A canon (from the Latin ''canonicus'', itself derived from the Greek , ''kanonikós'', "relating to a rule", "regulary") is a priest or minister who is a member of certain bodies of the Christian clergy subject to an ecclesiastical rule (canon).

Originally, a canon was a cleric living with others in a clergyhouse or, later, in one of the houses within the precinct of or close to a cathedral and ordering his life according to the orders or rules of the church. This way of life grew common (and is first documented) in the eighth century. In the eleventh century, some churches required clergy thus living together to adopt the rule first proposed by Saint Augustine that they renounce private wealth. Those who embraced this change were known as Augustinians or Canons Regular, whilst those who did not were known as secular canons.

Secular canons

In the Roman Catholic Church, the members of the chapter of a cathedral (cathedral chapter) or of a collegiate church (so called after their chapter) are canons. Depending on the title of the church, several languages use specific titles, e.g., in German ''Domherr or Domkapitular'' in a ''Dom'' (i.e., cathedral), ''Stiftsherr'' in a prelature that has the status of a ''Stift'' (notably under a prince of the Church).

One of the functions of the cathedral chapter in the Roman Catholic Church was to elect a Vicar Capitular (now named a Diocesan Administrator) to serve during a sede vacante period of the diocese. Since the 1983 revision of the Code of Canon Law, this responsibility belongs to the college of consultors, unless the national Bishops Conference decides that the functions that canon law ascribes to the college of consultors, including this one, are to be entrusted to the cathedral chapter.

All canons of the Church of England have been secular since the Reformation, although an individual canon may himself also be a member of a religious order. Mostly, however, they are ordained, that is, priests or members of the clergy. Today, the system of canons is retained almost exclusively in connection with cathedral churches. A canon is a member of the chapter of (for the most part) priests, headed by a dean, which is responsible for administering a cathedral or certain other churches that are styled collegiate churches. The dean and chapter are the formal body which has legal responsibility for the cathedral and for electing the (arch)bishop.

Honorary canons

The title of Canon is still given in many dioceses to senior parish priests as a largely honorary title. It is usually awarded in recognition of long and dedicated service to the diocese. Honorary canons are members of the chapter in name but are non-residential and receive no emoluments. They are entitled to call themselves canon and have a role in the administration of the cathedral.

Generally speaking, canons in the Anglican Communion are of this sort, and thus are equivalent to a monsignor in the Catholic Church, often wearing the violet or violet-trimmed cassock which is associated with that rank.

Honorary canons within the Catholic Church have no longer been nominated after the Second Vatican Council.

Lay canons

In addition to canons who are clerks in holy orders, cathedrals in the Anglican communion may also appoint lay persons as canons. The rank of ''"lay canon"'' is especially conferred upon diocesan chancellors (the senior legal officer of the diocese, who is usually, though not exclusively, a lay person).

Since the reign of King Henry IV, the heads of state of France have been granted by the pope the title of sole honorary canon of Saint John Lateran. The proto-canon of the Basilica of St. Mary Major is still the King of Spain.

Canon-Professors at Oxford

§2 of The Church of England (Miscellaneous Provisions) Measure 1995 was passed for the express purpose of enabling Christ Church, Oxford, to appoint not more than two lay canons. One of the motivations for this provision was the fact that, under the Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1840 (§6), the position of Regius Professor of Ecclesiastical History in the University of Oxford was annexed to a Residentiary Canonry of the cathedral, meaning that the Regius professorship could be held only by an Anglican priest. Following the death of Peter Hinchliff in 1995 the Regius professorship was held by Henry Mayr-Harting, a Roman Catholic layman, from 1997 until 2003, and was taken up by another lay person, Sarah Foot, in Michaelmas Term 2007. Three other Statutory Professorships, the Regius Professorship of Divinity, Lady Margaret Professorship of Divinity, and Regius Professorship of Moral and Pastoral Theology, are annexed to canonries of Christ Church and must be held by Anglican priests.

===Minor canons===

Minor canons are those clergy who are members of the cathedral's establishment and take part in the daily services but are not part of the formal Chapter. These are generally more junior clergy, who in a parish church would be serving a curacy.

Canons regular

Canons regular are the members of certain religious orders in the Roman Catholic Church (not to be confused with clerics regular), composed of priests and some choir canons who live in community, together in the past with lay brothers. There are a variety of congregations of canons, some of whom are part of the Confederation of Canons Regular of St. Augustine.

Canons Regular of the Lateran or St. Saviour, who seem to date back to Pope Alexander II (1063)

Order of the Canons Regular of Premontre; Norbertines founded by St. Norbert (1120)

Order of the Holy Cross (Canons Regular) founded in Portugal in 1131 and re-founded in 1977

Canons Regular of the Order of the Holy Cross (the Crosiers), founded at Clair-lieu, near Huy, in Belgium, in 1211

Swiss Congregation of Canons Regular of Saint Maurice of Agaune

Gilbertine Order, a solely English order of canons regular, which became extinct under King Henry VIII

Canons Regular of the Immaculate Conception, a congregation of Canons Regular founded in France in 1871

Many bishops endeavoured to imitate St. Augustine and St. Eusebius, and to live a common life with the clergy of their church. Rules taken from the sacred canons were even drawn up for their use, of which the most celebrated is that of St. Chrodegang, Bishop of Metz (766). In the tenth century, this institution declined; the canons, as the clergy attached to a church and living a common life were called, began to live separately; some of them, however, resisted this relaxation of discipline, and even added poverty to their common life. This is the origin of the canons regular. Pope Benedict XII by his constitution ''Ad decorem'' (15 May 1339) prescribed a general reform of the canons regular. The canons regular ex professo united Holy Orders with religious life, and being attached to a church, devoted themselves to promoting the dignity of divine worship. With monks, Holy Orders are incidental and secondary, and are superadded to the religious life. With canons as with the clerks regular, Holy Orders are the principal thing, and the religious life is superadded to the Holy Orders.

See also

Canoness

Notes and references

Sources and Further Information

Canons Regular of the Immaculate Conception

Canons Regular of Premontre, Orange County, California

Catholic-hierarchy

Catholic Encyclopaedia

Oxford English Dictionary

Category:Catholic priesthood Category:Christian religious leaders Category:Ecclesiastical titles Category:Anglican ecclesiastical offices

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Coordinates	32°19′59″N70°6′52″N
background	#8CAFFB
name	John Corapi, S.O.L.T.
religion	Roman Catholic
order	Society of Our Lady of the Most Holy Trinity
nationality	American
birth date	May 20, 1947
birth place	Hudson, New York
ordination	May 26, 1991
website	fathercorapi.comtheblacksheepdog.us }}

John Anthony Corapi, S.O.L.T. (born May 20, 1947) is a Catholic priest from the United States, removed from public ministry in 2011. During the 2000s he was a popular speaker on Catholic television and radio and conducted speaking tours in North America.

In 2005 Corapi was awarded $2.7 million USD for his role as a whistleblower in a ''qui tam'' False Claims Act lawsuit against Redding Medical Center that resulted in an overall $24 million USD payment to defrauded patients.

Following allegations of misconduct, Corapi was removed from public ministry as a priest in 2011. He asserts his innocence, but has announced his intention to resign from ministry.

Life

Early years

Corapi was born in Hudson, New York. In high school he was a football player and an undistinguished student. In the fall of 1965 he entered the State University of New York at Albany, but returned to Hudson after academic difficulties.

Military service

Corapi joined the United States Army on April 16, 1967 and served as a clerk/typist. He was discharged in January 1970. Corapi says he enlisted to join the Special Forces but was injured before completing his training.

Career and dissolution

After his discharge in 1970, Corapi studied accounting at Pace University and graduated in 1973. He joined an accounting firm in Las Vegas, where he audited hotels and casinos. In 1975 he became assistant comptroller at the Tropicana resort. A year later he took a position with the Nevada Gaming Control Board as an investigator. He later operated his own bookkeeping firm for about a year, and in 1978 moved to Los Angeles and became a real estate agent. In the early 1980s he says he was making a six-figure income in condominium conversions; he lived in a waterfront home in Oxnard and owned a Ferrari 308 GTS and a sixty-foot yacht. At the height of his career in California, Corapi lived in a house in Malibu.

During this time, he began to attend parties involving illegal drug use and sex. After being introduced to cocaine, however, he developed a substance abuse problem and his success dwindled; he sometimes spent $10,000 USD per week on illegal drugs. Corapi would later refer to his drug use as an encounter with a demon, and his lifestyle eventually led to a mental breakdown and homelessness following a stay at a VA psychiatric hospital.

Religious conversion

Corapi spent three years wandering the streets as a vagrant following his mental breakdown. His mother sent him a prayer card with the Hail Mary prayer and asked him to pray it once a day. He eventually changed his life, escaping homelessness and illicit sex and drugs. His mother sent him a one-way airline ticket back to New York, and he returned home. He lived with his mother for some time and returned to the practice of the Catholic faith after a conversion experience on June 24, 1984, making his first confession in several years.

