles for the Playstation Vita. The list contains 20+ games, which makes it the largest launch in Sony's history. The PS Vita is due to launch on February 22, 2012. The launch titles are as follows: Sony Computer Entertainment of...
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Joystiq
The PlayStation Vita's interface shows a strong iPhone influence, from its touch-only navigation to its stylized unlock screen. In the above video, I provide a quick overview...
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Sony announces titles for PS Vita launch
23 Dec 2011
The Washington Post
What will you play on your PlayStation Vita when it arrives stateside on February 22nd, 2012? You can pick from a list of twenty-five US launch titles that Sony just pushed out. We're happy to see that Uncharted:...
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BRISK-PS Study with Investigational Compound Brivanib in Hepatocellular Carcinoma Completed
22 Dec 2011
Business Wire
PRINCETON, N.J.--(BUSINESS WIRE)--Bristol-Myers Squibb Company (NYSE: BMY) today reported that the Phase III BRISK-PS (Brivanib Study in HCC Patients at Risk Post Sorafenib) clinical trial in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC; liver cancer) who failed or are intolerant to sorafenib did not...
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Joystiq
The PlayStation Vita comes pre-loaded with a suite of minigames, under the delightfully Japanese heading of "Welcome Park." Each of the five games is designed to give users practice with one of the Vita's interface methods: the touchscreen (and touch panel), the mic, the camera, and the...
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Psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. Its immediate goal is to understand individuals and groups by both establishing general principles and researching specific cases. For many, the ultimate goal of psychology is to benefit society. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist, and can be classified as a social scientist, behavioral scientist, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individual and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie certain functions and behaviors.
Psychologists explore such concepts as perception, cognition, attention, emotion, phenomenology, motivation, brain functioning, personality, behavior, and interpersonal relationships. Some, especially depth psychologists, also consider the unconscious mind. Psychologists employ empirical methods to infer causal and correlational relationships between psychosocial variables. In addition, or in opposition, to employing empirical and deductive methods, some—especially clinical and counseling psychologists—at times rely upon symbolic interpretation and other inductive techniques. Psychology incorporates research from the social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities, such as philosophy.
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While psychological knowledge is often applied to the assessment and treatment of mental health problems, it is also applied to understanding and solving problems in many different spheres of human activity. Although the majority of psychologists are involved in some kind of therapeutic role (clinical, counseling, and school positions), many do scientific research on a wide range of topics related to mental processes and behavior (typically in university psychology departments) or teach such knowledge in academic settings; and some are employed in industrial and organizational settings, and in other areas such as human development and aging, sports, health, the media, law, and forensics.
Etymology
The word psychology literally means, according to "Webster's Dictionary", "the study of the soul" (ψυχή, psukhē, meaning "breath", "spirit", or "soul"; and -λογία -logia, translated as "study of" or "research"). The Latin word psychologia was first used by the Croatian humanist and Latinist Marko Marulić in his book, Psichiologia de ratione animae humanae in the late 15th century or early 16th century. The earliest known reference to the word psychology in English was by Steven Blankaart in 1694 in The Physical Dictionary which refers to "Anatomy, which treats of the Body, and Psychology, which treats of the Soul."
History
The study of psychology in a philosophical context dates back to the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Greece, China, India, and Persia. Historians point to the writings of ancient Greek philosophers, such as Thales, Plato, and Aristotle (especially in his De Anima treatise), as the first significant body of work in the West to be rich in psychological thought.
Structuralism
German physician Wilhelm Wundt is credited with introducing psychological discovery into a laboratory setting. Known as the "father of experimental psychology", he founded the first psychological laboratory, at Leipzig University, in 1879. Wundt focused on breaking down mental processes into the most basic components. Edward Titchener was another major structuralist thinker.
