Psyllium

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Psyllium /ˈsɪliəm/, or ispaghula /ˌɪspəˈɡuːlə/, is the common name used for several members of the plant genus Plantago whose seeds are used commercially for the production of mucilage.

Psyllium is mainly used as a dietary fiber to relieve symptoms of both constipation and mild diarrhea and occasionally as a food thickener. Research has also shown benefits in reducing cholesterol levels.

The plant from which the seeds are extracted tolerates dry and cool climates and is mainly cultivated in northern India. Psyllium products are marketed under several brand names, such as Metamucil, Fybogel, Konsyl, and Lunelax.

Uses[edit]

Constipation[edit]

Psyllium is mainly used as a dietary fiber, which is not absorbed by the small intestine. The purely mechanical action of psyllium mucilage is to absorb excess water while stimulating normal bowel elimination. Although its main use has been as a laxative, it is more appropriately termed a true dietary fiber and as such can help reduce the symptoms of both constipation and mild diarrhea. The laxative properties of psyllium are attributed to the fiber absorbing water and subsequently softening the stool. It however does increase flatulence to some degree.[1]

High blood cholesterol[edit]

As well as aiding in intestinal transit, several studies point to a cholesterol reduction attributed to a diet that includes dietary fiber such as psyllium. The use of soluble-fiber cereals is an effective and well-tolerated part of a prudent diet for the treatment of mild to moderate hypercholesterolemia.[2] Although the cholesterol-reducing and glycemic-response properties of psyllium-containing foods are fairly well documented, the effect of long-term inclusion of psyllium in the diet has not been determined. Supplementation with fiber as ispaghula husk may have adverse effects on colorectal adenoma recurrence, especially in patients with high dietary calcium intake.[3]

Food[edit]

As a thickener, it has been used in ice cream and frozen desserts. A 1.5% weight/volume ratio of psyllium mucilage exhibits binding properties that are superior to a 10% weight/volume ratio of starch mucilage. The viscosity of psyllium mucilage dispersions are relatively unaffected between temperatures of 20 and 50 °C (68 and 122 °F), by pH from 2 to 10 and by salt (sodium chloride) concentrations up to 0.15 M. These physical properties, along with its status as a natural dietary fiber, may lead to increased use of psyllium by the food-processing industry. Technical-grade psyllium has been used as a hydrocolloidal agent to improve water retention for newly seeded grass areas, and to improve transplanting success with woody plants.

Adverse effects[edit]

Since psyllium husk-containing products are sometimes used as a source of dietary fiber, the intake of dietary fiber could hinder the absorption of vitamins, minerals, and proteins.[4] Psyllium fiber has been shown in studies to lower blood cholesterol and glucose levels while another common fiber, methylcellulose, has not shown these benefits.[5][6][7][8]

Gas or stomach cramping may also occur. It is recommended that this product be taken with a full glass of water to avoid it swelling in the throat and causing choking. Serious allergic reaction to this drug is rare. However, seek medical attention if any signs of anaphylaxis arise, such as a rash, itching/swelling, dizziness or difficulty breathing.[9]

Choking is a hazard if psyllium is taken without adequate water as it thickens in the throat.[10] Cases of allergic reaction to psyllium-containing cereal have also been documented.[11]

Mechanism of action[edit]

The soluble fiber in psyllium is arabinoxylan, a hemicellulose.[12]

Psyllium is produced mainly for its mucilage content. The term mucilage describes a group of clear, colorless, gelling agents derived from plants. The mucilage obtained from psyllium comes from the seed coat. Mucilage is obtained by mechanical milling (i.e. grinding) of the outer layer of the seed. Mucilage yield amounts to about 25% (by weight) of the total seed yield. Plantago-seed mucilage is often referred to as husk, or psyllium husk. The milled seed mucilage is a white fibrous material that is hydrophilic, meaning that its molecular structure causes it to attract and bind to water. Upon absorbing water, the clear, colorless, mucilaginous gel that forms increases in volume by tenfold or more.

Cultivation[edit]

The genus Plantago contains over 200 species. P. ovata and P. psyllium are produced commercially in several European countries, the former Soviet Union and India. Plantago seed, known commercially as black, French, or Spanish psyllium, is obtained from P. psyllium L., also known as P. arenaria. Seed produced from P. ovata is known in trading circles as white or blonde psyllium, Indian plantago, or isabgol. Isabgol, (or ispaghol in Pakistan) the common name in India for P. ovata, comes from the Persian words asp and gul, meaning "horse flower", which is descriptive of the shape of the seed. India dominates the world market in the production and export of psyllium.

