2019–20 coronavirus pandemic
2019–20 coronavirus pandemic | |||||||
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Disease | Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) | ||||||
Virus strain | Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2)[a] | ||||||
Source | Likely bats, possibly via pangolins[2][3] | ||||||
Location | Worldwide (list of locations) | ||||||
First outbreak | China[4] | ||||||
Index case | Wuhan, Hubei, China 30°37′11″N 114°15′28″E / 30.61972°N 114.25778°E | ||||||
Date | 1 December 2019[4] – present (4 months and 3 weeks) | ||||||
Confirmed cases | 2,790,986[5][b] | ||||||
Active cases | 1,813,684[5] | ||||||
Recovered | 781,382[5] | ||||||
Deaths | 195,920[5] | ||||||
Territories | 185[5] |
The 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic is an ongoing pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2). The outbreak was identified in Wuhan, China, in December 2019.[4] The World Health Organization declared the outbreak to be a Public Health Emergency of International Concern on 30 January 2020, and recognised it as a pandemic on 11 March 2020.[6][7] As of 24 April 2020, more than 2.79 million cases of COVID-19 have been reported in 185 countries and territories, resulting in more than 195,000 deaths. More than 781,000 people have recovered,[5] although there may be a possibility of relapse or reinfection.[8][9]
Common symptoms include fever, cough and shortness of breath.[20] Complications may include pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome.[21] The time from exposure to onset of symptoms is typically around five days, but may range from two to fourteen days.[20][22] There is no known vaccine or specific antiviral treatment.[10] Primary treatment is symptomatic and supportive therapy.[23]
Recommended preventive measures include hand washing, covering one's mouth when coughing, maintaining distance from other people, and monitoring and self-isolation for people who suspect they are infected.[10][24] Authorities worldwide have responded by implementing travel restrictions, quarantines, curfews and stay-at-home orders, workplace hazard controls, and facility closures. Many places have also worked to increase testing capacity and trace contacts of infected persons.
The pandemic has caused severe global socioeconomic disruption,[25] including the largest global recession since the Great Depression.[26] It has led to the postponement or cancellation of sporting, religious, political and cultural events,[27] widespread supply shortages exacerbated by panic buying,[28][29] and decreased emissions of pollutants and greenhouse gases.[30][31] Schools, universities and colleges have closed either on a nationwide or local basis in 196 countries, affecting approximately 98.4 per cent of the world's student population.[32] Misinformation about the virus has spread online,[33][34] and there have been incidents of xenophobia and discrimination against Chinese people and against those perceived as being Chinese, or as being from areas with high infection rates.[35][36][37]
Epidemiology
Health authorities in Wuhan, Hubei, China, reported a cluster of viral pneumonia cases of unknown cause on 31 December 2019,[326][327] and an investigation was launched in early January 2020.[328] These cases mostly had links to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market and so the virus is thought to have a zoonotic origin.[329] The virus that caused the outbreak is known as SARS‑CoV‑2, a newly discovered virus closely related to bat coronaviruses,[330] pangolin coronaviruses,[331][332] and SARS-CoV.[333] The current scientific consensus is that COVID-19 has a natural origin.[334][335]
The earliest known person with symptoms was later discovered to have fallen ill on 1 December 2019, and that person did not have visible connections with the later wet market cluster.[336][337] Of the early cluster of cases reported that month, two-thirds were found to have a link with the market.[338][339][340] On 13 March 2020, an unverified report from the South China Morning Post suggested a case traced back to 17 November 2019 (a 55-year-old from Hubei) may have been the first.[341][342]
Cases
Cases refers to the number of people who have been tested for COVID-19, and whose test has been confirmed positive according to official protocols.[343] As of 23 April, the countries that made public their testing data have on average performed a number of tests equal to only 1.2 per cent of their population, while no country has tested samples equal to more than 13.2 per cent of its population.[344] Many countries have had official policies to not test those with only mild symptoms.[345][346] An analysis of the early phase of the outbreak up to 23 January estimated 86 per cent of COVID-19 infections had not been detected, and that these undocumented infections were the source for 79 per cent of documented cases.[347] Several other studies, using a variety of methods, have estimated that numbers of infections in many countries are likely to be considerably greater than the reported cases.[348][349]
On 9 April 2020, preliminary results found that 15 per cent of people tested in Gangelt, the centre of a major infection cluster in Germany, tested positive for antibodies.[350] Screening for COVID-19 in pregnant women in New York City, and blood donors in the Netherlands, has also found a number of positive tests that may indicate infections may be higher than reported.[351][352]
Analysis by age in China indicates that a relatively low proportion of cases occur in individuals under 20 years of age.[353] However, it is not yet clear whether this is because young people are actually less likely to be infected, or less likely to develop serious symptoms, and thus seek medical attention and be tested.[354]
Initial estimates of the basic reproduction number (R0) for COVID-19 in January were between 1.4 and 2.5,[355] but a subsequent analysis has concluded that it may be about 5.7 (with a 95-per-cent confidence interval of 3.8 to 8.9).[356]
Total confirmed cases of COVID-19 per million people[357]
Epidemic curve of COVID-19 by date of report
Daily confirmed cases by country[359]
Linear plot of worldwide COVID-19 cases, recoveries, and deaths[360]
Deaths
Most people who contract COVID-19 recover. For those who do not, the time between the onset of symptoms and death ranges between 6 and 41 days, typically about 14 days.[361] As of 24 April 2020, approximately 195,000[5] deaths had been attributed to COVID-19. In China, as of 5 February[update], about 80 per cent of deaths were recorded in those aged over 60, and 75 per cent had pre-existing health conditions including cardiovascular diseases and diabetes.[362] Deaths among people under 65 years of age without an underlying predisposing condition are uncommon.[363]
The first confirmed death was in Wuhan on 9 January 2020.[364] The first death outside mainland China occurred on 1 February in the Philippines,[365] and the first death outside Asia was in France on 14 February.[366] By 28 February, outside mainland China, more than a dozen deaths each were recorded in Iran, South Korea, and Italy.[367][368][369] By 13 March, more than forty countries and territories had reported deaths, on every continent except Antarctica.[370]
Official deaths from the COVID-19 generally refer to people who died after testing positive according to official protocols. This may ignore deaths of people who die without testing, e.g. at home or in nursing homes.[371] Conversely, deaths of people who had underlying conditions may lead to overcounting.[372] There are indications that undercounting of deaths is common with reports from many countries including most European countries,[373][374] China,[375] the U.S.,[376] Iran,[377] North Korea,[378] Russia,[379] the UK,[380][381] and Brazil.[382] In the worst affected areas, mortality has been several times higher than average. In New York City, deaths have been four times higher than average, in Paris twice as high, and in many European countries deaths have been on average 20 to 30 per cent higher than normal.[373]
Several measures are commonly used to quantify mortality.[383] These numbers vary by region and over time, and are influenced by the volume of testing, healthcare system quality, treatment options, time since initial outbreak, and population characteristics, such as age, sex, and overall health.[384] Some countries (like Belgium) include deaths from suspected cases of COVID-19, whether or not the person was tested, resulting in higher numbers when compared to countries that include only test-confirmed cases.[385]
The death-to-case ratio reflects the number of deaths attributed to COVID-19 divided by the number of diagnosed cases within a given time interval. Based on Johns Hopkins University statistics, the global death-to-case ratio is 7.0 per cent (195,920 deaths for 2,790,986 cases) as of 24 April 2020.[5] The number varies by region.[386]
Other measures include the case fatality rate (CFR), which reflects the percentage of diagnosed people who die from a disease, and the infection fatality rate (IFR), which reflects the percentage of infected (diagnosed and undiagnosed) who die from a disease. These statistics are not timebound and follow a specific population from infection through case resolution. Our World in Data states that as of 25 March 2020 the IFR cannot be accurately calculated.[387] The World Health Organization estimated the IFR at 0.37 per cent to 2.9 per cent.[388] The University of Oxford's Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine (CEBM) estimates a global CFR of 0.72 per cent and IFR of 0.1 per cent to 0.36 per cent.[389] According to CEBM, random antibody testing in Germany suggests an IFR of 0.37 per cent.[389]
Total confirmed deaths due to COVID-19 per million people[390]
Duration
The WHO said on 11 March 2020 the pandemic could be controlled.[7] The peak and ultimate duration of the outbreak are uncertain and may differ by location. Maciej Boni of Penn State University stated, "Left unchecked, infectious outbreaks typically plateau and then start to decline when the disease runs out of available hosts. But it's almost impossible to make any sensible projection right now about when that will be".[391] The Chinese government's senior medical adviser Zhong Nanshan argued that "it could be over by June" if all countries can be mobilised to follow the WHO's advice on measures to stop the spread of the virus.[391] On 17 March, Adam Kucharski of the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine said SARS‑CoV‑2 "is going to be circulating, potentially for a year or two".[392] According to the Imperial College study led by Neil Ferguson, physical distancing and other measures will be required "until a vaccine becomes available (potentially 18 months or more)".[393] William Schaffner of Vanderbilt University stated, "I think it's unlikely that this coronavirus—because it's so readily transmissible—will disappear completely" and it "might turn into a seasonal disease, making a comeback every year". The virulence of the comeback would depend on herd immunity and the extent of mutation.[394]
Signs and symptoms
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Symptoms_of_coronavirus_disease_2019_3.0.svg/330px-Symptoms_of_coronavirus_disease_2019_3.0.svg.png)
Symptoms of COVID-19 can be relatively non-specific and infected people may be asymptomatic. The two most common symptoms are fever (88 per cent) and dry cough (68 per cent). Less common symptoms include fatigue, respiratory sputum production (phlegm), loss of the sense of smell (initially estimated at 30 per cent[396] but later at only 15 per cent[397]), shortness of breath, muscle and joint pain, sore throat, headache, chills, vomiting, hemoptysis, and diarrhea.[398][399]
The WHO says approximately one person in five becomes seriously ill and has difficulty breathing.[10] The U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) lists emergency symptoms as difficulty breathing, persistent chest pain or pressure, sudden confusion, difficulty waking, and bluish face or lips; immediate medical attention is advised if these symptoms are present.[400]
Further development of the disease can lead to potentially fatal complications including pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome, sepsis, septic shock, and kidney failure.[401]
Some of those infected may be asymptomatic, with no clinical symptoms but test results that confirm infection, so researchers have issued advice that those with close contact to confirmed infected people should be closely monitored and examined to rule out infection.[402] Chinese estimates of the asymptomatic ratio range from few to 44 per cent.[403] The usual incubation period (the time between infection and symptom onset) ranges from one to 14 days; it is most commonly five days.[404][10]
Cause
Transmission
Some details about how the disease is spread are still being determined.[11] The disease is believed to be primarily spread during close contact and by small droplets produced during coughing, sneezing, or talking;[10][11][13] with close contact being within 1 to 2 metres (3 to 6 feet).[10][11] Both sputum and saliva can carry large viral loads.[405] Studies have found that an uncovered cough can lead to droplets travelling up to 4.5 metres (15 feet) to 11.4 metres (37 feet).[406][407][12] Some have proposed the virus may also be transmitted by small droplets that stay for more prolonged periods in the air, as may be generated during speech.[408]
These small droplets are also produced during breathing out, including when talking, although they usually fall to the ground or surfaces, as opposed to being infectious over large distances.[10][409] The droplets can land in the mouths or noses of people who are nearby or possibly be inhaled into the lungs.[410] Some medical procedures such as intubation and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) may cause respiratory secretions to be aerosolised and thus result in airborne spread.[409] It may also spread when one touches a contaminated surface, including skin, and then touches their eyes, nose, or mouth.[10] While there are concerns it may spread by faeces, this risk is believed to be low.[10][11] The Government of China denied the possibility of faecal–oral transmission of SARS‑CoV‑2.[411]