Functionalism
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and was heavily influenced by the work of the American philosopher, scientist and psychologist William James. James felt that psychology should have practical value, and that psychologists should find out how the mind can function to a person's benefit. In his book, Principles of Psychology, published in 1890, he laid the foundations for many of the questions that psychologists would explore for years to come. Other major functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey Carr.Other 19th-century contributors to the field include the German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneer in the experimental study of memory, who developed quantitative models of learning and forgetting at the University of Berlin; and the Russian-Soviet physiologist Ivan Pavlov, who discovered in dogs a learning process that was later termed "classical conditioning" and applied to human beings.
Starting in the 1950s, the experimental techniques set forth by Wundt, James, Ebbinghaus, and others would be reiterated as experimental psychology became increasingly cognitive—concerned with information and its processing—and, eventually, constituted a part of the wider cognitive science. In its early years, this development had been seen as a "revolution", as it both responded to and reacted against strains of thought—including psychodynamics and behaviorism—that had developed in the meantime.
Psychoanalysis
From the 1890s until his death in 1939, the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis, a method of investigation of the mind and the way one thinks; a systematized set of theories about human behavior; and a form of psychotherapy to treat psychological or emotional distress, especially unconscious conflict. Freud's psychoanalytic theory was largely based on interpretive methods, introspection and clinical observations. It became very well known, largely because it tackled subjects such as sexuality, repression, and the unconscious mind as general aspects of psychological development. These were largely considered taboo subjects at the time, and Freud provided a catalyst for them to be openly discussed in polite society. Clinically, Freud helped to pioneer the method of free association and a therapeutic interest in dream interpretation.Freud had a significant influence on Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung, whose analytical psychology became an alternative form of depth psychology. Other well-known psychoanalytic scholars of the mid-20th century included psychoanalysts, psychologists, psychiatrists, and philosophers. Among these thinkers were Erik Erikson, Melanie Klein, D.W. Winnicott, Karen Horney, Erich Fromm, John Bowlby, and Sigmund Freud's daughter, Anna Freud. Throughout the 20th century, psychoanalysis evolved into diverse schools of thought, most of which may be classed as Neo-Freudian.
Psychoanalytic theory and therapy were criticized by psychologists such as Hans Eysenck, and by philosophers including Karl Popper. Popper, a philosopher of science, argued that psychoanalysis had been misrepresented as a scientific discipline, whereas Eysenck said that psychoanalytic tenets had been contradicted by experimental data. By the 20th century, psychology departments in American universities had become scientifically oriented, marginalizing Freudian theory and dismissing it as a "desiccated and dead" historical artifact. Meanwhile, however, researchers in the emerging field of neuro-psychoanalysis defended some of Freud's ideas on scientific grounds, while scholars of the humanities maintained that Freud was not a "scientist at all, but ... an interpreter."
Behaviorism
In the United States, behaviorism became the dominant school of thought during the 1950s. Behaviorism was founded in the early 20th century by John B. Watson, and embraced and extended by Edward Thorndike, Clark L. Hull, Edward C. Tolman, and later B.F. Skinner. Theories of learning emphasized the ways in which people might be predisposed, or conditioned, by their environments to behave in certain ways.Classical conditioning was an early behaviorist model. It posited that behavioral tendencies are determined by immediate associations between various environmental stimuli and the degree of pleasure or pain that follows. Behavioral patterns, then, were understood to consist of organisms' conditioned responses to the stimuli in their environment. The stimuli were held to exert influence in proportion to their prior repetition or to the previous intensity of their associated pain or pleasure. Much research consisted of laboratory-based animal experimentation, which was increasing in popularity as physiology grew more sophisticated.
Skinner's behaviorism shared with its predecessors a philosophical inclination toward positivism and determinism. He believed that the contents of the mind were not open to scientific scrutiny and that scientific psychology should emphasize the study of observable behavior. He focused on behavior–environment relations and analyzed overt and covert (i.e., private) behavior as a function of the organism interacting with its environment. Behaviorists usually rejected or deemphasized dualistic explanations such as "mind" or "consciousness"; and, in lieu of probing an "unconscious mind" that underlies unawareness, they spoke of the "contingency-shaped behaviors" in which unawareness becomes outwardly manifest.
