Niqāb

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A niqab (/nɪˈkɑːb/; Arabic: نِقاب‎‎ niqāb , "veil" also called a ruband) is a cloth that covers the face as a part of sartorial hijab. It is worn by some Muslim women in public areas and in front of non-mahram men, especially in the Hanbali Muslim faith tradition. The niqab is worn in the Arab countries of the Arabian Peninsula such as Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Oman, and the United Arab Emirates. The niqab is also worn in countries such as Somalia, Syria, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh as well as some parts of the Palestinian territories, Southern Iran and other areas with sizeable Muslim populations. Because of the wide variety of hijab worn in the Muslim world, it can be difficult to definitively distinguish between one type of veil and another. The terms niqab and burqa are often incorrectly used interchangeably; a niqab covers the face (but not the eyes), and is often worn with an abaya, while a burqa is a loose garment that covers the eyes with only a mesh grill for the eyes to look through, that covers the whole body from the top of the head to the ground.[citation needed]

Etymology[edit]

Women who wear the niqab are often called niqābīah ; this word is used both as a noun and as an adjective. However, the correct form منتقبة muntaqabah / muntaqibah  (plural muntaqabāt / muntaqibāt ) as niqābīah  is used in a derogatory manner (much as with ḥijābīah  versus محجبة muḥajjabah ).[1] Colloquially, women in niqab are called منقبة munaqqabah , with the plural منقبات munaqqabāt . The word niqabi is commonly used in English[by whom?] to refer to a woman who wears a niqab.

Overview[edit]

Pre-Islamic use of the face veil[edit]

It is claimed that the face-veil was originally part of women's dress among certain classes in the Byzantine Empire and was adopted into Muslim culture during the Arab conquest of the Middle East.[2] However, although Byzantine art before Islam commonly depicts women with veiled heads or covered hair, it does not depict women with veiled faces. In addition, the Greek geographer Strabo, writing in the first century AD, refers to some Persian women veiling their faces;[3][not in citation given] and the early third-century Christian writer Tertullian clearly refers in his treatise The Veiling of Virgins to some "pagan" women of "Arabia" wearing a veil that covers not only their head but also the entire face.[4] Clement of Alexandria commends the contemporary use of face coverings.[5][6] There are also two Biblical references to the employment of covering face veils in Genesis 38.14 and Genesis 24.65, by Tamar and by Rebekah, Jacob and Abraham's daughters-in-law respectively.[7][8][9] These primary sources show that some women in Egypt, Arabia, Canaan and Persia veiled their faces long before Islam. In the case of Tamar, the Biblical text, 'When Judah saw her, he thought her to be a harlot; because she had covered her face' indicates customary, if not sacral, use of the face veil to accentuate rather than disguise her sexuality.[10]

Niqab in Islam[edit]

Views among Muslim scholars[edit]

There is a difference of opinion amongst scholars in Islam as to whether or not covering the face is obligatory (fard). The niqab has continued to arouse debate between Muslim scholars and jurists both past and present concerning whether it is fard (obligatory), mustahabb (recommended/preferable), or 'urf (cultural).[11][12]

Sunni[edit]

The opinions of the four traditional Sunni schools of jurisprudence are as follows:

