The name Israel first appears in non-biblical sources c. 1209 BCE, in an inscription of the Egyptian pharaoh Merneptah. The inscription is very brief and says simply: "Israel is laid waste and his seed is not". The inscription refers to a people, not to an individual or a nation state.[26]
The name Israel first appears in the Hebrew Bible in Genesis 32:29 where it is given to Jacob by the angel with whom he has wrestled because he has "striven with God and with men, and ha[th] prevailed".[27][28][29] The folk etymology given in the text derives Israel from yisra, "to prevail over" or "to struggle with", and El (god). However, modern scholarship interprets El as the subject, "El rules/struggles",[30][31][32] from sarar (שָׂרַר) 'to rule'[33] (cognate with sar (שַׂר) 'ruler',[34]Akkadianšarru 'ruler, king'[35]), which is likely cognate with the similar root sara (שׂרה) "fought, strove, contended".[36][37]
In the Hebrew Bible, the term Israelites is used interchangeably with the term Twelve Tribes of Israel. Although related, the terms "Hebrews", "Israelites", and "Jews" are not interchangeable in all instances. "Israelites" (B'nei Yisrael) refers to the people whom the Hebrew Bible describes specifically as the direct descendants of any of the sons of the patriarch Jacob (later called Israel), and his descendants as a people are also collectively called "Israel", including converts to their faith in worship of the national god of Israel, Yahweh. "Hebrews" (ʿIvrim), on the contrary, is used to denote the Israelites' immediate forebears who dwelt in the land of Canaan, the Israelites themselves, and the Israelites' ancient and modern descendants (including Jews and Samaritans). "Jews" (Yehudim) is used to denote the descendants of the Israelites who coalesced when the Tribe of Judah absorbed the remnants of the northern Israelite tribes.[38][39]
During the period of the divided monarchy, "Israelites" was only used to refer to the inhabitants of the northern Kingdom of Israel, and it is only extended to cover the people of the southern Kingdom of Judah in post-exilic usage.[40]
In literature of the Second Temple period, the term "Israel" was used as a timeless designation of the ethnos or to members of the united monarchy, the northern kingdom, or eschatological Israel. The term "Jew" was frequently used to refer to members of the contemporary ethnos, but it may also refer to a geographically restricted subs-group or to the descendants of the southern kingdom of Judah.[41]
Finally, in Judaism, the term "Israelite" is, broadly speaking, used to refer to a lay member of the Jewish ethnoreligious group, as opposed to the priestly orders of Kohanim and Levites. In texts of Jewish law such as the Mishnah and Gemara, the term יהודי (Yehudi), meaning Jew, is rarely used, and instead the ethnonym ישראלי (Yisraeli), or Israelite, is widely used to refer to Jews. Samaritans are not and never call themselves "Jews" יהודים (Yehudim), but commonly refer to themselves and to Jews collectively as Israelites, and they describe themselves as Israelite Samaritans.[42][43]
Biblical narrative
Mid-20th century mosaic of the 12 Tribes of Israel, from the Etz Yosef synagogue wall in Givat Mordechai, Jerusalem
The history of the Israelite people can be divided into these categories, according to the Hebrew Bible[44]:
As a monarchic state, the Israelite tribes were united by the leadership of Saul, David and Solomon. The reigns of Saul and David were marked by military victories and Israel's transition to a mini-empire with vassal states. [46][47] Solomon's reign was relatively more peaceful and oversaw the construction of the First Temple[48], with the help of Phoenician allies.[49] This Temple was where the Ark of the Covenant was stored; its former location was the City of David.[50]
Map of the Holy Land, Pietro Vesconte, 1321, showing the allotments of the tribes of Israel. Described by Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld as "the first non-Ptolemaic map of a definite country"[51]The monarchic state was divided into two states, Israel and Judah, due to civil and religious disputes. Matthew Poole sees this Israel-Judah division existing before the split, due to the Tribe of Judah's eminency.[52] Eventually, Israel and Judah met their demise after the Assyrian and Babylonian invasions respectively. According to the Biblical prophets, these invasions were divine judgments for religious apostasy and corrupt leadership.[53]
Map of the twelve tribes of Israel (before the move of Dan to the north), based on the Book of JoshuaAfter the Babylonians invaded Judah, they deported most of its citizens to Babylon, where they lived as "exiles". Cyrus the Great conquered Babylon and established the First Persian Empire in 539 BCE. [54]One year later, according to traditional dating, Cyrus permitted the Judahites to return to their native homeland.[54] This homeland was re-named as the Province of Yehud, which eventually became a satrapy of Eber-Nari.[54]
This period is covered by the entirety of the Book of Daniel.