Corapi entered Holy Apostles Seminary in Cromwell, Connecticut in 1986 and earned an M.A. in Sacred Scripture. He joined the missionary community the Society of Our Lady of the Most Holy Trinity and on May 26, 1990, was ordained a deacon by René Henry Gracida, Bishop of Corpus Christi, Texas. He earned an S.T.B. degree from the University of Navarre in Pamplona, Spain.

Priesthood

On Trinity Sunday, May 26, 1991, Pope John Paul II ordained Fr. Corapi to the priesthood, Corapi says that Mother Teresa stood behind him at his ordination and that he saw a vision of the Virgin Mary smelling like lilacs on that day. Corapi first served as a parish priest in Hudson, New York and Robstown, Texas. He was the Director of Catholic Faith Formation and of the Bishop's Project on the Catechism of the Catholic Church in the Catholic Diocese of Sacramento. Fr. Corapi earned a doctorate in Dogmatic theology from the University of Navarre. He became a regular contributor to the EWTN television and radio networks.

Due to serious health problems suffered in 2008, Corapi curtailed his public appearances and frequently broadcasts his message worldwide solely from his studio in Montana. On August 15, 2009, Corapi made his first public appearance in over a year in Buffalo, New York for his "Lord and Giver of Life" conference at HSBC Arena. He completed and taped several conferences in 2010, including San Antonio, Texas, St. Louis, Missouri, and Cincinnati, Ohio.

More recently, Corapi has preached sermons on the dangers of socialism. He is the author of a series of sermons called "The Darkness Will Not Prevail".

''Qui tam'' False Claims Act lawsuit

Corapi filed a ''qui tam'' False Claims Act lawsuit against Redding Medical Center cardiologist Chae Hyun Moon after Moon informed Corapi in 2002 that he was in immediate need of triple bypass surgery, but then told Corapi that the procedure could wait three weeks. Corapi decided to seek other medical advice and it was found he had perfectly clear arteries. Corapi ultimately went to the FBI and filed the suit that was the basis of an FBI raid and a multi-year investigation into Moon's practice.

The United States Department of Justice reached a settlement with four cardiologists and Tenet Healthcare, the owner of Redding Hospital, during 2005, in part due to Corapi's initial complaint. Three physicians settled for a total of $24 million USD. Moon, the target of Corapi's lawsuit, paid $1.4 million USD and agreed to never perform cardiology procedures or surgeries on Medicare, Medi-Cal or Tricare patients. Moon's medical license was eventually revoked in 2007 for gross negligence, among other charges.

Corapi was awarded $2,712,281 USD for his role as a whistleblower in the False Claims Act Lawsuit as well as the $500,000 USD he and his friend were awarded for the insurance case they filed. His involvement as a whistle-blower in the federal investigation of the practices in the Redding Medical Center played an important role in Stephen Klaidman's non-fiction book ''Coronary''.

Allegations of misconduct

Administrative leave

In March 2011, Bishop William Mulvey of Corpus Christi instructed the SOLT religious community to appoint two independent priests to investigate allegations by a former employee that Corapi had been in a relationship with her and is a drug addict.

On March 18, Corapi was placed on administrative leave by his religious superior, Fr. Gerald Sheehan, S.O.L.T. Corapi denied the allegations as false and said the process is flawed. Sheehan issued a statement emphasizing that the suspension "in no way implies Father Corapi is guilty of the allegation.”

Corapi filed a civil suit against the former employee for libel and breach of contract.

The television network EWTN suspended broadcasts by Corapi when he was placed on leave.

Leaving public ministry and resigning from the priesthood

On June 17, 2011, Corapi announced that he would no longer be involved in public ministry as a priest. On a new website entitled ''The Black Sheep Dog'', Corapi made the following statements:

There are certain persons in authority in the Church that want me gone, and I shall be gone. ... They can't prove I'm guilty of the things alleged because I'm not, and they can't prove I'm innocent because that is simply illogical and impossible. ... My canon lawyer and my civil lawyers have concluded that I cannot receive a fair and just hearing under the Church's present process. The Church will conclude that I am not cooperating with the process because I refuse to give up all of my civil and human rights in order to hold harmless anyone who chooses to say defamatory and actionable things against me with no downside to them. ... I am, indeed, not ready to be extinguished. Under the name "The Black Sheep Dog," I shall be with you through radio broadcasts and writing. My autobiography, ''The Black Sheep Dog'', is almost ready for publication. My topics will be broader than in the past, and my audience likewise is apt to be broader. I'll do what I can under the circumstances.

On July 5, Fr. Gerald Sheehan, Corapi's religious superior in the Society of Our Lady of the Trinity, released a press statement through the order's news blog which accused Corapi of drug and alcohol abuse, "sexting", having an affair with a former prostitute and violating his promise of poverty as a perpetually professed member of the Society by owning over $1 million in real estate, numerous luxury vehicles, motorcycles, an ATV, a boat dock, and several motor boats. It ended by stating that "SOLT's prior direction to Fr. John Corapi not to engage in any preaching or teaching, the celebration of the sacraments or other public ministry continues. Catholics should understand that SOLT does not consider Fr. John Corapi as fit for ministry."

On July 7th, Corapi announced on his website that he would not obey the order of his religious superior to leave his home in Montana to live in community with his fellow priests. He said he would not return to the order because he resigned from the priesthood June 17, two days short of the 20th anniversary of his ordination.

I resigned because the process used by the church is grossly unjust, and, hence, immoral. I resigned because I had no chance from the beginning of a fair and just hearing. As I have indicated from the beginning of all this, I am not extinguished! If I were to commit to the suggestion of the society, then I would essentially crawl under a rock and wait to die.

Published works

''The theology of the cross in the magisterium of John Paul II'', 1992

''The Cross of Christ in the magisterium of John Paul II (1978-1992)'', 1994

''Ever ancient, ever new: a collection of articles on various subjects'', 2005

''Letters'', 2009

References

External links

Official website

The Black Sheep Dog website

Father Corapi's Order Finds Him Guilty

Category:Living people Category:1947 births Category:People from Columbia County, New York Category:Pace University alumni Category:Roman Catholic activists Category:American Roman Catholic priests Category:American television evangelists Category:University of Navarre alumni

Mark David Oakley is Canon Treasurer of St Paul's Cathedral, London. He was the Archdeacon of Germany and Northern Europe, an archdeaconry in the Diocese of Gibraltar in Europe of the Church of England, from 2005 to 2008. As a Residentiary Canon of St Paul's Cathedral he carries particular responsibility for the Arts policy, fabric and collections in one of the most famous churches in the world.

Early life

Oakley was born on September 28, 1968 in Shrewsbury, and was educated at Shrewsbury School and at King's College London, before heading to St Stephen's House, Oxford where he trained for ordained ministry in the Church of England. He was ordained a Deacon (1993) and a Priest (1994) by Bishop David Hope.

Work and Thought

Oakley served as Assistant Curate of St John's Wood Church from 1993 to 1996. He was then asked by the Bishop of London, Richard Chartres, to serve as his Chaplain (1996–2000). He was made a Deputy Priest in Ordinary to HM Queen Elizabeth II in 1996. In 2000, Oakley became Rector of St Paul's, Covent Garden, which is also known as The Actors' Church.

In 2005, the Bishop of Gibraltar in Europe, Geoffrey Rowell, appointed Oakley the Archdeacon of Germany and Northern Europe and Chaplain of St Alban's Anglican Church in Copenhagen. The Archdeaconry comprises eight countries (Iceland, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, Norway, Latvia, Estonia and Germany) in which there are many Church of England chaplaincies serving the international Anglican community.

In 2008, he was appointed priest-in-charge of the Grosvenor Chapel in Mayfair, London, by the Bishop of London. He was also appointed an Examining Chaplain and Bishops' Advisor. June 2010: appointed to St Paul's Cathedral, London (see above).

Oakley wrote a popular book called ''The Collage of God'' in 2001 which earned him a great deal of positive reviews. He has also edited a book of John Donne's poetry and compiled a wedding anthology. He has contributed several essays to various books.

Oakley is known for his interest in the ways literature and poetry explore theological themes and for his preaching, which is often both entertaining and noticeably rooted in his Anglicanism. Whilst he was at the Actors´church he was widely appreciated by the theatre community for his understanding and appreciation of its work. His initiative of having a series of sermons that explored plays that were currently showing in London, to which the actors and production team of each play came and took part in conversation, is a good example of the way Oakley tries to open a dialogue between people of faith and the work of the artistic community. A lecture given by him in Westminster Abbey and Keble College, Oxford in 2002 argued that the Church in its search to be relevant was ironically becoming too secular for the British public and that it should be the deeper human resonances that the Church seeks to identify, explore and dialogue with. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Rowan Williams, recently wrote that Oakley's thinking and approach is in the tradition of Westcott. A more recent article by Oakley in the Church Times entitled "An Issue! An Issue! We all Fall Down" argues for the renewal of theological generosity in the Anglican spirit. In 2010, the former Poet Laureate, Sir Andrew Motion, wrote a poem dedicated to Oakley entitled "''In Winter''" and said of him that: "It's extremely unusual to meet anyone who isn’t a specialist who has such a subtle feeling for language as he does".

Oakley reviews for the Church Times, The Tablet and other journals. He also regularly broadcasts.