Among the behaviorists' most famous creations are John B. Watson's Little Albert experiment, which applied classical conditioning to the developing human child, and Skinner's notion of operant conditioning, which acknowledged that human agency could affect patterns and cycles of environmental stimuli and behavioral responses.
Linguist Noam Chomsky's critique of the behaviorist model of language acquisition is widely regarded as a key factor in the decline of behaviorism's prominence. Martin Seligman and colleagues discovered that the conditioning of dogs led to outcomes ("learned helplessness") that opposed the predictions of behaviorism. But Skinner's behaviorism did not die, perhaps in part because it generated successful practical applications. The fall of behaviorism as an overarching model in psychology, however, gave way to a new dominant paradigm: cognitive approaches.
Humanism
Humanistic psychology was developed in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and psychoanalysis. By using phenomenology, intersubjectivity and first-person categories, the humanistic approach sought to glimpse the whole person—not just the fragmented parts of the personality or cognitive functioning. Humanism focused on fundamentally and uniquely human issues, such as individual free will, personal growth, self-actualization, self-identity, death, aloneness, freedom, and meaning. The humanistic approach was distinguished by its emphasis on subjective meaning, rejection of determinism, and concern for positive growth rather than pathology. Some of the founders of the humanistic school of thought were American psychologists Abraham Maslow, who formulated a hierarchy of human needs, and Carl Rogers, who created and developed client-centered therapy. Later, positive psychology opened up humanistic themes to scientific modes of exploration.
Gestalt
Wolfgang Kohler, Max Wertheimer and Kurt Koffka co-founded the school of Gestalt psychology. This approach is based upon the idea that individuals experience things as unified wholes. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century in response to the molecular approach of structuralism. Rather than breaking down thoughts and behavior to their smallest element, the Gestalt position maintains that the whole of experience is important, and the whole is different than the sum of its parts.Gestalt psychology should not be confused with the Gestalt therapy of Fritz Perls, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology.
Existentialism
Influenced largely by the work of German philosopher Martin Heidegger and Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, psychoanalytically trained American psychologist Rollo May pioneered an existential branch of psychology, which included existential therapy, in the 1950s and 1960s. Existential psychologists differed from others often classified as humanistic in their comparatively neutral view of human nature and in their relatively positive assessment of anxiety. Existential psychologists emphasized the humanistic themes of death, free will, and meaning, suggesting that meaning can be shaped by myths, or narrative patterns, and that it can be encouraged by an acceptance of the free will requisite to an authentic, albeit often anxious, regard for death and other future prospects. Austrian existential psychiatrist and Holocaust survivor Viktor Frankl drew evidence of meaning's therapeutic power from reflections garnered from his own internment, and he created a variety of existential psychotherapy called logotherapy. In addition to May and Frankl, Swiss psychoanalyst Ludwig Binswanger and American psychologist George Kelly may be said to belong to the existential school.
Cognitivism
Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes including how people think, perceive, remember, and learn. As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this branch of psychology is related to other disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy, and linguistics.Noam Chomsky helped to ignite a "cognitive revolution" in psychology when he criticized the behaviorists' notions of "stimulus", "response", and "reinforcement", arguing that such ideas—which Skinner had borrowed from animal experiments in the laboratory—could be applied to complex human behavior, most notably language acquisition, in only a vague and superficial manner. The postulation that humans are born with the instinct or "innate facility" for acquiring language posed a challenge to the behaviorist position that all behavior (including language) is contingent upon learning and reinforcement. Social learning theorists, such as Albert Bandura, argued that the child's environment could make contributions of its own to the behaviors of an observant subject.
Meanwhile, accumulating technology helped to renew interest and belief in the mental states and representations—i.e., the cognition—that had fallen out of favor with behaviorists. English neuroscientist Charles Sherrington and Canadian psychologist Donald O. Hebb used experimental methods to link psychological phenomena with the structure and function of the brain. With the rise of computer science and artificial intelligence, analogies were drawn between the processing of information by humans and information processing by machines. Research in cognition had proven practical since World War II, when it aided in the understanding of weapons operation. By the late 20th century, though, cognitivism had become the dominant paradigm of mainstream psychology, and cognitive psychology emerged as a popular branch.