Persian Period (c.a. 539 BCE- 331 BCE).
In 537-520 BCE, Zerubbabel became Yehud’s governor and started work on the Second Temple, which was stopped.[55] In 520-516 BCE, Haggai and Zechariah goaded the Judahites to resume work on the Temple. Upon completion, Joshua became its high priest.[55][55] In 458 BCE-433 BCE, Ezra and Nehemiah led another group of Judahites to Yehud, with Artaxerxes's permission. Nehemiah rebuilt the temple after some unspecified disaster and removed foreign influence from the Judahite community. [56][57]That said, some Judahites elected to stay in Persia, where they almost faced annihilation.[58][59]
J. Andrew Dearman describes these biblical narratives as "national history" for their Israelite and Judahite audiences, which "includes an imaginative entertainment factor that proceeds from artistic expression."[44]
The Jewish Encyclopedia describes the Israelites as being racially Hebrew, with "recorded instances of racial amalgamation". They are also described as being "fundamentally Aramean", with Babylonian admixture. Some tribes such as Judah have Canaanite admixture whilst other tribes such as Gad, Naphtali, Asher and Dan have “predominately foreign origins”, which is implied by their descent from Bilhah and Zilpah[62]and geographic habitation . [63]
The Hebrew Bible records many figures, such as David, Esau and the lovers in the Song of Songs, as being "ruddy"[64][65], "white and ruddy" and "clear as the moon". [66][67] This matched the descriptions of Levantines being pale and ruddy according to ancient Egyptian and Greek sources.[68][69][70][71][72] Rabbis, on the other hand, described the Biblical Jews as being "midway between black and white" and having the "color of the boxwood tree".[73]
Israelite men, like other western Semites, had full, round beards according to Egyptian and Assyrian inscriptions. Their neighbors, such as Babylonians and Egyptians, had long beards and chin tufts respectively in contrast. However, this was limited to their upper-class men. Joseph's act of shaving (Genesis 41:14) is thought to resemble the Egyptian custom. [74]
Efforts to confirm the Israelites' biblical origins through archaeology, once widespread, have been largely abandoned as unproductive,[19] with many scholars viewing the stories as inspiring national myth narratives with little historical value. Scholars posit that a small group of people of Egyptian origin may have joined the early Israelites, and then contributed their own Egyptian Exodus story to all of Israel.[a]William G. Dever cautiously identifies this group with the Tribe of Joseph, while Richard Elliott Friedman identifies it with the Tribe of Levi.[76][77]
Based on the archaeological evidence, according to the modern archaeological account, the Israelites and their culture did not overtake the region by force, but instead branched out of the indigenous Canaanite peoples that long inhabited the Southern Levant, Syria, ancient Israel, and the Transjordan region[78][79][80] through a gradual evolution of a distinct monolatristic (later monotheistic) religion centered on Yahweh. The outgrowth of Yahweh-centric monolatrism from Canaanite polytheism started with Yahwism, the belief in the existence of the many gods and goddesses of the Canaanite pantheon but with the consistent worship of Yahweh as the primary deity. Yahwism was also influenced in part by Zoroastrianism while in the Babylonian exile, leading to a monotheistic practice. Along with a number of cultic practices, this gave rise to a separate Israelite ethnic group identity. The final transition of their Yahweh-based religion to monotheism and rejection of the existence of the other Canaanite gods set the Israelites apart from their fellow Canaanite brethren.[78][7][8] The Israelites, however, continued to retain various cultural commonalities with other Canaanites, including use of one of the Canaanite dialects, Hebrew, which is today the only living descendant of that language group.[81][82]Merneptah's Karnak reliefs also show Israelites having similar attire and hairstyles as the Canaanites, compared to other groups like the Shasu.[83][84][85]
The name Israel first appears c. 1209 BCE, at the end of the Late Bronze Age and the very beginning of the period archaeologists and historians call Iron Age I, on the Merneptah Stele raised by the Egyptian Pharaoh Merneptah.