References

Category:British Anglicans Category:Anglican priests Category:Church of England clergy Category:1968 births Category:Old Salopians Category:Alumni of King's College London Category:Living people Category:Alumni of St Stephen's House, Oxford

{{Infobox saint | name=Paul the Apostle | birth_date=ca. AD 5 | death_date=ca. AD 67 was one of the most influential early Christian missionaries, with his writings forming a considerable portion of the New Testament. His influence on Christian thinking has been significant due to his role as a prominent apostle of Christianity during the spreading of the Gospel through early Christian communities across the Roman Empire.

According to the Bible, Paul was known as Saul prior to his conversion, and was dedicated to the persecution of the early disciples of Jesus in the area of Jerusalem. While traveling from Jerusalem to Damascus on a mission to "bring them which were there bound unto Jerusalem", the resurrected Jesus appeared to him in a great light. Saul was struck blind, but after three days his sight was restored by Ananias of Damascus, and Paul began to preach that Jesus of Nazareth is the Jewish Messiah and the Son of God.

Along with Simon Peter and James the Just he was one of the most prominent early Christian leaders. He was also a Roman citizen—a fact that afforded him a privileged legal status with respect to laws, property, and governance.

Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are attributed to Paul. His authorship of seven of the fourteen is questioned by modern scholars. Augustine of Hippo developed Paul's idea that salvation is based on faith and not "Works of the Law". Martin Luther's interpretation of Paul's writings heavily influenced Luther's doctrine of sola fide.

Paul's conversion dramatically changed the course of his life. Through his missionary activity and writings he eventually transformed religious belief and philosophy around the Mediterranean Basin. His leadership, influence and legacy led to the formation of communities dominated by Gentile groups that worshiped the God of Israel, adhered to the Judaic "moral code", but relaxed or abandoned the "ritual" and dietary obligations of the Mosaic law all on the basis of Paul's teachings of the life and works of Jesus Christ and his teaching of a new covenant (or "new testament") established through Jesus' death and resurrection. The Bible does not record Paul's death.

Sources

The main source for historical information about Paul's life is the material found in several of his epistles and the Book of Acts. However, these epistles contain comparatively little information about Paul's past. The Book of Acts also recounts Paul's career but leaves several parts of Paul's life out of its narrative, such as his (alleged) execution in Rome. Scholars such as Hans Conzelmann and 20th century theologian John Knox (not to be confused with the 16th century John Knox) dispute the historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles. Paul's own account of his background is found particularly in Galatians. According to some scholars, the account in ''Acts'' of Paul visiting Jerusalem contradicts the account in Paul's letters. (See the Acts of the Apostles article). Some scholars consider Paul's accounts to be more reliable than those found in Acts.

Names

Along with being ethnically Jewish, Paul was born a Roman citizen . "Paul" was part of his three-part Roman name. His given name was Saul (), perhaps after the biblical King Saul, a fellow Benjaminite and the first king of Israel who was replaced by King David, the second king of the united Kingdom of Israel. In , in Latin ''Paulus'' or ''Paullus'', in ''Šaʾul HaTarsi'' (''Saul of Tarsus'')

When Jesus spoke to him prior to his conversion to Christianity on the Road to Damascus, Jesus called him "Saul" in confronting him for persecuting the Christians: "Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?” Shortly thereafter, in addressing a disciple named Ananias, Jesus referred to "a man from Tarsus named Saul."

The earliest biblical reference to his being called "Paul" is recorded in : "...Saul, who was also called Paul...." All subsequent New Testament verses refer to him as "Paul" or with the appended title "Apostle Paul."

Prior to conversion

Paul, whose Hebrew name was Saul, claimed to be "of the stock of Israel, ''of'' the tribe of Benjamin, a Hebrew of the Hebrews; as to the law, a Pharisee." But the Bible reveals very little about Paul's family. Paul's "sister's son" is mentioned in . ''Acts'' also quotes Paul indirectly referring to his father by saying he was "a Pharisee, the son of a Pharisee".

''Acts'' identifies Paul as from the Mediterranean city of Tarsus (in present-day south-central Turkey), well-known for its intellectual environment . He was also born a citizen of Rome, an honor not often granted to "outsiders." It is possible that Paul's family purchased the Tarsian citizenship with money earned from their trade. His family were tent-makers, a trade that Paul uses to support himself throughout his ministry. Scripture does not say how Paul's family acquired a Roman citizenship, but scholars speculate that his father or grandfather may have been honored with it for some sort of military service.

Although born in Tarsus, Paul was raised in Jerusalem "at the feet of Gamaliel" , a leading authority in the Sanhedrin in the mid 1st century CE. Gamaliel once gave very level headed advice to the Sanhedrin in , to "refrain" from slaying the disciples of Jesus. This is in great contrast to the rashness of his student Saul, who zealously persecuted the "saints".

Paul confesses that "beyond measure" he persecuted the "church of God" prior to his conversion. ''Acts'' records how Paul as a young man stood by and guarded the coats of those who stoned Stephen, the first Christian martyr.

Conversion and mission

Paul's conversion can be dated to 31 – 36 by his reference to it in one of his letters. According to the Acts of the Apostles, his conversion (or metanoia) took place on the road to Damascus where he claimed to have experienced a vision of the resurrected Jesus after which he was temporarily blinded. Luke, the author of Acts of the Apostles, likely learned of his conversion from one of these three sources: Paul himself, from the church in Jerusalem, or from the church in Antioch.

Post-conversion testimony

In the opening verses of , Paul provides a litany of his own apostolic claim and his post-conversion convictions about the risen Christ:

Paul describes himself as

*a servant of Christ Jesus

*called to be an apostle

*set apart for the gospel of God

Paul describes Jesus as

*having been promised by God "beforehand" through his prophets in the holy Scriptures

*being the Son of God

having biological lineage from David ("according to the flesh")

*having been declared to be the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead

*being Jesus Christ our Lord

*the One through whom we have received grace and apostleship to bring about the obedience of faith for the sake of his name among all the nations, "including you who are called to belong to Jesus Christ."

Paul's writings give some insight into his thinking regarding his relationship with Judaism. He is strongly critical both theologically and empirically of claims of moral or lineal superiority of Jews while conversely strongly sustaining the notion of a special place for the Children of Israel.

Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from any person, but by a personal revelation of Jesus Christ. Paul claimed independence from the Jerusalem community (possibly in the Cenacle), but was just as quick to claim agreement with it on the nature and content of the gospel. What is remarkable about such a conversion is the changes in the thinking that had to take place. He had to change his concept of who the messiah was, particularly the absurdity of accepting a crucifed messiah. Perhaps more challenging was changing his conception of the ethnic superiority of the Jewish people. There are debates as to whether Paul understood himself as commissioned to take the gospel to the Gentiles at the moment of his conversion.

Early ministry

After his conversion, Paul went to Damascus, where Acts states he was healed of his blindness and baptized by Ananias of Damascus. Paul says that it was in Damascus that he barely escaped death . Paul also says that he then went first to Arabia, and then came back to Damascus. Paul's trip to Arabia is not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible, and some suppose he actually travelled to Mt. Sinai for meditations in the desert. He describes in Galatians how three years after his conversion he went to Jerusalem. There he met James and stayed with Simon Peter for 15 days.

Paul asserted that he received the Gospel not from any person, but by the revelation of Jesus Christ.. Paul claimed almost total independence from the Jerusalem community. At the end of this time, Barnabas went to find Paul and brought him back to Antioch.

When a famine occurred in Judea, around 45–46, Paul and Barnabas journeyed to Jerusalem to deliver financial support from the Antioch community. According to Acts, Antioch had become an alternative center for Christians following the dispersion of the believers after the death of Stephen. It was in Antioch that the followers of Jesus were first called "Christians."

First missionary journey

The author of the Acts arranges Paul's travels into three separate journeys. The first journey, led initially by Barnabas, takes Paul from Antioch to Cyprus then southern Asia Minor (Anatolia), and back to Antioch. In Cyprus, Paul rebukes and blinds Elymas the magician who was criticizing their teachings. From this point on, Paul is described as the leader of the group.

They sail to Perga in Pamhylis. John Mark leaves them and returns to Jerusalem. Paul and Barnabas go on to Pisidian Antioch. On the Sabbath they go to the Synagogue. The leaders invite them to speak. Paul reviews Israelite history from life in Egypt to King David. He introduces Jesus as a descendant of David brought to Israel by God. He said that his team came to town to bring the message of salvation. He recounts the story of Jesus' death and resurrection. He quotes from the Hebrew scriptures to show that Jesus was the promised Messiah who brought them forgiveness for their sins. Both the Jews and the 'God-fearing' Gentiles invited them talk more the next Sabbath. At that time almost the whole city gathered. This upset some influential Jews who spoke against them. Paul used the occasion to announce a change in his mission which from then on would be to the Gentiles.

Antioch served as a major Christian center for Paul's evangelizing.

Second missionary journey

Paul leaves for his second missionary journey from Jerusalem, in late Autumn 49, after the meeting of the Jerusalem council where the circumcision question was debated. On their trip around the Mediterranean sea, Paul and his companion Barnabas stopped in Antioch where they had a sharp argument about taking John Mark with them on their trips. The book of Acts said that John Mark had left them in a previous trip and gone home. Unable to resolve the dispute, Paul and Barnabas decided to separate; Barnabas took John Mark with him, while Silas joined Paul.