  • Maliki: In the Maliki madhhab, the face and the hands of a woman are not awrah; therefore covering the face is not obligatory. However, Maliki scholars have stated that it is highly recommended (mustahabb) for women to cover their faces.
  • Hanafi: The Hanafi school does not consider a woman's face to be awrah; however it is still obligatory (wajib) for a woman to cover her face. While the Hanafi school has not completely forbidden a male’s gaze towards a female’s face when there exists absolutely no fear of attraction, the woman has no way of knowing whether the gazes directed towards her are free of desire or not, especially when she is out in public. The Hanafi school has thus obliged women to cover their faces in front of strangers.[13][14]
  • Shafi'i: The Shafi'i school has had two well-known positions on this issue. The first view is that covering the face is obligatory at all times when in presence of non-mahram men.[15] The second view is that covering the face is preferred in general, but obligatory only in a time of fitnah (where men do not lower their gaze; or when a woman is very attractive).[16]
  • Hanbali: According to the Hanbali school, there are two differing views on whether a woman's whole body is awrah or not. Mālik, Awzāʿī, and Shafiʿī suggest that the awrah of a woman is her entire body excluding her face and her hands. Hence, covering the face would not be obligatory (fard) in this madhhab.[17] According to scholars like Tirmidhī and Ḥārith b. Hishām, however, all of a woman's body is awrah, including her face, hands, and even fingernails. There is a dispensation though that allows a woman to expose her face and hands, e.g. when asking for her hand in marriage, because it is the centre of beauty.[18]

According to the Salafi website IslamQA.info, it is obligatory for a woman to cover her entire body when in public or in presence of non-mahram men.[19][20] Some interpretations say that a veil is not compulsory in front of blind, asexual or gay men.[21][22][23]

Salafi women in several countries, including Saudi Arabia, veil their faces because they believe the face of a woman is considered awrah. Wearing the niqab, however, is not exclusive to the Salafi movement, and other Sunni Muslims may regard niqab either as mubah (permitted), mustahabb (recommended, an additional act of worship) or fard (obligatory).

Shia[edit]

In the Shi'a Ja'fari school of fiqh, covering the face is not obligatory.[24] However, the Shia religious leadership is divided on the issue of niqab. For example, Ayatollah Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei was among the learned who, based upon the Quran and the hadith, believed that women should wear the niqab as per "obligatory precaution (Ihtiyat wujubi).[25] Many Shia women living in countries such as Bahrain, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia or Iraq wear it on a daily basis.[citation needed]

Rationale[edit]

The claimed rationale of the niqab comes from Hadith. It was known that the wives of the Prophet Muhammad covered themselves around non-mahram men. However the Quran explicitly states that the wives of the Prophet are held to a different standard.[26] It is claimed that under Islam the niqab is a requirement for the wives of Muhammad.[27] The following verse from the Qur'an is cited as support for this:[28]

"O Prophet! Tell your wives and your daughters, and the believing women, to draw their cloaks (veils) over their bodies. That will be better that they should be known (as respectable woman) so as not to be annoyed. And Allah is Ever Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful."[Quran 33:59 (Translated by Ahmed Ali)]

This verse was in response to harassment on the part of the "hypocrites",[29] although it does not clearly refer to covering the face itself.

It is also argued by some Muslims that the reasons for the niqab are to keep Muslim women from worrying about their appearances and to conceal their looks.[28][30]

Hadith[edit]

The hadith (Arabic plural: ahādīth) are narrations originating from the words and deeds of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

The Arabic word jilbāb is used in the following traditions:

  • Narrated Aisha: The woman is to bring down her Jilbāb from over her head and [then place it] upon her face. Bukhari:6:60:282, Sunnan Abu Dawud 32:4091
  • Narrated Aisha: The riders used to pass by us when we were with the Messenger of Allaah in ihrām When they came near, each of us would lower her Jilbāb from her head over her face, and when they passed by we would uncover our faces. 1:1833
  • Narrated Aisha: Safwaan ibn al-Mu'attal al-Sulami al Dhakwaani was lagging behind the army. She said, "He came to where I had stopped and saw the black shape of a person sleeping. He recognized me when he saw me, because he had seen me before Hijāb was enjoined. I woke up when I heard him saying 'Inna Lillaahi wa inna ilayhi raaji'oon (verily to Allaah we belong and unto Him is our return),' and I covered my face with my Jilbāb Sahih Muslim, 2:2770
  • Narrated 'Aasim al-Ahwal: We used to enter upon Hafsah bint Sirīn who had put her Jilbāb thus and covered her face with it, and we would say to her: May Allah have mercy on you. Allaah says (interpretation of the meaning): "And as for women past childbearing who do not expect wedlock, it is no sin on them if they discard their (outer) clothing in such a way as not to show their adornment" [al-Noor 24:60]. And she would say to us: What comes after that (of the āyah)? We would say: "But to refrain (i.e. not to discard their outer clothing) is better for them." And so she said: [Referring to, 'But to refrain is better for them'], "It is to keep the Jilbāb." Sahih al-Bukhari, []
  • Narrated Ibn 'Abbās: Allah commanded the believing women, when going out of their homes for some need, to cover their faces from above their heads with their Jilbābs, leaving one eye(or both) to see the path.[31]
  • From Asmā' bint Abi Bakr, that she said, "We are used to cover our faces from the men, and cut our hair before that in Ihrām (for Hajj)."[32]
  • From Asmā' bint Abi Bakr, We would cover our faces while we were Muhrim, and while doing that we would be with Asmā' bint Abi Bakr As-Siddeeq.[33]
  • From Ibn Abi Khaythamah, We entered upon Umm Al-Mu'minīn on Yawm At-Tarwayah and we said to her, 'O Mother of the Believers! Here is a woman who refuses to cover her face and she is a Muhrimah (in ihrām). So 'Aa'ishah lifted her Khimār from her chest, and covered the woman's face with it.[34]
  • Narrated Aisha: "When (the Verse): "They should draw their veils over their Juyubihinna," was revealed, (the ladies) cut their waist sheets at the edges and covered their faces with the cut pieces. Sahih al-Bukhari, []
  • Narrated 'Aisha: The Apostle of Allah used to offer the Fajr prayer and some believing women covered with their veiling sheets used to attend the Fajr prayer with him and then they would return to their homes unrecognized Sahih al-Bukhari, []
  • Narrated Um 'Atiya: We were ordered to bring out our menstruating women and veiled women in the religious gatherings and invocation of Muslims on the two 'Eid festivals. These menstruating women were to keep away from their Musalla. A woman asked, "O Allah's Apostle ' What about one who does not have a niqab?" He said, "Let her share the veil of her companion." Sahih al-Bukhari, []
  • From Anas that the Muhammad said: "And if one of the women of Paradise looked at the earth, she would fill the whole space between them the earth and the heaven with light, and would fill whatever is in between them, with perfume, and the veil of her face is better than the whole world and whatever is in it."Sahih al-Bukhari, []
  • Narrated Thabit ibn Qays : "A woman called Umm Khallad came to the Prophet while she was veiled. She was searching for her son who had been killed in the battle. Some of the Companions of the Prophet said to her: You have come here asking for your son while veiling your face? She said: If I am afflicted with the loss of my son, I shall not suffer the loss of my modesty. The Apostle of Allah said: You will get the reward of two martyrs for your son. She asked: Why is that so, O Prophet of Allah? He replied: Because the people of the Book have killed him."Sahih al-Bukhari, []
  • All of a woman is awrah. Whenever she leaves her home Satan reaches by her.[citation needed]

Criticism[edit]

In Europe, the niqab is controversial, and it has been banned in public in France. Similar to its pre-Islamic use, the use of the niqab has also been described in facilitating prostitution.[35] In 2004, the French Parliament passed Law 2004-228 of 15 March 2004 in order to regulate “the wearing of symbols indicating religious affiliation in public educational establishment.”[36] This law forbids all emblems that outwardly express a specific religious belief to be worn in French public schools.[36] This law was proposed because the Stasi Commission, a committee that is supposed to enforce secularity in French society, was forced to deal with frequent disputes about headscarves in French public schools, as outsiders of the practice did not understand the scarves’ purpose and therefore felt uncomfortable.[36] Though the law addresses other religious symbols – not just headscarves and face coverings – the international debate has been centered around the impact it has on Muslims because of the growing population in Europe, especially France, and the increase in Islamophobia.[36]

