This is a good article. Click here for more information.

Sarawak

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the river, see Sarawak River. For the ship, see HMS Sarawak (K591).
Sarawak
State
Flag of Sarawak
Flag		 Coat of arms of Sarawak
Coat of arms
Nickname(s): Bumi Kenyalang[1]
Land of the Hornbills
Motto: Bersatu, Berusaha, Berbakti
United, Striving, Serving
Anthem: Ibu Pertiwiku
My Motherland[2]
   Sarawak in    Malaysia
   Sarawak in    Malaysia
Coordinates: 2°48′N 113°53′E / 2.800°N 113.883°E / 2.800; 113.883Coordinates: 2°48′N 113°53′E / 2.800°N 113.883°E / 2.800; 113.883
Capital Kuching
Divisions
List
Government
 • Head of State Abdul Taib Mahmud
 • Chief Minister Abang Johari Openg (BN)
Area[3]
 • Total 124,450 km2 (48,050 sq mi)
Population (2015)[4]
 • Total 2,636,000
 • Density 21/km2 (55/sq mi)
Demonym(s) Sarawakian
Human Development Index[5]
 • HDI (2000) 0.757
Time zone MST[6] (UTC+8)
Postal code 93xxx[7] to 98xxx[8]
Calling code 082 to 086[9]
ISO 3166 code MY-13
Vehicle registration QA to QT[10]
Self-government 22 July 1963[11][12]
Malaysia Agreement[13] 16 September 1963[14]
Website Official website

Sarawak (/səˈrɑːwɒk/; Malay: [saˈrawaʔ]) is one of the two Malaysian states on the island of Borneo (Sabah being the other). Located in northwest Borneo, Sarawak is bordered by the state of Sabah to the northeast, Kalimantan, the Indonesian portion of Borneo, to the south, and the independent state of Brunei in the northwest. The capital city, Kuching, is the economic centre of the state and seat of the Sarawak state government. Other cities and towns in Sarawak include Miri, Sibu, and Bintulu. As of the 2015 census, the total population of Sarawak is 2,636,000. Sarawak has an equatorial climate with tropical rainforests and abundant animal and plant species. It has several prominent cave systems at Gunung Mulu National Park. Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia; Bakun Dam, one of the largest dams in Southeast Asia, is located on one of its tributaries, the Balui River. Mount Murud is the highest point in Sarawak.

The earliest known human settlement in Sarawak, located at the Niah Caves, dates back to 40,000 years ago. A series of Chinese ceramics dated from the 8th to 13th century AD was uncovered at the archaeological site of Santubong. The coastal regions of Sarawak came under the influence of the Bruneian Empire in the 16th century. In 1839, James Brooke, a British explorer, arrived in Sarawak. He, and his descendants, governed the state from 1841 to 1946. During World War II, it was occupied by the Japanese for three years. After the war, the last White Rajah, Charles Vyner Brooke, ceded Sarawak to Britain, and in 1946 it became a British Crown Colony. On 22 July 1963, Sarawak was granted self-government by the British and subsequently became one of the founding members of the Federation of Malaysia, established on 16 September 1963. However, the federation was opposed by Indonesia leading to a three-year confrontation. The creation of the Federation also resulted in a communist insurgency that lasted until 1990.

The head of state is the Governor, also known as the Yang di-Pertua Negeri, while the head of government is the Chief Minister. Sarawak is divided into administrative divisions, and districts, governed by a system that is closely modeled on the Westminster parliamentary system and was the earliest state legislature system in Malaysia.

The economy of Sarawak is strongly export-oriented primarily in oil and gas, timber and oil palms, due to its abundance of natural resources, however, the state also has manufacturing, energy and tourism sectors. Sarawak exhibits notable diversity in ethnicity, culture, and language; major ethnic groups in Sarawak are: Iban, Malay, Chinese, Melanau, Bidayuh and Orang Ulu. English and Malay are the only two official languages of the state; there is no official religion. The Gawai Dayak is an annual festival celebrated on a public holiday, and a lute called sapeh is a traditional musical instrument.

Etymology[edit]

The rhinoceros hornbill is the state bird of Sarawak.

The official explanation of the word "Sarawak" is that it is derived from the Sarawak Malay word serawak, which means antimony. A popular alternative explanation is that it is a contraction of the four Malay words purportedly uttered by Pangeran Muda Hashim (uncle to the Sultan of Brunei), "Saya serah pada awak" (I surrender it to you), when he gave Sarawak to James Brooke in 1841. James Brooke became the first of the White Rajah dynasty to govern Sarawak.[15] However, the latter explanation is flawed: the territory had been named Sarawak before the arrival of James Brooke, and the word awak was not in the vocabulary of Sarawak Malay before the formation of Malaysia.[16]

Sarawak is nicknamed "Land of the Hornbills" (Bumi Kenyalang). These birds are important cultural symbols for the Dayak people, representing the spirit of God. It is also believed that if a hornbill is seen flying over residences, it will bring good luck to the local community. Sarawak has eight of the world's fifty-four species of hornbills. The Rhinoceros hornbill is the state bird of Sarawak.[17]

History[edit]

Main article: History of Sarawak
Historical affiliations

Sultanate of Brunei 15th century–1841[18]
Kingdom of Sarawak 1841–1946
Empire of Japan 1942–1945
British Sarawak Crown 1946–1963
 Malaysia 1963–present

A view of a river from the anchorage off Sarawak, Borneo, c. 1800s. Painting from the National Maritime Museum of London.