Paul and Silas initially visited Tarsus (Paul's hometown), Derbe and Lystra. In Lystra, they met Timothy, a disciple who was spoken well of, and decided to take him with them. The Church kept growing, adding believers, and strengthening their faith daily.

In Philippi, men who were not happy about the conversion of their slave turned the city against the missionaries and Paul and Silas were put in jail. After a miraculous earthquake, the gates of the prison fell apart and Paul and Silas were able to escape; this event led to the conversion of the jailor. They continued traveling, going by Berea and then to Athens where Paul preached to the Jews and God-fearing Greeks in the synagogue and to the Greek intellectuals in the Areopagus.

Around 50–52, Paul spent 18 months in Corinth. The reference in Acts to proconsul Gallio helps ascertain this date (cf. Gallio inscription). Paul met Aquila and Priscilla in Corinth who became faithful believers and helped Paul through his other missionary journeys. The couple followed Paul and his companions to Ephesus, and stayed there to start one of the strongest and most faithful churches at that time. In 52, the missionaries sailed to Caesarea to greet the Church there and then traveled north to Antioch where they stayed for about a year before leaving again on their third missionary journey.

Third missionary journey

Paul began his third missionary journey by traveling all around the region of Galatia and Phrygia to strengthen, teach and rebuke the believers. Paul then traveled to Ephesus, an important center for early Christianity, and stayed there for almost 3 years. He performed numerous miracles, healing people and casting out demons, and he apparently organized missionary activity into the hinterlands. Paul left Ephesus after an attack from a local silversmith resulted in a pro-Artemis riot involving most of the city. During his stay in Ephesus, Paul wrote 4 letters to the church in Corinth admonishing them for their pagan behavior.

Then Paul went through Macedonia and up to Greece, and as he was getting ready to leave for Syria, he changed his plans because of Jews who had made a plot against him and had to go back through Macedonia. At this time it is likely that Paul visited Corinth for three months (56–57). In Paul wrote that he visited Illyricum, but he may have meant what would now be called Illyria Graeca that was part of the Roman province of Macedonia, which is now modern day Albania.

Paul and his companions hit other cities on their way back to Jerusalem such as Philippi, Troas, Miletus, Rhodes, and Tyre. Paul finished his trip with a stop in Caesarea where he and his companions stayed with Philip the Evangelist before finally arriving at Jerusalem.

Journey to Rome and beyond

After Paul's arrival in Jerusalem at the end of his third missionary journey, he became involved in a serious conflict with some Asian Jews. The conflict eventually led to Paul's arrest and eventual imprisonment in Caesarea for about a year and a half. Finally, Paul and his companions sailed for Rome where Paul would eventually stand trial for his alleged crimes. ''Acts'' states that Paul preached in Rome for two years from his rented home while awaiting trial. It does not state what happened after this time, but it is likely Paul was freed by Nero and continued to preach in Rome. It is possible that Paul also traveled to other countries like Spain and Britain before dying as a martyr. See the ''Arrest and death'' section below.

Persecution

Many plots were made against Paul in the last years of his life, especially by Jews who would stir the crowd and excite them when Paul was preaching . He was beaten more than once, and put in prison. He was persecuted in every one of his missionary journeys. He was persecuted because of a “lack of understanding, preconceptions, irritations and provocation.” The message of a risen Christ and Savior was aggravating for Jews as well as many pagan believers. During his first missionary journey, Paul was stoned in the city of Lystra for healing a crippled man. Some Jews dragged him out of the city thinking he was dead but when his disciples came around him, he miraculously got up and went into the city. Paul was also put in prison while he was in Philippi and also in Jerusalem.

Council of Jerusalem

Most scholars agree that a vital meeting between Paul and the Jerusalem church took place some time in the years 48 to 50, described in and usually seen as the same event mentioned by Paul in . The key question raised was whether Gentile converts needed to be circumcised. At this meeting, Paul claims in his letter to the Galatians that Peter, James, and John accepted Paul's mission to the Gentiles. See also Circumcision controversy in early Christianity.

Jerusalem meetings are mentioned in Acts, in Paul's letters, and some appear in both. For example, the Jerusalem visit for famine relief apparently corresponds to the "first visit" (to Cephas and James only). F. F. Bruce suggested that the "fourteen years" could be from Paul's conversion rather than the first visit to Jerusalem.

Incident at Antioch

Despite the agreement achieved at the Council of Jerusalem, as understood by Paul, Paul recounts how he later publicly confronted Peter, also called the "Incident at Antioch" over Peter's reluctance to share a meal with Gentile Christians in Antioch.

Writing later of the incident, Paul recounts: "I opposed [Peter] to his face, because he was clearly in the wrong". Paul reports that he told Peter: "You are a Jew, yet you live like a Gentile and not like a Jew. How is it, then, that you force Gentiles to follow Jewish customs?" Paul also mentions that even Barnabas (his traveling companion and fellow apostle until that time) sided with Peter.

The final outcome of the incident remains uncertain. The Catholic Encyclopedia states: "Paul's account of the incident leaves no doubt that Peter saw the justice of the rebuke." In contrast, L. Michael White's ''From Jesus to Christianity'' claims: "The blowup with Peter was a total failure of political bravado, and Paul soon left Antioch as persona non grata, never again to return."

The primary source for the ''Incident at Antioch'' is Paul's letter to the Galatians.

Visits to Jerusalem in Acts and the epistles

This table is adapted from White, ''From Jesus to Christianity.'' Note that the matching of Paul's travels in the Acts and the travels in his Epistles is done for the reader's convenience and is not approved of by all scholars.

	* First visit to Jerusalem	** "after many days" of Damascus conversion	** preaches openly in Jerusalem with Barnabas	** meets apostles		* First visit to Jerusalem	** three years after Damascus conversion	** sees only Cephas (Peter) and James
	* Second visit to Jerusalem,	** for famine relief		* There is debate over whether Paul's visit in Galatians 2 refers to the visit for famine relief (Acts 11:30, 12:25) or the Jerusalem Council (Acts 15). If it refers to the former, then this was the trip made "after an interval of fourteen years" (Gal. 2:1).
	* Third visit to Jerusalem	** with Barnabas	** "Council of Jerusalem"	** followed by confrontation with Barnabas in Antioch		* Another visit to Jerusalem	** 14 years later (after Damascus conversion?)	** with Barnabas and Titus	** possibly the "Council of Jerusalem"	** Paul agrees to "remember the poor"	** followed by confrontation with Peter and Barnabas in Antioch
	* Fourth visit to Jerusalem	** to "greet the church"		* Apparently unmentioned.
	* Fifth visit to Jerusalem	** after an absence of several years	** to bring gifts for the poor and to present offerings	** Paul arrested		* Another visit to Jerusalem	** to deliver the collection for the poor

Arrest and death

Paul arrived in Jerusalem in 57 with a collection of money for the community there. Acts reports that he was warmly received. But Acts goes on to recount how he was interrogated by James for 'teaching all the Jews living among the gentiles to forsake Moses, and that you tell them not to circumcise their children or observe the customs'.(Acts 21, 21) Paul underwent a purification ritual in order to give the Jews no grounds to bring accusations against him for not following their law. Paul however continued to preach against circumcision, Jewish dietary restrictions, and other requirements of the Torah. This made a final rift inevitable with the Jews. Paul caused a stir when he appeared at the Temple, and he escaped being killed by the crowd by being taken into custody. He was held as a prisoner for two years in Caesarea until a new governor reopened his case in 59. When accused of treason, he appealed to Caesar, claiming his right as a citizen of Rome to appear there before a proper court and to defend himself of the charges.

Acts recounts that on the way to Rome Paul was shipwrecked on "Melite" (Malta), where he was met by Publius and the islanders, who showed him "unusual kindness". He arrived in Rome ''c'' 60 and spent two years under house arrest. All told, during his ministry the Apostle Paul spent roughly 5½ to 6 years as a prisoner or in prison.

Irenaeus of Lyons in the 2nd century believed that Peter and Paul had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed Linus as succeeding bishop. Paul was not a bishop of Rome nor did he bring Christianity to Rome since there were already Christians in Rome when he arrived there (Acts 28:14-15). Also Paul wrote his letter to the church at Rome before he had visited Rome (Romans 1:1,7,11-13; 15:23-29). However, Paul would have played an important role in the life of the early church at Rome.

Neither the Bible nor other history says how or when Paul died. According to Christian tradition, Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of Nero around the mid-60s at ''Tre Fontane Abbey'' (English: Three Fountains Abbey). By comparison, tradition has Peter being crucified upside-down. Paul's Roman citizenship accorded him the more merciful death by beheading.

In June 2009, Pope Benedict announced excavation results concerning the tomb of Paul at the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls. The sarcophagus was not opened but was examined by means of a probe, which revealed pieces of incense, purple and blue linen, and small bone fragments. The bone was radiocarbon dated to the 1st or 2nd century. According to the Vatican, these findings were consistent with the traditional claim that the tomb is Paul's.