In July 2010, the National Assembly in France passed Loi Interdisant La Dissimulation Du Visage Dans L'espace Public, which translates to Act Prohibiting Concealment of the Face in Public Space. This act outlawed wearing clothing that covers one’s face in any public space.[37] The law is supposed to affect all religions, however, there was an exception made for Sikhs, outside of French public schools, to allow them to wear their turban in public spaces.[38] The reasoning for this is because Sikh turbans never caused any hostility in France, and therefore French citizens are not as bothered by the practice.[38] Violators of the ban on religious veils and religious coverings are subject to hefty fines – 150 Euros and mandatory classes on French citizenship – which can be seen as an effort to make this group of people more ‘French.’[39] Anyone found to have forced a woman to wear a religious covering faces up to two years in prison on top of a 60,000 Euro fine.[39] The laws, Law 2004-228 of 15 March 2004 and Loi Interdisant La Dissimulation Du Visage Dans L'espace Public have been extremely controversial. The former president of France, Nicolas Sarkozy has publicly stated “The burqa [niqabs, etc.] is not welcome in France because it is contrary to our values and the ideals we have of a woman’s dignity.”[37] Sarkozy explains that the French government sees these enactments as a way to successfully ease Muslims into French society and to promote gender equality. The law is probably a response to the large number of refugees entering the country concerns France. They want to ‘ease Muslims into French society’ to preserve the French race, and promote nationalism. By taking away their outer coverings, the law is supposed to make Muslims look more ‘normal’ and more ‘French.’ France claims to be promoting gender equality by preventing women from wearing clothing that is deemed ‘oppressive’ by the Western world; however, many critics see the law as religiously intolerant, anti-women, and a violation of human rights.[36] Those opposed to it, say that the law is religiously intolerant because it discriminates against a crucial practice of the Islamic religion, and it is seen as anti-women and a violation of human rights because it restricts women from exercising the human right of personal autonomy, implying that they are incapable of making a decision for themselves without government intervention.

Styles[edit]

A woman wearing a niqab in Monterey, California
A woman wearing a niqab in Yemen

Iranian Arab wearing a niqab in Bandar Abbas, southern Iran

There are many styles of niqab and other facial veils worn by Muslim women around the world. The two most common forms are the half niqab and the gulf-style or full niqab.

The half niqab is a simple length of fabric with elastic or ties and is worn around the face. This garment typically leaves the eyes and part of the forehead visible.

The gulf-style or full niqab completely covers the face. It consists of an upper band that is tied around the forehead, together with a long wide piece of fabric which covers the face, leaving an opening for the eyes. Many full niqab have two or more sheer layers attached to the upper band, which can be worn flipped down to cover the eyes or left over the top of the head. While a person looking at a woman wearing a niqab with an eyeveil would not be able to see her eyes, the woman wearing the niqab would be able to see out through the thin fabric.

Other less common and more cultural or national forms of niqab include the Afghan style burqa, a long pleated gown that extends from the head to the feet with a small crocheted grille over the face.[1] The Pak Chador is a relatively new style from Pakistan, which consists of a large triangular scarf with two additional pieces.[1] A thin band on one edge is tied behind the head so as to keep the chador on, and then another larger rectangular piece is attached to one end of the triangle and is worn over the face, and the simple hijāb wrapped, pinned or tied in a certain way so as to cover the wearer's face.

Other common styles of clothing popularly worn with a niqab in Western countries include the khimar, a semi-circular flare of fabric with an opening for the face and a small triangular underscarf. A khimar is usually bust-level or longer, and can also be worn without the niqab. It is considered a fairly easy form of headscarf to wear, as there are no pins or fasteners; it is simply pulled over the head. Gloves are also sometimes worn with the niqab, because many munaqqabāt believe no part of the skin should be visible other than the area immediately around the eyes or because they do not want to be put in a position where they would touch the hand of an unrelated man (for instance, when accepting change from a cashier).

