Page semi-protected

Medical cannabis

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A dried bud of cannabis, which can be used for medical therapy

Medical cannabis, or medical marijuana is cannabis and cannabinoids that are prescribed by doctors for their patients.[1][2] The use of cannabis as a medicine has not been rigorously tested due to production restrictions and other governmental regulations.[3] There is a limited amount of evidence that suggests cannabis can reduce nausea and vomiting during chemotherapy, improve appetite in people with HIV/AIDS, and reduce chronic pain and muscle spasms.[4][5][6]

Short-term use increases the risk of both minor and major adverse effects.[5] Common side effects include dizziness, feeling tired, vomiting, and hallucinations.[5] Long-term effects of cannabis are not clear.[5] Concerns include memory and cognition problems, risk of addiction, schizophrenia in young people, and the risk of children taking it by accident.[4]

The Cannabis plant has a history of medicinal use dating back thousands of years across many cultures.[7] Its current use is controversial. The American Medical Association, the Minnesota Medical Association, the American Society of Addiction Medicine, and other medical organizations have issued statements opposing its use for medicinal purposes.[8][9][10] The American Academy of Pediatrics states that while cannabinoids may have potential as therapy for a number of medical conditions, they do not recommend it until more research is done. They, along with the American Medical Association and the Minnesota Medical Association, call for moving cannabis out of DEA Schedule I to facilitate this research.[10][11][12]

Medical cannabis can be administered using a variety of methods, including liquid tinctures, vaporizing or smoking dried buds, eating cannabis edibles, taking capsules, using lozenges, dermal patches or oral/dermal sprays. Synthetic cannabinoids are available as prescription drugs in some countries; examples include: dronabinol and nabilone. Recreational use of cannabis is illegal in most parts of the world, but the medical use of cannabis is legal in certain countries, including Austria, Canada, Czech Republic, Finland, Germany, Israel, Italy, the Netherlands (where it is also legal recreationally), Portugal and Spain. Australia is currently in the process of passing a law which would allow the use of marijuana for medical and scientific purposes.[13][14] In the United States, federal law outlaws all cannabis use, while 25 states and the District of Columbia no longer prosecute individuals for the possession or sale of medical marijuana, as long as the individuals are in compliance with the state's medical marijuana sale regulations. However, an appeals court ruled in January 2014 that a 2007 Ninth Circuit ruling remains binding in relation to the ongoing illegality, in federal legislative terms, of Californian cannabis dispensaries, reaffirming the impact of the federal Controlled Substances Act.[15]

Classification

Many different cannabis strains are collectively called "medical cannabis." Since many varieties of the cannabis plant and plant derivatives all share the same name, the term "medical cannabis" is ambiguous and can be misunderstood. A Cannabis plant includes more than 400 different chemicals, of which about 70 are cannabinoids.[16] In comparison, typical government-approved medications contain only 1 or 2 chemicals.[16] The number of active chemicals in cannabis is one reason why treatment with cannabis is difficult to classify and study.[16]

A 2014 review stated that the variations in ratio of CBD-to-THC in botanical and pharmaceutical preparations determines the therapeutic vs psychoactive effects (CBD attenuates THC's psychoactive effects[17]) of cannabis products.[18]

Medical uses

Cannabis as illustrated in Köhler's book of medicinal plants from 1897

Medical cannabis has several potential beneficial effects.[5] Evidence is moderate that it helps in chronic pain and muscle spasms.[5] Low quality evidence suggests its use for reducing nausea during chemotherapy, improving appetite in HIV/AIDS, improving sleep, and improving tics in Tourette syndrome.[5] When usual treatments are ineffective, cannabinoids have also been recommended for anorexia, arthritis, migraine, and glaucoma.[19]

The National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) states that "so far, researchers have not conducted enough large-scale clinical trials that show that the benefits of the marijuana plant (as opposed to its cannabinoid ingredients) outweigh its risks in patients it is meant to treat."[20] In 2015 American Society of Addiction Medicine wrote that "legalization of cannabis in some states but not others provides a unique opportunity for a thorough investigation into the societal and public health impact of broader cannabis use"[21] American Medical Association in 2015 stated that there is not enough large-scale studies on cannabis,[22] while Office of National Drug Control Policy "opposes legalization of marijuana and other drugs because legalization would increase the availability and use of illicit drugs, and pose significant health and safety risks to all Americans, particularly young people."[23] The FDA finds that cannabis does not meet the criteria for accepted medical use due to lack of evidence regarding safety and the high risk of abuse.[24]

It is recommended that cannabis use be stopped in pregnancy.[25]

Nausea and vomiting

Medical cannabis is somewhat effective in chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV)[4][19] and may be a reasonable option in those who do not improve following preferential treatment.[26] Comparative studies have found cannabinoids to be more effective than some conventional antiemetics such as prochlorperazine, promethazine, and metoclopramide in controlling CINV,[27] but these are used less frequently because of side effects including dizziness, dysphoria, and hallucinations.[28][29] Long-term cannabis use may cause nausea and vomiting, a condition known as cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome.[30]

A 2010 Cochrane review said that cannabinoids were "probably effective" in treating chemotherapy-induced nausea in children, but with a high side effect profile (mainly drowsiness, dizziness, altered moods, and increased appetite). Less common side effects were "occular problems, orthostatic hypotension, muscle twitching, pruritis, vagueness, hallucinations, lightheadedness and dry mouth".[31][needs update]

HIV/AIDS

Evidence is lacking for both efficacy and safety of cannabis and cannabinoids in treating patients with HIV/AIDS or for anorexia associated with AIDS. As of 2013, current studies suffer from effects of bias, small sample size, and lack of long-term data.[32]

Pain

Cannabis appears to be somewhat effective for the treatment of chronic pain, including pain caused by neuropathy and possibly that due to fibromyalgia and rheumatoid arthritis.[33][34] A 2009 review states it was unclear if the benefits were greater than the risks,[33] while a 2011 review considered it generally safe for this use.[34] In palliative care the use appears safer than that of opioids.[35] A 2014 review found limited and weak evidence that smoked cannabis was effective for chronic non-cancer pain. The review recommended that it be used for people for whom cannabinoids and other analgesics were not effective.[36] A 2015 review found moderate quality evidence that cannabinoids were effective for chronic pain.[5] A 2015 meta-analysis found that inhaled medical cannabis was effective in reducing neuropathic pain in the short term for one in five to six patients.[37] Another 2015 systematic review and meta-analysis found limited evidence that medical cannabis was effective for neuropathic pain when combined with traditional analgesics.[38]

Neurological problems

The efficacy of cannabis in treating neurological problems, including multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, and movement problems, is not clear.[39] Studies of the efficacy of cannabis for treating multiple sclerosis have produced varying results. The combination of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) extracts give subjective relief of spasticity, though objective post-treatment assessments do not reveal significant changes.[40] Evidence also suggests that oral cannabis extract is effective for reducing patient-centered measures of spasticity.[41] A trial of cannabis is deemed to be a reasonable option if other treatments have not been effective.[4] Its use for MS is approved in ten countries.[4][42] A 2012 review found no problems with tolerance, abuse or addiction.[43]

Posttraumatic stress disorder

There is tentative evidence that medical cannabis is effective at reducing posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms, but, as of 2015, there is insufficient evidence to confirm its effectiveness for this condition.[44]

Adverse effects

American medical hashish

Medical use

There is insufficient data to draw strong conclusions about the safety of medical cannabis.[45] Typically, adverse effects of medical cannabis use are not serious.[4] These include: tiredness, dizziness, cardiovascular and psychoactive effects. Tolerance to these effects develops over a period of days or weeks. The amount of cannabis normally used for medicinal purposes is not believed to cause any permanent cognitive impairment in adults, though long-term treatment in adolescents should be weighed carefully as they are more susceptible to these impairments. Withdrawal symptoms are rarely a problem with controlled medical administration of cannabinoids. The ability to drive vehicle or operating machinery may be impaired until a tolerance is developed.[26] Although supporters of medical cannabis say that it is safe,[45] further research is required to assess the long-term safety of its use.[28][46]

Recreational use

THC, the principal psychoactive constituent of the cannabis plant, has low toxicity while the LD50 (dose of THC needed to kill 50% of tested rodents) is high. Acute effects may include anxiety and panic, impaired attention, and memory (while intoxicated), an increased risk of psychotic symptoms, and possibly increased risk of accidents if a person drives a motor vehicle while intoxicated.[47] Psychotic episodes are well-documented and typically resolve within minutes or hours. There have been few reports of symptoms lasting longer.[48][49]