Assuming both that the covert mind should be studied and that the scientific method should be used to study it, cognitive psychologists set such concepts as "subliminal processing" and "implicit memory" in place of the psychoanalytic "unconscious mind" or the behavioristic "contingency-shaped behaviors". Elements of behaviorism and cognitive psychology were synthesized to form the basis of cognitive behavioral therapy, a form of psychotherapy modified from techniques developed by American psychologist Albert Ellis and American psychiatrist Aaron T. Beck. Cognitive psychology was subsumed along with other disciplines, such as philosophy of mind, computer science, and neuroscience, under the umbrella discipline of cognitive science.
Biopsychosocial model
The biopsychosocial model is an integrated perspective toward understanding consciousness, behavior, and social interaction. It assumes that any given behavior or mental process affects and is affected by dynamically interrelated biological, psychological, and social factors. The psychological aspect refers to the role that cognition and emotions play in any given psychological phenomenon—for example, the effect of mood or beliefs and expectations on an individual's reactions to an event. The biological aspect refers to the role of biological factors in psychological phenomena—for example, the effect of the prenatal environment on brain development and cognitive abilities, or the influence of genes on individual dispositions. The socio-cultural aspect refers to the role that social and cultural environments play in a given psychological phenomenon—for example, the role of parental or peer influence in the behaviors or characteristics of an individual.
Discursive psychology
Discursive psychology was developed in the 1990s by Jonathan Potter and Derek Edwards. It examines how psychological phenomena are created, made relevant and put to use in discourse, verbal interaction and everyday talk. It is opposed to cognitivist approaches.
Critical psychology
Critical psychology is aimed at critiquing mainstream psychology and attempts to apply psychology in more progressive ways, often looking towards social change as a means of preventing and treating psychopathology. One of critical psychology's main criticisms of conventional psychology is how it ignores the way power differences between social classes and groups can impact the mental and physical well-being of individuals or groups of people. Contributors to the field include Klaus Holzkamp and Ian Parker. Key elements within critical psychology include the study of power relations, situated knowledge, and the dualism of the self and agency and the dualism of the individual and the social.
Subfields
Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior.
Biological
Biological psychology or behavioral neuroscience is the study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental processes. There are different specialties within behavioral neuroscience. For example, physiological psychologists use animal models (typically rats) to study the neural, genetic, and cellular mechanisms that underlie specific behaviors such as learning and memory and fear responses. Cognitive neuroscientists investigate the neural correlates of psychological processes in humans using neural imaging tools, and neuropsychologists conduct psychological assessments to determine, for instance, specific aspects and extent of cognitive deficit caused by brain damage or disease.
Clinical
Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic testimony, and program development and administration. Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with brain injury—this area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries, clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.The work performed by clinical psychologists tends to be influenced by various therapeutic approaches, all of which involve a formal relationship between professional and client (usually an individual, couple, family, or small group). The various therapeutic approaches and practices are associated with different theoretical perspectives and employ different procedures intended to form a therapeutic alliance, explore the nature of psychological problems, and encourage new ways of thinking, feeling, or behaving. Four major theoretical perspectives are psychodynamic, cognitive behavioral, existential–humanistic, and systems or family therapy. There has been a growing movement to integrate the various therapeutic approaches, especially with an increased understanding of issues regarding culture, gender, spirituality, and sexual-orientation. With the advent of more robust research findings regarding psychotherapy, there is evidence that most of the major therapies are about of equal effectiveness, with the key common element being a strong therapeutic alliance. Because of this, more training programs and psychologists are now adopting an eclectic therapeutic orientation.