Most munaqqabāt also wear an overgarment (jilbab, abaya etc.) over their clothing, though some munaqabat in Western countries wear a long, loose tunic and skirt instead of a one-piece overgarment.

In different countries[edit]

An Iranian Arab wearing a niqab in Bandar Abbas, southern Iran
Woman in Saudi Arabia wearing a niqab
Woman in Yemen wearing a niqab
A woman wearing a niqab in the United Arab Emirates

Egypt[edit]

The niqab in Egypt has a complex and long history. On 8 October 2009, Egypt's top Islamic school and the world's leading school of Sunni Islam, Al-Azhar, banned the wearing of the niqab in classrooms and dormitories of all its affiliate schools and educational institutes.[40]

Iran[edit]

The niqab was traditionally worn in Southern Iran from the arrival of Islam until the end of the Qajar era. There were many regional variations of niqab, which were also called ruband or pushiye. Traditionally, Iranian women wore chadors long before Islam arrived.[citation needed]

The 20th century ruler, Reza Shah, banned all variations of face veil in 1936, as incompatible with his modernistic ambitions. Reza Shah ordered the police to arrest women who wore the niqab and to remove their face veils by force. This policy outraged the clerics who believed it was obligatory for women to cover their faces. Many women gathered at the Goharshad Mosque in Mashhad with their faces covered to show their objection to the niqab ban.[41]

Between 1941 and 1979 wearing the niqab was no longer against the law, but it was considered by the government to be a "badge of backwardness." During these years, wearing the niqab and chador became much less common and instead most religious women wore headscarves only. Fashionable hotels and restaurants refused to admit women wearing niqabs. High schools and universities actively discouraged or even banned the niqab, though the headscarf was tolerated.[42]

After the new government of 'Islamic Republic' was established, the niqab ban was not enforced by officials.

In modern Iran, the wearing of niqab is not common and is only worn by certain ethnic minorities and a minority of Arab Muslims in the southern Iranian coastal cities, such as Bandar Abbas, Minab and Bushehr. Some women in the Arab-populated province of Khuzestan still wear niqab.

Saudi Arabia[edit]

Saudi women are not required by a secular law to wear the niqab. However, the niqab is an important part of Saudi culture and in most Saudi cities (including Riyadh, Mecca, Medina, Abha, etc.) the vast majority of women cover their faces.[citation needed]

The Saudi niqab usually leaves a long open slot for the eyes; the slot is held together by a string or narrow strip of cloth.[43] Many also have two or more sheer layers attached to the upper band, which can be worn flipped down to cover the eyes. Although a person looking at a woman wearing a niqab with an eyeveil would not be able to see her eyes, she would still be able to see out through the thin fabric. In 2008, the religious authority in Mecca, Mohammad Habadan called on women to wear veils that reveal only one eye, so that women would not be encouraged to use eye make-up.[44]

According to Saudi Arabia's Shariah law, women's clothing should meet the following conditions:

  • Women must cover their entire body, but they are allowed to expose one or both eyes in necessity.
  • Women should wear abaya and a headscarf thick enough to conceal what is underneath, and the abaya should be loose-fitting.
  • Women should not wear brightly coloured clothes or clothes that are adorned so that they may attract men's attention.[45]

Syria[edit]

1,200 niqab-wearing teachers were transferred to administrative duties in the summer of 2010 in Syria because the face veil was undermining the secular policies followed by the state as far as education is concerned.[46] In the near future, other ministers are expected to do the same as Ali Saad, the Syrian Minister of Education.[46] Also, in the summer of 2010, students wearing the Niqab were prohibited from registering for university classes. The ban was associated with a move by the Syrian government to re-affirm Syria's traditional secular atmosphere.[47]

On 6 April 2011 it was reported that teachers would be allowed to once again wear the niqab.[48]

Yemen[edit]

Since antiquity, the Arab tradition of wearing the niqab has been practiced by women living in Yemen.[49] Traditionally, girls begin wearing veils in their teenage years.[50][51] Acceptance of the niqab is not universal in Yemen. Senior member of the Al-Islah political party, Tawakel Karman, removed her niqab at a human rights conference in 2004 and since then has called for "other women and female activists to take theirs off".[52] Also it depends on lifestyles and was not commonly worn among nomadic and pastoralist tribes as it was incompatible with animal shepherding.