Foragers are known to have lived around the west mouth of the Niah Caves (located 110 kilometres (68 mi) southwest of Miri) 40,000 years ago.[19][20] A modern human skull found near the Niah Caves is the oldest human remain found in Malaysia and the oldest modern human skull from Southeast Asia.[19][20][21][22] Chinese ceramics dating to the Tang and Song dynasties (8th to 13th century AD, respectively) found at Santubong (near Kuching) hint at its significance as a seaport.[23]

During the 16th century, the Kuching area was known to Portuguese cartographers as Cerava, one of the five great seaports on the island of Borneo.[24][25] By the early 19th century, the Bruneian Empire was in decline and only retained a tenuous hold along the coastal regions of Sarawak, which were controlled held by semi-independent Malay leaders. Away from the coast, territorial wars were fought between the Iban and a Kenyah-Kayan alliance.[26]

The discovery of antimony ore in the Kuching region led Pangeran Indera Mahkota, a representative of the Sultan of Brunei, to increase development in the territory between 1824 and 1830. Increasing antimony production in the region led the Brunei Sultanate to demand higher taxes, which ultimately led to civil unrest.[27] In 1839, Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (1827–1852) assigned his uncle Pangeran Muda Hashim the task of restoring order but his inability to do so caused him to request the aid of British sailor James Brooke. Brooke's success in quelling the revolt was well rewarded with antimony, property and the governorship of Sarawak.

James Brooke, the first White Rajah

Upon receiving authority over Sarawak, the Brooke family, later called the White Rajahs, set about expanding the territory they had been ceded.[28] With expansion came the need for efficient governance and thus, beginning in 1841, Sarawak was separated into the first of its administrative divisions[29] with currency, the Sarawak dollar, beginning circulation in 1858 .[30] By 1912, a total of five divisions had been established in Sarawak, each headed by a Resident.[29] The Brooke family generally practiced a paternalistic form of government with minimal bureaucracy, but were pressured to establish some form of legal framework. In 1928, a Judicial Commissioner, Thomas Stirling Boyd, was appointed as the first legally trained judge. However, unfamiliarity with local customs led to an advisory Supreme Council, mostly consisting of Malay chiefs, being created to provide guidance. This council is the oldest state legislative assembly in Malaysia, with the first General Council meeting taking place at Bintulu in 1867.[31] A similar system relating to matters concerning various Chinese communities was also formed [32] Members of the local community were encouraged by the Brooke regime to focus on particular functions within the territory: the Ibans and other Dayak people were hired as militia while Malays were primarily administrators. Chinese, both local and immigrant, were mostly employed in plantations,[33] mines and as bureaucrats.[32] Expanding trade led to the formation of the Borneo Company Limited in 1856. The company was, and still is, involved in a wide range of businesses in Sarawak including trade, banking, agriculture, mineral exploration, and development.[34]

Between 1853 and 1862, the Brooke government experienced a number of uprisings but all were successfully contained with the aid of local tribes.[32] To guard against future uprisings, a series of forts were constructed to protect Kuching, including Fort Margherita, completed in 1871. However, by the time of its completion, Brooke's control of Sarawak was such that defenses were largely unnecessary.[35]

Sarawak, along with Sabah and Brunei, became a British protectorate in 1888. This agreement granted Britain jurisdiction over Sarawak's foreign affairs but administration was still handled by the Brooke government. Towards the latter half of the 19th century, Charles Anthoni Brooke succeeded his uncle as the next White Rajah of Sarawak. He would go on to increase the territorial expanse of Sarawak by acquiring Limbang and the Baram and Trusan valleys from the Sultan of Brunei.[36] Apart from territorial expansion, he also established the Sarawak Museum, the oldest museum in Borneo, in 1891,[35][37] and brokered a peace in Marudi. Economic development in Sarawak continued under his rule and in 1910, the first oil well began drilling followed two years later by the opening of the Brooke Dockyard. Anthony Brooke, who would become Rajah Muda in 1939, was born in the same year.[38]

At the height of the war in the Pacific, in 1941, a centenary celebration of Brooke rule in Sarawak was held. During the celebration, a new constitution was introduced that would limit the power of the Rajah and granting the Sarawak people a greater role in the functioning of government.[39] That same year saw the British withdrawing its forces defending Sarawak to Singapore. With Sarawak now unguarded, the Brooke regime adopted a scorched earth policy where oil installations in Miri were to be destroyed and the Kuching airfield held as long as possible before being destroyed. A Japanese invasion force led by Kiyotake Kawaguchi landed in Miri on 16 December 1941 and conquered Kuching on 24 December 1941. The British forces retreated to Singkawang in Dutch Borneo bordering Sarawak. After ten weeks of fighting in Dutch Borneo, the Allied forces surrendered on 1 April 1942.[40] When the Japanese invaded Sarawak, Charles Vyner Brooke, the last Rajah of Sarawak had already left for Sydney, Australia while his officers were captured by the Japanese and interned at the Batu Lintang camp.[41] Sarawak remained part of the Empire of Japan for three years and eight months. Sarawak was divided into three provinces, namely: Kuching-shu, Sibu-shu, and Miri-shu, each under their respective Japanese Provincial Governor. Allied forces later carried out Operation Semut to sabotage Japanese operations in Sarawak.[42] After the surrender of Japan, the Japanese surrendered to the Australian forces at Labuan on 10 September 1945.[43][44] Sarawak was immediately placed under British Military Administration until April 1946.[45]