Cognitive
Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying mental activity. Perception, learning, problem solving, reasoning, thinking, memory, attention, language and emotion are areas of research. Classical cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by functionalism and experimental psychology.On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in artificial intelligence, linguists, human–computer interaction, computational neuroscience, logicians and social scientists. Computational models are sometimes used to simulate phenomena of interest. Computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the mind whereas neuroscience provides measures of brain activity.
Comparative
Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. It is related to disciplines outside of psychology that study animal behavior such as ethology. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans, the behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research. This being either as a subject in its own right (e.g., animal cognition and ethology) or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an insight into human psychology. This is achieved by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in neuroscience of psychology (e.g., affective neuroscience and social neuroscience).
Developmental
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive, neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of psychological theories to inform their research.
Educational and school
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Bernard Luskin and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. Educational psychology is often included in teacher education programs, in places such as North America, Australia, and New Zealand.School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of gifted students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. School psychologists are trained in educational and behavioral assessment, intervention, prevention, and consultation, and many have extensive training in research.
Evolutionary
Evolutionary psychology examines psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—from a modern evolutionary perspective. It seeks to identify which human psychological traits are evolved adaptations, that is, the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection. Evolutionary psychologists suggest that psychological adaptations evolved to solve recurrent problems in human ancestral environments. By focusing on the evolution of psychological traits and their adaptive functions, it offers complementary explanations for the mostly proximate or developmental explanations developed by other areas of psychology (that is, it focuses mostly on ultimate or "why?" questions, rather than proximate or "how?" questions).
Industrial–organizational
Industrial and organizational psychology (I–O) applies psychological concepts and methods to optimize human potential in the workplace. Personnel psychology, a subfield of I–O psychology, applies the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. I–O psychology's other subfield, organizational psychology, examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity.
Personality
Personality psychology is concerned to enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion in individuals, commonly referred to as personality. Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools and orientations. They carry different assumptions about such issues as the role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of the id, ego, and super-ego. Trait theorists, in contrast, attempt to analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits by the statistical method of factor analysis. The number of proposed traits has varied widely. An early model proposed by Hans Eysenck suggested that there are three traits that comprise human personality: extraversion–introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell proposed a theory of 16 personality factors. The "Big Five", or Five Factor Model, proposed by Lewis Goldberg, currently has strong support among trait theorists.
Social
Social psychology is the study of how humans think about each other and how they relate to each other. Social psychologists study such topics as the influence of others on an individual's behavior (e.g. conformity, persuasion), and the formation of beliefs, attitudes, and stereotypes about other people. Social cognition fuses elements of social and cognitive psychology in order to understand how people process, remember, and distort social information. The study of group dynamics reveals information about the nature and potential optimization of leadership, communication, and other phenomena that emerge at least at the microsocial level. In recent years, many social psychologists have become increasingly interested in implicit measures, mediational models, and the interaction of both person and social variables in accounting for behavior. The study of human society, is therefore a potentially valuable source of information about the causes of psychiatric disorder. Some of the sociological concepts applied to psychiatric disorders are the social role, sick role, social class, life event, culture, migration, social and total institution.
Positive
Positive psychology derives from Maslow's humanistic psychology. Positive psychology is a discipline that utilizes evidence-based scientific methods to study factors that contribute to human happiness and strength. Different from clinical psychology, positive psychology is concerned with improving the mental well-being of healthy clients. Positive psychological interventions now have received tentative support for their beneficial effects on clients. In 2010 Clinical Psychological Review published a special issue devoted to positive psychological interventions, such as gratitude journaling and the physical expression of gratitude. There is, however, a need for further research on the effects of interventions. Positive psychological interventions have been limited in scope but their effects are thought to be superior to that of placebos, especially with regard to helping people with body image problems.