According to the United States Department of Health and Human Services, there were 455,000 emergency room visits associated with cannabis use in 2011. These statistics include visits in which the patient was treated for a condition induced by or related to recent cannabis use. The drug use must be "implicated" in the emergency department visit, but does not need to be the direct cause of the visit. Most of the illicit drug emergency room visits involved multiple drugs.[50] In 129,000 cases, cannabis was the only implicated drug.[51][52]

Effects of chronic use may include bronchitis, a cannabis dependence syndrome, and subtle impairments of attention and memory. These deficits persist while chronically intoxicated.[47] There is little evidence that cognitive impairments persist in adult abstinent cannabis users.[53] Compared to non-smokers, people who smoked cannabis regularly in adolescence exhibit reduced connectivity in specific brain regions associated with memory, learning, alertness, and executive function.[52] One study suggested that sustained heavy, daily, adolescent onset cannabis use over decades is associated with a decline in IQ by age 38, with no effects found in those who initiated cannabis use later, or in those who ceased use earlier in adulthood.[54]

There has been a limited amount of studies that have looked at the effects of smoking cannabis on the respiratory system.[55] Chronic heavy marijuana smoking is associated with coughing, production of sputum, wheezing, coughing, and other symptoms of chronic bronchitis.[47] Regular cannabis use has not been shown to cause significant abnormalities in lung function.[56]

Cannabis smoke contains thousands of organic and inorganic chemical compounds. This tar is chemically similar to that found in tobacco smoke,[57] and over fifty known carcinogens have been identified in cannabis smoke,[58] including; nitrosamines, reactive aldehydes, and polycylic hydrocarbons, including benz[a]pyrene.[59] Light and moderate use of cannabis is not believed to increase risk of lung or upper airway cancer. Evidence for causing these cancers is mixed concerning heavy, long-term use. In general there are far lower risks of pulmonary complications for regular cannabis smokers when compared with those of tobacco.[56] Combustion products are not present when using a vaporizer, consuming THC in pill form, or consuming cannabis foods.

There is serious suspicion among cardiologists, spurring research but falling short of definitive proof, that cannabis use has the potential to contribute to cardiovascular disease.[60] Cannabis is believed to be an aggravating factor in rare cases of arteritis, a serious condition that in some cases leads to amputation. Because 97% of case-reports also smoked tobacco, a formal association with cannabis could not be made. If cannabis arteritis turns out to be a distinct clinical entity, it might be the consequence of vasoconstrictor activity observed from delta-8-THC and delta-9-THC.[61] Other serious cardiovascular events including myocardial infarction, stroke, sudden cardiac death, and cardiomyopathy have been reported to be temporally associated with cannabis use. Research in these events is complicated because cannabis is often used in conjunction with tobacco, and drugs such as alcohol and cocaine.[62] These putative effects can be taken in context of a wide range of cardiovascular phenomena regulated by the endocannabinoid system and an overall role of cannabis in causing decreased peripheral resistance and increased cardiac output, which potentially could pose a threat to those with cardiovascular disease.[63]

Cannabis usually causes no tolerance or withdrawal symptoms except in heavy users. In a survey of heavy users 42.4% experienced withdrawal symptoms when they tried to quit marijuana such as craving, irritability, boredom, anxiety and sleep disturbances.[64] About 9% of those who experiment with marijuana eventually become dependent. The rate goes up to 1 in 6 among those who begin use as adolescents, and one-quarter to one-half of those who use it daily according to a NIDA review.[52] A 2013 review estimates daily use is associated with a 10-20% rate of dependence.[4] The highest risk of cannabis dependence is found in those with a history of poor academic achievement, deviant behavior in childhood and adolescence, rebelliousness, poor parental relationships, or a parental history of drug and alcohol problems.[65]

A 2013 literature review found that exposure to marijuana had biologically-based physical, mental, behavioral and social health consequences and was "associated with diseases of the liver (particularly with co-existing hepatitis C), lungs, heart, and vasculature".[66]

Cognitive effects

A 2011 systematic review evaluated published studies of the acute and long-term cognitive effects of cannabis. THC intoxication is well established to impair cognitive functioning on an acute basis, including effects on the ability to plan, organize, solve problems, make decisions, and control impulses. The extent of this impact may be greater in novice users, and paradoxically, those habituated to high-level ingestion may have reduced cognition during withdrawal. Studies of long-term effects on cognition have provided conflicting results, with some studies finding no difference between long-term abstainers and never-users and others finding long-term deficits. The discrepancies between studies may reflect greater long-term effects among heavier users relative to occasional users, and greater duration of effect among those with heavy use as adolescents compared to later in life.[67] A second systematic review focused on neuroimaging studies found little evidence supporting an effect of cannabis use on brain structure and function.[68] A 2003 meta-analysis concluded that any long-term cognitive effects were relatively modest in magnitude and limited to certain aspects of learning and memory.[69]

Impact on psychosis

Exposure to THC can cause acute transient psychotic symptoms in healthy individuals and people with schizophrenia.[17]

A 2007 meta analysis concluded that cannabis use reduced the average age of onset of psychosis by 2.7 years relative to non-cannabis use.[70] A 2005 meta analysis concluded that adolescent use of cannabis increases the risk of psychosis, and that the risk is dose-related.[71] A 2004 literature review on the subject concluded that cannabis use is associated with a two-fold increase in the risk of psychosis, but that cannabis use is "neither necessary nor sufficient" to cause psychosis.[72] A French review from 2009 came to a conclusion that cannabis use, particularly that before age 15, was a factor in the development of schizophrenic disorders.[73]

Some studies have suggested that cannabis users have a greater risk of developing psychosis than non-users. This risk is most pronounced in cases with an existing risk of psychotic disorder.[74][75] A 2005 paper from the Dunedin study suggested an increased risk in the development of psychosis linked to polymorphisms in the COMT gene.[76] However, a more recent study cast doubt on the proposed connection between this gene and the effects of cannabis on the development of psychosis.[77]

A 2008 German review reported that cannabis was a causal factor in some cases of schizophrenia and stressed the need for better education among the public due to increasingly relaxed access to cannabis.[78]

Other potential long-term effects

A 2008 National Institutes of Health study of 19 chronic heavy marijuana users with cardiac and cerebral abnormalities (averaging 28 g to 272 g (1 to 9+ oz) weekly) and 24 controls found elevated levels of apolipoprotein C-III (apoC-III) in the chronic smokers.[79] An increase in apoC-III levels induces the development of hypertriglyceridemia.

Pharmacology

The genus Cannabis contains two species which produce useful amounts of psychoactive cannabinoids: Cannabis indica and Cannabis sativa, which are listed as Schedule I medicinal plants in the US;[4] a third species, Cannabis ruderalis, has few psychogenic properties.[4] Cannabis contains more than 460 compounds;[7] at least 80 of these are cannabinoids[80][81]chemical compounds that interact with cannabinoid receptors in the brain.[4] As of 2012, more than 20 cannabinoids were being studied by the U.S. FDA.[82]

The most psychoactive cannabinoid found in the cannabis plant is tetrahydrocannabinol (or delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly known as THC).[7] Other cannabinoids include delta-8-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol (CBD), cannabinol (CBN), cannabicyclol (CBL), cannabichromene (CBC) and cannabigerol (CBG); they have less psychotropic effects than THC, but may play a role in the overall effect of cannabis.[7] The most studied are THC, CBD and CBN.[66]

Physical and chemical properties

Some forms of medicinal cannabis.