Lacking the resources to rebuild Sarawak after the war, Charles Vyner Brooke decided to cede Sarawak as British Crown Colony and a Cession Bill was put forth in the Council Negri (now Sarawak State Legislative Assembly), which was debated for three days. The bill was passed on 17 May 1946 with a narrow majority (19 versus 16 votes). This caused hundreds of Malay civil servants to resign in protest, sparking an anti-cession movement and the assassination of the second colonial governor of Sarawak Sir Duncan Stewart.[46] Despite the resistance, Sarawak became a British Crown colony on 1 July 1946.[47] Anthony Brooke opposed the cession of Sarawak to the British Crown,[48] for which he was banished from Sarawak by the colonial government.[32][note 1] He was only allowed to return 17 years later after Sarawak had become part of Malaysia.[49] In 1950 all anti-cession movements in Sarawak ceased after a clamp-down by the colonial government.[26]

Tan Sri Datuk Amar Stephen Kalong Ningkan declaring the formation of the Federation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963

On 27 May 1961, Tunku Abdul Rahman, the prime minister of the Federation of Malaya, announced a plan to form a greater federation together with Singapore, Sarawak, Sabah and Brunei, to be called Malaysia. On 17 January 1962, the Cobbold Commission was formed to gauge the support of Sarawak and Sabah for the proposed federation; the Commission reported 80 percent support for federation.[50][51] On 23 October 1962, five political parties in Sarawak formed a united front that supported the formation of Malaysia.[52] Sarawak was officially granted self-government on 22 July 1963,[11][12] and became federated with Malaya, North Borneo, and Singapore to form the federation of Malaysia on 16 September 1963.[53][54] The Philippines, Indonesia, Brunei People's Party, and Sarawak-based communist groups, opposed the federation and in 1962, the Brunei Revolt broke out.[55] Indonesian President Sukarno responded by deploying armed volunteers and, later, military forces into Sarawak.[56][57] Thousands of Sarawak communist members went into Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, and underwent training with the Communist Party of Indonesia. The most significant engagement of the confrontation was fought at Plaman Mapu in April 1965. The defeat at Plaman Mapu ultimately resulted in the fall of Sukarno and he was replaced by Suharto as president of Indonesia. Negotiations were restarted between Malaysia and Indonesia and led to the end of the confrontation on 11 August 1966.

A number of communist groups existed in Sarawak, the first of which, the Sarawak Overseas Chinese Democratic Youth League, formed in 1951.[26][note 2] Another group, the North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP) (also known as Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) by government sources) was formally set up in 1970.[citation needed] Weng Min Chyuan and Bong Kee Chok were two of the more notable communist leaders involved in the insurgency. As the political scene changed, it grew progressively more difficult for the communists to operate. This led to Bong opening talks with chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub in 1973 and eventually signing an agreement with the government. Weng, who had moved to China in the mid-1960's but nonetheless retained control of the CCO, pushed for a continued armed insurrection against the government in spite of this agreement. The conflict continued mostly in the Rajang Delta region but eventually ended when, on 17 October 1990, the NKCP signed a peace agreement with the Sarawak government.[58][59]

Politics[edit]

Government[edit]

See also: Government of Sarawak, Cabinet of Sarawak, Politics of Malaysia, 1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis, 1987 Ming Court Affair, and Table of precedence of Sarawak
Timeline of political parties in Sarawak

The head of the Sarawak state is the Yang di-Pertua Negeri (also known as TYT or Governor), a largely symbolic position appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King of Malaysia) on the advice of the Malaysian federal government.[60] Since 2014 this position has been held by Abdul Taib Mahmud.[61] The TYT appoints the chief minister, currently held by Abang Johari Openg (BN),[62] as the head of government. Generally, the leader of the party that commands the majority of the state Legislative Assembly is appointed as the chief minister; elected representatives are known as state assemblymen. The state assembly passes laws on subjects that are not under the jurisdiction of the Parliament of Malaysia such as land administration, employment, forests, immigration, merchant shipping and fisheries. The state government is constituted by the chief minister, the cabinet ministers and their assistant ministers.[63]

To protect the interests of the Sarawakians in the Malaysian federation, special safeguards have been included in the Constitution of Malaysia. These include: control over immigration in and out of the state as well as the residence status of non-Sarawakians and non-Sabahans, limitations on the practice of law to resident lawyers, independence of the Sarawak High Court from the High Court Peninsular Malaysia, a requirement that the Sarawak Chief Minister be consulted prior to the appointment of the chief judge of the Sarawak High Court, the existence of Native Courts in Sarawak and the power to levy sales tax. Natives in Sarawak enjoy special privileges such as quotas and employment in public service, scholarships, university placements, and business permits.[64] Local governments in Sarawak are exempt from local authority laws enacted by the Malaysian parliament.[65]

The State Assembly building is located near the Kuching waterfront.