Research methods
Psychology tends to be eclectic, drawing on knowledge from other fields to help explain and understand psychological phenomena. Additionally, psychologists make extensive use of the three modes of inference that were identified by C.S. Peirce: deduction, induction, and abduction (hypothesis generation). While often employing deductive–nomological reasoning, they also rely on inductive reasoning to generate explanations. For example, evolutionary psychologists attempt to explain psychological traits—such as memory, perception, or language—as adaptations, that is, as the functional products of natural selection or sexual selection.Psychologists may conduct basic research aiming for further understanding in a particular area of interest in psychology, or conduct applied research to solve problems in the clinic, workplace or other areas. Masters level clinical programs aim to train students in both research methods and evidence-based practice. Professional associations have established guidelines for ethics, training, research methodology and professional practice. In addition, depending on the country, state or region, psychological services and the title "psychologist" may be governed by statute and psychologists who offer services to the public are usually required to be licensed.
Qualitative and quantitative research
Research in most areas of psychology is conducted in accord with the standards of the scientific method. Psychological researchers seek the emergence of theoretically interesting categories and hypotheses from data, using qualitative or quantitative methods (or both).Qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, first-hand observation, and participant observation. Creswell (2003) identifies five main possibilities for quantitative research, including narrative, phenomenology, ethnography, case study and grounded theory. Qualitative researchers sometimes aim to enrich interpretations or critiques of symbols, subjective experiences, or social structures. Similar hermeneutic and critical aims have also been served by "quantitative methods", as in Erich Fromm's study of Nazi voting or Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.
Quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. Quantitatively oriented research designs include the experiment, quasi-experiment, cross-sectional study, case-control study, and longitudinal study. The measurement and operationalization of important constructs is an essential part of these research designs. Statistical methods include the Pearson product–moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling.
Controlled experiments
Experimental psychological research is conducted in a laboratory under controlled conditions. This method of research relies on the application of the scientific method to understand behavior. Experimenters use several types of measurements, including rate of response, reaction time, and various psychometric measurements. Experiments are designed to test specific hypotheses (deductive approach) or evaluate functional relationships (inductive approach). A true experiment with random allocation of subjects to conditions allows researchers to infer causal relationships between different aspects of behavior and the environment. In an experiment, one or more variables of interest are controlled by the experimenter (independent variable) and another variable is measured in response to different conditions (dependent variable). Experiments are one of the primary research methods in many areas of psychology, particularly cognitive/psychonomics, mathematical psychology, psychophysiology and biological psychology/cognitive neuroscience.Experiments on humans have been put under some controls, namely informed and voluntary consent. After World War II, the Nuremberg Code was established, because of Nazi abuses of experimental subjects. Later, most countries (and scientific journals) adopted the Declaration of Helsinki. In the U.S., the National Institutes of Health established the Institutional Review Board in 1966, and in 1974 adopted the National Research Act (HR 7724). All of these measures encouraged researchers to obtain informed consent from human participants in experimental studies. A number of influential studies led to the establishment of this rule; such studies included the MIT and Fernald School radioisotope studies, the Thalidomide tragedy, the Willowbrook hepatitis study, and Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority.
Survey questionnaires
Statistical surveys are used in psychology for measuring attitudes and traits, monitoring changes in mood, checking the validity of experimental manipulations, and for a wide variety of other psychological topics. Most commonly, psychologists use paper-and-pencil surveys. However, surveys are also conducted over the phone or through e-mail. Increasingly, web-based surveys are being used in research. Similar methodology is also used in applied setting, such as clinical assessment and personnel assessment.
Longitudinal studies
Longitudinal studies are often used in psychology to study developmental trends across the life span, and in sociology to study life events throughout lifetimes or generations. The reason for this is that unlike cross-sectional studies, longitudinal studies track the same people, and therefore the differences observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations. Because of this benefit, longitudinal studies make observing changes more accurate and they are applied in various other fields.Because most longitudinal studies are observational, in the sense that they observe the state of the world without manipulating it, it has been argued that they may have less power to detect causal relationships than do experiments. They also suffer methodological limitations such as from selective attrition because people with similar characteristics may be more likely to drop out of the study making it difficult to analyze.
Some longitudinal studies are experiments, called repeated-measures experiments. Psychologists often use the crossover design to reduce the influence of confounding covariates and to reduce the number of subjects.
