There’s a number of different ways. The typical way of doing system theoretical research is using Luhmann’s functional method as a comparative framework. We use theories to solve problems, but any single problem can have many solutions and, in turn, every solution will result in producing a number of different problems. Think of the saying “there’s more than one way to skin a cat” — this is how Luhmann’s system theory approaches all social phenomena. For example, Marxists will claim that the only way to solve inequality is to redistribute wealth through revolutionary means. The end. On the other hand, Luhmann’s theory can illuminate that, not only can inequality be functionally solved through other means, but also highlight potential new problems that may arise as a result of implementing said solutions.

Let’s look at a more concrete example of using Luhmann’s theory. We often hear today that the contemporary discourse in the West is becoming increasingly divisive and antagonistic, particularly in the United States. Popular theories today explain this seeming social fragmentation as a result of propaganda, poor education, willful ignorance, Otherism (racism, sexism, etc.), social media population, the demise of the public sphere, and others. But Luhmann’s theory is based on the principle that “successful” communication is a highly improbable event, so that misunderstanding is actually the norm and the growing fragmentation isn’t actually a cause of concern and isn’t fragmentation at all, but simply the fact that social systems cannot directly communicate with each other. Thus, today’s communicative misunderstanding should be viewed as the norm rather than the exception.