Major political parties in Sarawak can be divided into three categories: native non-Muslim, native Muslim, and non-native; parties, however, may also include members from more than one group.[66] The first political party, the Sarawak United Peoples' Party (SUPP), was established in 1959, followed by the Parti Negara Sarawak (PANAS) in 1960 and the Sarawak National Party (SNAP) in 1961. Other major political parties such as Parti Pesaka Sarawak (PESAKA) appeared by 1962.[26][note 3] These parties later joined the national coalition of the Alliance Party. The Alliance Party (later regrouped into Barisan Nasional) has ruled Sarawak since the formation of Malaysia. Stephen Kalong Ningkan was the first Chief Minister of Sarawak from 1963 to 1966 following his landslide victory in local council elections. However, he was ousted in 1966 by Tawi Sli with the help of the Malaysian federal government, causing the 1966 Sarawak constitutional crisis.[26]

Abdul Taib Mahmud
Abdul Taib Mahmud, the current Yang di-Pertua Negeri of Sarawak.
Abang Johari Openg
Abang Johari Openg, the current Chief Minister of Sarawak.

In 1969, the first Sarawak state election was held, with members of the Council Negri being directly elected by the voters. This election marked the beginning of ethnic Melanau domination in Sarawak politics by Abdul Rahman Ya'kub and Abdul Taib Mahmud. In the same year, the North Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP) which subsequently waged a guerilla war against the newly elected Sarawak state government, was formed. The party was dissolved after the signing of a peace agreement in 1990.[59] 1973 saw the birth of Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu (PBB) following a merger of several parties.[67] This party would later become the backbone of the Sarawak BN coalition. In 1978, the Democratic Action Party (DAP) was the first West Malaysia-based party to open its branches in Sarawak.[67] Sarawak originally held state elections together with national parliamentary elections. However, the then chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub delayed the dissolution of the state assembly by a year to prepare for the challenges posed by opposition parties.[68] This made Sarawak the only state in Malaysia to hold state elections separate from the national parliamentary elections since 1979.[69] In 1983, SNAP started to fragment into several splinter parties due to recurrent leadership crises.[70][71] The political climate in the state was stable until the 1987 Ming Court Affair, a political coup initiated by Abdul Taib Mahmud's uncle to topple the Taib-led BN coalition. However, the coup was unsuccessful and Taib retained his position as chief minister.[72]

Since the 2006 state election, the Democractic Action Party (DAP) has derived the majority of its support from urban centres and became the largest opposition party in Sarawak.[73] In 2010, it formed the Pakatan Rakyat coalition with Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR) and Parti Islam Se-Malaysia (PAS); the latter two parties had become active in Sarawak between 1996 and 2001.[74] Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia where West Malaysia-based component parties in the BN coalition, especially the UMNO, have not been active in state politics.[75]

Divisions and Districts[edit]

Unlike states in Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak is divided into divisions, 12 in all, as well as districts,each headed by one resident. [60][76][77][78]

A division is divided into districts, each headed by a district officer, which are in turn divided into sub-districts, each headed by a Sarawak Administrative Officer (SAO). There is also one Development Officer for each division and district to implement development projects. The state government appoints a headman (known as ketua kampung or penghulu) for each village.[60][76] There are a total of 39 sub-districts in Sarawak all under the jurisdiction of the Sarawak Ministry of Local Government and Community Development.[79] The list of divisions, districts, and subdistricts is shown in the table below:[3]

Division District Subdistrict
Kuching Kuching Padawan
Bau
Lundu Sematan
Samarahan Samarahan
Asajaya Sadong Jaya
Simunjan Sebuyau
Serian[77] Serian Siburan
Tebedu
Sri Aman Sri Aman Lingga
Pantu
Lubok Antu Engkilili
Betong Betong Spaoh
Debak
Pusa[80] Maludam
Saratok
Kabong Roban
Sarikei Sarikei
Meradong
Julau
Pakan
Mukah Mukah Balingian
Dalat Oya
Daro
Matu Igan
Tanjung Manis
Sibu Sibu
Kanowit
Selangau
Kapit Kapit Nanga Merit
Song
Belaga Sungai Asap
Bintulu Bintulu
Tatau
Sebauh
Miri Miri Bario
Marudi Mulu
Subis Niah
Beluru Tinjar
Telang Usan Long Lama
Long Bedian
Limbang Limbang Nanga Medamit
Lawas Sundar
Trusan

Security[edit]

The first paramilitary armed forces in Sarawak, a regiment formed by the Brooke regime in 1862, were known as the Sarawak Rangers.[81] The regiment, renowned for its jungle tracking skills, served in the campaign to end the intertribal wars in Sarawak, engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Japanese, in the Malayan Emergency (in West Malaysia) and the Sarawak Communist Insurgency against the communists. Following the formation of Malaysia, the regiment was absorbed into the Malaysian military forces and is now known as the Royal Ranger Regiment.[82]

In 1888, Sarawak, together with neighbouring North Borneo, and Brunei, became British protectorates, and the responsibility for foreign policy was handed over to the British in exchange for military protection.[36] Since the formation of Malaysia, the Malaysian federal government has been solely responsible for foreign policy and military forces in the country.[83][84]