Observation in natural settings
In the same way Jane Goodall studied the role of chimpanzee social and family life, psychologists conduct similar observational studies in human social, professional and family lives. Sometimes the participants are aware they are being observed and other times it is covert: the participants do not know they are being observed. Ethical guidelines need to be taken into consideration when covert observation is being carried out.
Qualitative and descriptive research
Research designed to answer questions about the current state of affairs such as the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals is known as descriptive research. Descriptive research can be qualitative or quantitative in orientation. Qualitative research is descriptive research that is focused on observing and describing events as they occur, with the goal of capturing all of the richness of everyday behavior and with the hope of discovering and understanding phenomena that might have been missed if only more cursory examinations have been made.
Neuropsychological methods
Neuropsychology seeks to connect aspects of behavior and mental activity with the structure and function of the brain. Cognitive neuropsychology and cognitive neuropsychiatry study neurological or mental impairment in an attempt to infer theories of normal mind and brain function. This typically involves looking for differences in patterns of remaining ability (known as "functional disassociations") which can give clues as to whether abilities are composed of smaller functions, or are controlled by a single cognitive mechanism.In addition, experimental techniques are often used to study the neuropsychology of healthy individuals. These include behavioral experiments, brain-scanning or functional neuroimaging, used to examine the activity of the brain during task performance, and techniques such as transcranial magnetic stimulation, which can safely alter the function of small brain areas to reveal their importance in mental operations.
Computational modeling
Computational modeling is a tool often used in mathematical psychology and cognitive psychology to simulate a particular behavior using a computer. This method has several advantages. Since modern computers process extremely quickly, many simulations can be run in a short time, allowing for a great deal of statistical power. Modeling also allows psychologists to visualize hypotheses about the functional organization of mental events that couldn't be directly observed in a human.Several different types of modeling are used to study behavior. Connectionism uses neural networks to simulate the brain. Another method is symbolic modeling, which represents many different mental objects using variables and rules. Other types of modeling include dynamic systems and stochastic modeling.
Animal studies
Animal learning experiments aid in investigating the biological basis of teaching, memory and behavior. In the 1890s, Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov famously used dogs to demonstrate classical conditioning. Non-human primates, cats, dogs, pigeons, rats and other rodents are often used in psychological experiments. Ideally, controlled experiments introduce only one independent variable at a time, in order to ascertain its unique effects upon dependent variables. These conditions are approximated best in laboratory settings. In contrast, human environments and genetic backgrounds vary so widely, and depend upon so many factors, that it is difficult to control important variables for human subjects. Of course, there are pitfalls in generalizing findings from animal studies to humans although animal models can be helpful in developing an understanding of human behavior (e.g., addiction research).
Criticism
Theory
Criticisms of psychological research often come from perceptions that it is a "soft" science. Philosopher of science Thomas Kuhn's 1962 critique implied psychology overall was in a pre-paradigm state, lacking the agreement on overarching theory found in mature sciences such as chemistry and physics.Because some areas of psychology rely on research methods such as surveys and questionnaires, critics have asserted that psychology is not an objective science. Other phenomena that psychologists are interested in, such as personality, thinking, and emotion, cannot be directly measured and are often inferred from subjective self-reports, which may be problematic.
Misuses of hypothesis-testing in psychology, and the use of hypothesis testing at all is controversial. Research has documented that many psychologists confuse statistical significance with practical importance. Statistically significant but practically unimportant results are common with large samples. Some psychologists have responded with an increased use of effect size statistics, rather than sole reliance on the Fisherian p < .05 significance criterion (whereby an observed difference is deemed "statistically significant" if an effect of that size or larger would occur with 5% (or less) probability in independent replications, assuming the truth of the null-hypothesis of no difference between the treatments).
Sometimes the debate comes from within psychology, for example between laboratory-oriented researchers and practitioners such as clinicians. In recent years, and particularly in the U.S., there has been increasing debate about the nature of therapeutic effectiveness and about the relevance of empirically examining psychotherapeutic strategies.
