Maria Mies

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Maria Mies
MariaMies.jpg
Mies in 2021
Born(1931-02-06)6 February 1931
Hillesheim, Rhine Province, Prussia, Weimar Republic
Died15 May 2023(2023-05-15) (aged 92)
NationalityGerman
Education
Occupations
  • Professor of sociology
  • Writer
OrganizationsFachhochschule Köln
Notable workIndian Women and Patriarchy (1980), Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale (1986), Women: The Last Colony (1988), Ecofeminism (1993), The Subsistence Perspective (1999)
SpouseSaral Sarkar
AwardsOrder of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany

Maria Mies (6 February 1931 – 15 May 2023) was a German professor of sociology, Marxist feminist, activist for women's rights, and author. She came from a rural background in the Vulkaneifel, and wrote her dissertation about the conditions of women in India that she researched. From the late 1960s, her work focused on the intersection between capitalism, patriarchy and colonialism. She wrote extensively on the ways in which women's labour was devalued and exploited under capitalism, and how women's struggles for liberation are intertwined with the broader struggles for social and environmental justice. One of her main concerns was the development of an alternative, feminist and decolonial approach in methodology and in economics. Her pioneering work is recognised internationally.

Early life and education[edit]

Mies was born in Hillesheim on 6 February 1931 to Johann and Gertrud Mies.[1][2] She came from a rural background, growing up in a family of farmers in Auel, a village in the Vulkaneifel.[1] She was the seventh of twelve children,[2] who all worked in the fields while they were students at the local school where all children were taught in one room.[1] She was the first student from her village to complete secondary school,[2][3] which she attended in Gerolstein, while boarding with a family friend. She then started at the Regino-Gymnasium in Prüm, but the school was closed in September 1944 because of the war.[1]

From 1947, she trained in Trier where she earned her Abitur and then enrolled at the Pedagogical Academy in Koblenz to become a primary school teacher. In order to attend courses free of charge, she had to agree to teach for five years. After two years of study, she was assigned to primary schools in Auel and later in Worms. In 1955, she asked for a new placement and was sent to Trier, where she taught and also studied English. Mies passed her secondary teacher's certification examination in 1962 and was assigned to teach English and German in Morbach. Unwilling to be a secondary school teacher, she applied to the Goethe Institute (GI) and asked for a placement in Asia or the Middle East.[1]

Career[edit]

In 1963, Mies was accepted by GI to lecture in Pune, India,[1] on a five-year teaching engagement. She taught German classes and discovered that her male students enrolled to enhance their ability to study engineering, but women took her courses to prolong their independence, as for middle-class women, marriage was not required until after they completed a bachelor's degree.[2] One of her students, Chhaya Datar, would later become head of the women's studies department at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, and another Saral Sarkar, would later become her husband.[4] In 1967, her mother became gravely ill and Mies asked to be released early from her contract. Soon after her return to Germany her mother made a full recovery, [1] and Mies enrolled at the University of Cologne to study sociology under René König.[2] Using her observations during her time in India about women's behavior and the contradictions of social expectations for women,[1] she prepared her PhD thesis Rollenkonflikte gebildeter indischer Frauen (Role Conflicts of Educated Indian Women) in 1971.[2] She earned her degree in 1972,[1] and her thesis was published the following year.[2]

The late 1960s and early 1970s was a period of global protest and Mies became involved in activism. She participated in protests against the Vietnam War and nuclear armaments in the annual pacifist Easter March [de].[1] She joined Frauenforum Köln (Women's Forum Cologne), a local women's group tied to the women's liberation movement, which protested patriarchal structures and the devaluation of women.[2] She taught at the newly founded Cologne University of Applied Sciences,[1] before accepting a post in 1974 to teach at the University of Frankfurt Institute for Social Research. For three years, she presented seminars on the historic international women's movement in hopes of convincing the university to establish a women's study chair. In 1975, she attended the World Conference on Women in Mexico City and realized how little was known about women's history.[2] The following year, she joined with other activists, mainly students of her classes, to found the first women's shelter (Frauenhaus) in Germany, in Cologne.[3][5] Mies gave lectures at the shelter to teach women practical and political ways to combat violence. She returned to the University of Applied Sciences in 1977, [2] but decided to conduct a research project in India the following year.[1]