Territorial disputes[edit]

See also: Territorial disputes in the South China Sea

Sarawak has land and maritime disputes with neighbouring Brunei.[85] In 2009, Malaysian prime minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi claimed that in a meeting with Sultan of Brunei, Brunei agreed to drop its claim over Limbang.[86] This was however denied by the second Foreign Minister of Brunei Lim Jock Seng, stating the issue was never been discussed during the meeting.[87] James Shoal (Betting Serupai) and the Luconia Shoals (Betting Raja Jarum/Patinggi Ali), islands in the South China Sea, fall within Sarawak's exclusive economic zone, but concerns have been raised about Chinese incursions.[88][89][90] Meanwhile, there are several Sarawak–Kalimantan border issues yet to be settled with Indonesia.[91]

Environment[edit]

Geography[edit]

Sarawak is located in northwestern Borneo as seen from NASA satellite image.

The total land area of Sarawak is nearly 124,450 square kilometres (48,050 sq mi), making up 37.5 percent of the total area of Malaysia, and lies between the northern latitudes 0° 50′ and 5° and eastern longitudes 109° 36′ and 115° 40′ E.[92] Its 750 kilometres (470 mi) of coastline is interrupted in the north by about 150 kilometres (93 mi) of Bruneian coast. Sarawak is separated from Kalimantan Borneo by ranges of high hills and mountains that are part of the central mountain range of Borneo. These become loftier to the north, and are highest near the source of the Baram River at the steep Mount Batu Lawi and Mount Mulu. Mount Murud is the highest point in Sarawak.[93]

Sarawak has a tropical geography with an equatorial climate and experiences two monsoon seasons: a northeast monsoon and a southwest monsoon. The northeast monsoon occurs between November and February, bringing heavy rainfall while the southwest monsoon, which occurs between March and October, brings somewhat less rainfall . The climate is stable throughout the year except for the two monsoons, with average daily temperature varying between 23 °C (73 °F) in the morning to 32 °C (90 °F) in the afternoon. Unusually, Miri has the lowest average temperatures in comparison to other major towns in Sarawak and has the longest daylight hours (more than six hours a day), while other areas receive sunshine for five to six hours a day. Humidity is usually high, exceeding 68 percent, with annual rainfall varying between 330 centimetres (130 in) and 460 centimetres (180 in) for up to 220 days a year.[92]

Sarawak is divided into three ecoregions. The coastal region is rather low-lying and flat with large areas of swamp and other wet environments. Beaches in Sarawak include: Pasir Panjang[94] and Damai beaches in Kuching,[95] Tanjung Batu beach in Bintulu,[96] and Tanjung Lobang[97] and Hawaii beaches in Miri.[98] Hilly terrain accounts for much of the inhabited land and is where most of the cities and towns are found. The ports of Kuching and Sibu are built some distance from the coast on rivers while Bintulu and Miri are close to the coastline where the hills stretch right to the South China Sea. The third region is the mountainous region along the Kalimantan–Borneo border, where a number of villages such as Bario, Ba'kelalan, and Usun Apau Plieran are located.[93] A number of rivers flows through Sarawak, with the Sarawak River being the main river flowing through Kuching. The Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia, measuring 563 kilometres (350 mi) including its tributary, Balleh River. To the north, the Baram, Limbang and Trusan Rivers drain into the Brunei Bay.[93]

The Rajang River is the longest river in Malaysia

Sarawak can be divided into two geological zones: the Sunda Shield, which extends southwest from the Batang Lupar River (near Sri Aman) and forms the southern tip of Sarawak, and the geosyncline region, which extends northeast to the Batang Lupar River, forming the central and northern regions of Sarawak. The oldest rock type in southern Sarawak is schist formed during the Carboniferous and Lower Permian times, while the youngest igneous rock in this region, andesite, can be found at Sematan. Geological formation of the central and northern regions started during the late Cretaceous period. Other types of stone that can be found in central and northern Sarawak are shale, sandstone, and chert.[92] Significant quantities of Sarawak soil are lithosols, up to 60 percent, and podsols, around 12 percent, while abundant alluvial soil is found in coastal and riverine regions. 12 percent of Sarawak is covered with peat swamp forest.[92]

Sarawak has a number of national parks including Niah National Park, within which the Niah Caves are located,[99] and Lambir Hills National Park, known for its various waterfalls.[100] Sarawak is also home to the Gunung Mulu National Park, which was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site[101] in 2000.[102] The park is known for Sarawak Chamber, the world's largest underground chamber,[citation needed] Deer Cave, the second largest cave passage in the world,[103] and Clearwater Cave, the longest cave system in Southeast Asia.[104][105]

Biodiversity[edit]

See also: Fauna of Borneo, Deforestation in Borneo, and Sarawak Biodiversity Centre

Sarawak contains large tracts of tropical rainforest with abundant plant and animal species.[106] The Sarawak coastline is covered with mangrove and nipah forests, comprising two percent of the total forested area in Sarawak, and is most commonly found in the estuarine areas of Kuching, Sarikei, and Limbang. The major trees found here include: bako, nipah palm, and nibong. Peat swamp forests cover 16 percent of the forested land and are largely concentrated in southern Miri and the lower Baram Valley. The dominant trees in the peat swamp forests are: ramin, meranti, and medang jongkong. Kerangas forest comprises 5 percent of the total forest area, while Dipterocarpaceae forests dominate in mountainous areas.[92] The broad diversity has led to a number of plant species being studied for medicinal properties.[107]

A walkout through the Lambir Hills National Park.