As distinct from the cities named (Asqaluna, Gezer, Yenoam) which are written with a toponymic marker, Israel is written hieroglyphically with a demonymicdeterminative indicating that the reference is to a human group, variously located in central Palestine[99] or the highlands of Samaria.[100]
Several theories exist proposing the origins of the Israelites in raiding groups, infiltrating nomads or emerging from indigenous Canaanites driven from the wealthier urban areas by poverty to seek their fortunes in the highland.[107] Various, ethnically distinct groups of itinerant nomads such as the Habiru and Shasu recorded in Egyptian texts as active in Edom and Canaan could have been related to the later Israelites, which does not exclude the possibility that the majority may have had their origins in Canaan proper. The name Yahweh, the god of the later Israelites, may indicate connections with the region of Mount Seir in Edom.[99]
The Mount Ebal structure, seen by many archeologists as an early Israelite cultic site
The prevailing academic opinion today is that the Israelites were a mixture of peoples predominantly indigenous to Canaan, although an Egyptian matrix of peoples may also have played a role in their ethnogenesis (giving birth to the saga of The Exodus),[108][109][110] with an ethnic composition similar to that in Ammon, Edom, Moab and Phoenicia,[109][111][page needed] and including Habiru and Shasu.[112] The Israelites as a group had both ethnic and religious elements.[113] In the ancient Near East religion was tribal, and so was the religion of the Israelites; religion in this context was as much related to ethnicity as it was to spirituality.[114] For the Israelites, Yahweh was their national god, with whom they believed they had a special covenant.[115] The distinct ethnic identity of Israelites was strengthened by conflicts with other peoples such as the Philistines.[116]
The origins of the god Yahweh are currently uncertain, since the early Israelites seemed to worship the Canaanite god El as their national deity, only to later replace it with Yahweh. It has been speculated by some scholars that the cult of Yahweh may have been brought into Israel by a group of Canaanite slaves fleeing from Egypt, who later merged with the Israelites.[77][117][118][119][120][excessive citations]
Over the next two hundred years (the period of Iron Age I) the number of highland villages increased from 25 to over 300[79] and the settled population doubled to 40,000.[citation needed]
According to the Hebrew Bible, the various tribes of Israel united in the 10th century BCE and formed the United Kingdom of Israel, under the leadership of Saul, who was later overthrown by David; after the death of David, his son Solomon ascended to the throne and reigned until his death, after which the Kingdom split into the Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah.