The virus is most contagious during the first three days after onset of symptoms, although spread may be possible before symptoms appear and in later stages of the disease.[11][412] People have tested positive for the disease up to three days before onset of symptoms, suggesting transmission is possible before developing significant symptoms.[412][413] Only a few reports of laboratory-confirmed asymptomatic cases exist, but asymptomatic transmission has been identified by some countries during contact tracing investigations.[citation needed] The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) says while it is not entirely clear how easily the disease spreads, one person generally infects two to three others.[13]
The virus survives for hours to days on surfaces.[13][414] Specifically, the virus was found to be detectable for up to three days on plastic (polypropylene) and 304 stainless steel, for one day on cardboard, and for up to four hours on copper.[16] This, however, varies based on the humidity and temperature.[415]
Pets and other animals have tested positive for COVID-19.[416] There is no evidence animals can pass the virus on to humans,[417] though British authorities advise washing one's hands after contact with animals, like after contact with other potentially contaminated surfaces.[418][419]
Virology
Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‑CoV‑2) is a novel virus, first isolated from three people with pneumonia connected to the cluster of acute respiratory illness cases in Wuhan.[333] All features of the novel SARS‑CoV‑2 virus occur in related coronaviruses in nature.[420]
SARS‑CoV‑2 is closely related to SARS‑CoV, and is thought to have a zoonotic origin.[330] SARS‑CoV‑2 genetically clusters with the genus Betacoronavirus, and is 96 per cent identical at the whole genome level to other bat coronavirus samples[398] and 92 per cent identical to pangolin coronavirus.[421]
Diagnosis
Infection by the virus can be provisionally diagnosed on the basis of symptoms, though confirmation is ultimately by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR) of infected secretions or CT imaging.[422][423] A study comparing PCR to CT in Wuhan suggests CT is significantly more sensitive than PCR, though less specific, with many of its imaging features overlapping with other pneumonias and disease processes.[423] As of March 2020, the American College of Radiology recommends that "CT should not be used to screen for or as a first-line test to diagnose COVID-19".[424]
Viral testing
The WHO has published several RNA testing protocols for SARS‑CoV‑2, with the first issued on 17 January.[425][426][427] The test uses real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (rRT-PCR).[428] The test can be done on respiratory or blood samples.[429] Results are generally available within a few hours to days.[430][431] Generally this test is carried out on a nasopharyngeal swab though a throat swab may also be used.[432]
A number of laboratories and companies are developing serological tests, which detect antibodies.[433] As of 6 April 2020, none of these has been proved sufficiently accurate to be approved for widespread use.[434] In the U.S. a serological test developed by Cellex has been approved for emergency use by certified laboratories only.[435]
Imaging
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/COVID19CTPneumonia.jpg/220px-COVID19CTPneumonia.jpg)
Characteristic imaging features on radiographs and computed tomography (CT) of people who are symptomatic include asymmetric peripheral ground-glass opacities and absent pleural effusions.[436] The Italian Radiological Society is compiling an international online database of imaging findings for confirmed cases.[437] Due to overlap with other infections such as adenovirus, imaging without confirmation by PCR is of limited specificity in identifying COVID-19.[436] A large study in China compared chest CT results to PCR and demonstrated that though imaging is less specific for the infection, it is faster and more sensitive, suggesting its consideration as a screening tool in epidemic areas.[423] Artificial intelligence-based convolutional neural networks have been developed to detect imaging features of the virus with both radiographs[438] and CT.[439]
Prevention
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Stop_the_Spread_of_Germs_%28COVID-19%29.jpg/310px-Stop_the_Spread_of_Germs_%28COVID-19%29.jpg)
Strategies for preventing transmission of the disease include maintaining overall good personal hygiene, washing hands, avoiding touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands, and coughing or sneezing into a tissue and putting the tissue directly into a waste container. Those who may already have the infection have been advised to wear a surgical mask in public.[440][441] Physical distancing measures are also recommended to prevent transmission.[442][443] Health care providers taking care of someone who may be infected are recommended to use standard precautions, contact precautions, and eye protection.[444]
Many governments have restricted or advised against all non-essential travel to and from countries and areas affected by the outbreak.[445] However, the virus is already spreading within communities in large parts of the world, with many not knowing where or how they were infected.[410]
Misconceptions are circulating about how to prevent infection; for example, rinsing the nose and gargling with mouthwash are not effective.[446] There is no COVID-19 vaccine, though many organisations are working to develop one.[447]
Hand washing
Hand washing is recommended to prevent the spread of the disease. The CDC recommends that people wash hands often with soap and water for at least twenty seconds, especially after going to the toilet or when hands are visibly dirty; before eating; and after blowing one's nose, coughing, or sneezing. This is because outside the human body, the virus is killed by household soap, which bursts its protective bubble.[24] CDC further recommended using an alcohol-based hand sanitiser with at least 60 per cent alcohol by volume when soap and water are not readily available.[440] The WHO advises people to avoid touching the eyes, nose, or mouth with unwashed hands.[441][448]
Surface cleaning
Surfaces may be decontaminated with a number of solutions (within one minute of exposure to the disinfectant for a stainless steel surface), including 62–71 per cent ethanol, 50–100 per cent isopropanol, 0.1 per cent sodium hypochlorite, 0.5 per cent hydrogen peroxide, and 0.2–7.5 per cent povidone-iodine. Other solutions, such as benzalkonium chloride and chlorhexidine gluconate, are less effective. The CDC recommends that if a COVID case is suspected or confirmed at a facility such as an office or day care, all areas such as offices, bathrooms, common areas, shared electronic equipment like tablets, touch screens, keyboards, remote controls, and ATM machines used by the ill persons, should be disinfected.[449][450]
Face masks and respiratory hygiene
Health organisations recommended that people cover their mouth and nose with a bent elbow or a tissue when coughing or sneezing, and disposing of any tissue immediately.[441] Surgical masks are recommended for those who may be infected,[451] as wearing a mask can limit the volume and travel distance of expiratory droplets dispersed when talking, sneezing, and coughing.[452] The WHO has issued instructions on when and how to use masks.[451]
Masks have also been recommended for use by those taking care of someone who may have the disease.[451] The WHO has recommended healthy people wear masks only if they are at high risk, such as those who are caring for a person with COVID-19.[451] China and the United States, among other countries, have encouraged the use of face masks or cloth face coverings more generally by members of the public to limit the spread of the virus by asymptomatic individuals.[453][454] Several national and local governments have made wearing masks mandatory.[455][456] Varying recommendations for wearing masks have been a subject of debate.[457]
Social distancing
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Physical_distancing_in_Toronto_at_Shoppers_Drug_Mart_-_20200412.jpg/220px-Physical_distancing_in_Toronto_at_Shoppers_Drug_Mart_-_20200412.jpg)
Social distancing (also known as physical distancing) includes infection control actions intended to slow the spread of disease by minimising close contact between individuals. Methods include quarantines; travel restrictions; and the closing of schools, workplaces, stadiums, theatres, or shopping centres. Individuals may apply social distancing methods by staying at home, limiting travel, avoiding crowded areas, using no-contact greetings, and physically distancing themselves from others.[441][458] Many governments are now mandating or recommending social distancing in regions affected by the outbreak.[459][460] The maximum gathering size recommended by U.S. government bodies and health organisations was swiftly reduced from 250 people (if there was no known COVID-19 spread in a region) to 50 people, and later to 10.[461] On 22 March 2020, Germany banned public gatherings of more than two people.[462] A Cochrane review found that early quarantine with other public health measures are effective in limiting the pandemic, but the best manner of adopting and relaxing policies are uncertain, as local conditions vary.[463]
Older adults and those with underlying medical conditions such as diabetes, heart disease, respiratory disease, hypertension, and compromised immune systems face increased risk of serious illness and complications and have been advised by the CDC to stay home as much as possible in areas of community outbreak.[464][465]
In late March 2020, the WHO and other health bodies began to replace the use of the term "social distancing" with "physical distancing", to clarify that the aim is to reduce physical contact while maintaining social connections, either virtually or at a distance. The use of the term "social distancing" had led to implications that people should engage in complete social isolation, rather than encouraging them to stay in contact with others through alternative means.[466][467]
Some authorities have issued sexual health guidelines for use during the pandemic. These include recommendations to have sex only with someone you live with, and who does not have the virus or symptoms of the virus.[468][469]
Self-isolation
Self-isolation at home has been recommended for those diagnosed with COVID-19 and those who suspect they have been infected. Health agencies have issued detailed instructions for proper self-isolation.[470][471]
Many governments have mandated or recommended self-quarantine for entire populations living in affected areas.[472][473] The strongest self-quarantine instructions have been issued to those in high risk groups. Those who may have been exposed to someone with COVID-19 and those who have recently travelled to a country or region with widespread transmission have been advised to self-quarantine for 14 days from the time of last possible exposure.[10][20][474]
Management
Containment and mitigation
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/20200410_Flatten_the_curve%2C_raise_the_line_-_pandemic_%28English%29.gif/330px-20200410_Flatten_the_curve%2C_raise_the_line_-_pandemic_%28English%29.gif)
Strategies in the control of an outbreak are containment or suppression, and mitigation. Containment is undertaken in the early stages of the outbreak and aims to trace and isolate those infected as well as introduce other measures of infection control and vaccinations to stop the disease from spreading to the rest of the population. When it is no longer possible to contain the spread of the disease, efforts then move to the mitigation stage: measures are taken to slow the spread and mitigate its effects on the healthcare system and society. A combination of both containment and mitigation measures may be undertaken at the same time.[479] Suppression requires more extreme measures so as to reverse the pandemic by reducing the basic reproduction number to less than 1.[393]
Part of managing an infectious disease outbreak is trying to decrease the epidemic peak, known as flattening the epidemic curve.[475] This decreases the risk of health services being overwhelmed and provides more time for vaccines and treatments to be developed.[475] Non-pharmaceutical interventions that may manage the outbreak include personal preventive measures, such as hand hygiene, wearing face masks, and self-quarantine; community measures aimed at physical distancing such as closing schools and cancelling mass gathering events; community engagement to encourage acceptance and participation in such interventions; as well as environmental measures such surface cleaning.[480]
More drastic actions aimed at containing the outbreak were taken in China once the severity of the outbreak became apparent, such as quarantining entire cities and imposing strict travel bans.[481] Other countries also adopted a variety of measures aimed at limiting the spread of the virus. South Korea introduced mass screening and localised quarantines, and issued alerts on the movements of infected individuals. Singapore provided financial support for those infected who quarantined themselves and imposed large fines for those who failed to do so. Taiwan increased face mask production and penalised hoarding of medical supplies.[482]
Simulations for Great Britain and the United States show that mitigation (slowing but not stopping epidemic spread) and suppression (reversing epidemic growth) have major challenges. Optimal mitigation policies might reduce peak healthcare demand by two-thirds and deaths by half, but still result in hundreds of thousands of deaths and overwhelmed health systems. Suppression can be preferred but needs to be maintained for as long as the virus is circulating in the human population (or until a vaccine becomes available), as transmission otherwise quickly rebounds when measures are relaxed. Long-term intervention to suppress the pandemic has considerable social and economic costs.[393]