Enforcement, encouragement and bans[edit]

Enforcement[edit]

Covering the face was enforced by the Taliban regime with the traditional Afghan face veil called the burka.[53] While some women appeared to embrace the coercive rules, others protested.

Politics[edit]

The niqab is outlawed in Azerbaijan, where the overwhelming majority of the population is Muslim. Niqabi women, just like women wearing hijab, cannot work as public servants, neither can they continue studies at schools, including the private schools. Although there is no single law banning niqab at private companies, it would be nearly impossible for a niqabi woman to find work[citation needed] .

In February 2010, an Arab country's unnamed ambassador to Dubai had his marriage annulled after discovering that his bride was cross-eyed and had facial hair. The woman had worn a niqab on the occasions that the couple had met prior to the wedding. The ambassador informed the Sharia court that he had been deliberately deceived by the bride's mother, who had shown him photographs of the bride's sister. He only discovered this when he lifted the niqab to kiss his bride. The court annulled the marriage, but refused a claim for compensation.[54][55][56]

Sultaana Freeman gained national attention in 2003 when she sued the US state of Florida for the right to wear a niqab for her driver's license photo.[57] However, a Florida appellate court ruled that there was no violation in the state requiring her to show her face to a camera in a private room with only a female employee to take the picture, in exchange for the privilege of driving.[citation needed]

One female, non-Muslim student at Eastern Michigan University spent a semester in 2005 wearing a niqab for a class project (she referred to the face veil as a 'burqa'). Her stated experiences, such as her own feeling as if no one wanted to be near her, led her to assert that conservative Muslim dress is disapproved of in the United States.[58] No reference in the student's project was made to the disapproval or banning of niqab in various Muslim-majority countries.

Some Muslim Palestinian women, particularly students, have worn white niqabs during Arab protest activities relating to the Arab–Israeli conflict.[59][60] These women have reportedly worn green banners with Arabic messages in them.

In 2006, Female candidates from the Hamas party campaigned during the Palestinian Authority parliamentary elections, wearing niqabs. Since Hamas seized control of Gaza from Fatah during the Battle of Gaza (2007), Muslim women in Gaza have been wearing, or were mandated to wear, niqabs in increasingly large numbers[61][62]

Africa[edit]

Cameroon[edit]

In July 2015, Cameroon banned the face veil including the burqa after two women dressed in the religious garments completed a suicide attack killing 13.[63][64]

Chad[edit]

In June 2015, the full face veil has been banned in Chad after veiled Boko Haram bombers disguised as woman completed multiple suicide attacks.[64][65][66]

Republic of the Congo[edit]

In May 2015, the Republic of the Congo banned the face veil in order to counter extremism.[67][68] The decision was announced by El Hadji Djibril Bopaka, the president of the country’s Islamic High Council.[69]

Asia-Pacific[edit]

Australia[edit]

In May 2010, an armed robbery committed by a man wearing a face veil and sunglasses raised calls to ban the Islamic veil; a request for new legislation was dismissed by both Prime Minister Kevin Rudd and Liberal leader Tony Abbott.[70]

Europe[edit]

Main article: Islamic dress in Europe
Woman in Bosnia and Herzegovina wearing a niqab, c. 1906

Although the burqa is a more emphatic symbol, the niqab has also been prominent in political controversies on Islamic dress in Europe.

In socialist Yugoslavia wearing the niqab or forcing women to wear it were forbidden in order to prevent the subjugation of women to men.