Smoking is the means of administration of cannabis for many consumers,[83] and the most common method of medical cannabis consumption in the US as of 2013.[4] It is difficult to predict the pharmacological response to cannabis because concentration of cannabinoids varies widely as there are different ways of preparing cannabis for consumption (smoked, applied as oils, eaten, infused into other foods, or drunk) and a lack of production controls.[4] The potential for adverse effects from smoke inhalation makes smoking a less viable option than oral preparations.[83]

Cannabis vaporizers have gained popularity because of the perception among users that less harmful chemicals are ingested when components are inhaled via aerosol rather than smoke.[4]

Cannabinoid medicines are available in pill form (dronabinol and nabilone) and liquid extracts formulated into an oromucosal spray (nabiximols).[4] Oral preparations are "problematic due to the uptake of cannabinoids into fatty tissue, from which they are released slowly, and the significant first-pass liver metabolism, which breaks down Δ9THC and contributes further to the variability of plasma concentrations".[83]

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has not approved smoked cannabis for any condition or disease as it deems evidence is lacking concerning safety and efficacy of cannabis for medical use.[84] The FDA issued a 2006 advisory against smoked medical cannabis stating: "marijuana has a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States, and has a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision."[84]

History

Ancient

Cannabis, called (meaning "hemp; cannabis; numbness") or dàmá 大麻 (with "big; great") in Chinese, was used in Taiwan for fiber starting about 10,000 years ago.[85] The botanist Hui-lin Li wrote that in China, "The use of Cannabis in medicine was probably a very early development. Since ancient humans used hemp seed as food, it was quite natural for them to also discover the medicinal properties of the plant."[86] Emperor Shen-Nung, who was also a pharmacologist, wrote a book on treatment methods in 2737 BCE that included the medical benefits of cannabis. He recommended the substance for many ailments, including constipation, gout, rheumatism, and absent-mindedness.[87] Cannabis is one of the 50 "fundamental" herbs in traditional Chinese medicine.[88]

The Ebers Papyrus (ca. 1550 BCE) from Ancient Egypt describes medical cannabis.[89] The ancient Egyptians used hemp (cannabis) in suppositories for relieving the pain of hemorrhoids.[90]

Surviving texts from ancient India confirm that cannabis' psychoactive properties were recognized, and doctors used it for treating a variety of illnesses and ailments, including insomnia, headaches, gastrointestinal disorders, and pain, including during childbirth.[91]

The Ancient Greeks used cannabis to dress wounds and sores on their horses,[92] and in humans, dried leaves of cannabis were used to treat nose bleeds, and cannabis seeds were used to expel tapeworms.[92]

In the medieval Islamic world, Arabic physicians made use of the diuretic, antiemetic, antiepileptic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antipyretic properties of Cannabis sativa, and used it extensively as medication from the 8th to 18th centuries.[93]

Modern

An Irish physician, William Brooke O'Shaughnessy, is credited with introducing the therapeutic use of cannabis to Western medicine, to help treat muscle spasms, stomach cramps and general pain.[94]

Albert Lockhart and Manley West began studying in 1964 the health effects of traditional cannabis use in Jamaican communities. They developed, and in 1987 gained permission to market, the pharmaceutical "Canasol", one of the first cannabis extracts.[95]

In the 1970s, a synthetic version of THC was produced and approved for use in the United States as the drug Marinol.[96]

Voters in eight US states showed their support for cannabis prescriptions or recommendations given by physicians between 1996 and 1999, going against policies of the federal government.[97] As of mid-2014, 23 states plus the District of Columbia have passed medical marijuana laws,[98] and in the November elections three more states (total 26) joined the burgeoning group, many of which are as yet in conflict with conditions set forth by the federal government.

On 15 June 2015, the Colorado Supreme Court ruled that even though medical marijuana is legal in Colorado, employers can fire workers who use marijuana for medical reasons because it violates federal law. The case involved a quadriplegic who had a doctor’s authorization to smoke medical marijuana, but who was fired by Dish Network in 2010 after failing a company drug test.[99]

Society and culture

Legal status

Worldwide laws on cannabis possession for medical purposes
  Legal or essentially legal
  Decriminalized
  Illegal but often unenforced
  Illegal
  No information

Medical use of cannabis or preparation containing THC as the active substance is legalized in Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Colombia Czech Republic, Finland, Israel, Netherlands, Spain, the UK and some states in the US, although it is illegal under US federal law.

Cannabis is in Schedule IV of the United Nations' Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, making it subject to special restrictions. Article 2 provides for the following, in reference to Schedule IV drugs:[100]

A Party shall, if in its opinion the prevailing conditions in its country render it the most appropriate means of protecting the public health and welfare, prohibit the production, manufacture, export and import of, trade in, possession or use of any such drug except for amounts which may be necessary for medical and scientific research only, including clinical trials therewith to be conducted under or subject to the direct supervision and control of the Party.

The convention thus allows countries to outlaw cannabis for all non-research purposes but lets nations choose to allow medical and scientific purposes if they believe total prohibition is not the most appropriate means of protecting health and welfare. The convention requires that states that permit the production or use of medical cannabis must operate a licensing system for all cultivators, manufacturers, and distributors and ensure that the total cannabis market of the state shall not exceed that required "for medical and scientific purposes."[100]

Programs

As of 2014, 23 states plus the District of Columbia have passed medical cannabis laws,[98] but its use remains illegal by federal law.[42] In 1978 the US government created a program called the Compassionate Investigational New Drug program which dispenses cannabis cigarettes to 20 people with debilitating conditions[7] including glaucoma and a rare bone disease.[citation needed] The program was "closed to new candidates in 1991",[7] but as of 2013, allowed four people previously in the program to continue receiving medical cannabis.[citation needed]

Economics

Distribution

Medical marijuana dispensary

The method of obtaining medical cannabis varies by region and by legislation. In the US, most consumers grow their own or buy it from marijuana dispensaries in the 23 states and the District of Columbia that permit the use of medical cannabis.[4][101] Marijuana vending machines for selling or dispensing cannabis are in use in the United States and are planned to be used in Canada.[102] In 2014, the startup Meadow began offering on-demand delivery of medical marijuana in the San Francisco Bay Area, through their mobile app.[103]

Insurance

In the United States, health insurance companies may not pay for a medical marijuana prescription as the Food and Drug Administration must approve any substance for medicinal purposes. Before this can happen, the FDA must first permit the study of the medical benefits and drawbacks of the substance, which it has not done since it was placed on Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act in 1970. Therefore, all expenses incurred fulfilling a medical marijuana prescription will possibly be incurred as out-of-pocket.[104] However, the New Mexico Court of Appeals has ruled that workers' compensation insurance must pay for marijuana prescribed as part of the state's Medical Cannabis Program.[105]

Recreational use

The authors of a report on a 2011 survey of medical cannabis users say that critics have suggested that some users "game the system" to obtain medical cannabis ostensibly for treatment of a condition, but then use it for nonmedical purposes – though the truth of this claim is hard to measure.[106] The report authors suggested rather that medical cannabis users occupied a "continuum" between medical and nonmedical use.[106]

Brand names

In the U.S., the FDA has approved two oral cannabinoids for use as medicine: dronabinol and nabilone.[4] Dronabinol, synthetic THC, is listed as Schedule III, meaning it has some potential for dependence, and nabilone, a synthetic cannabinoid, is Schedule II, indicating high potential for side effects and addiction.[82] Nabiximols, an oromucosal spray derived from two strains of Cannabis sativa and containing THC and CBD,[82] is not approved in the U.S., but is approved in several European countries, Canada, and New Zealand as of 2013.[4]

Generic
medication
Brand
name(s)
Country Licensed indications
Nabilone Cesamet U.S., Canada Antiemetic (treatment of nausea or vomiting) associated with chemotherapy that has failed to respond adequately to conventional therapy[4]
Dronabinol Marinol
U.S. Anorexia associated with AIDS–related weight loss[4]
Nabiximols Sativex Canada, New Zealand,
eight European countries
as of 2013
Limited treatment for spasticity and neuropathic pain associated with multiple sclerosis and intractable cancer pain.[4]

As an antiemetic, these medications are usually used when conventional treatment for nausea and vomiting associated with cancer chemotherapy fail to work.[4]

Nabiximols is used for treatment of spasticity associated with MS when other therapies have not worked, and when an initial trial demonstrates "meaningful improvement".[4] Trials for FDA approval in the U.S. are underway.[4] It is also approved in several European countries for overactive bladder and vomiting.[82] When sold under the trade name Sativex as a mouth spray, the prescribed daily dose in Sweden delivers a maximum of 32.4 mg of THC and 30 mg of CBD; mild to moderate dizziness is common during the first few weeks.[107]

Relative to inhaled consumption, peak concentration of oral THC is delayed, and it may be difficult to determine optimal dosage because of variability in patient absorption.[4]

Research

"Victoria", the United States' first legal medical marijuana plant grown by The Wo/Men's Alliance for Medical Marijuana.[citation needed]

A 2016 review assess the current status and prospects for development of CBD and CBD-dominant preparations for medical use in the United States, examining its neuroprotective, antiepileptic, anxiolytic, antipsychotic, and antiinflammatory properties.[108]