Mies arrived in India in 1978 to analyze rural subsistence production, meaning how domestic and farm labor, as well as cottage industry, allowed families to survive, but also led to the expansion of wealth for landlords and industries. She remained in India through 1979 and spent time with her former pupil, Sarkar, who was at the time, a lecturer at the GI in Hyderabad. The results of her study of rural industry were published as The Lacemakers of Narsapur: Indian Housewives Produce for the World Market in 1982. She returned to Europe after accepting a position at the International Institute of Social Studies in The Hague. There, she created a master's degree program for women from developing countries. To complete the practical requirements, Mies made contact with local feminist groups so that the students could work on joint projects.[1] She had first developed her ideas about how women's studies and feminist scholarship should proceed in a 1977 paper "Towards a Methodology for Feminist Research" delivered at a conference in Frankfurt.[6]: 102  To combat what she saw as a disconnect between theory and practical application in the academic setting, she aimed to completely rewrite existing teaching methods.[7]: 511  She did not believe that feminist research could use existing research models and proposed instead seven steps to completely re-imagine research with usefulness and respect for the subject in mind. The paper was later published as a chapter of the book Theories of Women's Studies (1983).[6]: 102  The administration decided not to renew the "Women and Development" program for the next semester, but Mies and her students successfully protested and the course continued to be offered.[1]

In 1981, Mies decided to return to Cologne and the University of Applied Sciences. There she became involved in the ecofeminist movement, as well as activism against genetic engineering and reproductive technology, which she saw as an expropriation of women's right to give birth and a commercialization of human production. She was one of the founders of the Feminist International Network of Resistance to Reproductive and Genetic Engineering.[1] Within this organization and in her works, she argued that women from the Global North were urged to use invasive technologies such as assisted fertilization and surrogacy to increase their child-bearing, while women in the Global South were pressed to limit births to control population growth.[1][8]: 97  Mies also pointed out that to exercise decisions about their bodies, women are limited by systems designed, controlled, and administered by health providers and government officials.[9]: 93  She became more active in pacifist activities, participating in a resistance camp protesting against a NATO plan to station nuclear warheads in Germany in 1983. Her pacifism was reinforced by her opposition to the idea put forth by Alice Schwarzer that women could gain emancipation if they had the same violent means available that men had. Opposed to war, Mies could not reconcile that simple equality with men would overcome hierarchical systems that devalued women. From the mid-1980s, she published her most important works which explored the links between patriarchy, capitalism and colonialism in the exploitation and subjugation of women.[1] Having retired from teaching in 1993, she continued to be active in women's and other social movements; she was a member of feministAttac, a women-led network of Attac.[3]

Personal life[edit]

In 1950, Mies met a Pakistani Muslim tourist who was traveling in Germany. Zulfiquar would have a profound influence on her life, as their relationship developed into a romance. Rejecting his proposal of marriage on the basis of their incompatible religions, led her to serious study of religious doctrines and patriarchy.[1] She chose to remain single for many years to maintain her independence.[5] In 1976, she married Sarkar, with the intent of having a visiting marriage so that each could continue their careers in their respective countries.[1] He joined her permanently in Cologne in 1982.[1] She wrote an autobiography, Das Dorf und die Welt (The Village and the World).[3] In her later years, Mies lived in a care facility as she was unable to recognize her husband, who visited her daily.[4]

Mies died on 15 May 2023, at age 92.[3][4] She is regarded as a pioneer of women's studies in Germany.[5] Her original concept of "housewifization", introduced in Patriarchy and Accumulation but developed in her study of lacemakers in India,[10]: 115 [11] is widely used by academics.[12][13]: 47  Mies was one of the first feminist scholars to analyze the similarities between the position of women and colonized people in socio-economic hierarchies.[14]: 389  Her book Ecofeminism has had an international impact,[15]: 101  and has been translated into several languages, including Spanish[16]: 171  and Turkish.[13]: 46  She aimed not for a better position of women in the capitalist society, but for a new society.[3]