Contact tracing
Contact tracing is an important method for health authorities to determine the source of an infection and to prevent further transmission.[483] The use of location data from mobile phones by governments for this purpose has prompted privacy concerns, with Amnesty International and more than a hundred other organisations issuing a statement calling for limits on this kind of surveillance.[484]
Various mobile apps have been implemented or proposed for voluntary use, and as of 7 April 2020 more than a dozen expert groups were working on privacy-friendly solutions such as using Bluetooth to log a user's proximity to other cellphones.[484] Users could then receive a message if they've been in close contact with someone who has subsequently tested positive for COVID-19.[484]
On 10 April 2020 Google and Apple, jointly announced an initiative for privacy-preserving contact tracing based on Bluetooth technology and cryptography.[485][486] The system is intended to allow governments to create official privacy-preserving coronavirus tracking apps, with the eventual goal of integration of this functionality directly into the iOS and Android mobile platforms.[487]
Health care
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/%C3%96stra_Sjukhuset_COVID-19_F%C3%A4ltsjukhus.jpg/220px-%C3%96stra_Sjukhuset_COVID-19_F%C3%A4ltsjukhus.jpg)
Increasing capacity and adapting healthcare for the needs of COVID-19 patients is described by the WHO as a fundamental outbreak response measure.[488] The ECDC and the European regional office of the WHO have issued guidelines for hospitals and primary healthcare services for shifting of resources at multiple levels, including focusing laboratory services towards COVID-19 testing, cancelling elective procedures whenever possible, separating and isolating COVID-19 positive patients, and increasing intensive care capabilities by training personnel and increasing the number of available ventilators and beds.[488][489]
Due to capacity limitations in the standard supply chains, some manufacturers are 3D printing healthcare material such as nasal swabs and ventilator parts.[490][491] In one example, when an Italian hospital urgently required a ventilator valve, and the supplier was unable to deliver in the timescale required, a local startup risked legal threats due to alleged patent infringement and reverse-engineered and printed the required hundred valves overnight.[492][493][494] On 23 April 2020, NASA reported building, in 37 days a ventilator which is currently undergoing further testing. NASA is seeking fast-track approval.[495][496]
Treatment
There are no specific antiviral medications approved for COVID-19, but development efforts are underway, including testing of existing medications. Taking over-the-counter cold medications,[497] drinking fluids, and resting may help alleviate symptoms.[440] Depending on the severity, oxygen therapy, intravenous fluids, and breathing support may be required.[498] The use of steroids may worsen outcomes.[499] Several compounds which were previously approved for treatment of other viral diseases are being investigated for use in treating COVID-19.[500]
History
There are various theories about where the very first case (the so-called patient zero) may have originated.[502] The first known case may trace back to 1 December 2019 in Wuhan, Hubei, China.[336] Within a month, the number of coronavirus cases in Hubei gradually increased. According to official Chinese sources these were mostly linked to the Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market, which also sold live animals, and one theory is that the virus came from one of these animals; or, in other words, has a zoonotic origin.[329]
A pneumonia cluster of unknown cause was observed on 26 December and treated by the doctor Zhang Jixian in Hubei Provincial Hospital, who informed the Wuhan Jianghan CDC on 27 December.[503][504] On 30 December, a group of doctors at Wuhan Central Hospital alerted their colleagues of a "SARS-like coronavirus". The Wuhan Municipal Health Commission released a public notice on 31 December.[326][505][506] Eight of these doctors, including Li Wenliang,[507] were then admonished by the police for spreading supposedly false rumours, and another, Ai Fen, was reprimanded by her superiors for raising the alarm.[508] Enough cases of unknown pneumonia had been reported to health authorities in Wuhan to trigger an investigation in early January.[328]
During the early stages of the outbreak, the number of cases doubled approximately every seven and a half days.[509] In early and mid-January 2020, the virus spread to other Chinese provinces, helped by the Chinese New Year migration and Wuhan being a transport hub and major rail interchange.[398] On 20 January, China reported nearly 140 new cases in one day, including two people in Beijing and one in Shenzhen.[510] Later official data shows 6,174 people had already developed symptoms by 20 January 2020.[511] A report in The Lancet on 24 January indicated human transmission, strongly recommended personal protective equipment for health workers, and said testing for the virus was essential due to its "pandemic potential".[338][512]
By 26 March, the United States had overtaken China and Italy with the highest number of confirmed cases in the world.[513] Research on coronavirus genomes indicates the majority of COVID-19 cases in New York came from European travellers, rather than directly from China or any other Asian country.[514]
As of 23 April 2020[update], more than 2.79 million cases have been reported worldwide; more than 195,000 people have died and more than 781,000 have recovered.[515][516]
National responses
2020 coronavirus pandemic lockdowns
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Countries and territories | Place | Start date | End date | Level |
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13-03-2020[517] | National | ||
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Algiers | 23-03-2020[518] | 19-04-2020[519] | City |
Blida | ||||
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19-03-2020[520] | 26-04-2020[521] | National | |
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24-03-2020[522] | 14-04-2020[523] | National | |
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23-03-2020[524] | National | ||
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16-03-2020[4] | 13-04-2020[525] | National | |
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31-03-2020[526] | 20-04-2020[526] | National | |
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26-03-2020[527] | 25-04-2020[528] | National | |
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28-03-2020[529] | 03-05-2020[529] | National | |
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Minsk | 07-04-2020[530] | City | |
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18-03-2020[531] | 19-04-2020[532] | National | |
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04-04-2020[533] | 02-05-2020[534] | National | |
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22-03-2020[535] | 15-04-2020[535] | National | |
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02-04-2020[536] | 30-04-2020[536] | National | |
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Santa Catarina | 17-03-2020[537] | 07-04-2020[537] | State |
São Paulo | 24-03-2020[538] | 08-04-2020[538] | ||
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19-03-2020[539] | National | ||
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25-03-2020[540] | 27-04-2020[541] | National | |
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31-03-2020[542] | 20-04-2020[542] | National | |
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23-03-2020[543] | National | ||
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18-03-2020[544] | 19-04-2020[545] | National | |
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23-03-2020[546] | 20-04-2020[546] | National | |
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16-03-2020[4] | 12-04-2020[547] | National | |
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11-03-2020[548] | 13-04-2020[548] | National | |
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19-03-2020[549] | National | ||
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16-03-2020[550] | 31-03-2020[550] | National | |
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12-03-2020[551] | 02-04-2020[551] | National | |
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02-04-2020[552] | 23-04-2020[552] | National | |
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Lautoka | 20-03-2020[553] | 07-04-2020[554] | City |
Suva | 03-04-2020[555] | 17-04-2020[556] | ||
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Uusimaa | 27-03-2020[557] | 16-04-2020[557] | Region |
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17-03-2020[558] | 11-05-2020[559] | National | |
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31-03-2020[560] | 21-04-2020[560] | National | |
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23-03-2020[ay][562] | 03-05-2020[563] | National | |
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Accra | 30-03-2020[564] | 12-04-2020[565] | Metropolitan Area |
Kumasi | ||||
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23-03-2020[566] | 27-04-2020[567] | National | |
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25-03-2020[568] | National | ||
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20-03-2020[569] | 26-04-2020[570] | National | |
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28-03-2020[571] | 10-04-2020[571] | National | |
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25-03-2020[572] | 03-05-2020[573] | National | |
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Jakarta[az] | 10-04-2020[574] | 22-05-2020[575] | Province |
Tegal | 26-03-2020[576] | 31-07-2020[577] | City | |
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22-03-2020[578] | 11-04-2020[579] | National | |
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12-03-2020[580] | 05-05-2020[581] | National | |
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Bnei Brak | 02-04-2020[582] | City | |
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09-03-2020[ba][583] | 03-05-2020[584] | National | |
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Saint Catherine | 15-04-2020[585] | 22-04-2020[585] | Parish |
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Chiba | 07-04-2020[586] | 06-05-2020[586] | Prefecture |
Fukuoka | ||||
Hyōgo | ||||
Kanagawa | ||||
Osaka | ||||
Saitama | ||||
Tokyo[bb] | ||||
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18-03-2020[587] | National | ||
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14-03-2020[588] | 29-03-2020[588] | National | |
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15-03-2020[589] | 28-03-2020[589] | National | |
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Margibi | 23-03-2020[590] | 11-04-2020[590] | County |
Montserrado | ||||
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22-03-2020[591] | National | ||
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16-03-2020[592] | 27-04-2020[593] | National | |
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18-03-2020[594] | National | ||
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Antananarivo | 23-03-2020[595] | City | |
Toamasina | ||||
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18-03-2020[596] | 12-05-2020[597] | National | |
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Tuzi | 24-03-2020[598] | Municipality | |
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19-03-2020[599] | 20-04-2020[600] | National | |
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24-03-2020[601] | 15-04-2020[602] | National | |
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16-03-2020[603] | 28-04-2020[604] | National | |
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26-03-2020[605] | 10-05-2020[606] | National | |
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Abuja | 30-03-2020[607] | 12-04-2020[607] | City |
Lagos | ||||
Ogun | State | |||
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30-03-2020[608] | National | ||
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12-03-2020[609] | 13-04-2020[609] | National | |
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Muscat | 10-04-2020[610] | 08-05-2020[611] | Governorate |
Jalan Bani Bu Ali | 16-04-2020[612] | Province | ||
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24-03-2020[613] | 09-05-2020[614] | National | |
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25-03-2020[615] | 07-04-2020[616] | National | |
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24-03-2020[617] | 07-04-2020[617] | National | |
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20-03-2020[618] | 12-04-2020[619] | National | |
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16-03-2020[620] | 26-04-2020[621] | National | |
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Cebu | 27-03-2020[622] | 15-05-2020[623] | Province |
Davao Region | 19-03-2020[624] | 15-05-2020[623] | Region | |
Luzon | 15-03-2020[bc][625] | 30-04-2020[bd][626] | Island group | |
15-05-2020[be][627] | ||||
Soccsksargen | 23-03-2020[624] | Region | ||
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13-03-2020[628] | 11-04-2020[629] | National | |
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19-03-2020[630] | 02-04-2020[629] | National | |
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Doha Industrial Area | 11-03-2020[631] | Industrial park | |
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25-03-2020[632] | 12-05-2020[633] | National | |
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Moscow | 30-03-2020[634] | 01-05-2020[635] | Metropolitan area |
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21-03-2020[636] | 19-04-2020[637] | National | |
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26-03-2020[638] | 08-04-2020[639] | National | |
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14-03-2020[640] | National | ||
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Jeddah | 29-03-2020[641] | City | |
Mecca | 26-03-2020[641] | |||