Writings

Fourteen epistles in the New Testament are attributed to Paul. Seven of these -- Romans, 1st Corinthians, 2nd Corinthians, Galatians, Phillipians, 1st Thessalonians and Philemon -- are almost universally accepted as being actually written by Paul. Scholars generally agree that four others were not written by Paul, those being 1st Timothy, 2nd Timothy, Titus, and Hebrews. As to the remaining three -- Ephesians, Colossians and 2nd Thessalonians -- scholars are almost evenly divided. Of those written by Paul, all except Galatians appear to have been dictated through a secretary, who would paraphrase the message, as was the practice among 1st-century scribes. The epistles were circulated in the Christian community and read aloud by church members along with other works. Paul's epistles were viewed from early times as scripture and later established as Canon of Scripture. Critical scholars regard Paul's epistles, which were written between 50 and 62 AD, to be the earliest books of the New Testament. They are referenced as early as c. 96 by Clement of Rome.

Authorship

Paul's letters are largely written to churches which he had visited; he was a great traveler, visiting Cyprus, Asia Minor (modern Turkey), mainland Greece, Crete, and Rome. His letters are full of expositions of what Christians should believe and how they should live. He does not tell his correspondents (or the modern reader) much about the life of Jesus; his most explicit references are to the Last Supper and the crucifixion and resurrection. His specific references to Jesus' teaching are likewise sparse, raising the question, still disputed, as to how consistent his account of the faith is with that of the four canonical Gospels, Acts, and the Epistle of James. The view that Paul's Christ is very different from the historical Jesus has been expounded by Adolf Harnack among many others. Nevertheless, he provides the first written account of what it is to be a Christian and thus of Christian spirituality.

Of the fourteen letters attributed to Paul and included in the Western New Testament canon, there is little or no dispute that Paul actually wrote at least seven, those being Romans, First Corinthians, Second Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, First Thessalonians, and Philemon. Hebrews (no relation to the Gospel according to the Hebrews), which was ascribed to him in antiquity, was questioned even then, never having an ancient attribution, and in modern times is considered by most experts as not by Paul (see also Antilegomena). The authorship of the remaining six Pauline epistles is disputed to varying degrees.

The authenticity of Colossians has been questioned on the grounds that it contains an otherwise unparalleled description (among his writings) of Jesus as 'the image of the invisible God,' a Christology found elsewhere only in John's gospel. On the other hand, the personal notes in the letter connect it to Philemon, unquestionably the work of Paul. Internal evidence shows close connection with Philippians. Ephesians is a very similar letter to Colossians, but is almost entirely lacking in personal reminiscences. Its style is unique. It lacks the emphasis on the cross to be found in other Pauline writings, reference to the Second Coming is missing, and Christian marriage is exalted in a way which contrasts with the reference in . Finally, according to R.E. Brown, it exalts the Church in a way suggestive of a second generation of Christians, 'built upon the foundation of the apostles and prophets' now past. The defenders of its Pauline authorship argue that it was intended to be read by a number of different churches and that it marks the final stage of the development of Paul of Tarsus's thinking. It has to be noted, too, that the moral portion of the Epistle, consisting of the last two chapters has the closest affinity with similar portions of other Epistles, while the whole admirably fits in with the known details of St. Paul's life, and throws considerable light upon them.

The Pastoral Epistles, 1 and 2 Timothy, and Titus have likewise been put in question as Pauline works. Three main reasons are advanced: first, their difference in vocabulary, style, and theology from Paul's acknowledged writings; Defenders of the authenticity note, that they were then probably written in the name and with the authority of the Apostle by one of his companions, to whom he distinctly explained what had to be written, or to whom he gave a written summary of the points to be developed, and that when the letters were finished, St. Paul read them through, approved them, and signed them. Secondly, the difficulty in fitting them into Paul's biography as we have it. They, like Colossians and Ephesians, were written from prison but suppose Paul's release and travel thereafter. However, Christianity was not yet declared a religio illicita at the time they were written, and according to Roman law there was nothing deserving of death against him. Finally, the concerns expressed are very much the practical ones as to how a church should function. They are more about maintenance than about mission.

2 Thessalonians, like Colossians, is questioned on stylistic grounds, with some noting, among other peculiarities, a dependence on 1 Thessalonians yet a distinctiveness in language from the Pauline corpus. This, again, is explainable by the possibility of St. Paul requesting one of his companions to write the letter for him under his instructions.

Atonement

Paul wrote down much of the theology of atonement. Paul taught that Christians are redeemed from the Law (see Supersessionism) and from sin by Jesus' death and resurrection. His death was an expiation; as well as a propitiation, and by Christ's blood, peace is made between God and man. By baptism, a Christian shares in Jesus' death and in his victory over death, gaining, as a free gift, a new, justified status of sonship.

Relationship with Judaism

Some scholars see Paul (or Saul) as completely in line with 1st-century Judaism (a "Pharisee" and student of Gamaliel), others see him as opposed to 1st-century Judaism (see Marcionism), while still others see him as somewhere in between these two extremes, opposed to "Ritual Laws" (see for example Circumcision controversy in early Christianity) but in full agreement on "Divine Law". These views of Paul are paralleled by the views of Biblical law in Christianity.

Paul's theology of the gospel accelerated the separation of the messianic sect of Christians from Judaism, a development contrary to Paul's own intent. He wrote that the faith of Christ was alone decisive in salvation for Jews and Gentiles alike, making the schism between the followers of Christ and mainstream Jews inevitable and permanent. He argued that Gentile converts did not need to become Jews, get circumcised, follow Jewish dietary restrictions, or otherwise observe Mosaic laws. Nevertheless, in Romans he insisted on the positive value of the Law, as a moral guide.

E. P. Sanders' publications have since been taken up by Professor James Dunn who coined the phrase "The New Perspective on Paul" and N.T. Wright, the Anglican Bishop of Durham. Wright, noting a difference between Galatians and Romans, the later being much more positive about the continuing covenant between God and his ancient people than the former, contends that works are not insignificant but rather proof of attaining the redemption of Jesus Christ by grace (free gift received by faith) and that Paul distinguishes between works which are signs of ethnic identity and those which are a sign of obedience to Christ.

World to come

According to Ehrman, Paul believed that Jesus would return within his lifetime. He states that Paul expected that Christians who had died in the mean time would be resurrected to share in God's kingdom, and he believed that the saved would be transformed, assuming supernatural bodies.

Paul's teaching about the end of the world is expressed most clearly in his letters to the Christians at Thessalonica. Heavily persecuted, it appears that they had written asking him first about those who had died already, and, secondly, when they should expect the end. He assures them that the dead will rise first and be followed by those left alive. This suggests an imminence of the end but he is unspecific about times and seasons, and encourages his hearers to expect a delay. The form of the end will be a battle between Jesus and the man of lawlessness whose conclusion is the triumph of Christ.

Role of women

A verse in the first letter to Timothy, 1 Timothy 2:12 ("I suffer not a woman"), traditionally attributed to Paul, is often used as the main biblical authority for prohibiting women from becoming ordained clergy and or holding certain other positions of ministry and leadership in Christianity, though Paul's authorship of this letter is debated. The Letter to Timothy is also often used by many churches to deny women a vote in church affairs, reject women from serving as teachers of adult Bible classes, prevent them from serving as missionaries, and generally disenfranchise women from the duties and privileges of church leadership. The apparent message of this verse may seem anachronistic to 21st century Western societies with their emphasis on gender egalitarianism and non-discrimination.

The KJV translation of this passage seems to be saying that women in the churches are to have no leadership roles vis a vis men. Whether it also forbids women from teaching children and women is dubious as even those Catholic churches that prohibit female priests, permit female abbesses to teach and exercise authority over other females. Any interpretation of this portion of Scripture must wrestle with the theological, contextual, syntactical, and lexical difficulties embedded within these few words. Fuller Seminary theologian J. R. Daniel Kirk finds evidence in Paul’s letters of a much more inclusive view of women. He writes that is a tremendously important witness to the important role of women in the early church. Paul praises Phoebe for her work as a deaconess and Junia who was (according to some scholars) an Apostle. Kirk points to recent studies that have led "many scholars" to conclude that the passage in ordering women to "be silent" during worship was a later addition, apparently by a different author, and not part of Paul’s original letter to Corinth. Other scholars such as Giancarlo Biguzzi, claim that Paul's restriction on women speaking in is genuine to Paul but applies to a particular case of prohibiting asking questions or chatting and is not a general prohibition on any woman speaking since in Paul affirms the right of women to prophesy. Kirk's third example of a more inclusive view is : "There is neither Jew nor Greek, slave nor free, ''male nor female'', for you are all one in Christ Jesus (italics added). In pronouncing an end within the church to the divisions which are common in the world around it, he concludes by highlighting the fact that "...there were New Testament women who taught and had authority in the early churches, that this teaching and authority was sanctioned by Paul, and that Paul himself offers a theological paradigm within which overcoming the subjugation of women is an anticipated outcome."

Influence on Christianity

Paul's influence on Christian thinking arguably has been more significant than any other New Testament author. Paul declared that faith in Christ made the Torah unnecessary for salvation, exalted the Christian church as the body of Christ, and depicted the world outside the Church as under judgment.