Part of the gift-bearing Israelite delegation of King Jehu, Black Obelisk, 841–840 BCE.[121]
The historicity of the United Monarchy is heavily debated among archaeologists and biblical scholars: biblical maximalists and centrists (Kenneth Kitchen, William G. Dever, Amihai Mazar, Baruch Halpern and others) believe that the biblical account can be considered as more or less accurate, biblical minimalists (Israel Finkelstein, Ze'ev Herzog, Thomas L. Thompson and others) believe that the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah developed as separate states and there was never a United Monarchy. The debate has not yet been resolved, although recent archaeological discoveries by Israeli archaeologists Eilat Mazar and Yosef Garfinkel seem to support the existence of a united monarchy.[20] From 850 BCE onwards a series of inscriptions are evidence of a kingdom which its neighbors refer to as the "House of David."[122][123]
Around the same era, the Samaritans emerged as an ethnic and religious community in the region of Samaria. With their temple on Mount Gerizim, they continued to thrive for centuries.[133] Many Jewish authorities contest their lineage, deeming them to have been conquered foreigners who were settled in Samaria by the Assyrians, as was the typical Assyrian policy to obliterate national identities. Most scholars believe the Samaritans are a blend of Israelites with other nationalities whom the Assyrians had resettled in the area.[134]
The terms Jews and Samaritans largely replaced the title "Children of Israel"[135] as the commonly used ethnonym for each respective community. The Greek term Ioudaios (Jew) was an exonym originally referring to members of the Tribe of Judah, and by extension the inhabitants of the Kingdom of Judah and the Judean region, and was later adopted as a self-designation by people in the Jewish diaspora who identified themselves as loyal to the God of Israel and the Temple in Jerusalem.[136][137][138][139] The Samaritans' ethnonym is derived either from Guardians/Keepers/Watchers [of the Law/Torah], or after the region of Samaria.[140]
Genetics
A Samaritan elder participates in Passover prayer services held on Mount Gerizim
A 2004 study (by Shen et al.) comparing Samaritans to several Jewish populations (including Ashkenazi Jews, Iraqi Jews, Libyan Jews, Moroccan Jews, and Yemenite Jews, as well as Israeli Druze and Palestinians) found that "the principal components analysis suggested a common ancestry of Samaritan and Jewish patrilineages. Most of the former may be traced back to a common ancestor in what is today identified as the paternally inherited Israelite high priesthood (Cohanim), with a common ancestor projected to the time of the Assyrian conquest of the kingdom of Israel."[89]
A 2020 study (by Agranat-Tamr et al.) showed that the inhabitants of Israel and Judah were genetically similar to other Iron Age populations in the southern Levant. The inhabitants could be "modeled as a mixture of local earlier Neolithic populations and populations from the northeastern part of the Near East (e.g. Hurrians, Caucasians etc.)". Subtle genetic differences still exist among Iron Age Levantines, which were most prominent in the inhabitants of Ashkelon, Sidon and Tyre. The latter can be explained by their interactions with non-Levantine Mediterraneans. [141]
^"While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..." "Archaeology does not really contribute to the debate over the historicity or even historical background of the Exodus itself, but if there was indeed such a group, it contributed the Exodus story to that of all Israel. While I agree that it is most likely that there was such a group, I must stress that this is based on an overall understanding of the development of collective memory and of the authorship of the texts (and their editorial process). Archaeology, unfortunately, cannot directly contribute (yet?) to the study of this specific group of Israel's ancestors."[75]
^Finkelstein, Israel. "Ethnicity and origin of the Iron I settlers in the Highlands of Canaan: Can the real Israel stand up?." The Biblical archaeologist 59.4 (1996): 198–212.
^Finkelstein, Israel. The archaeology of the Israelite settlement. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1988.
^Finkelstein, Israel, and Nadav Na'aman, eds. From nomadism to monarchy: archaeological and historical aspects of early Israel. Yad Izhak Ben-Zvi, 1994.
^Finkelstein, Israel. "The archaeology of the United Monarchy: an alternative view." Levant 28.1 (1996): 177–87.
^ abMark Smith in "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" states "Despite the long regnant model that the Canaanites and Israelites were people of fundamentally different culture, archaeological data now casts doubt on this view. The material culture of the region exhibits numerous common points between Israelites and Canaanites in the Iron I period (c. 1200–1000 BCE). The record would suggest that the Israelite culture largely overlapped with and derived from Canaanite culture... In short, Israelite culture was largely Canaanite in nature. Given the information available, one cannot maintain a radical cultural separation between Canaanites and Israelites for the Iron I period." (pp. 6–7). Smith, Mark (2002) "The Early History of God: Yahweh and Other Deities of Ancient Israel" (Eerdman's)
^ abRendsberg, Gary (2008). "Israel without the Bible". In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5
^Gnuse, Robert Karl (1997). No Other Gods: Emergent Monotheism in Israel. England: Sheffield Academic Press Ltd. pp. 28, 31. ISBN1-85075-657-0.