The Sarawak rainforest has one of the highest concentrations of species per unit area in the world. The state has 185 species of mammals, 530 species of birds, 166 species of snakes, 104 species of lizards, and 113 species of amphibians. 19 percent of the mammals, 6 percent of the birds, 20 percent of the snakes and 32 percent of the lizards found in Sarawak are endemic species. These species are largely found in Totally Protected Areas. There are over 2,000 tree species in Sarawak. Other plants includes 1,000 species of orchids, 757 species of ferns, and 260 species of palm.[108] The state is the habitat of endangered animals, including the borneo pygmy elephant, proboscis monkey, orangutans and rhinoceroses.[109][110][111][112][113] Matang Wildlife Centre, Semenggoh Nature Reserve, and Lanjak Entimau Wildlife Sanctuary[114] are noted for their orangutan protection programmes.[115][116] Talang–Satang National Park is notable for its turtle conservation initiatives.[117] Birdwatching is a common activity in various national parks such as Gunung Mulu National Park, Lambir Hills National Park,[118] and Similajau National Park.[119] Miri–Sibuti National Park is known for its coral reefs[120] and Gunung Gading National Park for its Rafflesia flowers.[121] Bako National Park, the oldest national park in Sarawak, is known for its 275 species of proboscis monkeys,[122] and Padawan Pitcher Garden for its various carnivorous pitcher plants.[123] In 1854, Alfred Russel Wallace visited Sarawak. A year later, he formulated the "Sarawak Law" which foreshadowed the formulation of his (and Darwin's) theory of evolution by natural selection three years later.[124]

The Sarawak state government has enacted several laws to protect its forests and endangered wildlife species. Some of the protected species are the orangutan, green turtle, flying lemur, and piping hornbill. Under the Wild Life Protection Ordinance 1998, Sarawak natives are given permissions to hunt for a restricted range of wild animals in the jungles but should not possess more than 5 kilograms (11 lb) of meat.[125] The Sarawak Forest Department was established in 1919 to conserve forest resources in the state.[126] Following international criticism of the logging industry in Sarawak, the state government decided to downsize the Sarawak Forest Department and created the Sarawak Forestry Corporation in 1995.[127][128] The Sarawak Biodiversity Centre was set up in 1997 for the conservation, protection, and sustainable development of biodiversity in the state.[129]

Conservation issues[edit]

A logging camp along the Rajang River

Varying claims have been made regarding the area of forest coverage remaining in Sarawak. Former chief minister Abdul Taib Mahmud has stated that between 2011 and 2012 Sarawak's forested land area fell from 70% to 48%.[130] In contradiction with Abdul Taib Mahmud, Resource Planning and Environment Second Minister Awang Tengah announced in 2012 Sarawak was 80% forested area.[130] The Sarawak Forest Department also held that the forest cover was 80% in 2012.[131] According to Wetlands International 10 percent of all Sarawak forests and 33 percent of peat swamp forests were cleared between 2005 and 2010. This rate of deforestation is 3.5 times higher than found in neighboring Asian countries. [132][133]

Sarawak's rain forests are primarily threatened by the logging industry and palm oil plantations.[134] The issue of human rights of the Penan and deforestation in Sarawak became an international environmental issue when Swiss activist Bruno Manser visited Sarawak regularly between 1984 and 2000.[135] Deforestation has affected the life of indigenous tribes, especially the Penan, whose livelihood is heavily dependent on forest produce. This led to several blockades by indigenous tribes during the 1980s and 1990s against logging companies encroaching on their lands.[136] There have also been cases where Native Customary Rights (NCR) lands have been given to timber and plantation companies without the permission of the locals.[137] The indigenous people have resorted to legal means to reinstate their NCR. In 2001 the High Court of Sarawak fully reinstated the NCR land claimed by the Rumah Nor people, but this was overturned partially in 2005. However, this case has served as a precedent, leading to more NCR being upheld by the high court in the following years.[138][139] Sarawak's mega-dams policy such as the Bakun Dam and Murum Dam projects has submerged thousands of hectares of forest and displaced thousands of indigenous people.[140][141] Since 2013, the proposed Baram Dam project has been delayed due to ongoing protests from local indigenous tribes.[142] Since 2014, the Sarawak government under chief minister Adenan Satem started to take action against illegal logging in the state and to diversify the economy of the state.[143] Through the course of 2016 over 2 million acres of forest, much of in orangutan habitat, were declared protected areas.[144]

Economy[edit]

Circle frame.svg

Sarawak GDP share by sector (2013)[145]

  Services (37.2%)
  Manufacturing (26.6%)
  Mining & Quarrying (21.5%)
  Agriculture (11.4%)
  Construction (3.1%)
  Import Duties (0.3%)
A LNG port at Bintulu, Sarawak