Lord's Supper

Paul's writings include the earliest reference to the supper of the Lord, a rite traditionally identified as the Christian Eucharist.

Eastern tradition

In the East, church fathers reduced the element of election in Romans 9 to divine foreknowledge. The themes of predestination found in Western Christianity do not appear in Eastern theology.

Western tradition

Augustine's foundational work on the gospel as a gift (grace), on morality as life in the Spirit, on predestination, and on original sin all derives from Paul, especially Romans.

In the Reformation, Martin Luther expressed Paul's doctrine of faith most strongly as justification by faith alone. John Calvin developed Augustine's predestination into double predestination.

Modern theology

In his commentary The Epistle to the Romans (Ger. Der Römerbrief; particularly in the thoroughly re-written second edition of 1922) Karl Barth argued that the God who is revealed in the cross of Jesus challenges and overthrows any attempt to ally God with human cultures, achievements, or possessions. Some theologians believe this work to be the most important theological treatise since Friedrich Schleiermacher's On Religion: Speeches to its Cultured Despisers.

As in the Eastern tradition in general, Western humanists interpret the reference to election in Romans 9 as reflecting divine foreknowledge.

Church tradition

Various Christian writers have suggested more details about Paul's life.

1 Clement, a letter written by the Roman bishop Clement of Rome, around the year 90 reports this about Paul:

"By reason of jealousy and strife Paul by his example pointed out the prize of patient endurance. After that he had been seven times in bonds, had been driven into exile, had been stoned, had preached in the East and in the West, he won the noble renown which was the reward of his faith, having taught righteousness unto the whole world and having reached the farthest bounds of the West; and when he had borne his testimony before the rulers, so he departed from the world and went unto the holy place, having been found a notable pattern of patient endurance."

Commenting on this passage, Raymond Brown writes that while it "does not explicitly say" that Paul was martyred in Rome, "such a martyrdom is the most reasonable interpretation." Eusebius of Caesarea, who wrote in the 4th century, states that Paul was beheaded in the reign of the Roman Emperor Nero. This event has been dated either to the year 64, when Rome was devastated by a fire, or a few years later, to 67. The San Paolo alle Tre Fontane church was built on the location where the execution was believed to have taken place. A Roman Catholic liturgical solemnity of Peter and Paul, celebrated on June 29, may reflect the day of his martyrdom, other sources have articulated the tradition that Peter and Paul died on the same day (and possibly the same year). The apocryphal Acts of Paul, the apocryphal Acts of Peter suggest that Paul survived Rome and traveled further west. Some hold the view that he could have revisited Greece and Asia Minor after his trip to Spain, and might then have been arrested in Troas, and taken to Rome and executed. A tradition holds that Paul was interred with Saint Peter ''ad Catacumbas'' by the via Appia until moved to what is now the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls in Rome. Bede, in his ''Ecclesiastical History'', writes that Pope Vitalian in 665 gave Paul's relics (including a cross made from his prison chains) from the crypts of Lucina to King Oswy of Northumbria, northern Britain. However, Bede's use of the word "relic" was not limited to corporal remains.

Paul, who was quite possibly martyred in Rome, has long been associated with that city and its church. Paul is the patron saint of London.

Critical views

Elaine Pagels, professor of religion at Princeton University and an authority on Gnosticism, argues that Paul was a Gnostic and that the anti-Gnostic Pastoral Epistles were "pseudo-Pauline" forgeries written to rebut this.

British Jewish scholar Hyam Maccoby contended that the Paul as described in the Book of Acts and the view of Paul gleaned from his own writings are very different people. Some difficulties have been noted in the account of his life. Paul as described in the Book of Acts is much more interested in factual history, less in theology; ideas such as justification by faith are absent as are references to the Spirit, according to Maccoby. He also pointed out that there are no references to John the Baptist in the Pauline Epistles, although Paul mentions him several times in the Book of Acts.

Others have objected that the language of the speeches is too Lukan in style to reflect anyone else's words. Moreover, George Shillington writes that the author of Acts most likely created the speeches accordingly and they bare his literary and theological marks. Conversely, Howard Marshall writes that the speeches were not entirely the inventions of the author and while they may not be accurate word-for-word, the author nevertheless records the general idea of them.

F. C. Baur (1792–1860), professor of theology at Tübingen in Germany, the first scholar to critique Acts and the Pauline Epistles, and founder of the Tübingen School of theology, argued that Paul, as the "Apostle to the Gentiles", was in violent opposition to the original 12 Apostles. Baur considers the Acts of the Apostles were late and unreliable. This debate has continued ever since, with Adolf Deissmann (1866–1937) and Richard Reitzenstein (1861–1931) emphasising Paul's Greek inheritance and Albert Schweitzer stressing his dependence on Judaism.

Maccoby theorized that Paul synthesized Judaism, Gnosticism, and mysticism to create Christianity as a cosmic savior religion. According to Maccoby, Paul's Pharisaism was his own invention, though actually he was probably associated with the Sadducees. Maccoby attributed the origins of Christian anti-Semitism to Paul and claims that Paul's view of women, though inconsistent, reflects his Gnosticism in its misogynist aspects.

Professor Robert Eisenman of California State University, Long Beach argues that Paul was a member of the family of Herod the Great. Professor Eisenman makes a connection between Paul and an individual identified by Josephus as "Saulus," a "kinsman of Agrippa." Another oft-cited element of the case for Paul as a member of Herod's family is found in where Paul writes, "Greet Herodion, my kinsman."

Among the critics of Paul the Apostle was Thomas Jefferson who wrote that Paul was the "first corrupter of the doctrines of Jesus." Howard Brenton's 2005 play "Paul" takes a skeptical view of his conversion.

F.F. Powell argues that Paul, in his epistles, made use of many of the ideas of the Greek philosopher Plato, sometimes even using the same metaphors and language. For example, in ''Phaedrus'', Plato has Socrates saying that the heavenly ideals are perceived as though "through a glass dimly." These words are echoed by Paul in .

See also

Achaichus

Conversion of Paul

Jesusism

New Covenant

Old Testament: Christian views of the Law

Paul of Tarsus and Judaism

Pauline Christianity

Pauline Epistles

Persecution of Christians in the New Testament

Persecution of religion in ancient Rome

St. Paul's Cathedral

References

Notes

Bibliography

Aulén, Gustaf. ''Christus Victor'' (SPCK 1931)

Brown, Raymond E. ''An Introduction to the New Testament.'' Anchor Bible Series, 1997. ISBN 0–385–24767–2.

Brown, Raymond E. '' The Church the Apostles left behind''(Chapman 1984)

Bruce, F.F. 'Is the Paul of Acts the Real Paul?' ''Bulletin John Rylands Library'' 58 (1976) 283–305

Bruce, F.F., ''Paul: Apostle of the Heart Set Free'' (ISBN 0–8028–4778–1)

Conzelmann, Hans, ''the Acts of the Apostles—a Commentary on the Acts of the Apostles'' (Augsburg Fortress 1987)

Davies, W. D. "The Apostolic Age and the Life of Paul" in Matthew Black, ed. Peake's Commentary on the Bible. London: T. Nelson, 1962. ISBN 0-8407-5019-6

Davies, W. D. ''Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology.'' S.P.C.K., 3rd ed., 1970. ISBN 0-281-02449-9

Dunn, James D.G., 1990, ''Jesus, Paul and the Law'' Louisville,KY: Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-664-25095-5

Dunn, James D. G., ''Jesus, Paul, and the Gospels'' (Grand Rapids (MI), Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2011).

Hanson, Anthony T. ''Studies in Paul's Technique and Theology.'' Eerdmans, 1974. ISBN 0-8028-3452-3

Harris, Stephen L. ''Understanding the Bible.'' Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985. ISBN 978-1-55934-655-9

Holzbach, Mathis Christian, Die textpragmat. Bedeutung d. Kündereinsetzungen d. Simon Petrus u.d. Saulus Paulus im lukan. Doppelwerk, in: Jesus als Bote d. Heils. Stuttgart 2008, 166-172.

Irenaeus, ''Against Heresies,'' i.26.2

Maccoby, Hyam. ''The Mythmaker: Paul and the Invention of Christianity.'' New York: Harper & Row, 1986. ISBN 0–06–015582–5.

Kim, Yung Suk. ''A Theological Introduction to Paul's Letters''. Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, 2011. ISBN 978-1608997930

MacDonald, Dennis Ronald, 1983. ''The Legend and the Apostle: The Battle for Paul in Story and Canon'' Philadelphia: Westminster Press.

Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, ''Jesus and Paul: Parallel lives'' (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 2007) ISBN 0-8146-5173-9

Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, ''Paul the Letter-Writer: His World, His Options, His Skills'' (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical Press, 1995) ISBN 0-8146-5845-8

Murphy-O'Connor, Jerome, ''Paul: A Critical Life'' (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996) ISBN 0-19-826749-5

Ogg, George. “Chronology of the New Testament.” Matthew Black, ed. ‘’Peake's Commentary on the Bible.’’ Nelson, 1962. ISBN 0-8407-5019-6

Rashdall, Hastings, ''The Idea of Atonement in Christian Theology'' (1919)

Ruef, John, ''Paul's First letter to Corinth'' (Penguin 1971)

Sanders, E.P., ''Paul and Palestinian Judaism'' (1977)

Segal, Alan F. ''Paul, the Convert'', (New Haven/London, Yale University Press, 1990) ISBN 0-300-04527-1.