Medina | ||||
Qatif | 09-03-2020[642] | Area | ||
Riyadh | 26-03-2020[641] | City | ||
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15-03-2020[629] | National | ||
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07-04-2020[643] | 01-06-2020[644] | National | |
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16-03-2020[645] | 22-04-2020[646] | National | |
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26-03-2020[647] | 30-04-2020[648] | National | |
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14-03-2020[649] | 09-05-2020[650] | National | |
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17-03-2020[651] | National | ||
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25-03-2020[652] | 30-04-2020[653] | National | |
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17-03-2020[654] | 31-03-2020[654] | National | |
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22-03-2020[655] | 19-04-2020[656] | National | |
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23-04-2020[657] | 27-04-2020[657] | National[bf] | |
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17-03-2020[629] | 24-04-2020[629] | National | |
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26-03-2020[658] | 17-04-2020[659] | National | |
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23-03-2020[660] | National | ||
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California | 19-03-2020 | 15-05-2020[661] | State |
Clark County, NV | 20-03-2020[662] | County | ||
Connecticut | 23-03-2020[663] | 22-04-2020[664] | State | |
Illinois | 21-03-2020[665] | 30-05-2020[666] | ||
Kansas City, KS | 24-03-2020[667] | 19-04-2020[668] | City | |
Massachusetts | 24-03-2020[669] | 07-04-2020[669] | State | |
Michigan | 24-03-2020[670] | 13-04-2020[664] | ||
New York | 20-03-2020[671] | 15-05-2020[672] | ||
Oregon | 24-03-2020[673] | |||
Wisconsin | 24-03-2020[674] | |||
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17-03-2020[675] | National | ||
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30-03-2020[676] | 02-05-2020[677] | National | |
Outbreak ongoing: Lockdown data as of April 25, 2020
Notes
|
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/COVID-19_Outbreak_lockdowns.svg/330px-COVID-19_Outbreak_lockdowns.svg.png)
A total of 185[5] countries and territories have had at least one case of COVID-19 so far. Due to the pandemic in Europe, many countries in the Schengen Area have restricted free movement and set up border controls.[678] National reactions have included containment measures such as quarantines and curfews (known as stay-at-home orders, shelter-in-place orders, or lockdowns).[679]
As of 12 April[update], nearly 300 million people, or about 90 per cent of the population, are under some form of lockdown in the United States,[680] more than 50 million people are in lockdown in the Philippines,[681] about 59 million people are in lockdown in South Africa,[682] and 1.3 billion people are in lockdown in India.[683][684] By 26 March, 1.7 billion people worldwide were under some form of lockdown,[685] which increased to 3.9 billion people by the first week of April — more than half of the world's population.[686][687]
Asia
As of 16 April 2020[update], cases have been reported in all Asian countries except for Tajikistan[688] and Turkmenistan, although some suspect such countries also have cases.[689][690]
Mainland China
The first confirmed case of COVID-19 has been traced back to 1 December 2019 in Wuhan;[336] one unconfirmed report suggests the earliest case was on 17 November.[341] Doctor Zhang Jixian observed a cluster of pneumonia cases of unknown cause on 26 December, upon which her hospital informed Wuhan Jianghan CDC on 27 December.[691][692] Initial genetic testing of patient samples on 27 December 2019 indicated the presence of a SARS-like coronavirus.[691] A public notice was released by Wuhan Municipal Health Commission on 31 December.[506] The WHO was informed on the same day.[326] As these notifications occurred, doctors in Wuhan were warned by police for "spreading rumours" about the outbreak.[693] The Chinese National Health Commission initially stated there was no "clear evidence" of human-to-human transmission.[694] In a 14 January conference call, Chinese officials stated privately that human-to-human transmission was a possibility, and preparations for a pandemic were needed.[695]
On 20 January, the Chinese National Health Commission announced that human-to-human transmission of the coronavirus had already occurred.[696] That same day, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping and State Council premier Li Keqiang issued their first public comments about the virus, telling people in infected areas to practice social distancing and avoid travel.[697][698] During the Chinese New Year travel period in late January, Chinese authorities instigated a lockdown of the City of Wuhan.[699] However, travellers from Wuhan had already transported the virus to some Asian countries,[700][701][702] the Chinese government launched a radical campaign described on 10 February by paramount leader and Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi as a "people's war" to contain the spread of the virus.[703] In what has been described as "the largest quarantine in human history",[704] a cordon sanitaire was announced on 23 January stopping travel in and out of Wuhan,[705][706] which was extended to a total of fifteen cities in Hubei, affecting a total of about 57 million people.[707] Private vehicle use was banned in the city.[708] Chinese New Year (25 January) celebrations were cancelled in many places.[709] The authorities also announced the construction of a temporary hospital, Huoshenshan Hospital, which was completed in ten days.[710] Another hospital, Leishenshan Hospital, was built afterwards to handle additional patients.[711] In addition to newly constructed hospitals, China also converted other facilities in Wuhan, such as convention centres and stadiums, into temporary hospitals.[712]
On 26 January, the government instituted further measures to contain the COVID-19 outbreak, including issuing health declarations for travellers[714] and extending the Spring Festival holiday.[715] Universities and schools around the country were also closed.[716][717][718] The regions of Hong Kong and Macau instituted several measures, particularly in regard to schools and universities.[719] Remote working measures were instituted in several Chinese regions.[720] Travel restrictions were enacted in and outside of Hubei.[720][721] Public transport was modified,[722] and museums throughout China were temporarily closed.[720][723][724] Control of public movement was applied in many cities, and it has been estimated that 760 million people (more than half the population) faced some form of outdoor restriction.[725] In January and February 2020, during the height of the epidemic in Wuhan, about 5 million people lost their jobs.[726] Many of China's nearly 300 million rural migrant workers have been stranded at home in inland provinces or trapped in Hubei province.[727][728]
After the outbreak entered its global phase in March, Chinese authorities took strict measures to prevent the virus re-entering China from other countries. For example, Beijing imposed a 14-day mandatory quarantine for all international travellers entering the city.[729] At the same time, a strong anti-foreigner sentiment quickly took hold,[730] and foreigners experienced harassment by the general public[731] and forced evictions from apartments and hotels.[37][732]
On 23 March, mainland China had only one case transmitted domestically in the five days prior, in this instance via a traveller returning to Guangzhou from Istanbul. On 24 March 2020, Chinese Premier Li Keqiang reported that the spread of domestically transmitted cases has been basically blocked and the outbreak has been controlled in China.[733] The same day travel restrictions were eased in Hubei, apart from Wuhan, two months after the lockdown was imposed.[734]
The Chinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs announced on 26 March 2020 that entry for visa or residence permit holders would be suspended from 28 March onwards, with no specific details on when this policy would end. Those wishing to enter China must to apply for visas in Chinese embassies or consulates.[735][736] The Chinese government encouraged businesses and factories to re-open on 30 March, and provided monetary stimulus packages for firms.[737]
The State Council declared a day of mourning to begin with a national three-minute moment of silence on 4 April, coinciding with Qingming Festival, although the central government asked families to pay their respects online in observance of physical distancing to avoid a renewed COVID-19 outbreak.[738]
South Korea
COVID-19 was confirmed to have spread to South Korea on 20 January 2020 from China. The nation's health agency reported a significant increase in confirmed cases on 20 February,[739] largely attributed to a gathering in Daegu of the Shincheonji Church of Jesus.[739][740] Shincheonji devotees visiting Daegu from Wuhan were suspected to be the origin of the outbreak.[741][742] As of 22 February[update], among 9,336 followers of the church, 1,261 or about 13 per cent reported symptoms.[743]
South Korea declared the highest level of alert on 23 February 2020.[744] On 28 February, more than 2,000 confirmed cases were reported,[745] rising to 3,150 on 29 February.[746] All South Korean military bases were quarantined after tests showed three soldiers had the virus.[741] Airline schedules were also changed.[747][748]
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Coronavirus_Jongno_1.jpg/220px-Coronavirus_Jongno_1.jpg)
South Korea introduced what was considered the largest and best-organised programme in the world to screen the population for the virus, isolate any infected people, and trace and quarantine those who contacted them.[749][750] Screening methods included mandatory self-reporting of symptoms by new international arrivals through mobile application,[751] drive-through testing for the virus with the results available the next day,[752] and increasing testing capability to allow up to 20,000 people to be tested every day.[753] South Korea's programme is considered a success in controlling the outbreak without quarantining entire cities.[749][754]
South Korean society was initially polarised on President Moon Jae-in's response to the crisis. Many Koreans signed petitions either calling for Moon's impeachment over what they claimed to be government mishandling of the outbreak, or praising his response.[755] On 23 March, it was reported that South Korea had the lowest one-day case total in four weeks.[753] On 29 March it was reported that beginning 1 April all new overseas arrivals will be quarantined for two weeks.[756] Per media reports on 1 April, South Korea has received requests for virus testing assistance from 121 different countries.[757]
Iran
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Disinfection_of_Tehran_subway_wagons_against_coronavirus_2020-02-26_09.jpg/220px-Disinfection_of_Tehran_subway_wagons_against_coronavirus_2020-02-26_09.jpg)
Iran reported its first confirmed cases of SARS‑CoV‑2 infections on 19 February in Qom, where, according to the Ministry of Health and Medical Education, two people died later that day.[759][760] Early measures announced by the government included the cancellation of concerts and other cultural events,[761] sporting events,[762] and Friday prayers,[763] and closures of universities, higher education institutions, and schools.[764] Iran allocated five trillion rials to combat the virus.[765] President Hassan Rouhani said on 26 February 2020 there were no plans to quarantine areas affected by the outbreak, and only individuals would be quarantined.[766] Plans to limit travel between cities were announced in March,[767] although heavy traffic between cities ahead of the Persian New Year Nowruz continued.[768] Shia shrines in Qom remained open to pilgrims until 16 March 2020.[769][770]
Iran became a centre of the spread of the virus after China during February.[771][772] More than ten countries had traced their cases back to Iran by 28 February, indicating that the extent of the outbreak may have been more severe than the 388 cases reported by the Iranian government by that date.[772][773] The Iranian Parliament was shut down, with 23 of its 290 members reported to have had tested positive for the virus on 3 March.[774] On 15 March, the Iranian government reported a hundred deaths in a single day, the most recorded in the country since the outbreak began.[775] At least twelve sitting or former Iranian politicians and government officials had died from the disease by 17 March.[776] By 23 March, Iran was experiencing fifty new cases every hour and one new death every ten minutes due to coronavirus.[777] According to a WHO official, there may be five times more cases in Iran than what is being reported. It is also suggested that U.S. sanctions on Iran may be affecting the country's financial ability to respond to the viral outbreak.[778] The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights has demanded economic sanctions to be eased for nations most affected by the pandemic, including Iran.[779] On 20 April it was reported that Iran had reopened shopping malls and other shopping areas across the country, though there is fear of a second wave of infection due to this move.[780]
Europe
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Red_COVID-19_Outbreak_Cases_per_capita_in_Europe.svg/300px-Red_COVID-19_Outbreak_Cases_per_capita_in_Europe.svg.png)
As of 13 March 2020,[update] the World Health Organization (WHO) considered Europe the active centre of the pandemic. Cases by country across Europe had doubled over periods of typically 3 to 4 days, with some countries (mostly those at earlier stages of detection) showing doubling every 2 days.[781]
As of 17 March,[update] all countries within Europe had a confirmed case of COVID-19, with Montenegro being the last European country to report at least one case.[782] At least one death has been reported in all European countries, apart from the Vatican City.