United States

The Schedule I classification of cannabis in the US makes the study of medical cannabis difficult there.[4] As of 2016, most cannabis-related research in the United States is on components chemicals in the cannabis plant, and not on the whole plant.[16] To do research on the effects of the whole plant, a medical research organization would need to propose a project then submit their proposal for United States government review.[16] For the research to proceed, the Food and Drug Administration would need to approve the plan for that project, then the Drug Enforcement Administration would need to grant a Schedule I Controlled Substances permit for research, then the National Institute on Drug Abuse would need to provide the actual cannabis which would be studied.[16] Any of the involved government agencies could halt a cannabis research project at any time, and consequently, medical research on cannabis has not advanced in the United States for many years.[16]

Cancer

Cannabinoids have been shown to exhibit some anti-cancer effects in laboratory experiments, although there has been little research into their use as a cancer treatment in people.[109][110] Laboratory experiments have suggested that cannabis and cannabinoids have anticarcinogenic and antitumor effects,[111] including a potential effect on breast- and lung-cancer cells.[112] The National Cancer Institute reports that as of November 2013 there have been no clinical trials on the use of cannabis to treat cancer in people, and only one small study using delta-9-THC that reported potential antitumoral activity.[113] While cannabis may have potential for refractory cancer pain, use as an antiemetic, and as an antitumor agent, much of the evidence comes from outdated or small studies, or animal experiments.[114]

Although there is ongoing research, claims that cannabis has been proved to cure cancer are, according to Cancer Research UK, both prevalent on the internet and "highly misleading".[115]

There is no good evidence that cannabis use helps reduce the risk of getting cancer.[115] Whether smoking cannabis increases cancer risk in general is difficult to establish since it is usually smoked mixed with tobacco – a known carcinogen – and this complicates research.[115] Cannabis use is linked to an increased risk of a type of testicular cancer.[116]

The association of cannabis use with head and neck carcinoma may differ by tumor site, with both possible pro- and anticarcinogenic effects of cannabinoids. Additional work is needed to rule out various sources of bias, confounds and misclassification of cannabis exposure.[117]

Dementia

Cannabinoids have been proposed to have the potential for lessening the effects of Alzheimer's disease.[118] A 2012 review of the effect of cannabinoids on brain ageing found that "clinical evidence regarding their efficacy as therapeutic tools is either inconclusive or still missing".[119] A 2009 Cochrane review said that the "one small randomized controlled trial [that] assessed the efficacy of cannabinoids in the treatment of dementia ... [had] ... poorly presented results and did not provide sufficient data to draw any useful conclusions".[120]

Diabetes

There is emerging evidence that cannabidiol may help slow cell damage in diabetes mellitus type 1.[121] There is a lack of meaningful evidence of the effects of medical cannabis use on people with diabetes; a 2010 review concluded that "the potential risks and benefits for diabetic patients remain unquantified at the present time".[122] GW is studying tetrahydrocannabivarin for type 2 diabetes.[123]

Epilepsy

A 2016 review in the New England Journal of Medicine said that although there was a lot of hype and anecdotes surrounding medical cannabis and epilepsy, "current data from studies in humans are extremely limited, and no conclusions can be drawn".[124] The mechanisms by which cannabis may be effective in the treatment of epilepsy remain unclear.[125]

Some reasons for the lack of clinical research have been the introduction of new synthetic and more stable pharmaceutical anticonvulsants, the recognition of important adverse side effects, and legal restrictions to the use of cannabis-derived medicines[126] - although in December 2015, the DEA (United States Drug Enforcement Administration) has eased some of the regulatory requirements for conducting FDA-approved clinical trials on cannabidiol (CBD).[127]

Epidiolex, a cannabis-based product developed by GW Pharmaceuticals for experimental treatment of epilepsy, underwent stage-two trials in the US in 2014.[128] Pairs of phase 3 trials for Dravet syndrome and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome have begun and should be completed in 2015.[129][130] They are also running a phase 2 study of non-psychoactive cannabidivarin.[131]

Glaucoma

In 2009, the American Glaucoma Society noted that while cannabis can help lower intraocular pressure, it recommended against its use because of "its side effects and short duration of action, coupled with a lack of evidence that its use alters the course of glaucoma".[132] As of 2008 relatively little research had been done concerning therapeutic effects of cannabinoids on the eyes.[133]

Tourette syndrome

A 2007 review of the history of medical cannabis said cannabinoids showed potential therapeutic value in treating Tourette syndrome (TS).[134] A 2005 review said that controlled research on treating TS with dronabinol showed the patients taking the pill had a beneficial response without serious adverse effects;[135] a 2000 review said other studies had shown that cannabis "has no effects on tics and increases the individuals inner tension".[136]

A 2009 Cochrane review examined the two controlled trials to date using cannabinoids of any preparation type for the treatment of tics or TS (Muller-Vahl 2002, and Muller-Vahl 2003). Both trials compared delta-9-THC; 28 patients were included in the two studies (8 individuals participated in both studies).[83] Both studies reported a positive effect on tics, but "the improvements in tic frequency and severity were small and were only detected by some of the outcome measures".[83] The sample size was small and a high number of individuals either dropped out of the study or were excluded.[83] The original Muller-Vahl studies reported individuals who remained in the study; patients may drop out when adverse effects are too high or efficacy is not evident.[83] The authors of the original studies acknowledged few significant results after Bonferroni correction.[83]

Cannabinoid medication might be useful in the treatment of the symptoms in patients with TS,[83] but the 2009 review found that the two relevant studies of cannibinoids in treating tics had attrition bias, and that there was "not enough evidence to support the use of cannabinoids in treating tics and obsessive compulsive behaviour in people with Tourette's syndrome".[83]

Other conditions

Anecdotal evidence and pre-clinical research has suggested that cannabis or cannabinoids may be beneficial for treating Huntington's disease or Parkinson's disease, but follow-up studies of people with these conditions have not produced good evidence of therapeutic potential.[137] A 2001 paper argued that cannabis had properties that made it potentially applicable to the treatment of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and on that basis research on this topic should be permitted, despite the legal difficulties of the time.[138]

A 2005 review and meta-analysis said that bipolar disorder was not well-controlled by existing medications and that there were "good pharmacological reasons" for thinking cannabis had therapeutic potential, making it a good candidate for further study.[139]

Cannabinoids have been proposed for the treatment of primary anorexia nervosa, but have no measurable beneficial effect.[140] The authors of a 2003 paper argued that cannabinoids might have useful future clinical applications in treating digestive diseases.[141] Laboratory experiments have shown that cannabinoids found in marijuana may have analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects.[112]

In 2014, the American Academy of Neurology reviewed all available findings levering the use of marijuana to treat brain diseases. The result was that the scientific evidence is weak that cannabis in any form serves as medicinal for curing or alleviating neurological disorders. To ease multiple sclerosis patients' stiffness, which may be accomplished by their taking cannabis extract by mouth or as a spray, there is support. The academy has published new guidelines on the use of marijuana pills and sprays in the treatment of MS.[142]

Cannabis is being investigated for its possible use in inflammatory bowel disease but as of 2014 there is only weak evidence for its benefits as a treatment.[143]

A 2007 review said cannabidiol had shown potential to relieve convulsion, inflammation, cough, congestion and nausea, and to inhibit cancer cell growth.[144] Preliminary studies have also shown potential over psychiatric conditions such as anxiety, depression, and psychosis.[145] Because cannabidiol relieves the aforementioned symptoms, cannabis strains with a high amount of CBD may benefit people with multiple sclerosis or frequent anxiety attacks.[40][144]