In 2007, the government of the Netherlands planned a legal ban on face-covering Islamic clothing, popularly described as the 'burqa ban', which included the niqab.[71] In 2015, a partial ban of the niqab and burqa were approved by the Dutch government.[72] The parliament still had to approve the measure.[72]

On 29 April 2010, the Belgian Chamber of Representatives adopted a law prohibiting people to wear "attire and clothing masking the face in such a way that it impairs them to be recognizable". The penalty for violating this directive can run from up to 14 days imprisonment and a 250 euro fine. Even though there is no direct mention of the burqa or niqab, this decision practically does prohibit its use in public spaces. This new law has spurred a lot of anger amongst members of the traditional Islamist community.[citation needed] In August 2014, the Chief of Protocol for the city of Brussels Jean-Marie Pire tore the niqab off a Qatari princess who had asked him for directions in Brussels.[73]

In the United Kingdom, comments by Jack Straw, MP started a national debate over the wearing of the "veil" (niqab), in October 2006. This was further inflamed by extensive media coverage of the case of Aishah Azmi, a teaching assistant in Dewsbury, West Yorkshire, who lost her appeal against suspension from her job for wearing the niqab while teaching English to young children whose first language is different. It was decided that being unable to see her face prevented the children from learning effectively. Azmi argued that it was helping the children understand different people's beliefs.[74] In 2010, a man committed a bank robbery wearing a niqab as a disguise.[75]

On 13 July 2010 France's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a ban on wearing burqa-style Islamic veils. The legislation forbids face-covering Muslim veils in all public places in France and calls for fines or citizenship classes, or both. The bill also is aimed at husbands and fathers — anyone convicted of forcing someone else to wear the garb risks a year of prison and a fine, with both penalties doubled if the victim is a minor. In Italy, a law issued in 1975 strictly forbids wearing any dress or supply that could hide the face of a person. Penalties (fines and imprisonment) are provided for such behaviour.

In 2012 in Norway, a professor at the University of Tromsø denied a student's use of niqab in the classroom.[76] The professor claimed that Norway's parliament has granted each teacher the right to deny the use of niqab in his/her classroom.[76] Clothing that covers the face, such as a niqab, are prohibited in some e.g. schools and municipalities.[77][78][79]

The Prime Minister of Norway Erna Solberg stated in a 2016 interview that in Norwegian work environments it is essential to see each others' faces and therefore anyone wearing a niqab will be less attractive on the job market. Solberg also views the wearing of the niqab as a challenge to social boundaries in the Norwegian society, a challenge that would be countered by Norway setting boundaries of its own. Solberg also stated that anyone may wear what they wish in their spare time and that her comments applied to professional life but that any immigrant has the obligation to adapt to Norwegian work life and culture.[80]

In 2016, a legal ban on face-covering Islamic clothing were adopted by Bulgarian parliament.[81] Also in 2016, a legal ban on face-covering Islamic clothing were adopted by Latvian parliament.[82]

North America[edit]

United States[edit]

In 2002, Sultaana Freeman (formerly Sandra Keller, who converted to Islam in 1997 when marrying a Muslim man), sued the U.S. state of Florida for the right to wear a niqab for her driver's license photo.[57] However, a Florida appellate court ruled that there was no violation in the state requiring her to show her face to a camera in a private room with only a female employee to take the picture, in exchange for the privilege of driving. The prevailing view in Florida is currently that hiding one's face on a form of photo identification defeats the purpose of having the picture taken,[57] although 15 other states (including Arkansas, California, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, and Louisiana) have provisions that allow for driver's licenses to be issued without a photograph for religious and nonreligious reasons.[83] In 2012, a string of armed robberies in Philadelphia were committed by people disguised in traditional Islamic woman’s garb; Muslim leaders were concerned that the use of the disguises could put Muslim women in danger of hate crimes and inflame ethnic tensions.[84]

Canada[edit]