Segal, Alan F., "Paul, the Convert and Apostle" in ''Rebecca's Children: Judaism and Christianity in the Roman World'' (Harvard University Press 1986).

External links

2008 Saint Paul year

Catholic Encyclopedia: Paul of Tarsus

Catholic Perspective on Paul

Documentary film on Apostle Paul

Encyclopædia Britannica: Paul, 1911

Maps of Paul's three missionary journeys and final captive journey

Novena to Saint Paul Apostle

Paul's mission and letters From PBS Frontline series on the earliest Christians.

Representations of Saint Paul

Saint Paul of Tarsus: the true story

"Saint Paul, the Apostle." Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2009.

The Apostle and the Poet: Paul and Aratus Dr. Riemer Faber

The Apostle Paul's Shipwreck: An Historical Examination of Acts 27 and 28

Why Paul Went West: The Differences Between the Jewish Diaspora Biblical Archaeology Review

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af:Paulus van Tarsus am:ጳውሎስ ar:بولس الطرسوسي an:Sant Pavlo arc:ܦܘܠܘܣ ܫܠܝܚܐ az:Həvari Pavel zh-min-nan:Pó-lô be:Павел, апостал be-x-old:Апостал Павал bs:Sveti Pavao br:Paol Tars bg:Павел (апостол) ca:Pau de Tars cs:Pavel z Tarsu cy:Yr Apostol Paul da:Paulus de:Paulus von Tarsus et:Paulus el:Απόστολος Παύλος es:Pablo de Tarso eo:Sankta Paŭlo eu:San Paulo fa:پولس hif:Saint Paul fr:Paul de Tarse fy:Paulus (apostel) ga:Naomh Pól gl:Paulo de Tarso gan:聖·保羅 hak:Pó-lò ko:파울로스 hy:Պողոս առաքյալ hr:Sveti Pavao id:Paulus dari Tarsus is:Páll postuli it:Paolo di Tarso he:פאולוס jv:Santo Paulus ka:პავლე მოციქული rw:Mutagatifu Pawulo sw:Mtakatifu Paulo la:Paulus lv:Svētais Pāvils lt:Apaštalas Paulius ln:Polo ya Tarsu hu:Pál apostol mk:Апостол Павле ml:പൗലോസ് അപ്പസ്തോലൻ mt:Pawlu minn Tarsu mr:सेंट पॉल arz:القديس بولس ms:Paulus mn:Паул my:စိန့်ပေါလ် nl:Paulus (apostel) ja:パウロ no:Apostelen Paulus nn:Paulus oc:Pau de Tars pnb:پال pms:Pàul ëd Tars pl:Paweł z Tarsu pnt:Απόστολος Παύλος pt:Paulo de Tarso ro:Pavel (apostol) rm:Paulus da Tarsus qu:Apustul Pawlu rue:Павел (апостол) ru:Апостол Павел sc:Paolo di Tarso sco:Saunt Paul sq:Shën Pali scn:Pàulu di Tarsu simple:Paul the Apostle sk:Apoštol Pavol sl:Sveti Pavel sr:Апостол Павле sh:Pavle iz Tarsa fi:Paavali sv:Paulus tl:Pablo ang Alagad ta:பவுல் (திருத்தூதர்) th:เปาโลอัครทูต tr:Pavlus uk:Павло (апостол) vec:San Pagoło vi:Sứ đồ Phao-lô war:Pablo nga Apostoles yo:Páùlù ará Társù bat-smg:Apaštals Paulios zh:保羅

Coordinates	32°19′59″N70°6′52″N
name	Rachel Stevens
background	solo_singer
birth name	Rachel Lauren Stevens
birth date	April 09, 1978
birth place	London, England, UK
genre	Pop, dance
occupation	Singer-songwriter, actress, presenter model, dancer, television personality
years active	1999–present
label	Polydor
associated acts	S Club, Vincent Simone
website	}}

Rachel Lauren Stevens (born 9 April 1978) is an English singer-songwriter, actress, presenter, dancer, television personality and model. She is a former member of the successful pop group S Club, and launched a solo recording career in 2003, releasing seven singles and two albums in the UK between 2003 and 2005. In 2008, she came second in the sixth series of the BBC One series ''Strictly Come Dancing'' with her dance partner Vincent Simone.

Early life

Born in Southgate, London, United Kingdom to a Jewish family, she attended Ashmole School in London. Stevens has two brothers, Jason and Leigh.

In 1993 she first caught attention while beating out 5000 competitors and winning a modeling contest sponsored by UK teen magazine ''Just 17''. Following her first modelling jobs, she decided to study at the London College of Fashion, where she achieved a diploma in business. During that time she also worked in a film company and later ended up working in public relations, but began to lose interest and decided to pursue a career in singing instead.

S Club 7

At the age of twenty Stevens became a member of the British pop group S Club 7, which were a BRIT Award-winning British pop group created by former Spice Girls manager Simon Fuller. The group rose to fame via their own BBC television programme and by selling 16 million records worldwide and launching four number one hit singles in the United Kingdom. S Club eventually split up in 2003.

In both 2001 and 2002 she was voted the number two Sexiest Woman in the World by UK's ''FHM'' readers.

Solo career

2003–2004: ''Funky Dory''

After S Club were disbanded Stevens signed a £1.5 million ($2.3 million) solo four-album deal with Polydor Records and re-signed with Fuller. Stevens said that breaking out on her own after success with S Club was difficult: "I think we [S Club] ended up conforming to what people's perceptions were. This one was the ditzy one, this one was the singer, this one was the dancer. And to come out of that and be a whole person has been a real challenge for me. I didn't have my say, really, in the group. None of us did."

Her first solo single, written by Cathy Dennis and produced by Bloodshy & Avant, "Sweet Dreams My LA Ex", was released in September 2003. Taking inspiration from R&B; and adult-style pop music, Stevens's debut solo album, ''Funky Dory'', was released later that month. The album was a minor hit, reaching number nine on the UK albums chart. Although it was not a huge commercial success, it gained praise from pop critics; Jamie Gill, in a review for ''Yahoo! Launch'', said that Stevens "eschews the cheap and cheerful approach of her old band for a slinky adult confidence and musical eclecticism." That December the album's title track "Funky Dory", featuring a sample of the David Bowie song "Andy Warhol" from his album ''Hunky Dory'', was released as its second single and failed to match the success of "Sweet Dreams My LA Ex", peaking at number twenty-four. MusicOMH called it "musically better than "Sweet Dreams My LA Ex" with a hybrid of pop, Latin and even a hint of jazz infusion" but not a good single choice as a single as it lacked anything special and different.

In July 2004 Stevens released the BBC Sport Relief charity single, "Some Girls", which was produced by Richard X. It became a hit across Europe, and reached number two in the UK. ''HMV.co.uk'' called the song Stevens's "finest song to date", and ''Yahoo! Launch'' commented that "she came to save her career. She ended up saving pop."

Rachel then signed a lucrative deal with Matalan reportedly worth £1 million and had her hit song "More More More" as the title song for Matalan's advertising campaign.

Following the success of "Some Girls", ''Funky Dory'' was re-released to include "Some Girls" and another new track, a cover of Andrea True Connection's "More More More". "More More More" was issued as a single and peaked at number three in the UK, giving Stevens her third top ten solo single in the UK. At this point, Stevens and her management stepped up promotion, earning her a Guinness World Record for "Most Public Appearances by a Pop Star in 24 Hours in Different Cities" (seven on 8–9 September 2004).

2004–2005: ''Come and Get It''

In late 2004 Stevens began working on her second solo album, ''Come and Get It'', with producers and songwriters Richard X, Alexis Strum, and Xenomania. The following March, its first single, "Negotiate with Love", was a top ten hit in the UK. "So Good" was released in July 2005 and also peaked at number ten, being hailed as "tastily produced and sassily delivered." In mid 2005, Channel 4 broadcast a documentary which followed Stevens through the summer as she promoted "So Good".

Stevens released ''Come and Get It'' in October 2005. The album was less successful than her debut, peaking at number twenty-eight in the UK. Its third and final single was "I Said Never Again (but Here We Are)", which peaked at number twelve in the UK and was commended by ''HMV.co.uk'' for its "astonishingly flawless vocal performance" and as Stevens's "most commercially accessible and quirky single since "Some Girls"." It has the song "Je m'appelle Rachel" on it, which was originally written by Shelly Poole as "Je m'appelle Michelle".

2006–present: Post music and Recent work

In 2007 ''The Guardian'' included the album in their "1000 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die" list.

In early 2010 Stevens announced that she would be returning to the recording studio to begin work on her third album. She is believed to be working with one half of Jewels & Stone who wrote and produced her last single 'I Said Never Again (But Here We Are)'.

In July 2011 a demo track entitled 'Nothing in Common', which was recorded for Steven's first studio album was uploaded online.