See also

References

  1. ^ Murnion, B (December 2015). "Medicinal cannabis.". Australian prescriber. 38 (6): 212–5. doi:10.18773/austprescr.2015.072. PMC 4674028Freely accessible. PMID 26843715. 
  2. ^ "What is medical marijuana?". National Institute of Drug Abuse. July 2015. Retrieved 19 April 2016. The term medical marijuana refers to using the whole unprocessed marijuana plant or its basic extracts to treat a disease or symptom. 
  3. ^ "Release the strains". Nature Medicine. 21: 963. 4 September 2015. doi:10.1038/nm.3946. Retrieved 8 September 2015. 
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y Borgelt, LM; Franson, KL; Nussbaum, AM; Wang, GS (February 2013). "The pharmacologic and clinical effects of medical cannabis.". Pharmacotherapy. 33 (2): 195–209. doi:10.1002/phar.1187. PMID 23386598. 
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Whiting, PF; Wolff, RF; Deshpande, S; Di Nisio, M; Duffy, S; Hernandez, AV; Keurentjes, JC; Lang, S; Misso, K; Ryder, S; Schmidlkofer, S; Westwood, M; Kleijnen, J (23 June 2015). "Cannabinoids for Medical Use: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.". JAMA. 313 (24): 2456–2473. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.6358. PMID 26103030. 
  6. ^ Jensen, Bjorn; Chen, Jeffrey; Furnish, Tim; Wallace, Mark (1 September 2015). "Medical Marijuana and Chronic Pain: a Review of Basic Science and Clinical Evidence". Current Pain and Headache Reports. 19 (10). doi:10.1007/s11916-015-0524-x. 
  7. ^ a b c d e f Ben Amar M (2006). "Cannabinoids in medicine: a review of their therapeutic potential" (PDF). Journal of Ethnopharmacology (Review). 105 (1–2): 1–25. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2006.02.001. PMID 16540272. 
  8. ^ "AMA Reaffirms Opposition to Marijuana Legalization". Retrieved 25 April 2014. 
  9. ^ "American Society of Addiction Medicine Rejects Use of 'Medical Marijuana'". Retrieved 25 April 2014. 
  10. ^ a b "Minnesota doctors oppose medical marijuana bill". Retrieved 25 April 2014. 
  11. ^ "American Academy of Pediatrics Reaffirms Opposition to Legalizing Marijuana for Recreational or Medical Use". American Academy of Pediatrics. 26 January 2015. Retrieved 28 January 2015. 
  12. ^ "H-95.952 Cannabis for Medicinal Use". American Medical Association. Retrieved 24 June 2015. 
  13. ^ "Australia to give green light to medical cannabis - CNN.com". CNN. Retrieved 17 October 2015. 
  14. ^ "Federal Government to legalise growing of medicinal cannabis". ABC News. Retrieved 17 October 2015. 
  15. ^ Bob Egelko (15 January 2014). "Court upholds crackdown on pot dispensaries". SFGate. Hearst Communications, Inc. Retrieved 3 March 2014. 
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Consumer Reports (28 April 2016). "Up in Smoke: Does Medical Marijuana Work?". Consumer Reports. Retrieved 24 May 2016. 
  17. ^ a b Schubart CD, Sommer IE, Fusar-Poli P, de Witte L, Kahn RS, Boks MP (2014). "Cannabidiol as a potential treatment for psychosis" (PDF). European Neuropsychopharmacology. 24 (1): 51–64. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.11.002. PMID 24309088. 
  18. ^ Barbara S. Koppel, MD, FAAN, John C.M. Brust, MD, FAAN, Terry Fife, MD, FAAN, Jeff Bronstein, MD, PhD, Sarah Youssof, MD, Gary Gronseth, MD, FAAN, and David Gloss, MD (2014). "Systematic review: Efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders". Neurology. 82 (17): 1556–1563. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000000363. PMC 4011465Freely accessible. PMID 24778283. 
  19. ^ a b Sachs J, McGlade E, Yurgelun-Todd D (2015). "Safety and Toxicology of Cannabinoids". Neurotherapeutics. 12 (4): 735–746. doi:10.1007/s13311-015-0380-8. PMC 4604177Freely accessible. PMID 26269228. 
  20. ^ "DrugFacts: Is Marijuana Medicine?". Nida.nih.gov. July 2015. Retrieved 1 June 2016. 
  21. ^ "Public Policy Statement on Marijuana, Cannabinoids and Legalization". 
  22. ^ Thompson, Amy E. (23 June 2015). "Medical Marijuana". JAMA. 313 (24): 2508. doi:10.1001/jama.2015.6676. 
  23. ^ "Marijuana Resource Center". 
  24. ^ "DEA Announces Actions Related to Marijuana and Industrial Hemp". DEA. August 11, 2016. Retrieved 14 August 2016. 
  25. ^ Committee on Obstetric Practice (July 2015). "Committee Opinion No. 637: Marijuana Use During Pregnancy and Lactation". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 126 (1): 234–238. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000467192.89321.a6. 
  26. ^ a b Grotenhermen, F; Müller-Vahl, K (July 2012). "The therapeutic potential of cannabis and cannabinoids.". Deutsches Arzteblatt international. 109 (29-30): 495–501. doi:10.3238/arztebl.2012.0495. PMC 3442177Freely accessible. PMID 23008748. 
  27. ^ Bowles DW, O'Bryant CL, Camidge DR, Jimeno A (July 2012). "The intersection between cannabis and cancer in the United States". Crit. Rev. Oncol. Hematol. (Review). 83 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.critrevonc.2011.09.008. PMID 22019199. 
  28. ^ a b Wang T, Collet JP, Shapiro S, Ware MA (June 2008). "Adverse effects of medical cannabinoids: a systematic review". CMAJ (Review). 178 (13): 1669–78. doi:10.1503/cmaj.071178. PMC 2413308Freely accessible. PMID 18559804. 
  29. ^ Jordan K, Sippel C, Schmoll HJ (September 2007). "Guidelines for antiemetic treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: past, present, and future recommendations". Oncologist (Review). 12 (9): 1143–50. doi:10.1634/theoncologist.12-9-1143. PMID 17914084. 
  30. ^ Nicolson SE, Denysenko L, Mulcare JL, et al. (May–Jun 2012). "Cannabinoid hyperemesis syndrome: a case series and review of previous reports". Psychosomatics (Review, case series). 53 (3): 212–9. doi:10.1016/j.psym.2012.01.003. PMID 22480624. 
  31. ^ Phillips RS, Gopaul S, Gibson F, et al. (2010). "Antiemetic medication for prevention and treatment of chemotherapy induced nausea and vomiting in childhood". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Review) (9): CD007786. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007786.pub2. PMID 20824866. (subscription required (help)). 
  32. ^ Lutge EE, Gray A, Siegfried N (2013). "The medical use of cannabis for reducing morbidity and mortality in patients with HIV/AIDS". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Review). 4: CD005175. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD005175.pub3. PMID 23633327. 
  33. ^ a b Martín-Sánchez E, Furukawa TA, Taylor J, Martin JL (November 2009). "Systematic review and meta-analysis of cannabis treatment for chronic pain". Pain Medicine (Review, meta-analysis). 10 (8): 1353–68. doi:10.1111/j.1526-4637.2009.00703.x. PMID 19732371. 
  34. ^ a b Lynch ME, Campbell F (November 2011). "Cannabinoids for treatment of chronic non-cancer pain; a systematic review of randomized trials". British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology (Review). 72 (5): 735–44. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2125.2011.03970.x. PMC 3243008Freely accessible. PMID 21426373. 
  35. ^ Carter GT, Flanagan AM, Earleywine M, et al. (August 2011). "Cannabis in palliative medicine: improving care and reducing opioid-related morbidity". The American journal of hospice & palliative care (Review). 28 (5): 297–303. doi:10.1177/1049909111402318. PMID 21444324. 
  36. ^ Kahan, M; Srivastava, A; Spithoff, S; Bromley, L (December 2014). "Prescribing smoked cannabis for chronic noncancer pain: preliminary recommendations.". Canadian Family Physician. 60 (12): 1083–90. PMID 25500598. 
  37. ^ Andreae, MH; Carter, GM; Shaparin, N; Suslov, K; Ellis, RJ; Ware, MA; Abrams, DI; Prasad, H; Wilsey, B; Indyk, D; Johnson, M; Sacks, HS (8 September 2015). "Inhaled cannabis for chronic neuropathic pain: an individual patient data meta-analysis.". The journal of pain : official journal of the American Pain Society. 16: 1221–32. doi:10.1016/j.jpain.2015.07.009. PMID 26362106. 