As of 18 March,[update] more than 250 million people are in lockdown in Europe.[783]Italy
The outbreak was confirmed to have spread to Italy on 31 January, when two Chinese tourists tested positive for SARS‑CoV‑2 in Rome.[784] Cases began to rise sharply, which prompted the Italian government to suspend all flights to and from China and declare a state of emergency.[785] An unassociated cluster of COVID-19 cases was later detected, starting with 16 confirmed cases in Lombardy on 21 February.[786]
On 22 February, the Council of Ministers announced a new decree-law to contain the outbreak, including quarantining more than 50,000 people from eleven different municipalities in northern Italy.[787] Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte said, "In the outbreak areas, entry and exit will not be provided. Suspension of work activities and sports events has already been ordered in those areas."[788][789]
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Emergenza_coronavirus_%2849496308758%29.jpg/220px-Emergenza_coronavirus_%2849496308758%29.jpg)
On 4 March, the Italian government ordered the full closure of all schools and universities nationwide as Italy reached a hundred deaths. All major sporting events, including Serie A football matches, were to be held behind closed doors until April,[790] but on 9 March, all sport was suspended completely for at least one month.[791] On 11 March, Prime Minister Conte ordered stoppage of nearly all commercial activity except supermarkets and pharmacies.[792][793]
On 6 March, the Italian College of Anaesthesia, Analgesia, Resuscitation and Intensive Care (SIAARTI) published medical ethics recommendations regarding triage protocols that might be employed.[794][795][796] On 19 March, Italy overtook China as the country with the most coronavirus-related deaths in the world after reporting 3,405 fatalities from the pandemic.[797][798] On 22 March, it was reported that Russia had sent nine military planes with medical equipment to Italy.[799] As of 12 April[update], there were 152,271 confirmed cases, 19,468 deaths, and 32,534 recoveries in Italy, with the majority of those cases occurring in the Lombardy region.[800] A CNN report indicated that the combination of Italy's large elderly population and inability to test all who have the virus to date may be contributing to the high fatality rate.[801] On 19 April it was reported that the country had its lowest deaths at 433 in seven days, some businesses after six weeks of lockdown are asking for a loosening of restrictions.[802]
Spain
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/2020-03-Detalls_i_conseq%C3%BC%C3%A8ncies_del_COVID-19_al_Pa%C3%ADs_Valenci%C3%A0_14.jpg/220px-2020-03-Detalls_i_conseq%C3%BC%C3%A8ncies_del_COVID-19_al_Pa%C3%ADs_Valenci%C3%A0_14.jpg)
The pandemic was confirmed to have spread to Spain on 31 January 2020, when a German tourist tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 in La Gomera, Canary Islands.[803] Post-hoc genetic analysis has shown that at least 15 strains of the virus were imported and community transmission had begun by mid-February.[804] By 13 March, cases had been confirmed in all 50 provinces of the country.[citation needed]
A state of alarm and national lockdown was imposed on 14 March.[805] On 29 March it was announced that, beginning the following day, all non-essential workers were to stay home for the next 14 days.[806] By late March, the Community of Madrid has recorded the most cases and deaths in the country. Medical professionals and those who live in retirement homes have experienced especially high infection rates.[807] On 25 March 2020, the death toll in Spain surpassed that reported in mainland China and only Italy had a higher death toll globally.[808] On 2 April, 950 people died of the virus in a 24-hour period—at the time, the most by any country in a single day.[809] The next day Spain surpassed Italy in total cases and is now second only to the United States.[810]
As of 24 April 2020[update], there have been 219,764 confirmed cases with 92,355 recoveries and 22,524 deaths in Spain.[811] The actual number of cases, however, is likely to be much higher, as many people with only mild or no symptoms are unlikely to have been tested.[812][813] The number of deceased is also believed to be an underestimate due to lack of testing and reporting, perhaps by as much as 10,000 according to excess mortality analysis.[814]United Kingdom
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_London_main_entrance_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-NHS_Nightingale_Hospital_London_main_entrance_%282%29_%28cropped%29.jpg)
Before 18 March 2020, the British government did not impose any form of social distancing or mass quarantine measures on its citizens.[815][816] As a result, the government received criticism for the perceived lack of pace and intensity in its response to concerns faced by the public.[817][818]
On 16 March, Prime Minister Boris Johnson made an announcement advising against all non-essential travel and social contact, suggesting people work from home where possible and avoid venues such as pubs, restaurants, and theatres.[819][820] On 20 March, the government announced that all leisure establishments such as pubs and gyms were to close as soon as possible,[821] and promised to pay up to 80 per cent of workers' wages to a limit of £2,500 per month to prevent unemployment during the crisis.[822]
On 23 March, the prime minister announced tougher social distancing measures, banning gatherings of more than two people and restricting travel and outdoor activity to that deemed strictly necessary. Unlike previous measures, these restrictions were enforceable by police through the issuing of fines and the dispersal of gatherings. Most businesses were ordered to close, with exceptions for businesses deemed "essential", including supermarkets, pharmacies, banks, hardware shops, petrol stations, and garages.[823]
To ensure the health services always had sufficient capacity to treat COVID-19 patients, a number of temporary critical care hospitals were built around the United Kingdom.[824] The first to be operational was the 4000-bed capacity NHS Nightingale Hospital London, constructed within the ExCeL convention centre over nine days.[825]On 24 April it was reported that one of the more promising vaccine trials had begun in England; the government has pledged, in total, more than 50 million pounds towards research.[826]
France
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Strasbourg-Entzheim%2C_%C3%A9vacuation_patients_COVID-19_par_un_h%C3%A9licopt%C3%A8re_de_l%27arm%C3%A9e_de_terre_%28NH90_immatriculation_EAX%29_-_3.jpg/220px-Strasbourg-Entzheim%2C_%C3%A9vacuation_patients_COVID-19_par_un_h%C3%A9licopt%C3%A8re_de_l%27arm%C3%A9e_de_terre_%28NH90_immatriculation_EAX%29_-_3.jpg)
The pandemic reached France on 24 January 2020, when the first COVID-19 case in Europe was confirmed in Bordeaux. A key event in the spread of the disease in the country was the annual assembly of the Christian Open Door Church between 17 and 24 February in Mulhouse, which was attended by about 2,500 people, at least half of whom are believed to have contracted the virus.[827][828]
On 13 March, Prime Minister Édouard Philippe ordered the closure of all non-essential public places,[829] and on 16 March, French President Emmanuel Macron announced mandatory home confinement, a policy which has been extended at least until 11 May.[830][831][832] As of 23 April[update], France has reported over 120,804 confirmed cases, 21,856 deaths, and 42,088 recoveries,[833] ranking fourth in number of confirmed cases.[834]
North America
The first cases in North America were reported in the United States in January 2020. Cases were reported in all North American countries after Saint Kitts and Nevis confirmed a case on 25 March, and in all North American territories after Bonaire confirmed a case on 16 April.[835]
On 26 March 2020, the U.S. became the country with the highest number of confirmed COVID-19 infections, with over 82,000 cases.[836] On 11 April 2020, the U.S. became the country with the highest official death toll for COVID-19, with over 20,000 deaths.[837]
United States
On 20 January, the first known case of COVID-19 was confirmed in the Pacific Northwest state of Washington in a man who had returned from Wuhan on 15 January.[838] The White House Coronavirus Task Force was established on 29 January.[839] On 31 January, the Trump administration declared a public health emergency,[840] and restricted entry for travellers from China who were not citizens of the United States.[841]
On 28 January 2020, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention—the leading public health institute of the U.S. government—announced they had developed their own testing kit.[842] Despite this, the United States had a slow start in testing, which obscured the extent of the outbreak.[843][844] Testing was marred by defective test kits produced by the federal government in February, a lack of federal government approval for non-government test kits (by academia, companies and hospitals) until the end of February, and restrictive criteria for people to qualify for a test until early March (a doctor's order was required thereafter).[843][844] By 27 February, The Washington Post reported fewer than 4,000 tests had been conducted in the United States.[843] By 13 March, fewer than 14,000 tests had been conducted.[845] On 22 March, the Associated Press reported that many people with symptoms and a doctor's order still had to wait hours or days to be tested.[846]
After the first death in the United States was reported in Washington state on 29 February,[847] Governor Jay Inslee declared a state of emergency,[848] an action soon followed by other states.[849][850] Schools in the Seattle area cancelled classes on 3 March,[851] and by mid-March, schools across the country were shutting down.[852]
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/President_Trump_Signs_the_Congressional_Funding_Bill_for_Coronavirus_Response_%2849627907646%29.jpg/220px-President_Trump_Signs_the_Congressional_Funding_Bill_for_Coronavirus_Response_%2849627907646%29.jpg)
On 6 March 2020, the United States was advised of projections for the impact of the new coronavirus on the country by a group of epidemiologists at Imperial College London.[853] On the same day, President Trump signed the Coronavirus Preparedness and Response Supplemental Appropriations Act, which provided $8.3 billion in emergency funding for federal agencies to respond to the outbreak.[854] Corporations imposed employee travel restrictions, cancelled conferences,[855] and encouraged employees to work from home.[856] Sports events and seasons were cancelled.[27]
On 11 March, Trump announced travel restrictions for most of Europe, excluding the United Kingdom, for 30 days, effective 13 March.[857] The following day, he expanded the restrictions to include the United Kingdom and Ireland.[858] On 13 March, he declared a national emergency, which made federal funds available to respond to the crisis.[859] Beginning on 15 March, many businesses closed or reduced hours throughout the U.S. to try to reduce the spread of the virus.[860] By 17 March, the epidemic had been confirmed in all fifty states and in the District of Columbia.[861]
On 25 March, New York's governor said social distancing seemed to be working, as estimates of case doubling slowed from 2.0 days to 4.7 days.[862] On 26 March, the United States had more confirmed cases than any other country.[513] U.S. federal health inspectors surveyed 323 hospitals in late March; reporting "severe shortages" of test supplies, "widespread shortages" of personal protective equipment (PPE), and other strained resources due to extended patient stays while awaiting test results.[863]