Plantago ovata is an annual herb that grows to a height of 30–46 cm (12–18 in). Leaves are opposite, linear or linear lanceolate 1 cm × 19 cm (0.39 in × 7.48 in). The root system has a well-developed tap root with few fibrous secondary roots. A large number of flowering shoots arise from the base of the plant. Flowers are numerous, small, and white. Plants flower about 60 days after planting. The seeds are enclosed in capsules that open at maturity.

The fields are generally irrigated prior to seeding to achieve ideal soil moisture, to enhance seed soil contact, and to avoid burying the seed too deeply as a result of later irrigations or rainfall. Maximum germination occurs at a seeding depth of 6 mm (1/4 in). Emerging seedlings are frost sensitive; therefore, planting should be delayed until conditions are expected to remain frost free. Seed is broadcast at 5.5 to 8.25 kg/hectare (5 to 7.5 lb/acre) in India. In Arizona trials, seeding rates of 22 to 27.5 kg/ha (20 to 25 lb/acre) resulted in stands of 1 plant/25mm (1 inch) in 15 cm (6 inch) rows produced excellent yields. Weed control is normally achieved by one or two hand weedings early in the growing season. Control of weeds by pre-plant irrigation that germinates weed seeds followed by shallow tillage may be effective on fields with minimal weed pressure. Psyllium is a poor competitor with most weed species.

Plantago wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) and downy mildew Peronospora alta are the major diseases of Isabgol. White grubs and aphids are the major insect pests.

The flower spikes turn reddish brown at ripening, the lower leaves dry and the upper leaves yellow. The crop is harvested in the morning after the dew is gone to minimize shattering and field losses. In India, mature plants are cut 15 cm above the ground and then bound, left for a few days to dry, thrashed, and winnowed.

Harvested seed must be dried to below 12% moisture to allow for cleaning, milling, and storage. Seed stored for future crops has shown a significant loss in viability after 2 years in storage.

Environmental requirements[edit]

Climate[edit]

P. ovata is a 119- to 130-day crop that responds well to cool, dry weather. In India, P. ovata is cultivated mainly in North Gujarat as a "Rabi" or post–rainy season crop (October to March). During this season, which follows the monsoons, average temperatures are in the range of 15–30 °C (59–86 °F), and moisture is deficient. Isabgol (P. ovata), which has a moderate water requirement, is given 5 to 6 light irrigations. A very important environmental requirement of this crop is clear, sunny and dry weather preceding harvest. High night temperature and cloudy wet weather close to harvest have a large negative impact on yield. Rainfall on the mature crop may result in shattering and therefore major field losses.

Soil[edit]

Isabgol grows best on light, well drained, sandy loams. The nutrient requirements of the crop are low. In northern Gujarat, the soil tends to be low in nitrogen and phosphorus and high in potash with a pH between 7.2 and 7.9. Nitrogen trials under these conditions have shown a maximum seed yield response with the addition of 22 kg/hectare (20 lb/acre) of nitrogen.

Seed preparation and germination[edit]

P. ovata has small seeds; 1,000 seeds weigh less than 2 grams. Under ideal conditions of adequate moisture and low temperature 10 to 20 °C (50 to 68 °F), 30% of seeds germinate in 5 to 8 days. The seed shows some innate dormancy (3 months) following harvest. Attempts to eliminate this dormancy period by scarification, or by exposure to wet or dry heat, cold, ethylene, or carbon dioxide, are ineffective. Post-dormancy seeds show reliable germination in excess of 90% at 29 °C (84 °F), with lower rates of germination as temperature is increased.

Society and culture[edit]

Metamucil advertisement

Production[edit]

The United States is the world's largest importer of psyllium husk, with over 60% of total imports going to pharmaceutical firms. In the UK, ispaghula husk is used in the popular constipation remedy Fybogel. Psyllium mucilage is also used as a natural dietary fiber for animals. The dehusked seed that remains after the seed coat is milled off is rich in starch and fatty acids, and is used as chicken and cattle feed.[citation needed]

Marketing[edit]

FMCG companies have attempted to make Psyllium based products as household names using adverts in magazines and on television. Prime prospects for these ads were older-aged people who are likely to suffer from constipation.[13] However, companies have also attempted to appeal to younger crowds. [14]

Patent and trademark information[edit]

The use of psyllium husk as a normalizing agent for bowel function was discovered by Melvin A. Barbera. The patent for this discovery was filed on May 6, 1993 and was approved on August 23, 1994. [15] The patent for Metamucil is owned by Procter & Gamble. There are also patents for Metamucil in Canada, Mexico, Spain, Germany, Ireland, Japan, and Australia.[16]