  38. ^ Deshpande, A; Mailis-Gagnon, A; Zoheiry, N; Lakha, SF (August 2015). "Efficacy and adverse effects of medical marijuana for chronic noncancer pain: Systematic review of randomized controlled trials.". Canadian Family Physician. 61 (8): e372–81. PMID 26505059. 
  39. ^ Koppel, BS; Brust, JC; Fife, T; Bronstein, J; Youssof, S; Gronseth, G; Gloss, D (29 Apr 2014). "Systematic review: efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders: report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology.". Neurology. 82 (17): 1556–63. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000000363. PMC 4011465Freely accessible. PMID 24778283. 
  40. ^ a b Lakhan SE, Rowland M (2009). "Whole plant cannabis extracts in the treatment of spasticity in multiple sclerosis: a systematic review". BMC Neurology (Review). 9: 59. doi:10.1186/1471-2377-9-59. PMC 2793241Freely accessible. PMID 19961570. 
  41. ^ Koppel, BS; Brust, JC; Fife, T; Bronstein, J; Youssof, S; Gronseth, G; Gloss, D (29 April 2014). "Systematic review: efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders: report of the Guideline Development Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology.". Neurology. 82 (17): 1556–63. doi:10.1212/WNL.0000000000000363. PMC 4011465Freely accessible. PMID 24778283. 
  42. ^ a b [conflicted source?] Clark PA, Capuzzi K, Fick C (2011). "Medical marijuana: Medical necessity versus political agenda". Medical Science Monitor (Review). 17 (12): RA249–61. doi:10.12659/MSM.882116. PMC 3628147Freely accessible. PMID 22129912. 
  43. ^ Oreja-Guevara, C (2012). "Treatment of spasticity in multiple sclerosis: New perspectives regarding the use of cannabinoids". Revista de neurologia (Review) (in Spanish). 55 (7): 421–30. PMID 23011861. 
  44. ^ Yarnell S (2015). "The Use of Medicinal Marijuana for Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: A Review of the Current Literature". Prim Care Companion CNS Disord (Review). 17 (3). doi:10.4088/PCC.15r01786. PMC 4578915Freely accessible. PMID 26644963. 
  45. ^ a b Washington, Tabitha A.; Brown, Khalilah M.; Fanciullo, Gilbert J. (2012). "Chapter 31: Medical Cannabis". Pain. Oxford University Press. p. 165. ISBN 978-0-19-994274-9. Proponents of medical cannabis site its safety, but there studies in later years that support that smoking of marijuana is associated with risk for dependence and that THC alters the structures of cells in the brain 
  46. ^ Barceloux, Donald G (2012). "Chapter 60: Marijuana (Cannabis sativa L.) and synthetic cannabinoids". Medical Toxicology of Drug Abuse: Synthesized Chemicals and Psychoactive Plants. pp. 886–931. ISBN 978-0-471-72760-6. 
  47. ^ a b c W. Hall; N. Solowij (14 November 1998). "Adverse effects of cannabis". Lancet. 352 (9140): 1611–16. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(98)05021-1. PMID 9843121. 
  48. ^ "Sativex Oral Mucosal Spray Public Assessment Report. Decentralized Procedure." (PDF). United Kingdom Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency. p. 93. Retrieved 7 May 2015. There is clear evidence that recreational cannabis can produce a transient toxic psychosis in larger doses or in susceptible individuals, which is said to characteristically resolve within a week or so of absence (Johns 2001). Transient psychotic episodes as a component of acute intoxication are well-documented (Hall et al 1994) 
  49. ^ D'Souza, DC; Sewell, RA; Ranganathan, M (October 2009). "Cannabis and psychosis/schizophrenia: human studies.". European archives of psychiatry and clinical neuroscience. 259 (7): 413–31. doi:10.1007/s00406-009-0024-2. PMC 2864503Freely accessible. PMID 19609589. 
  50. ^ "Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2011. National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits" (PDF). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. 2011. Retrieved 8 May 2015. 
  51. ^ "www.samhsa.gov". 
  52. ^ a b c Volkow ND, Baler RD, Compton WM, Weiss SR (2014). "Adverse health effects of marijuana use". N. Engl. J. Med. 370 (23): 2219–27. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1402309. PMID 24897085. 
  53. ^ van Holst, RJ; Schilt, T (March 2011). "Drug-related decrease in neuropsychological functions of abstinent drug users.". Current drug abuse reviews. 4 (1): 42–56. doi:10.2174/1874473711104010042. PMID 21466500. 
  54. ^ Hall, W (January 2015). "What has research over the past two decades revealed about the adverse health effects of recreational cannabis use?". Addiction (Abingdon, England). 110 (1): 19–35. doi:10.1111/add.12703. PMID 25287883. 
  55. ^ Stephen Maisto; Mark Galizio; Gerard Connors (2014). Drug Use and Abuse. Cengage Learning. p. 278. ISBN 978-1-305-17759-8. 
  56. ^ a b Tashkin, DP (June 2013). "Effects of marijuana smoking on the lung.". Annals of the American Thoracic Society. 10 (3): 239–47. doi:10.1513/annalsats.201212-127fr. PMID 23802821. 
  57. ^ Hashibe, Mia; Straif, Kurt; Tashkin, Donald P.; Morgenstern, Hal; Greenland, Sander; Zhang, Zuo-Feng (April 2005). "Epidemiologic review of marijuana use and cancer risk". Alcohol. 35 (3): 265–275. doi:10.1016/j.alcohol.2005.04.008. PMID 16054989. 
  58. ^ "Does smoking cannabis cause cancer?". Cancer Research UK. 20 September 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2013. 
  59. ^ Tashkin, Donald (March 1997). "Effects of marijuana on the lung and its immune defenses". UCLA School of Medicine. Retrieved 23 June 2012. 
  60. ^ A. Riecher-Rössler (2014). Comorbidity of Mental and Physical Disorders. Karger Medical and Scientific Publishers. p. 88. ISBN 978-3-318-02604-7. 
  61. ^ Cottencin O. (Dec 2010). "Cannabis arteritis: review of the literature". J Addict Med (Review). 4 (4): 191–6. doi:10.1097/ADM.0b013e3181beb022. PMID 21769037. 
  62. ^ Thomas G (1 January 2014). "Adverse cardiovascular, cerebrovascular, and peripheral vascular effects of marijuana inhalation: what cardiologists need to know". Am J Cardiol. 113 (1): 187–90. doi:10.1016/j.amjcard.2013.09.042. PMID 24176069. 
  63. ^ RT Jones (2002). "Cardiovascular system effects of marijuana". J Clin Pharmacol (Review). 42 (11 Suppl): 58S–63S. doi:10.1002/j.1552-4604.2002.tb06004.x. PMID 12412837. 
  64. ^ "Withdrawal Symptoms From Smoking Pot?". WebMD. 
  65. ^ Hall, W; Degenhardt, L (17 October 2009). "Adverse health effects of non-medical cannabis use". Lancet. 374 (9698): 1383–91. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(09)61037-0. PMID 19837255. 
  66. ^ a b Gordon AJ, Conley JW, Gordon JM (December 2013). "Medical consequences of marijuana use: a review of current literature". Curr Psychiatry Rep (Review). 15 (12): 419. doi:10.1007/s11920-013-0419-7. PMID 24234874. 
  67. ^ Crean RD, Crane NA, Mason BJ (March 2011). "An evidence-based review of acute and long-term effects of cannabis use on executive cognitive functions". J Addict Med. 5 (1): 1–8. doi:10.1097/ADM.0b013e31820c23fa. PMC 3037578Freely accessible. PMID 21321675. 
  68. ^ Martín-Santos R, Fagundo AB, Crippa JA, Atakan Z, Bhattacharyya S, Allen P, Fusar-Poli P, Borgwardt S, Seal M, Busatto GF, McGuire P (March 2010). "Neuroimaging in cannabis use: a systematic review of the literature". Psychol Med. 40 (3): 383–98. doi:10.1017/S0033291709990729. PMID 19627647. 
  69. ^ Grant I, Gonzalez R, Carey CL, Natarajan L, Wolfson T (2003). "Non-acute (residual) neurocognitive effects of cannabis use: A meta-analytic study". Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society. 9 (5): 679–89. doi:10.1017/S1355617703950016. PMID 12901774. Lay summaryWebMD (1 July 2003). 
  70. ^ Large M, Sharma S, Compton MT, Slade T, Nielssen O (June 2011). "Cannabis use and earlier onset of psychosis: a systematic meta-analysis". Arch. Gen. Psychiatry. 68 (6): 555–61. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.5. PMID 21300939. 
  71. ^ Semple DM, McIntosh AM, Lawrie SM (March 2005). "Cannabis as a risk factor for psychosis: systematic review". J. Psychopharmacol. (Oxford). 19 (2): 187–94. doi:10.1177/0269881105049040. PMID 15871146. 