On 16 November 2015 the first act of Canada's newly appointed Minister of Justice and attorney general Jody Wilson-Raybould was to assure women who chose to wear the niqāb during the Oath of Allegiance of their right to do so.[85][not in citation given] In December 2011 then-Citizenship and Immigration Minister Jason Kenney announced a policy directive from the Federal Government under then-Prime Minister Stephen Harper that Muslim women must remove niqābs throughout the citizenship ceremony where they declare their Oath of Allegiance.[86] Zunera Ishaq, a Sunni Muslim woman living in Mississauga, Toronto, Canada challenged and won the niqāb ban in Canada (Citizenship and Immigration) v Ishaq on 5 October 2015. The Federal Court of Appeal decision in her favour was seen by some as "an opportunity to revisit the rules governing the somewhat difficult relationship between law and policy."[87] In October 2015 Harper had appealed the Supreme Court of Canada to take up the case. With the election of Prime Minister Justin Trudeau on 19 October 2015, the niqāb debate was settled as the Liberal government chose to not "politicize the issue any further."[88] Minister Jody Wilson-Raybould, who is the first Indigenous person to be named as Justice Minister, explained as she withdrew Harper's appeal to the Supreme Court, "In all of our policy as a government we will ensure that we respect the values that make us Canadians, those of diversity, inclusion and respect for those fundamental values."[85] The Justice Minister spoke with Zunera by telephone to tell her the good news prior to making her official announcement.[85]

Elections Canada, the agency responsible for elections and referenda, stated that Muslim women can cover their faces while voting. The decision was criticized by the Conservative Party of Canada, Bloc Québécois, and Liberal Party of Canada. The New Democrats were not opposed to the decision.[89] The Conservative federal Cabinet had introduced legislation to parliament that would bar citizens from voting if they arrived at polling stations with a veiled face.

The niqāb became an issue in the 2007 election in Quebec after it became public knowledge that women wearing the niqāb were allowed to vote under the same rules as electors who did not present photo identification (ID); namely, by sworn oath in the presence of a third party who could vouch for their identity. The chief electoral officer received complaints that this policy was too accommodating of cultural minorities (a major theme in the election) and thereafter required accompaniment by bodyguards due to threatening telephone calls. All three major Quebec political parties were against the policy, with the Parti Québécois and Action démocratique du Québec vying for position as most opposed. The policy was soon changed to require all voters to show their face, even if they did not carry photo ID. However, Quebec residents who wear the niqāb stated they were not opposed to showing their faces for official purposes, such as voting.[90] Salam Elmenyawi of the Muslim Council of Montreal estimated that only 10 to 15 Muslim voters in the province wear the niqāb and, since their veils have become controversial, most would probably not vote.[91]

In October 2009, the Muslim Canadian Congress called for a ban on burqa and niqāb, saying that they have "no basis in Islam".[92] Spokesperson Farzana Hassan cited public safety issues, such as identity concealment, as well as gender equality, stating that wearing the burqa and niqāb is "a practice that marginalizes women."[92]

In December 2012, the Supreme Court of Canada ruled that Muslim women who wear the niqāb must remove it in some cases when testifying in court.[93]

As of 2015, Quebec Liberal Party Premier Philippe Couillard intends to ban niqāb in the provincial public service. Former Liberal Quebec premier Jean Charest made a similar move (which died on the order paper) to "ban the burqa" when giving and receiving public services.[94]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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  3. ^ Geography 11.13.9-10.
  4. ^ The Veiling of Virgins Ch. 17. Tertullian writes, "The pagan women of Arabia, who not only cover their head but their whole face, so that they would rather enjoy half the light with one eye free than prostitute the face, will judge you. (Judicabunt vos Arabiae feminae ethnicae quae non caput, sed faciem totam tegunt, ut uno oculo liberato contentae sint dimidiam frui lucem quam totam faciem prostituere)."
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Further reading[edit]

  • Khan, Kamillah (2008). Niqaab: A Seal On The Debate. Kuala Lumpr: Dar Al Wahi Publication. ISBN 978-983-43614-0-2. 

External links[edit]

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Niqāb&oldid=750644573"