As of 24 April[update], 889,309 cases have been confirmed in the United States, and 50,256 people have died.[864] Media reports on 30 March said President Trump had decided to extend social distancing guidelines until 30 April.[865] On the same day, the USNS Comfort, a hospital ship with about a thousand beds, made anchor in New York.[866] On 3 April, the U.S. had a record 884 deaths due to the coronavirus in a 24-hour period.[867] In the state of New York, cases exceeded 100,000 people on 3 April.[868]
More than 26 million Americans lost their jobs and applied for government aid,[869] including 3.4 million people in California.[870] The White House has been criticised for downplaying the threat and controlling the messaging by directing health officials and scientists to coordinate public statements and publications related to the virus with the office of Vice-President Mike Pence.[871] Overall approval of Trump's management of the crisis has been polarised along partisan lines.[872] Some U.S. officials and commentators criticised U.S. reliance on importation of critical materials, including essential medical supplies, from China.[873][874] On 14 April, President Trump halted funding to the World Health Organization, claiming they had mismanaged the current pandemic.[875] In late April, President Trump said he would sign an executive order to temporarily suspend immigration to the United States because of the pandemic.[876] There were American claims that China had suppressed information, and on 22 April U.S. Secretary of State Mike Pompeo alleged on Fox News that China had denied U.S. scientists permission to enter the country to ascertain the origin of the current pandemic, but he did not give details of any requests for such visits.[877] On 22 April it was reported that two Californians died from the virus (not, as previously thought, influenza) three weeks before the first official coronavirus case in the U.S. had been acknowledged.[878]
South America
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Africa
Cases have been confirmed in most African countries and territories. According to Michael Yao, WHO's head of emergency operations in Africa, early detection is vital because the continent's health systems "are already overwhelmed by many ongoing disease outbreaks".[882][883] As of 5 April, cases have been confirmed in all African countries except for the Comoros and Lesotho. There have been no reported cases in the British Overseas Territory of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha.
Oceania
Cases have been confirmed in Australia, Easter Island, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, New Caledonia, New Zealand, the Northern Mariana Islands and Papua New Guinea. The first confirmed case was in Melbourne, Victoria on 25 January.[884] Many small Pacific island nations have thus far avoided the outbreak by closing their international borders. As of 24 April,[885] no cases have been reported in American Samoa (territory of the United States), Christmas Island (external territory of Australia), the Cocos (Keeling) Islands (external territory of Australia), the Cook Islands (associated state of New Zealand), Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, Niue (associated state of New Zealand), Norfolk Island (external territory of Australia), Palau, the Pitcairn Islands (British Overseas Territory), Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tokelau (territory of New Zealand), Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu, and Wallis and Futuna (French overseas collectivity).
International responses
Travel restrictions
As a result of the pandemic, many countries and regions have imposed quarantines, entry bans, or other restrictions for citizens of or recent travellers to the most affected areas.[886] Other countries and regions have imposed global restrictions that apply to all foreign countries and territories, or prevent their own citizens from travelling overseas.[887]
Together with a decreased willingness to travel, the restrictions have had a negative economic and social impact on the travel sector in those regions. A possible long-term impact has been a decline of business travel and international conferencing, and the rise of their virtual, online equivalents.[888] Concerns have been raised over the effectiveness of travel restrictions to contain the spread of COVID-19.[889]
The European Union rejected the idea of suspending the Schengen free travel zone and introducing border controls with Italy,[890] a decision which has been criticised by some European politicians.[891][892] After some EU member states announced complete closure of their national borders to foreign nationals,[893] the European Commission President Ursula von der Leyen said that "Certain controls may be justified, but general travel bans are not seen as being the most effective by the World Health Organization."[894] A few days later the EU closed its external borders.[895]
A study in Science found that travel restrictions had only modest effects, delaying the initial spread of COVID-19, unless combined with infection prevention and control measures to considerably reduce transmissions.[896] Researchers came to the conclusion that "travel restrictions are most useful in the early and late phase of an epidemic" and "restrictions of travel from Wuhan unfortunately came too late".[897]Evacuation of foreign citizens
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Ukraine_evacuates_Ukrainian_and_foreign_citizens_from_Wuhan_16.jpg/220px-Ukraine_evacuates_Ukrainian_and_foreign_citizens_from_Wuhan_16.jpg)
Owing to the effective quarantine of public transport in Wuhan and Hubei, several countries evacuated their citizens and diplomatic staff from the area, primarily through chartered flights of the home nation, with Chinese authorities providing clearance. Canada, the United States, Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Australia, France, Argentina, Germany, and Thailand were among the first to plan the evacuation of their citizens.[898] Brazil and New Zealand also evacuated their own nationals and some other people.[899][900] On 14 March, South African repatriated 112 South Africans who tested negative for the virus from Wuhan,[901] while four who showed symptoms were left behind to mitigate risk.[901] Pakistan said it would not evacuate citizens from China.[902]
On 15 February, the U.S. announced it would evacuate Americans aboard the cruise ship Diamond Princess,[903] and on 21 February, Canada evacuated 129 Canadian passengers from the ship.[904] In early March, the Indian government began evacuating its citizens from Iran.[905][906] On 20 March, the United States began to partially withdraw its troops from Iraq due to the pandemic.[907]
International aid
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Phase I: Aid to China
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Digital_billboard_in_Shibuya_expressing_support_against_coronavirus.jpg/220px-Digital_billboard_in_Shibuya_expressing_support_against_coronavirus.jpg)
On 5 February, the Chinese foreign ministry said 21 countries (including Belarus, Pakistan, Trinidad and Tobago, Egypt, and Iran) had sent aid to China.[908] Some Chinese students at American universities joined together to help send aid to virus-stricken parts of China, with a joint group in the greater Chicago area reportedly managing to send 50,000 N95 masks to hospitals in the Hubei province on 30 January.[909]
The humanitarian aid organisation Direct Relief, in coordination with FedEx, sent 200,000 face masks along with other personal protective equipment, including gloves and gowns, by emergency airlift to the Wuhan Union Hospital by 30 January.[910] On 5 February, Bill and Melinda Gates announced a $100 million donation to the WHO to fund vaccine research and treatment efforts along with protecting "at-risk populations in Africa and South Asia".[911] Interaksyon reported that the Chinese government donated 200,000 masks to the Philippines on 6 February, after Philippine senator Richard Gordon shipped 3.16 million masks to Wuhan.[912] On 19 February, the Singapore Red Cross announced that it would send $2.26 million worth of aid to China.[913]
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Azadi_Tower_lights_in_support_of_China_against_coronavirus_2.jpg/220px-Azadi_Tower_lights_in_support_of_China_against_coronavirus_2.jpg)
Several countries donated masks, medical equipment or money to China, including Japan (one million face masks),[914] Turkey, Russia,[915] Malaysia (18 million medical gloves),[916] Germany (10,000 Hazmat suits),[917] and Canada.[918][919] The U.S. State Department said on February 7 it has facilitated the transportation of nearly 17.8 tons of medical supplies to China, including masks, gowns, gauze, respirators, and other vital materials.[920] On the same day, U.S. Secretary of State Pompeo announced a $100 million pledge to China and other countries to assist with their fights against the virus,[921] though on 21 March, China said it had not received epidemic funding from U.S. government and reiterated that again on 3 April.[922]
Several corporations have also donated money or medical equipment to China, including Apple,[923] 3M, Bayer, BD, J&J, Medtronic, Qiagen, and other medtech companies including Varian, Roche, ResMed, GE Healthcare, Danaher Corp. and Cepheid.[924]
Phase II: Aid to the globe
After cases in China stabilised, the country began sending aid to other nations.[925][926] In March, China, Cuba and Russia sent medical supplies and experts to help Italy deal with its coronavirus outbreak;[927][928] China sent sent three medical teams and donated over forty tons of medical supplies to Italy.[929] The Spectator USA, citing an unnamed senior Trump administration official, claimed China had sold back to Italy the same PPE Italy had donated to China.[930] Businessman Jack Ma sent 1.1 million testing kits, 6 million face masks, and 60,000 protective suits to Addis Ababa, Ethiopia for distribution by the African Union.[931] He later sent 5,000 testing kits, 100,000 face masks and 5 ventilators to Panama.[932]
The Netherlands, Spain, Turkey, Georgia, and the Czech Republic expressed their concerns over Chinese-made masks and test kits.[933] For instance, Spain withdrew 58,000 Chinese-made coronavirus testing kits with an accuracy rate of just 30 per cent, meanwhile, the Netherlands recalled 600,000 Chinese face masks which were claimed to defective,[934] although this could have been due to misuse of these products.[935] Belgium recalled 100,000 unusable masks, thought to be from China, but were in fact from Colombia.[936] The Philippines had to stop using the test kits donated by China due to their 40 per cent accuracy.[937] The Chinese government says many issues might be caused by not following product instructions, and that some products were not purchased directly from qualified companies certified by the Chinese government,[938][939] On the other hand, Chinese aid has been well-received in parts of Latin America and Africa.[940][941] On 2 April, the World Bank launched emergency support operations for developing countries.[942]
WHO response measures