  72. ^ Arseneault L, Cannon M, Witton J, Murray RM (2004). "Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: examination of the evidence". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 184 (2): 110–117. doi:10.1192/bjp.184.2.110. PMID 14754822. 
  73. ^ Laqueille X (2009). "Le cannabis est-il un facteur de vulnérabilité des troubles schizophrènes?" [Is cannabis is a vulnerability factor of schizophrenic disorders?]. Archives de Pédiatrie. 16 (9): 1302–5. doi:10.1016/j.arcped.2009.03.016. PMID 19640690. (registration required (help)). 
  74. ^ Moore TH, Zammit S, Lingford-Hughes A, Barnes TR, Jones PB, Burke M, Lewis G (2007). "Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review". The Lancet. 370 (9584): 319–28. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61162-3. PMID 17662880. 
  75. ^ Henquet C, Krabbendam L, Spauwen J, Kaplan C, Lieb R, Wittchen HU, van Os J (2005). "Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people". BMJ. 330 (7481): 11–0. doi:10.1136/bmj.38267.664086.63. PMC 539839Freely accessible. PMID 15574485. 
  76. ^ Caspi A, Moffitt TE, Cannon M, McClay J, Murray R, Harrington H, Taylor A, Arseneault L, Williams B, Braithwaite A, Poulton R, Craig IW (2005). "Moderation of the Effect of Adolescent-Onset Cannabis Use on Adult Psychosis by a Functional Polymorphism in the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Gene: Longitudinal Evidence of a Gene X Environment Interaction". Biological Psychiatry. 57 (10): 1117–27. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.01.026. PMID 15866551. 
  77. ^ Zammit S, Spurlock G, Williams H, Norton N, Williams N, O'Donovan MC, Owen MJ; Spurlock (2007). "Genotype effects of CHRNA7, CNR1 and COMT in schizophrenia: interactions with tobacco and cannabis use". The British Journal of Psychiatry. 191 (5): 402–7. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.036129. PMID 17978319. Lay summaryMedWireNews. 
  78. ^ Kawohl W, Rössler W (2008). "Cannabis and Schizophrenia: new findings in an old debate". Neuropsychiatrie : Klinik, Diagnostik, Therapie und Rehabilitation : Organ der Gesellschaft Osterreichischer Nervenarzte und Psychiater. 22 (4): 223–9. PMID 19080993. 
  79. ^ Jayanthi S, Buie S, Moore S, Herning RI, Better W, Wilson NM, Contoreggi C, Cadet JL (2008). "Heavy marijuana users show increased serum apolipoprotein C-III levels: evidence from proteomic analyses". Molecular Psychiatry. 15 (1): 101–112. doi:10.1038/mp.2008.50. PMC 2797551Freely accessible. PMID 18475272. Lay summaryReuters (May 13, 2008). 
  80. ^ Downer EJ, Campbell VA (January 2010). "Phytocannabinoids, CNS cells and development: a dead issue?". Drug Alcohol Rev (Review). 29 (1): 91–8. doi:10.1111/j.1465-3362.2009.00102.x. PMID 20078688. 
  81. ^ Burns TL, Ineck JR (2006). "Cannabinoid analgesia as a potential new therapeutic option in the treatment of chronic pain". The Annals of Pharmacotherapy (Review). 40 (2): 251–260. doi:10.1345/aph.1G217. PMID 16449552. 
  82. ^ a b c d Svrakic DM, Lustman PJ, Mallya A, Lynn TA, Finney R, Svrakic NM (2012). "Legalization, decriminalization & medicinal use of cannabis: a scientific and public health perspective". Mo Med (Review). 109 (2): 90–8. PMID 22675784. 
  83. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Curtis A, Clarke CE, Rickards HE (2009). "Cannabinoids for Tourette's Syndrome". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Review) (4): CD006565. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006565.pub2. PMID 19821373. (subscription required (help)). 
  84. ^ a b "Inter-agency advisory regarding claims that smoked marijuana is a medicine" (Press release). fda.gov. 20 April 2006. Retrieved 24 December 2012. 
  85. ^ Abel, Ernest L. (1980). "Cannabis in the Ancient World". Marihuana: the first twelve thousand years. New York City: Plenum Publishers. ISBN 978-0-306-40496-2. Retrieved 18 December 2013. [page needed]
  86. ^ Li, Hui-Lin (1974). "An Archaeological and Historical Account of Cannabis in China", Economic Botany 28.4:437–448, p. 444.
  87. ^ Bloomquist, Edward (1971). Marijuana: The Second Trip. California: Glencoe Press. 
  88. ^ Wong, Ming (1976). La Médecine chinoise par les plantes. Paris: Tchou. OCLC 2646789. [page needed]
  89. ^ [unreliable source?] "The Ebers Papyrus The Oldest (confirmed) Written Prescriptions For Medical Marihuana era 1,550 BC". onlinepot.org. Retrieved 10 June 2008. 
  90. ^ Pain, Stephanie (15 December 2007). "The Pharaoh's pharmacists". New Scientist. Reed Business Information Ltd. 
  91. ^ Touw, Mia (1981). "The Religious and Medicinal Uses ofCannabisin China, India and Tibet". Journal of Psychoactive Drugs. 13 (1): 23–34. doi:10.1080/02791072.1981.10471447. PMID 7024492. 
  92. ^ a b Butrica, James L. (2002). "The Medical Use of Cannabis Among the Greeks and Romans" (PDF). Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 2 (2): 51–70. doi:10.1300/J175v02n02_04. Retrieved 8 November 2014. 
  93. ^ Lozano, Indalecio (2001). "The Therapeutic Use of Cannabis sativa (L.) in Arabic Medicine". Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 1: 63–70. doi:10.1300/J175v01n01_05. 
  94. ^ Alison Mack; Janet Joy (7 December 2000). Marijuana As Medicine?: The Science Beyond the Controversy. National Academies Press. pp. 15–. ISBN 978-0-309-06531-3. 
  95. ^ Dr Farid F. Youssef. "Cannabis Unmasked: What it is and why it does what it does". UWIToday: June 2010. http://sta.uwi.edu/uwitoday/archive/june_2010/article9.asp
  96. ^ [needs update] Baker D, Pryce G, Giovannoni G, Thompson AJ (May 2003). "The therapeutic potential of cannabis". Lancet Neurol. 2 (5): 291–8. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(03)00381-8. PMID 12849183. 
  97. ^ Mack,Alison; Joy, Janet (2001). Marijuana As Medicine. National Academy Press. ISBN 0-309-06531-3. [page needed]
  98. ^ a b "23 Legal Medical Marijuana States and DC - Medical Marijuana - ProCon.org". procon.org. 
  99. ^ Isidore, Chris. "Colorado Top Court Says Dish Worker Can be Fired for Medical Marijuana". CNN Money. CNN. Retrieved 16 June 2015. 
  100. ^ a b "Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961 As amended by the 1972 Protocol" (PDF). International Narcotics Control Board. United Nations. 13 March 1961. pp. 2–3. Retrieved 17 August 2009. 
  101. ^ Timothy B. Wheeler (11 October 2014). "Medical marijuana fees stir debate in Maryland". The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved 12 October 2014. 
  102. ^ Blackwell, Tom (16 October 2013). "The pot vending machine's first foreign market? Canada, of course, 'a seed for the rest of the world'". National Post. Retrieved 4 December 2013. 
  103. ^ "Uber-For-Weed Startup Meadow Lights Up In San Francisco". TechCrunch. AOL. 14 October 2014. Retrieved 22 January 2016. 
  104. ^ Clark, Tonya Body (10 February 2015). "The Medical Marijuana Debate". Compliance Corner. Wolters Kluwer Financial Services. Retrieved 26 February 2015. 
  105. ^ Peters, Joey (29 June 2015). "Court: Employer can't block workers' comp for medical marijuana". NM Political Report. Retrieved 30 June 2015. 
  106. ^ a b Reinarman C, Nunberg H, Lanthier F, Heddleston T (2011). "Who are medical marijuana patients? Population characteristics from nine California assessment clinics". J Psychoactive Drugs (Review). 43 (2): 128–35. doi:10.1080/02791072.2011.587700. PMID 21858958. 
  107. ^ "Produkt - FASS Allmänhet". fass.se. 
  108. ^ Fasinu PS, Phillips S, ElSohly MA, Walker LA (2016). "Current Status and Prospects for Cannabidiol Preparations as New Therapeutic Agents". Pharmacotherapy. 36: 781–96. doi:10.1002/phar.1780. PMID 27285147. 
  109. ^ Bowles, DW; O'Bryant, CL; Camidge, DR; Jimeno, A (July 2012). "The intersection between cannabis and cancer in the United States". Critical reviews in oncology/hematology (Review). 83 (1): 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.critrevonc.2011.09.008. PMID 22019199. 