Scholarly contributions[edit]

Anthropologist Danielle Léveillé characterized Mies' works as both "masterful" and "astonishing" in the way that she was able to link variables from the anti-colonial, anti-racist, ecology, feminist, and non-violence movements in a critique of policies that maintain an asymmetrical, hierarchic societal structure that creates domination and exploitation. This trend began in even her earliest works such as Indian Women in Patriarchy (1980) and The Lace Makers of Narsapur (1982), which evaluated her years in India, to later works like "Sexist and Racist Implications of New Reproductive Technology" (Alternatives, 1987).[17]: 149  In these early works, Mies sought to evaluate how women's labor became hidden and created the perception that they were reliant upon a husband's income. She theorized that by eliminating pay for the work women performed, making them available at all times for labor, alienating them from society by keeping them in the home, giving them no job security, and eliminating their ability to contract or unionize, women lost agency. Their "housewifization" prevented women from being seen as producers or self-employed persons, allowing them to be exploited.[18]: 2 

In the book Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale Women in the International Division of Labour (1986), Mies evaluated the development of feminism, the sexual division of labor, and how violence shaped politics in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.[17] In her analysis, the process of "housewifization" was based on the Western ideals of capital accumulation, meaning that by destroying women's autonomy and making them possessions, men were able to acquire productive capital and amass wealth. She saw family violence, not as a remnant of ancient society, but as a part of the processes to modernize. In the work, she noted that socialist development had created similar social structures and argued for creation of a utopian feminist society.[17]: 150  The basis for work, in Mies's vision would be usefulness rather than accumulation, allowing consumers in overdeveloped places to fulfill their needs from producers in underdeveloped countries gaining worldwide relief from exploitation.[17]: 150–151  Léveillé noted that while such a plan might work, its drawback was that it devalued things like music, flowers, and art, which while not essential or necessary to support human life provided therapeutic benefits.[17]: 151 

Picking up themes from Patriarchy and Accumulation, Mies 1988 book Women: The Last Colony written with Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen and Claudia von Werlhof expanded on themes of domination bringing colonized people into the analysis. They wrote that in the same way that women were rendered invisible, subjugated people were isolated from mainstream society and were treated as a natural resource to be exploited.[14]: 388  Departing from a strict Marxist feminist argument, the central theme of the work was that the exploitation and oppression of women and colonized people were not secondary results caused by capitalism, but fundamental to creating the mechanisms of global production.[14]: 388–389 [19]: 50  Université de Montréal anthropology professor, Deirdre Meintel, noted that Mies argued that labor exploitation was a primary factor in developing both social classes and economic divisions.[14]: 390  Meintel also noted that Mies' chapter 7, "Class Struggles and Women's Struggles in India", was "worth the price of the book", as it told of the successful resistance by women in Andhra Pradesh, to align with male peasants and protect their rights.[14]: 390 

Ecofeminism (1993), witten by Mies and Vandana Shiva used a Marxist approach to evaluate climate change, loss of diversity, multi-systemic failures, and resistance. They evaluated how production systems and accumulation caused dispossession of land and culture, leading to problems like world hunger.[16]: 171–172  Mies and Shiva argued that women were linked internationally by their common experiences related to capitalist expansion. The book demonstrated, unlike other ecofeminist texts according to environmental scholar Catriona Sandilands, that despite geographical differences and socio-economic variances "women's lives and bodies are being colonized" through capitalist mechanisms.[8]: 97–98  The book was updated and republished in 2014, and translated into Spanish in 2016, concluding that the issues were worsening instead of improving.[16]: 171–172  Evaluating the links between technology and science and cultural development, Jimena Andrieu and María Julia Eliosoff Ferrero, noted that Mies and Shiva pointed out that globalization has led to a crisis by commodifying and privatizing everything to increase production and profits, thereby reducing human freedoms.[16]: 173  They argued that by placing nurturing of life and health as the focal point of economics, a balance between society, the economy, and the ecosystem is restored.[16]: 174  The reissuance of the book sparked new debates on the roles of women in resistance movements in the Global South. With large sectors of the population unemployed and living in poverty, the turn toward subsistence and producing only goods that sustain life become questionable, according to Andrieu and Eliosoff.[16]: 175 