The WHO has commended the efforts of Chinese authorities in managing and containing the epidemic.[943] The WHO noted the contrast between the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak, where Chinese authorities were accused of secrecy that impeded prevention and containment efforts, and the current crisis where the central government "has provided regular updates to avoid panic ahead of Lunar New Year holidays".[944]
Critics have said the WHO handled the pandemic inadequately, the public health emergency declaration and pandemic classification coming too late.[945]
December 2019
China and Taiwan both notified the WHO of a new virus on 31 December 2019.[946] Taiwan and the WHO later got into a dispute about the content of Taiwan's message and the WHO's lack of response to the state, which is not a WHO member due to diplomatic pressure from China.[947][948]
January 2020
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The WHO issued its first technical briefings on 10 and 11 January, warning nations about a strong possibility of human-to-human transmission and urged precautions due to the similarity to earlier SARS and MERS outbreaks.[949][950] On 20 January, the WHO said it was "now very clear" that human-to-human transmission of the coronavirus had occurred, given that healthcare workers had been infected.[951] On 27 January, the WHO assessed the risk of the outbreak to be "high at the global level".[952]
On 30 January, the WHO declared the outbreak a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC), warning that "all countries should be prepared for containment, including active surveillance, early detection, isolation and case management, contact tracing and prevention of onward spread" of the virus.[6][953] The announcement came after an increase in the number of cases outside China. This was the sixth-ever PHEIC since the measure was first invoked during the 2009 swine flu pandemic. WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom said the PHEIC was due to "the risk of global spread, especially to low- and middle-income countries without robust health systems [and] there is no reason for measures that unnecessarily interfere with international travel and trade. WHO doesn't recommend limiting trade and movement. We call on all countries to implement decisions that are evidence-based and consistent."[6][954][955]
February 2020
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On 11 February, the WHO in a press conference established COVID-19 as the name of the disease. On the same day, Tedros said UN Secretary-General António Guterres had agreed to provide the "power of the entire UN system in the response". A UN Crisis Management Team was activated as a result, allowing coordination of the entire United Nations response, which the WHO states will allow them to "focus on the health response while the other agencies can bring their expertise to bear on the wider social, economic and developmental implications of the outbreak".[956]
On 25 February, the WHO declared that "the world should do more to prepare for a possible coronavirus pandemic," stating that while it was still too early to call it a pandemic, countries should nonetheless be "in a phase of preparedness".[957]
On 28 February, WHO officials said the coronavirus threat assessment at the global level would be raised from "high" to "very high", its highest level of alert and risk assessment. Mike Ryan, executive director of the WHO's health emergencies program, warned that "This is a reality check for every government on the planet: Wake up. Get ready. This virus may be on its way and you need to be ready," urging that the right response measures could help the world avoid "the worst of it". Ryan further stated that the current data did not warrant public health officials to declare a global pandemic, saying such a declaration would mean "we're essentially accepting that every human on the planet will be exposed to that virus."[958]
March 2020
On 11 March, the WHO declared the coronavirus outbreak a pandemic.[959] The Director-General said the WHO was "deeply concerned both by the alarming levels of spread and severity, and by the alarming levels of inaction".[7]
Economic and social policy responses
International governmental organisations are addressing the economic and social impacts of the COVID-19 crisis. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development has launched a platform to provide timely and comprehensive information on policy responses in countries around the world, as well as viewpoints and advice. From policies to strengthen health systems and the world economy to addressing the effects of lock-down and restrictions on travel, the digital hub includes a Country Policy Tracker, and aims to help countries learn from each other and to facilitate a co-ordinated global response to the coronavirus challenge.[960]
Impact
Politics
The pandemic has affected the political systems of multiple countries, causing suspensions of legislative activities, isolations or deaths of multiple politicians, and rescheduling of elections due to fears of spreading the virus.[citation needed]
China
The Chinese government has been criticised by the United States government,[961] UK Minister for the Cabinet Office Michael Gove,[962] and others[963] for its handling of the pandemic. A number of provincial-level administrators of the Communist Party of China were dismissed over their handling of the quarantine efforts in central China, a sign of discontent with their response to the outbreak. Some commentators believed this move was intended to protect Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping from the controversy.[964] Some Chinese officials, including Zhao Lijian, rejected an earlier acknowledgement of the coronavirus outbreak starting in Wuhan, in favour of conspiracy theories that the virus originated in the U.S. or Italy.[965][966] The United States government has referred to the coronavirus as "Chinese virus" or "Wuhan virus", which has been criticised for being racist[967][968] and "distract[ing] from his administration's failure to contain the disease".[969] The Daily Beast obtained a U.S. government cable outlining a communications strategy with apparent origins in the National Security Council, quoted as "Everything is about China. We're being told to try and get this messaging out in any way possible".[970]
The U.S. intelligence community says China intentionally under-reported its number of coronavirus cases.[971] Some outlets such as Politico and Foreign Policy have said China's efforts to send aid to virus-stricken countries is part of a propaganda push for global influence.[972][973] EU foreign policy chief Josep Borrell warned there is "a geo-political component including a struggle for influence through spinning and the 'politics of generosity'".[974] Borrell also said "China is aggressively pushing the message that, unlike the U.S., it is a responsible and reliable partner."[975] China has also called for the U.S. to lift its sanctions from Syria,[976] Venezuela[977] and Iran,[978] while reportedly sending aid to the latter two countries.[979][980] Jack Ma's donation of 100,000 masks to Cuba was blocked by U.S. sanctions on 3 April.[981] U.S. authorities have also been diverting aid meant for other nations to their own country.[982][983] There have been mask-related disputes reported between other countries as well, such as Germany, Austria and Switzerland;[984] and the Czech Republic and Italy.[985]
Italy
In early March, the Italian government criticised the European Union's lack of solidarity with coronavirus-affected Italy,[986][987] with Maurizio Massari, Italy's ambassador to the EU, saying that "only China responded bilaterally", not the EU.[972] On 22 March, after a phone call with Italian Prime Minister Giuseppe Conte, Russian president Vladimir Putin had the Russian army send military medics, disinfection vehicles, and other medical equipment to Italy.[988] President of Lombardy Attilio Fontana and Italian Foreign Minister Luigi Di Maio expressed their gratitude for the aid.[989] Russia also sent a cargo plane with medical aid to the United States.[990] Kremlin spokesman Dmitry Peskov said that "when offering assistance to U.S. colleagues, [Putin] assumes that when U.S. manufacturers of medical equipment and materials gain momentum, they will also be able to reciprocate if necessary."[991]
Other countries
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Vladimir_Putin_and_Boris_Johnson_at_Libya_Conference.jpg/220px-Vladimir_Putin_and_Boris_Johnson_at_Libya_Conference.jpg)
The planned NATO "Defender 2020" military exercise in Germany, Poland, and the Baltic states, the largest NATO war exercise since the end of the Cold War, will be held on a reduced scale.[992][993] The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament's general secretary Kate Hudson criticised the exercise, saying "it jeopardises the lives not only of the troops from the U.S. and the many European countries participating but the inhabitants of the countries in which they are operating."[994]
The Iranian government has been heavily affected by the virus, with around two dozen parliament members infected as well as fifteen other current or former political figures.[773][995] Iran's President Hassan Rouhani wrote a public letter to world leaders asking for help on 14 March 2020, saying his country was struggling to fight the outbreak due to lack of access to international markets as a result of the United States sanctions against Iran.[996] Saudi Arabia, which launched a military intervention in Yemen in March 2015, declared a ceasefire.[997]
The outbreak prompted calls for the United States to adopt social policies common in other wealthy countries, including universal health care, universal child care, paid sick leave, and higher levels of funding for public health.[998] Political analysts anticipated it may negatively affect Donald Trump's chances of re-election in the 2020 presidential election.[999] Beginning in mid April 2020, protests were held in several U.S. states over state government-imposed business closures and restrictions on personal movement and association.[1,000]
Diplomatic relations between Japan and South Korea worsened due to the pandemic.[1,001] South Korea criticised Japan's "ambiguous and passive quarantine efforts" after Japan announced anyone coming from South Korea would be placed in quarantine for two weeks at government-designated sites.[1,002] South Korean society was initially polarised on President Moon Jae-in's response to the crisis; many Koreans signed petitions either calling for Moon's impeachment or praising his response.[755]
Some countries have passed emergency legislation in response to the pandemic. Some commentators have expressed concerns that it could allow governments to strengthen their grip on power.[1,003][1,004] In the Philippines, lawmakers granted president Rodrigo Duterte temporary emergency powers during the pandemic.[1,005] In Hungary, the parliament voted to allow the prime minister, Viktor Orbán, to rule by decree indefinitely, suspend parliament as well as elections, and punish those deemed to have spread false information about the virus and the government's handling of the crisis.[1,006] In some countries, including Egypt,[1,007] Turkey,[1,008] and Thailand,[1,005] opposition activists and government critics have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news on coronavirus.[1,009]
Education
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/COVID-19_school_closures.svg/450px-COVID-19_school_closures.svg.png)
The pandemic has affected educational systems worldwide, leading to the near-total closures of schools, universities and colleges.