Sarawak is abundant in natural resources making primary industry a major contributor to its economy. Industries such as mining, agriculture, and forestry accounted for 32.8 percent of the state economy in 2013.[145] Apart from primary industries, Sarawak also has a significant manufacturing industry in food and beverages, wood-based and rattan products, basic metal products, and petrochemical products,[3] as well as a services industry dealing in cargo transportation services, air transport, and tourism.[145] From 2000 to 2009 Sarawak had an average annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate of 5.0 percent.[146] Annual GDP growth was volatile from 2006 to 2013, ranging from −2.0 percent in 2009 to 7.0 percent in 2010. Sarawak contributed 10.1 percent of the GDP of Malaysia for the nine years leading up to 2013, becoming the third largest contributor after Selangor (22.2 percent) and Kuala Lumpur (13.9 percent) [145] From 2006 to 2013, the oil and gas industry accounted for 34.8 percent of the Sarawak government's revenue. Sarawak attracted RM 9.6 billion (US$2.88 billion) in foreign investments where 90 percent of the investments went to Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE). SCORE is the second largest economic corridor in Malaysia.[145]

Sarawak's highly export oriented economy is dominated by Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) exports, which account for more than half of total exports, with crude petroleum exports accounting for 20.8 percent and palm oil, sawlogs, and sawn timber accounting for 9.0 percent. [145] Sarawak receives a 5 percent oil royalty (percentage of oil production paid by the mining company to the lease owner) from Petronas over oil explorations in Sarawak territorial waters.[147] Most of the oil and gas deposits are located offshore next to Bintulu and Miri at Balingian basin, Baram basin, and around Luconia Shoals.[148]

Sarawak is one of the world's largest exporters of tropical hardwood timber, constituting 65 percent of the total Malaysian log exports in 2000. The last United Nations (UN) statistics in 2001 estimated Sarawak's sawlog exports at an average of 14,109,000 cubic metres (498,300,000 cu ft) per year between 1996 and 2000.[149]

In 1955, Oversea-Chinese Banking Corporation (OCBC Bank) became the first foreign bank to open branches in Sarawak. Apart from domestic banks, 18 European, 10 Middle Eastern, 11 Asian, and five North American banks have local branches in Sarawak.[150] Other notable Sarawak-based companies include Cahya Mata Sarawak Berhad (CMSB), Naim Holdings, and Rimbunan Hijau.[151]

Energy[edit]

Turbines inside the Bakun Dam power house. The dam is the main source for electric energy in Sarawak.

Electricity in Sarawak, supplied by the state owned Sarawak Energy Berhad (SEB),[152] is primarily sourced from traditional coal fired power plants and thermal power stations using Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG),[153][154] but diesel based sources and hydroelectricity are also utilised. There are 3 hydroelectric dams as of 2015, Batang Ai Dam,[155] Bakun Dam,[156] and Murum Dam[157] with several others undergoing feasibility study and planning.[155] In early 2016, SEB signed Malaysia's first energy export deal to supply electricity to neighbouring West Kalimantan in Indonesia.[158]

In 2008, the Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy (SCORE) was established as a framework to develop the energy sector in the state, specifically the Murum, Baram, and Baleh Dams as well as potential coal-based power plants,[159] and 10 high priority industries out to 2030.[160][161] The Regional Corridor Development Authority (RECODA) is the government agency responsible for managing SCORE.[162] The entire central region of Sarawak is covered under SCORE and is to include major areas such as Samalaju (near Bintulu), Tanjung Manis, and Mukah.[163] Samalaju will be developed as an industrial park,[164] with Tanjung Manis as a halal food hub,[165] and Mukah as the administrative centre for SCORE with a focus on resource-based research and development.[166]

Tourism[edit]

French Gypsy band performing during Rainforest World Music Festival (RWMF) 2006

Tourism plays a major role in the economy of the state contributing 9.3 percent of the state's GDP in 2015.[167] Foreign visitors to Sarawak are predominantly from Brunei, Indonesia, the Philippines, Singapore, and China.[168] A number of different organisations, both state and private, are involved in the promotion of tourism in Sarawak; the Sarawak Tourism Board is the state body responsible for tourism promotion in the state, various private tourism groups are united under the Sarawak Tourism Federation, the Sarawak Convention Bureau is responsible for attracting conventions, conferences, and corporate events, which are held in the Borneo Convention Centre in Kuching.[169] The public and private bodies in Sarawak hold a biannual event to award the Sarawak Hornbill Tourism Award, an award for achievements within various categories, to recognise businesses and individuals for their efforts in the development of tourism within the state.[170]

The Rainforest World Music Festival (RWMF) is the region's premier "world music" event, attracting more than 20,000 people yearly.[171] Other events that are held regularly in Sarawak are the ASEAN International Film Festival, Asia Music Festival, Borneo Jazz Festival, Borneo Cultural Festival, and Borneo International Kite Festival.[169] Major shopping complexes in Sarawak include The Spring, Boulevard, Hock Lee Centre, City One shopping malls in Kuching,[172] and Bintang Megamall, Boulevard, Imperial Mall, and Miri Plaza shopping malls in Miri.[173]