Metamucil is also a trademark of P&G. The first trademark for Metamucil was filed in 1934 and was renewed until 2005.[17] After 2005, the logo for Metamucil was updated and therefore a new trademark was submitted and approved.[18]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Christodoulides, S.; Dimidi, E.; Fragkos, K. C.; Farmer, A. D.; Whelan, K.; Scott, S. M. (2016-07-01). "Systematic review with meta-analysis: effect of fibre supplementation on chronic idiopathic constipation in adults". Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. 44 (2): 103–116. doi:10.1111/apt.13662. ISSN 1365-2036. 
  2. ^ Anderson, James W.; Allgood, Lisa D.; Turner, Jan; Oeltgen, Peter R.; Daggy, Bruce P. (1999-10-22). "Effects of psyllium on glucose and serum lipid responses in men with type 2 diabetes and hypercholesterolemia". Am J Clin Nutr. 70 (4): 466–73. PMID 10500014. 
  3. ^ Bonithon-Kopp, Claire; Kronborg, Ole; Giacosa, Attilio; Räth, Ulrich; Faivre, Jean (2000). "Calcium and fibre supplementation in prevention of colorectal adenoma recurrence: a randomised intervention trial". The Lancet. 356 (9238): 1300. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02813-0. 
  4. ^ Marlett JA, McBurney MI, Slavin JL (July 2002). "Position of the American Dietetic Association: health implications of dietary fiber". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 102 (7): 993–1000. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(02)90228-2. PMID 12146567. 
  5. ^ Davidson, M. H., Dugan, L. D., Burns, J. H., Sugimoto, D., Story, K., and Drennan, K. A psyllium-enriched cereal for the treatment of hypercholesterolemia in children: a controlled, double-blind, crossover study. Am J Clin Nutr 1996;63(1):96-102
  6. ^ 30.Wei, Z. H., Wang, H., Chen, X. Y., Wang, B. S., Rong, Z. X., Wang, B. S., Su, B. H., and Chen, H. Z. Time- and dose-dependent effect of psyllium on serum lipids in mild-to-moderate hypercholesterolemia: a meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Eur.J.Clin.Nutr. 2009;63(7):821-827
  7. ^ 41.Bajorek, S. A. and Morello, C. M. Effects of dietary fiber and low glycemic index diet on glucose control in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Ann.Pharmacother. 2010;44(11):1786-1792
  8. ^ PharmacistAnswers web page on treatments for constipation Retrieved February 12, 2014.
  9. ^ "Metamucil oral : Uses, Side Effects, Interactions, Pictures, Warnings & Dosing - WebMD". WebMD. Retrieved 2016-11-17. 
  10. ^ Lantner, R.R., B. Espiritu, P. Zumerchik, M. Tobin. 1990. Anaphylaxis following ingestion of a psyllium-containing cereal. J.A.M.A.J. Am. Med. Assoc. 264(19):2534–2536.
  11. ^ Khalili, B.; Bardana, EJ.; Yunginger, JW. (Dec 2003). "Psyllium-associated anaphylaxis and death: a case report and review of the literature". Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 91 (6): 579–84. doi:10.1016/S1081-1206(10)61538-4. PMID 14700444. 
  12. ^ Fischer MH, Yu N, Gray GR, Ralph J, Anderson L, Marlett JA. (2004) The gel-forming polysaccharide of psyllium husk (Plantago ovata Forsk). Carbohydr Res. 2004 Aug 2;339(11):2009-17.
  13. ^ Zabin, Jeff (2004). Precision Marketing: The New Rules for Attracting, Retaining, and Leveraging Profitable Customers. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 58–59 – via Google Books. 
  14. ^ Byron, Ellen (2007-03-20). "Metamucil's New Motto: Be Beautiful on the Inside". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 2016-11-17. 
  15. ^ Barbera, Melvin A. (August 23, 1994), Agglomerated psyllium husk containing edible acid, retrieved 2016-11-18 
  16. ^ "Analytics for US Patent No. 5,340,580, Agglomerated psyllium husk containing edible acid". www.patentbuddy.com. Retrieved 2016-11-19. 
  17. ^ "METAMUCIL Trademark - Registration Number 0317704 - Serial Number 71351939 :: Justia Trademarks". trademarks.justia.com. Retrieved 2016-11-19. 
  18. ^ "METAMUCIL Trademark of The Procter & Gamble Company - Registration Number 3874786 - Serial Number 77888215 :: Justia Trademarks". trademarks.justia.com. Retrieved 2016-11-19. 

External links[edit]

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