Practice
Some observers perceive a gap between scientific theory and its application—in particular, the application of unsupported or unsound clinical practices. Critics say there has been an increase in the number of mental health training programs that do not instill scientific competence. One skeptic asserts that practices, such as "facilitated communication for infantile autism"; memory-recovery techniques including body work; and other therapies, such as rebirthing and reparenting, may be dubious or even dangerous, despite their popularity. In 1984, Allen Neuringer had made a similar point regarding the experimental analysis of behavior.Current ethical standards of psychology would not permit the following studies to be conducted today. These human studies would violate the Ethics Code of the American Psychological Association, the Canadian Code of Conduct for Research Involving Humans, and the Belmont Report. Current ethical guidelines state that using non-human animals for scientific purposes is only acceptable when the harm (physical or psychological) done to animals is outweighed by the benefits of the research. Keeping this in mind, psychologists can use on animals research techniques that would not necessarily be performed on humans.
An experiment by Stanley Milgram raised questions about the ethics of scientific experimentation because of the extreme emotional stress suffered by the participants. It measured the willingness of study participants to obey an authority figure who instructed them to perform acts that conflicted with their personal conscience.
Harry Harlow drew condemnation for his "pit of despair" experiments on rhesus macaque monkeys at the University of Wisconsin–Madison in the 1970s. The aim of the research was to produce an animal model of clinical depression. Harlow also devised what he called a "rape rack", to which the female isolates were tied in normal monkey mating posture. In 1974, American literary critic Wayne C. Booth wrote that, "Harry Harlow and his colleagues go on torturing their nonhuman primates decade after decade, invariably proving what we all knew in advance—that social creatures can be destroyed by destroying their social ties." He writes that Harlow made no mention of the criticism of the morality of his work.
University psychology departments have ethics committees dedicated to the rights and well-being of research subjects. Researchers in psychology must gain approval of their research projects before conducting any experiment to protect the interests of human participants and laboratory animals.
Systemic bias
In 1959 statistician Theodore Sterling examined the results of psychological studies and discovered that 97% of them supported their initial hypotheses, implying a possible publication bias. Similarly Fanelli (2010) found out that 91.5% of psychiatry/psychology studies confirmed the effects they were looking for, which was around five times more often than in space- or geosciences. Fanelli argues that this is because of researchers in "softer" sciences have fewer constraints to their conscious and unconscious biases.In November 2010, New Scientist Magazine reported a systemic bias in psychology studies towards WEIRD ("western, educated, industrialized, rich and democratic") subjects. Although only 1/8 people worldwide fall into the WEIRD classification, New Scientist claimed that 60–90% of psychology studies are performed on WEIRD subjects. The article gave examples of results that differ significantly between WEIRD subjects and tribal cultures, including the Müller-Lyer illusion.
See also
Notes
Although psychoanalysis and other forms of depth psychology are most typically associated with the unconscious mind, behaviorists consider such phenomena as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, while cognitivists explore implicit memory, automaticity, and subliminal messages, all of which are understood either to bypass or to occur outside of conscious effort or attention. Indeed, cognitive-behavioral therapists counsel their clients to become aware of maladaptive thought patterns, the nature of which the clients previously had not been conscious. Among these schools are ego psychology, object relations, and interpersonal, Lacanian, and relational psychoanalysis. Modification of Jung's theories led to the archetypal and process-oriented schools. For example, scientists have related brain structures to Freudian concepts such as libido, drives, the unconscious, and repression. The contributors to neuro-psychoanalysis include António Damásio, Eric Kandel, Joseph E. LeDoux, Jaak Panksepp, Oliver Sacks, Mark Solms, and Douglas Watt. Gregg Henriques of James Madison University, for example, published his Tree of Knowledge System in 2003 as a proposal for the theoretical unification of psychology. For a general discussion and critique, see also Mark Jarzombek's book, The Psychologizing of Modernity.
References
External links
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