A diagram of a triangle representing the economy in patriarchal capitalist societies. The triangle mimics the shape of an iceberg, whereby the visible tip consists of paid wage labour and the hidden underside consists of the informal labour sector.
An illustration of the "iceberg model" from Mies and Bennholdt-Thomsen's 1999 book The Subsistence Perspective.

In The Subsistence Perspective (1999), Mies and Bennholdt-Thomsen argued that subsistence production, the production of goods and services for personal or community use, has been devalued, hidden, and marginalised by capitalist systems. Using the "iceberg model", they noted that the only visible labor in a traditional capitalistic society is that of the formal labour force. The base of the iceberg, remains hidden below the surface and includes unpaid domestic work, caring, and informal labor,[20]: 59  which includes various forms of untaxed labour such as micro-entrepreneurs, child labourers and family members who work for other family members, and non-permanent workers.[21]: 2 [22]: 2  They argued instead for a society in which rather than delegating labor-intensive work to certain segments of the population, that those tasks be shared by communities,[23] giving each person a basic income, some security, and a measure of power in decision-making.[24]: xi  The book was called an "excellent feminist source on political economy" by sociologist Ariel Salleh of the Western Sydney University.[25]: 396 

Selected works[edit]

  • Mies, Maria (1980). Indian Women and Patriarchy: Conflicts and Dilemmas of Students and Working Women. New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company. OCLC 7635521. (English translation of her thesis).[26]: 207  – via Project MUSE (subscription required)
  • Mies, Maria (1982). Lace Makers of Narsapur: Indian Housewives Produce for the World Market. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-0-86232-032-4.
  • Mies, Maria (1986). Patriarchy and Accumulation On A World Scale: Women in the International Division of Labour. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-85649-735-0..
  • Mies, Maria; Bennholdt-Thomsen, Veronika; Werlhof, Claudia von (1988). Women: The Last Colony. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-0-86232-455-1.
  • Mies, Maria; Shiva, Vandana (1993). Ecofeminism. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-85649-156-3.
  • Mies, Maria (1998). "Preface". In Sittirak, Sinith (ed.). The Daughters of Development: Women in a Changing Environment. London: Zed Books. pp. x–xv. ISBN 978-1-85649-588-2.
  • Mies, Maria; Bennholdt-Thomsen, Veronika (1999). The Subsistence Perspective: Beyond the Globalised Economy. London: Zed Books. ISBN 978-1-85649-776-3.
  • Mies, Maria (2010). The Village and the World: My Life, Our Times. North Melbourne, Australia: Spinifex Press. ISBN 978-1-876756-82-6.

References[edit]