^Haran, Menahem (1996). מקדש, מקרא ומנורה. Eisenbrauns. ISBN978-1-57506-003-3. It is also clear that there were polytheistic Yahwists in ancient Israel who worshiped YHWH along with other deities
^Faust 2015, p.476: "While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt..".
^Redmount 2001, p. 61: "A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative."
^ abDever, William (2001). What Did the Biblical Writers Know, and When Did They Know It?. Eerdmans. pp. 98–99. ISBN3-927120-37-5. After a century of exhaustive investigation, all respectable archaeologists have given up hope of recovering any context that would make Abraham, Isaac, or Jacob credible "historical figures" [...] archaeological investigation of Moses and the Exodus has similarly been discarded as a fruitless pursuit.
^Lipschits, Oded (2014). "The history of Israel in the biblical period". In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 2107–2119. ISBN978-0-19-997846-5. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 16 May 2022. As this essay will show, however, the premonarchic period long ago became a literary description of the mythological roots, the early beginnings of the nation and the way to describe the right of Israel on its land. The archeological evidence also does not support the existence of a united monarchy under David and Solomon as described in the Bible, so the rubric of "united monarchy" is best abandoned, although it remains useful for discussing how the Bible views the Israelite past. [...] Although the kingdom of Judah is mentioned in some ancient inscriptions, they never suggest that it was part of a unit comprised of Israel and Judah. There are no extrabiblical indications of a united monarchy called "Israel."
^Robert L.Cate, "Israelite", in Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey Bullard, Mercer Dictionary of the Bible, Mercer University Press, 1990 p. 420.
^Van Maaren, John (23 May 2022), "The Ethnic Boundary Making Model: Preliminary Marks", The Boundaries of Jewishness in the Southern Levant 200 BCE–132 CE, De Gruyter, p. 5
^John Bowman. Samaritan Documents Relating to Their History, Religion and Life (Pittsburgh Original Texts and Translations Series No. 2). 1977. ISBN0-915138-27-1
^"The first are RETH, the second are AAMU, the third are NEHESU, and the fourth are THEMEHU. The RETH are Egyptians, the AAMU are dwellers in the deserts to the east and north-east of Egypt, the NEHESU are the Cushites, and the THEMEHU are the fair-skinned Libyans" Book of Gates, chapter VI (Archived 10 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine), translated by E. A. Wallis Budge, 1905.
^Thavapalan 2019, p. 155-156: As a point of correlation to visual culture, one can observe that in Egyptian art too, Nubians from the south are painted black. Egyptian natives were portrayed with a red-brown complexion, Syrians or Asiatic peoples from the north and east were shown in pale tones and Libyans from the west were represented in white.
^ abFriedman, Richard Elliott (12 September 2017). The Exodus. HarperCollins. ISBN978-0-06-256526-6. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
^K. L. Noll, Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction,Archived 1 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine A&C Black, 2001 p. 164: "It would seem that, in the eyes of Merneptah's artisans, Israel was a Canaanite group indistinguishable from all other Canaanite groups." "It is likely that Merneptah's Israel was a group of Canaanites located in the Jezreel Valley."
^Moore Cross, Frank (1997). Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic: Essays in History of the Religion of Israel. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 62. ISBN0674091760.
^Kuzar, Ron (2001). Hebrew and Zionism: a discourse analytic cultural study. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 235. ISBN3110169932.
^Eisenberg, Ronald (2013). Dictionary of Jewish Terms: A Guide to the Language of Judaism. Schreiber Publishing (published 23 November 2013). p. 431.
^Gubkin, Liora (2007). You Shall Tell Your Children: Holocaust Memory in American Passover Ritual. Rutgers University Press (published 31 December 2007). p. 190. ISBN978-0-8135-4193-8.
^Yohanan Aharoni, Michael Avi-Yonah, Anson F. Rainey, Ze'ev Safrai, The Macmillan Bible Atlas, 3rd Edition, Macmillan Publishing: New York, 1993, p. 115. A posthumous publication of the work of Israeli archaeologist Yohanan Aharoni and Michael Avi-Yonah, in collaboration with Anson F. Rainey and Ze'ev Safrai.