Acting career

While Stevens was a member of S Club 7, she appeared in five series of S Club shows: ''S Club 7 Go Wild!'' ''Miami 7'', ''L.A. 7'', ''Hollywood 7'', and ''Viva S Club''. The group also starred in the feature film, ''Seeing Double''. In 2004, Stevens briefly appeared in ''Suzie Gold'', followed by a minor cameo role in ''Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo'' (2005).

In 2005 Stevens played a character called "Jane-Mary" in a ''Spider-Man'' charity spoof called ''Spider-Plant Man'' for the BBC appearing opposite Rowan Atkinson. In December 2007 it was announced that Stevens would be transformed into a plasticine character for ''Glendogie Bogey'', a new animated comedy for BBC Scotland. Later in 2005, Stevens also played a minor role in Dominic Veall's ITV television drama ''Flawless'' playing Lucy Carlts, the sister of Rodger Carlts.

Filmography

Film
Year	Film	Role	Notes
2003	''S Club Seeing Double ''	Rachel
2004	''Suzie Gold''	Pop Star
2005	''Deuce Bigalow: European Gigolo''	Louisa, the Dirty Girl
Television
Year	Title	Role	Notes
	''Miami 7''	Rachel	Principal character, 13 episodes
''S Club 7: Back to the 50's''	Rachel	Principal character, TV special
	Rachel	Principal character, TV special
''The Greatest Store in the World''	Rachel	Guest star, TV movie
	''L.A. 7''	Rachel	Principal character, 13 episodes
''S Club 7 Go Wild''	Herself	Documentary series
''S Club 7: Artistic Differences''	Rachel	Principal character, TV special
''S Club 7: Christmas Special''	Rachel	Principal character, TV special
2001	''Hollywood 7''	Rachel	Principal character, 13 episodes
2002	''Viva S Club''	Rachel	Principal character, 13 episodes
2005	''Spider-Plant Man''	Jane-Mary	Comic Relief special
2008	''Glendogie Bogey''	Patricia Ravelston	Voice

Strictly Come Dancing

In August 2008 it was announced that Stevens would take part in the 2008 series of ''Strictly Come Dancing'', which started on 20 September. She was partnered with professional dancer Vincent Simone, and together they hold the record for the most perfect 10s ever achieved in any series of Strictly Come Dancing, thus beating out other contestants including 2007 winner Alesha Dixon and 2008 winner Tom Chambers. They also hold the record for the Foxtrot, Tango, Argentine Tango and Rumba and even though Stevens is perhaps the most successful contestant in Strictly history, she finished in second place.

Performances

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;" |- ! rowspan="2" | Week # ! rowspan="2" | Dance/song ! colspan="4" | Judges' scores ! rowspan="2" | Result |- ! style="width:10%;"| Craig Revel Horwood ! style="width:10%;"| Arlene Phillips ! style="width:10%;"| Len Goodman ! style="width:10%;"| Bruno Tonioli |- |1 |Cha Cha/"Lady Marmalade" | colspan="5" | Group performance – not judged |- |2 |Salsa/"No Puedes Comprar Mi Amor" |7 |8 |8 |8 |Safe – 31 |- |3 |Swing/"Choo Choo Cha Boogie" | colspan="5" | Group performance – not judged |- |4 |Quickstep/"Little Green Bag" |8 |8 |9 |8 |Safe – 33 |- |5 |Samba/"Hips Don't Lie" |7 |7 |8 |8 |Safe – 30 |- |6 |Viennese Waltz/"Everybody Hurts" |8 |8 |8 |8 |Safe – 32 |- |7 |Jive/"Sweet Soul Music" |7 |8 |8 |9 |Safe – 32 |- |8 |American Smooth/"I Got A Woman" |8 |9 |9 |9 |Bottom two – 35 |- |9 |Rumba/"You Do Something to Me" |9 |10 |10 |10 |(First place) Safe – 39 |- |10 |Foxtrot/"Close to You" |10 |10 |10 |10 |(First place) Safe – 40 |- | rowspan="2" |11 |Waltz / "Angel" |9 |10 |10 |10 | rowspan="2" |Bottom two – 71 |- |Paso Doble / "The Final Countdown" |7 |8 |8 |9 |- | rowspan="2" |12 |Tango / "Here Comes The Rain Again" |9 |10 |10 |10 | rowspan="2" | (First place) Safe – 76 |- |Cha-Cha-Cha / "Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours" |9 |9 |9 |10 |- | rowspan="2" |13 |Argentine Tango / "When Doves Cry" |9 |10 |10 |10 | rowspan="2" |(Joint first place) Safe – 75 |- |American Smooth / "Mandy" |9 |9 |8 |10 |- | rowspan="3" |14 |Foxtrot / "Close to You |10 |10 |10 |10 | rowspan="3" | 2nd place overall – 79 |- |Rumba / "You Do Something to Me" |9 |10 |10 |10 |- |Showdance / "Flashdance...What a Feeling" | | | | |}

Stevens and Vincent Simone also took part in the 2008 ''Strictly Come Dancing'' Christmas Special on Christmas Day which saw a four way tie at the top of the leader board by four couples getting 39 points each. Head judge Len made the final decision and decided to put them in order which left Stevens in third place in the leader board. Stevens returned in Series 7 2009 grand final with a group tango which saw her dance with Vincent and alongside series 6 finalist Lisa Snowdon and Brendan Cole.

Stevens and Simone also competed in the 2009 Christmas Special alongside Austin Healey, Chris Hollins, Gethin Jones, Ali Bastian and Ricky Whittle. Stevens and Simone did not win the Christmas Special, however, they did match their score for the rumba (39/40), still the highest score for the dance to date and thus ending the special as runners up.

Personal life

In her earlier years in S Club Stevens dated property developer Daniel Cohen for about two years. Following the split, Cohen stated he met Stevens socially a few times after their break-up, adding "she's an absolute darling, someone I haven't a bad word to say about".

On Valentine's Day in 2002 Stevens became engaged to actor Jeremy Edwards. The couple broke up in early 2004.

After the breakup she dated Gavin Dein, son of former Arsenal vice-chairman David Dein. The relationship did not last long, with the couple splitting up in August 2005.

In September and October 2006 Stevens was linked to actor Stephen Dorff and American-based British singer Oliver Trevena, known professionally as Oli T.

In June 2008 Stevens became engaged to boyfriend Alex Bourne in Italy (who had changed his surname from Leigh) after 18 months of dating. The couple were planning to get married in the autumn of 2008 but decided to postpone their wedding until August 2009 due to Stevens's busy autumn schedule training and performing on ''Strictly Come Dancing''. Stevens married Bourne on 2 August 2009.

On 19 May 2010 the couple announced that Rachel was expecting their first child.

On 16 November 2010, she gave birth to a baby girl, Amelie.

Awareness campaigns

In 2005 Stevens fronted the ''Everyman Testicular Cancer Awareness '' campaign. Stevens's role was notable as she was the first woman to represent this campaign. Her television commercial raised eyebrows with its suggestive content that included her telling men to "put one hand down their trousers and give their testicles a good feel". On the commercial, Stevens commented, "Sometimes men need a little encouragement to think about their health. This is a funny way of raising awareness about a serious subject."

In 2005 Stevens also took part in the Make Poverty History campaign, which aims to eliminate poverty in developing countries by cancelling old debts, improving the way aid is given and removing barriers, so these countries can trade more effectively with the rest of the world. Stevens donated an undisclosed amount of money to the campaign, and also starred in television and magazine advertisements supporting the cause. Her official Web site also displayed the campaign's official online banner.

Endorsement deals

Whilst in S Club 7 Stevens fronted the World Wide Fund for Nature. More recently, she has been the front woman for Pretty Polly, Sky Sports, Marks & Spencer, and Focus Dailies. In 2009, Stevens became the new ambassador for Schwarzkopf Gliss hair products.

Discography

2003: ''Funky Dory''

2005: ''Come and Get It''

Awards

Year	! Award	! Result	! Category
2003	rowspan=4	Won
rowspan=2	2004		Best Dressed Star
Most Fanciable Female
2005	Most Fanciable Female
2003	National Music Awards
2004	Celebrity Awards
2004	NME Awards
2004	Disney Channel Kid's Choice Awards
2004	52nd Annual Showbusiness Awards
2005	Glamour Awards
2006	Jammy Awards
2009	Digital Spy Reality Awards
2009	Rear Of The Year 2009

Notes

References

External links

Unofficial website

Rachel Stevens Gallery

[ Rachel Stevens] at Allmusic

FHM's Rachel Stevens Special

Category:1978 births Category:Alumni of the London College of Fashion Category:English female singers Category:English film actors Category:English Jews Category:English pop singers Category:English singer-songwriters Category:English television actors Category:English-language singers Category:Jewish singers Category:Living people Category:Musicians from London Category:People from Southgate, London Category:Polydor Records artists Category:S Club members Category:Strictly Come Dancing participants

de:Rachel Stevens es:Rachel Stevens fr:Rachel Stevens id:Rachel Stevens it:Rachel Stevens nl:Rachel Stevens ja:レイチェル・スティーヴンス pl:Rachel Stevens pt:Rachel Stevens ru:Стивенс, Рэйчел sv:Rachel Stevens