As of 21 April 2020, approximately 1.723 billion learners have been affected due to school closures in response to the pandemic. According to UNESCO monitoring, 191 countries have implemented nationwide closures and 5 have implemented local closures, impacting about 98.4 percent of the world's student population.[1,010] On 23 March 2020, Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) released a statement announcing the cancellation of Cambridge IGCSE, Cambridge O Level, Cambridge International AS & A Level, Cambridge AICE Diploma, and Cambridge Pre-U examinations for the May/June 2020 series across all countries.[1,011] International Baccalaureate exams have also been cancelled.[1,012]
School closures impact not only students, teachers, and families, but have far-reaching economic and societal consequences.[1,013][1,014] School closures in response to COVID-19 have shed light on various social and economic issues, including student debt,[1,015] digital learning,[1,016][1,017] food insecurity,[1,018] and homelessness,[1,019][1,020] as well as access to childcare,[1,021] health care,[1,022] housing,[1,023] internet,[1,024] and disability services.[1,025] The impact was more severe for disadvantaged children and their families, causing interrupted learning, compromised nutrition, childcare problems, and consequent economic cost to families who could not work.[32][1,026]
In response to school closures, UNESCO recommended the use of distance learning programmes and open educational applications and platforms that schools and teachers can use to reach learners remotely and limit the disruption of education.[1,027]Socioeconomics
Supply impacts
The coronavirus outbreak has been blamed for several instances of supply shortages, stemming from globally increased usage of equipment to fight outbreaks, panic buying (which in several places led to shelves being cleared of grocery essentials such as food, toilet paper, and bottled water), and disruption to factory and logistic operations.[1,028] The technology industry, in particular, has warned of delays to shipments of electronic goods.[1,029] According to WHO director-general Tedros Adhanom, the demand for personal protection equipment has risen a hundredfold, leading to prices up to twenty times the normal price and also delays in the supply of medical items of four to six months.[1,030][1,031] It has also caused a shortage of personal protective equipment worldwide, with the WHO warning that this will endanger health workers.[1,032]
The coronavirus outbreak has had various impacts around the world. The virus created a shortage of precursors used in the manufacturing of fentanyl and methamphetamine. The Yuancheng Group, located in Wuhan, China, is one of the leading suppliers of these chemical raw materials.[1,033] Price increases and shortages in these illegal drugs have been noticed on the street of the UK.[1,034] U.S. law enforcement also told the New York Post Mexican drug cartels were having difficulty in obtaining precursors.[1,035]
Economic impacts
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Food_basket_Covid.jpg/220px-Food_basket_Covid.jpg)
The outbreak is a major destabilising threat to the global economy. Agathe Demarais of the Economist Intelligence Unit has forecast that markets will remain volatile until a clearer image emerges on potential outcomes. In January 2020, some analysts estimated that the economic fallout of the epidemic on global growth could surpass that of the 2002–2004 SARS outbreak.[1,036] One estimate from an expert at Washington University in St. Louis gave a $300+ billion impact on the world's supply chain that could last up to two years.[1,037] Global stock markets fell on 24 February due to a significant rise in the number of COVID-19 cases outside mainland China.[1,038][1,039] On 27 February, due to mounting worries about the coronavirus outbreak, various U.S. stock indexes posted their sharpest falls since 2008, with the Dow falling 1,191 points (the largest one-day drop since the financial crisis of 2007–08)[1,040] and all three major indexes ending the week down more than 10 per cent.[1,041] On 28 February, Scope Ratings GmbH affirmed China's sovereign credit rating, but maintained a Negative Outlook.[1,042] Stocks plunged again due to coronavirus fears, the largest fall being on 16 March.[1,043] Many consider an economic recession likely.[1,044][1,045]
Tourism is one of the worst affected sectors due to travel bans, closing of public places including travel attractions, and advice of governments against travel. Numerous airlines have cancelled flights due to lower demand, and British regional airline Flybe collapsed.[1,046] The cruise line industry was hard hit,[1,047] and several train stations and ferry ports have also been closed.[1,048]
The retail sector has been impacted globally, with reductions in store hours or temporary closures.[1,049] Visits to retailers in Europe and Latin America declined by 40 per cent. North America and Middle East retailers saw a 50–60 per cent drop.[1,050] This also resulted in a 33–43 per cent drop in foot traffic to shopping centres in March compared to February. Shopping mall operators around the world imposed additional measures, such as increased sanitation, installation of thermal scanners to check the temperature of shoppers, and cancellation of events.[1,051]
According to a United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America estimate, the pandemic-induced recession could leave 14–22 million more people in extreme poverty in Latin America than would have been in that situation without the pandemic.[1,052] The pandemic has disrupted global food supplies and threatens to trigger a new food crisis.[1,053][1,054] David Beasley, head of the World Food Programme (WFP), said that "We could be facing multiple famines of biblical proportions within a short few months.".[1,055]
Oil and other energy markets
In early February 2020, Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) "scrambled" after a steep decline in oil prices due to lower demand from China.[1,056] On Monday, 20 April, the price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI) went negative and fell to a record low (minus $37.63 a barrel) due to traders' offloading holdings so as not to take delivery and incur storage costs.[1,057] June prices were down but in the positive range, with a barrel of West Texas trading above $20.[1,057]
Culture
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/3404926_%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%87_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C_%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C.jpg/220px-3404926_%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%87_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D8%A7_%D8%A8%D8%B1_%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C_%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%DB%8C.jpg)
The performing arts and cultural heritage sectors have been profoundly affected by the pandemic, impacting organisations' operations as well as individuals—both employed and independent—globally. Arts and culture sector organisations attempted to uphold their (often publicly funded) mission to provide access to cultural heritage to the community, maintain the safety of their employees and the public, and support artists where possible. By March 2020, across the world and to varying degrees, museums, libraries, performance venues, and other cultural institutions had been indefinitely closed with their exhibitions, events and performances cancelled or postponed.[1,058] In response there were intensive efforts to provide alternative services through digital platforms.[1,059]
Another recent and rapidly accelerating fallout of the disease is the cancellation of religious services, major events in sports, and other social events, such as music festivals and concerts, technology conferences, and fashion shows. The film industry has also experienced disruption.[1,060][1,061]
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Closed_library_-_Island_Bay.jpg/220px-Closed_library_-_Island_Bay.jpg)
The Vatican announced that Holy Week observances in Rome, which occur during the last week of the Christian penitential season of Lent, have been cancelled.[1,060] Many dioceses have recommended older Christians to stay at home rather than attending Mass on Sundays; some churches have made church services available via radio, online live streaming or television while others are offering drive-in worship.[1,062][1,063][1,060] With the Roman Catholic Diocese of Rome closing its churches and chapels and St. Peter's Square emptied of Christian pilgrims,[1,060] other religious bodies also cancelled services and limited public gatherings in churches, mosques, synagogues, temples and gurdwaras.[1,060] Iran's Health Ministry announced the cancellation of Friday prayers in areas affected by the outbreak and shrines were later closed,[763][770] while Saudi Arabia banned the entry of foreign pilgrims as well as its residents to holy sites in Mecca and Medina.[1,064][1,065]
The pandemic has caused the most significant disruption to the worldwide sporting calendar since the Second World War. Most major sporting events have been cancelled or postponed, including the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League,[1,066] 2019–20 Premier League,[1,067] UEFA Euro 2020, 2019–20 NBA season,[1,068] and 2019–20 NHL season.[1,069] The outbreak disrupted plans for the 2020 Summer Olympics, which were originally scheduled to start at the end of July; the International Olympic Committee announced on 24 March that they will be "rescheduled to a date beyond 2020 but not later than summer 2021".[1,070][1,071]
The entertainment industry has also been affected, with various music groups suspending or cancelling concert tours.[1,072][1,073] Many large theatres such as those on Broadway also suspended all performances.[1,074] Some artists have explored ways to continue to produce and share work over the internet as an alternative to traditional live performance, such as live streaming concerts[1,075] or creating web-based "festivals" for artists to perform, distribute, and publicise their work.[1,076] Online, numerous coronavirus-themed Internet memes have spread as many turn to humour and distraction amid uncertainty.[1,077]
Environment and climate
![](http://web.archive.org./web/20200425093804im_/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Pollutant_Drops_in_wuhan_china_due_to_virus.png/220px-Pollutant_Drops_in_wuhan_china_due_to_virus.png)
Xenophobia and racism
![]() | This section is too long. Consider splitting it into new pages, adding subheadings, or condensing it. (April 2020) |
Since the outbreak of COVID-19, heightened prejudice, xenophobia, and racism have been noted toward people of Chinese and East Asian descent, and against people from hotspots in Europe, the United States and other countries. Incidents of fear, suspicion, and hostility have been observed in many countries, particularly in Europe, East Asia, North America, and the Asia-Pacific region.[1,085][1,086][1,087] Reports from February (when the majority of the cases had still been confined to China) documented racist sentiments expressed in various groups worldwide about Chinese people deserving the virus,[1,088][1,089][1,090][1,091][excessive citations] or it being justified retribution.[1,092][1,093][1,094] Some countries in Africa have also seen a rise in anti-Chinese sentiment.[1,095][1,096] Many residents of Wuhan and Hubei have reported discrimination based on their regional origin.[1,097][1,098][1,099] There has been support for the Chinese, both on and offline, and towards those in virus-stricken areas.[1,100][1,101] Following the progression of the outbreak to new hotspot countries, people from Italy, the first country in Europe to experience a serious outbreak of COVID-19, were also subjected to suspicion and xenophobia.[1,102][1,103]
Citizens in countries including Malaysia,[1,104] New Zealand,[1,105] Singapore,[1,106] and South Korea initially signed petitions lobbying to ban Chinese people from entering their countries in an effort to stop the disease.[1,107] In Japan, the hashtag #ChineseDontComeToJapan trended on Twitter.[1,108] Chinese people as well as other Asians in the United Kingdom and the United States have reported increasing levels of racist abuse and assaults.[1,109][36][1,110] U.S. president Donald Trump has been criticised for referring to the coronavirus as the "Chinese Virus", which critics say is racist and anti-Chinese.[967][1,111] Protesters in Ukraine attacked buses carrying Ukrainian and foreign evacuees from Wuhan to Novi Sanzhary.[1,112] Discrimination against Muslims in India escalated after public health authorities identified an Islamic missionary group's large gathering in New Delhi in early March 2020 as a source of coronavirus contagion.[1,113][1,114] A number of hotels and guesthouses in Vietnam have hung signs on their doors saying Chinese guests are not welcome and many Vietnamese have demanded the closure of all border crossings with China.[1,115] Paris has seen riots break out over police treatment of ethnic minorities during the coronavirus lockdown.[1,116]
In China, xenophobia and racism against non-Chinese residents has been inflamed by the pandemic, with foreigners described as "foreign garbage" and targeted for "disposal".[1,117] Some black people were evicted from their homes by Chinese police and given 24 hours to leave the country, with no place to sleep, due to misconceptions and disinformation that they and other foreigners were spreading the virus.[1,118] Chinese racism and xenophobia directed towards them during the outbreak received a strong response from foreign governments and diplomatic corps,[1,119] and resulted in apologies from China for discriminatory practices such as for restaurants excluding black customers.[1,120] Despite this, accusations of harassment, discrimination and eviction of black people in China continued, as they described "No blacks" signs, essentials like water being turned off, and being forcibly moved into hotels by police.[1,121]
Information dissemination
Many newspapers with paywalls have removed them for some or all of their coronavirus coverage.[1,122] Many scientific publishers made scientific papers related to the outbreak available with open access.[1,123] Some scientists chose to share their results quickly on preprint servers such as bioRxiv.[1,124]
Misinformation
See also
- 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic articles
- Curfews and lockdowns related to the 2019–20 coronavirus pandemic
- Coronavirus § Outbreaks
- Emerging infectious disease – Infectious disease of emerging pathogen, often novel in its outbreak range or transmission mode
- Globalisation and disease
- List of epidemics and pandemics
- Wildlife smuggling and zoonoses – Health risks associated with the trade in exotic wildlife
Notes
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Health agencies
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