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t Schuster, Stefan (2020). "Maria Mies". fritz-bauer-forum.de (in German). Bochum, Germany: Buxus Stiftung. Archived from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Franken, Irene (2021). "Maria Mies". frauengeschichtsverein.de (in German). Cologne, Germany: Kölner Frauengeschichtsverein e.V. Archived from the original on 16 May 2023. Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  3. ^ a b c d e f "Maria Mies, 92". Der Spiegel (in German). Hamburg, Germany: Spiegel-Verlag. 19 May 2023. Archived from the original on 19 May 2023. Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  4. ^ a b c Mascarenhas, Anuradha (17 May 2023). "Pune Recalls Association with Maria Mies, German Sociologist and Ecofeminist Who Died at 92". The Indian Express. Mumbai, India. Archived from the original on 18 May 2023. Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  5. ^ a b c Mengel, Monika (31 December 2006). "Erlebte Geschichten mit Maria Mies" [Stories Experienced with Maria Mies]. WDR (in German). Cologne, Germany. Archived from the original on 19 May 2023. Retrieved 19 May 2023.
  6. ^ a b Schmitz, Betty (January–February 1985). "Reviewed Work: Theories of Women's Studies by Gloria Bowles, Renate Duelli Klein". The Journal of Higher Education. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. 56 (1): 101–103. doi:10.2307/1981725. ISSN 0022-1546. JSTOR 1981725. OCLC 8142350210. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  7. ^ Yeager, Matthew G. (July 2006). "The Freedom of Information Act as a Methodological Tool: Suing the Government for Data". Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Tornoto, Ontario: University of Toronto Press. 48 (4): 499–521. doi:10.3138/cjccj.48.4.499. ISSN 1707-7753. OCLC 361889328. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  8. ^ a b Sandilands, Catriona (January 1996). "Reviewed Work: Ecofeminism by Maria Mies, Vandana Shiva". Economic Geography. New York, New York: Taylor & Francis. 72 (1): 96–99. doi:10.2307/144510. ISSN 0013-0095. JSTOR 144510. OCLC 5548541985. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  9. ^ Kato, Yutaka (2015). "Reproductive Technology: What Is the Impact of Fertility Treatment and Regenerative Medicine on Society? by Azumi Tsuge (review)". East Asian Science, Technology and Society. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. 9 (1): 91–94. doi:10.1215/18752160-2835763. ISSN 1875-2160. OCLC 5795963720. S2CID 75669458. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  10. ^ Prügl, Elisabeth (January 1996). "Home-Based Workers: A Comparative Exploration of Mies's Theory of Housewifization". Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. 17 (1): 114–135. doi:10.2307/3346904. ISSN 0160-9009. JSTOR 3346904. OCLC 5546263196. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  11. ^ Bagley, Jennifer (July 2017). "Mies, Maria". Critics & Theorists. Atlanta, Georgia: Emory University. Archived from the original on 5 May 2023. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  12. ^ Casalini, Brunella (September 2017). "Neoliberal Capitalism and the 'New Sexual Contract'". ECPR General Conference. Hythe Quay, Colchester: European Consortium for Political Research. Archived from the original on 21 May 2023. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  13. ^ a b Piccardi, Eleonora Gea (January 2022). "The Challenges of a Kurdish Ecofeminist Perspective: Maria Mies, Abdullah Öcalan, and the Praxis of Jineolojî" (PDF). Capitalism Nature Socialism. Abingdon, UK: Taylor & Francis. 33 (1): 46–65. doi:10.1080/10455752.2021.1905016. ISSN 1045-5752. OCLC 9472984417. S2CID 233695302. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  14. ^ a b c d e Meintel, Deirdre (November 1989). "Reviewed Work: Women: the Last Colony by Maria Mies, Veronika Bennholdt-Thomsen, Claudia Von Werlhof". Labour, Capital and Society. Halifax, Nova Scotia: Saint Mary's University. 22 (2): 388–391. ISSN 0706-1706. JSTOR 43157888. OCLC 5919328453. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  15. ^ Toksoy, N. Gamze (June 2021). "'Dünyayı Yeniden Dokumak' Shiva ve Mies'den Ekofeminizm" ['Re-Weaving the World' Ecofeminism by Shiva and Mies]. Fe Dergi (in Turkish). Ankara, Turkey: Kadın Sorunları Araştırma ve Uygulama Merkezi'nin. 13 (1): 101–106. doi:10.46655/federgi.946958. ISSN 1309-128X. OCLC 9530898453. S2CID 238824195. Archived from the original on 13 January 2022. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  16. ^ a b c d e f Andrieu, Jimena; Eliosoff Ferrero, María Julia (2019). "Crisis multisistémicas y resistencias en los territorios latinoamericanos. Diálogo con Maria Mies y Vandana Shiva desde el ecofeminismo" [Multisystemic Crises and Resistance in Latin American Territories: Dialogue with Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva about Ecofeminism]. Cuadernos de Economía Crítica (in Spanish). Buenos Aires, Argentina: Sociedad de Economía Crítica de Argentina y Uruguay. 5 (10): 171–177. ISSN 2408-400X. OCLC 9456617883. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  17. ^ a b c d e Léveillé, Danielle (1988). "Comptes Rendus: Maria Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale Women in the International Division of Labour. Zed Books Ltd, Third World Books, New Jersey, 1986, 251 pages" [Proceedings: Maria Mies, Patriarchy and Accumulation on a World Scale Women in the International Division of Labour. Zed Books Ltd, Third World Books, New Jersey, 1986, 251 pages.]. Recherches Féministes (in French). Quebec City, Quebec: Université Laval. 1 (2): 149–152. doi:10.7202/057523ar. ISSN 0838-4479. Archived from the original on 2022-10-22. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  18. ^ Teixeira, Mylene N.; Strazzeri, Victor (2001). "Tradução do Verbete: Hausfrauisierung (H). Frigga Haug. Historisch-Kritisches Wörterbuch des Marxismus, HKWM Band 5. Berlin 2001, 1209–1215" [Translation Entry: Housewifization (H). Frigga Haug. Historical-Critical Dictionary of Marxism, HKWM Volume 5. Berlin 2001, 1209–1215.] (PDF). Revista Estudos Feministas (in Portuguese). Florianópolis, Brazil: Instituto de Estudos de Genero, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. 26 (2): 1–6. doi:10.1590/1806-9584-2018v26n256412. ISSN 0104-026X. S2CID 150292239. Retrieved 20 May 2023.
  19. ^ Wilkinson-Weber, Clare M. (Winter 1997). "Skill, Dependency, and Differentiation: Artisans and Agents in the Lucknow Embroidery Industry". Ethnology. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania: University of Pittsburgh Press. 36 (1): 49–65. doi:10.2307/3773935. ISSN 0014-1828. JSTOR 3773935. OCLC 7781060900. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  20. ^ Kazuo, Suzuki (2019). "つの経済の分析枠組み" [Analytical Framework for Two Economies]. 季刊経済理論 / Political Economic Quaterly (in Japanese). Tokyo, Japan: Musashi University for the Economic Theory Society. 56 (2): 48–62. doi:10.20667/peq.56.2_48. ISSN 1882-5184. OCLC 9648139033. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  21. ^ Packard, Truman G.; Koettl, Johannes; Montenegro, Claudio (2012). In from the Shadow: Integrating Europe's Informal Labor. Washington, D.C.: World Bank Publications. ISBN 978-0-8213-9550-9.
  22. ^ Perez-Lopez, Jorge; Schoepfle, Gregory (1993). The Informal Sector and Worker Rights. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of International Labor Affairs. OCLC 1225668698.
  23. ^ Dreysse, Carmen (2022). "Geneviève Pruvost, Quotidien Politique. Féminisme, écologie, subsistance" [Geneviève Pruvost, Political Daily. Feminism, Ecology, Subsistence]. Les comptes rendus / Lectures (in French). Lyon, France: École normale supérieure de Lyon. doi:10.4000/lectures.53857. ISSN 2116-5289. OCLC 9396193148. S2CID 246312772. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  24. ^ Kanji, Nazneen (2003). "Preface". Mind the Gap: Mainstreaming Gender and Participation in Development. London: International Institute for Environment and Development. pp. vii–xii. ISBN 978-1-84369-466-3.
  25. ^ Salleh, Ariel (September 2003). "Reviewed Work: The Politics of Money: Towards Sustainability and Economic Democracy by Frances Hutchinson, Mary Mellor, Wendy Olsen". Organization & Environment. Thousand Oaks, California: SAGE Publishing. 16 (3): 395–398. doi:10.1177/10860266030163010. ISSN 1086-0266. JSTOR 26162484. OCLC 7851086801. S2CID 220752627. Retrieved 21 May 2023.
  26. ^ Bardhan, Kalpana (Spring 1990). "Being A Woman in South Asia". Journal of Women's History. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press. 2 (1): 200–219. doi:10.1353/jowh.2010.0193. ISSN 1042-7961. OCLC 4896481013. S2CID 145690300. Retrieved 21 May 2023.

External links[edit]

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