^* "In the broader sense of the term, a Jew is any person belonging to the worldwide group that constitutes, through descent or conversion, a continuation of the ancient Jewish people, who were themselves the descendants of the Hebrews of the Old Testament."
"The Jewish people as a whole, initially called Hebrews (ʿIvrim), were known as Israelites (Yisreʾelim) from the time of their entrance into the Holy Land to the end of the Babylonian Exile (538 BC)."
^Diamond, Jared (1993). "Who are the Jews?"(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 21 July 2011. Retrieved 8 November 2010. Natural History 102:11 (November 1993): 12–19.
^van der Veern, Peter et al. "Israel in Canaan (Long) Before Pharaoh Merenptah? A Fresh Look at Berlin Statue Pedestal Relief 21687", Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections, pp. 15–25
^Thomas Romer, The Invention of God, Harvard, 2015, pg. 75
^Meindert Dijkstra, "Canaan in the Transition from the Late Bronze to the Early Iron Age from an Egyptian Perspective", in (ed. Lester Grabbe) The Land of Canaan in the Late Bronze Age, Bloomsbury, 2017, pg. 62, n. 17
^Richard A. Gabriel, The Military History of Ancient Israel. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2003 p. 63: The ethnically mixed character of the Israelites is reflected even more clearly in the foreign names of the group's leadership. Moses himself, of course, has an Egyptian name. But so do Hophni, Phinehas, Hur, and Merari, the son of Levi.
^Gitelman, Zvi: Jewish Identities in Postcommunist Russia and Ukraine, p. 60. Cambridge University Press, 2012.
^Firestone, Reuven (12 June 2019). "Why Jews Don't Proselytize". Renovatio | The Journal of Zaytuna College. Archived from the original on 1 April 2022. Retrieved 30 April 2022.
^Hämeen-Anttila, Jaakko: Mare nostrum, p. 86. Otava, 2006.
^Faust, Avraham (2015). "The Emergence of Iron Age Israel: On Origins and Habitus". In Thomas E. Levy; Thomas Schneider; William H.C. Propp (eds.). Israel's Exodus in Transdisciplinary Perspective: Text, Archaeology, Culture, and Geoscience. Springer. pp. 467–482. ISBN978-3-319-04768-3. Archived from the original on 21 October 2021. Retrieved 31 March 2023.
^Lemaire, André (2007). The Birth of Monotheism. Rise and disappearance of Yahwism. Biblical Archeology Society. ISBN978-1-880317-99-0.
^Delitzsch, Friedrich; McCormack, Joseph; Carruth, William Herbert; Robinson, Lydia Gillingham (1906). Babel and Bible;. Chicago, The Open court publishing company. p. 78.
^Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible unearthed : archaeology's new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories (1st Touchstone ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN978-0-684-86912-4.
Coote, Robert B.; Whitelam, Keith W. (1986). "The Emergence of Israel: Social Transformation and State Formation Following the Decline in Late Bronze Age Trade". Semeia (37): 107–47.
Davies, Philip R. (2006). "The Origin of Biblical Israel". In Amit, Yaira; et al. (eds.). Essays on Ancient Israel in its Near Eastern Context: A Tribute to Nadav Na'aman. Eisenbrauns. ISBN9781575061283.
Joffe, Alexander H. (2002). "The Rise of Secondary States in the Iron Age Levant". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 45 (4): 425–467. doi:10.1163/156852002320939311. JSTOR3632872.
Mazar, Amihay (2007). "The Divided Monarchy: Comments on Some Archaeological Issues". In Schmidt, Brian B. (ed.). The Quest for the Historical Israel. Society of Biblical Literature. ISBN9781589832770. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
Stager, Lawrence E. (1998). "Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel". In Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN9780195139372. Archived from the original on 1 July 2023. Retrieved 14 August 2015.
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