  110. ^ Chakravarti, Bandana; Ravi, Janani; Ganju, Ramesh K. (2014-07-17). "Cannabinoids as therapeutic agents in cancer: current status and future implications". Oncotarget. 5 (15): 5852–5872. doi:10.18632/oncotarget.2233. ISSN 1949-2553. PMC 4171598Freely accessible. PMID 25115386. 
  111. ^ "Cannabis (marihuana, marijuana) and the cannabinoids". Health Canada. February 2013. Retrieved 2 December 2013. 
  112. ^ a b "Cannabis and Cannabinoids (PDQ®)". National Cancer Institute at the National Institutes of Health. National Cancer Institute. 2 August 2013. Retrieved 24 August 2013. 
  113. ^ "Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Human/Clinical Studies". National Cancer Institute. 21 November 2013. Retrieved 2 December 2013. 
  114. ^ Wilkie, Gianna; Sakr, Bachir; Rizack, Tina (17 March 2016). "Medical Marijuana Use in Oncology". JAMA Oncology. doi:10.1001/jamaoncol.2016.0155. PMID 26986677. 
  115. ^ a b c Arney, Kat (25 July 2012). "Cannabis, cannabinoids and cancer – the evidence so far". Cancer Research UK. Retrieved 8 December 2013. 
  116. ^ Gurney J, Shaw C, Stanley J, Signal V, Sarfati D (2015). "Cannabis exposure and risk of testicular cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMC Cancer (Systematic review). 15: 897. doi:10.1186/s12885-015-1905-6. PMC 4642772Freely accessible. PMID 26560314. 
  117. ^ Madras, Bertha (Dec 11, 2015). "Update of Cannabis and its medical use" (PDF). http://www.who.int. World Health Organization. Retrieved Dec 18, 2016.  External link in |website= (help)
  118. ^ Campbell VA, Gowran A (2007). "Alzheimer's disease; taking the edge off with cannabinoids?". British Journal of Pharmacology (Review). 152 (5): 655–62. doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0707446. PMC 2190031Freely accessible. PMID 17828287. 
  119. ^ Bilkei-Gorzo A (2012). "The endocannabinoid system in normal and pathological brain ageing". Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences (Review). 367 (1607): 3326–41. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0388. PMC 3481530Freely accessible. PMID 23108550. 
  120. ^ Krishnan S, Cairns R, Howard R (2009). "Cannabinoids for the treatment of dementia". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (Review) (2): CD007204. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD007204.pub2. PMID 19370677. (subscription required (help)). 
  121. ^ Di Marzo V, Piscitelli F, Mechoulam R (2011). "Cannabinoids and endocannabinoids in metabolic disorders with focus on diabetes". Handb Exp Pharmacol. (Review). Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology. 203 (75): 75–104. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-17214-4_4. ISBN 978-3-642-17213-7. PMID 21484568. 
  122. ^ Fisher M, White S, Varbiro G, et al. (2010). "The role of cannabis and cannabinoids in diabetes". The British Journal of Diabetes & Vascular Disease. 10 (6): 267–273. doi:10.1177/1474651410385860. 
  123. ^ plc, GW Pharmaceuticals. "GW Pharmaceuticals Provides Update on Cannabinoid Pipeline". Retrieved 19 September 2015. 
  124. ^ Friedman D, Devinsky O (2015). "Cannabinoids in the Treatment of Epilepsy". N. Engl. J. Med. (Review). 373 (11): 1048–58. doi:10.1056/NEJMra1407304. PMID 26352816. 
  125. ^ Reddy, DS; Golub, V (19 January 2016). "The Pharmacological Basis of Cannabis Therapy for Epilepsy.". The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics. 357: 45–55. doi:10.1124/jpet.115.230151. PMID 26787773. 
  126. ^ Pertwee RG (2012). "Targeting the endocannabinoid system with cannabinoid receptor agonists: pharmacological strategies and therapeutic possibilities". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences (Review). 367 (1607): 3353–63. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0381. PMC 3481523Freely accessible. PMID 23108552. 
  127. ^ "DEA.gov / Headquarters News Releases, 12/23/15". 
  128. ^ Ward, Andrew (9 January 2014). "GW raises nearly $90m to develop childhood epilepsy treatment". Financial Times. Retrieved 20 January 2014. 
  129. ^ "GW Pharmaceuticals Initiates Phase 3 Pivotal Study of Epidiolex(R) (CBD) in Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome (NASDAQ:GWPH)". ir.gwpharm.com. Retrieved 19 September 2015. 
  130. ^ "GW Pharmaceuticals Initiates Second Phase 3 Pivotal Study of Epidiolex(R) (CBD) in Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome (NASDAQ:GWPH)". ir.gwpharm.com. Retrieved 19 September 2015. 
  131. ^ "GW Pharmaceuticals Initiates Phase 2 Clinical Study of Cannabidivarin (CBDV) in Epilepsy (NASDAQ:GWPH)". ir.gwpharm.com. Retrieved 19 September 2015. 
  132. ^ Jampel, Henry (10 August 2009). "Position statement on marijuana and the treatment of glaucoma". American Glaucoma Society. Retrieved 30 November 2013. 
  133. ^ Yazulla S (Sep 2008). "Endocannabinoids in the retina: from marijuana to neuroprotection". Progress in retinal and eye research (Review). 27 (5): 501–26. doi:10.1016/j.preteyeres.2008.07.002. PMC 2584875Freely accessible. PMID 18725316. 
  134. ^ [needs update] Kogan NM, Mechoulam R (2007). "Cannabinoids in health and disease". Dialogues Clin Neurosci. 9 (4): 413–30. PMC 3202504Freely accessible. PMID 18286801. 
  135. ^ [needs update] Singer HS (2005). "Tourette's syndrome: from behaviour to biology". Lancet Neurol (Review). 4 (3): 149–59. doi:10.1016/S1474-4422(05)01012-4. PMID 15721825. 
  136. ^ [needs update] Robertson MM (2000). "Tourette syndrome, associated conditions and the complexities of treatment". Brain (Review). 123 (3): 425–62. doi:10.1093/brain/123.3.425. PMID 10686169. 
  137. ^ Iuvone T, Esposito G, De Filippis D, et al. (2009). "Cannabidiol: A promising drug for neurodegenerative disorders?". CNS neuroscience & therapeutics (Review). 15 (1): 65–75. doi:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00065.x. PMID 19228180. 
  138. ^ [needs update] Carter GT, Rosen BS (2001). "Marijuana in the management of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis". The American journal of hospice & palliative care (Review). 18 (4): 264–70. doi:10.1177/104990910101800411. PMID 11467101. 
  139. ^ [needs update] Ashton CH, Moore PB, Gallagher P, Young AH (2005). "Cannabinoids in bipolar affective disorder: A review and discussion of their therapeutic potential". Journal of psychopharmacology (Review, meta-analysis). 19 (3): 293–300. doi:10.1177/0269881105051541. PMID 15888515. 
  140. ^ Ethan B Russo (5 September 2013). Cannabis and Cannabinoids: Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Therapeutic Potential. Routledge. p. 191. ISBN 978-1-136-61493-4. 
  141. ^ [needs update] Di Carlo G, Izzo AA (2003). "Cannabinoids for gastrointestinal diseases: potential therapeutic applications". Expert Opinion on Investigational Drugs (Review). 12 (1): 39–49. doi:10.1517/13543784.12.1.39. PMID 12517253. 
  142. ^ Koppel, Barbara S., MD; et al. (29 April 2014). "Systematic review: Efficacy and safety of medical marijuana in selected neurologic disorders". Neurology. 82 (17): 1556–1563. doi:10.1212/wnl.0000000000000363. PMC 4011465Freely accessible. PMID 24778283. 
  143. ^ Naftali T, Mechulam R, Lev LB, Konikoff FM (2014). "Cannabis for inflammatory bowel disease". Dig Dis (Review). 32 (4): 468–74. doi:10.1159/000358155. PMID 24969296. 
  144. ^ a b Mechoulam R, Peters M, Murillo-Rodriguez E, Hanus LO (August 2007). "Cannabidiol--recent advances". Chem. Biodivers. (Review). 4 (8): 1678–92. doi:10.1002/cbdv.200790147. PMID 17712814. 
  145. ^ Campos AC, Moreira FA, Gomes FV, Del Bel EA, Guimarães FS (December 2012). "Multiple mechanisms involved in the large-spectrum therapeutic potential of cannabidiol in psychiatric disorders". Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond., B, Biol. Sci. (Review). 367 (1607): 3364–78. doi:10.1098/rstb.2011.0389. PMC 3481531Freely accessible. PMID 23108553. 

Further reading

External links