Sarawak Tourist Arrival Statistics[167][168][174]
Key Tourism Indicators 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Foreign Arrivals (millions) 1.897 2.343 2.635 2.665 2.996 2.497
Domestic Arrivals (West Malaysia & Sabah) (millions) 1.373 1.452 1.434 1.707 1.862 2.020
Total Arrivals (millions) 3.271 3.795 4.069 4.372 4.858 4.517
Total Tourism Receipts, billions (RM) 6.618 7.914 8.573 9.588 10.686 9.870
Total Tourism Receipts, billions (Equivalent USD) 1.489 2.374 2.786 2.876 3.206 N/A

Infrastructure[edit]

Infrastructure development in Sarawak is overseen by the Ministry of Infrastructure Development and Transportation, successor to the Ministry of Infrastructure Development and Communications (MIDCom) after it was renamed in 2016.[175] Despite this ministerial oversight, infrastructure in Sarawak remains relatively underdeveloped compared to Peninsular Malaysia.[176]

In 2009, 94 percent of urban Sarawak were supplied with electricity, but only 67 percent of rural areas had electricity,[177] however, this had increased to 91 percent by 2014.[178] According to a 2015 article, household internet penetration in Sarawak was lower than Malaysian national average, 41.2 percent versus 58.6 percent, with 58.5 percent of internet use being in urban areas and 29.9 percent in rural areas. In comparison, mobile telecommunication uptake in Sarawak was comparable to the national average, 93.3 percent against a national average of 94.2 percent, and on par with neighbouring Sabah [179] Mobile telecommunication infrastructure, specifically broadcast towers, are built and managed by Sacofa Sdn Bhd (Sacofa Private Limited), which enjoys a monopoly in Sarawak after the company was granted a 20 year exclusivity deal on the provision, maintenance and leasing of towers in the state.[180]

The Kuching Water Board (KWB) and the Sibu Water Board (SWB) are responsible for water supply in their own areas. Meanwhile, LAKU Management Sdn Bhd in charge of the water supply in Miri, Bintulu, and Limbang.[181] The Rural Water Supply Department manages the water supply for the remaining areas.[182] As of 2014, 82 percent of the rural areas have a fresh water supply.[178]

Transportation[edit]

Kuching International Airport terminal

Sarawak has a total of 32,091 kilometres (19,940 mi) of connected roadways in 2013, with half of these (18,003 kilometres (11,187 mi)) being paved state routes, 8,313 kilometres (5,165 mi) of dirt tracks (built by timber and plantation companies), 4,352 kilometres (2,704 mi) of gravel roads, and 1,424 kilometres (885 mi) of paved federal highway. The primary route in Sarawak is the Pan Borneo Highway, which runs from Sematan, Sarawak, through Brunei to Tawau, Sabah.[183] However, the road condition is unsatisfactory,[184] and funds from the federal budget have been allocated to upgrade the roads in Sarawak. Major cities and towns in Sarawak provide public transportation services such as buses, taxis, and limousines. Bus service is also available for travel to the neighbouring areas of Sabah, Brunei, and Pontianak (Indonesia).[181] Sarawak uses a dual carriageway with the left-hand traffic rule.[185] It allows motorists to "turn left when the exit is clear".[186]

Kuching International Airport is the main gateway to Sarawak. Miri Airport serves a limited number of international flights. Other smaller airports such as Sibu Airport, Bintulu Airport, Mukah Airport, Marudi Airport, Mulu Airport, and Limbang Airport provide services to Kuala Lumpur and other domestic destinations in Sarawak. There are a number of remote airstrips serving rural communities in the state.[183] There are three airlines serving flight routes in Sarawak: Malaysia Airlines, Air Asia, and MASwings.[187] Hornbill Skyways is an aviation company owned by the Sarawak state government. It provides private chartered flights and flight services for state government servants.[188]

Bintulu International Container Terminal (BICT) at Bintulu seaport

Sarawak has four primary ports at Kuching, Sibu, Bintulu, and Miri.[181] The Bintulu seaport is under the jurisdiction of the Malaysian federal government. It is the busiest port in Sarawak, mainly handling LNG products and standard cargo shipping. The remaining ports are under the respective state port authorities. The combined throughput of the four primary ports was 61.04 million freight weight tonnes (FWT) in 2013.[183] Sarawak has 55 navigable river networks with a combined length of 3,300 kilometres (2,100 mi). For centuries, the rivers of Sarawak have been a primary means of transport as well as a route for timber and other agricultural goods moving downriver for export at the country's major ports. Sibu port is the main hub along the Rajang River, located 113 kilometres (70 mi) from the river's mouth, handling mainly timber products. However, since the initiation of Tanjung Manis Industrial Port (TIMP) further downriver, the total throughput of Sibu port has declined.[183] Express boats are an important means of transport along the rivers of Sarawak.[181] No rail lines have been laid down in Sarawak because of logistical challenges and dispersed population in the state.[183]

Healthcare[edit]

See also: List of hospitals in Malaysia
The Sarawak General Hospital

Sarawak has three major government hospitals: Sarawak General Hospital, Sibu Hospital, and Miri Hospital.[189] There are also district hospitals,[190] public health clinics, 1Malaysia clinics, and rural clinics.[191] Besides government-owned hospitals and clinics, there are several private hospitals in Sarawak[192] such as the Normah Medical Specialists Centre, Timberland Medical Specialists Centre,[193] and Sibu Specialist Medical Centre. Sarawak is a medical tourism destination for Brunei and Indonesian visitors.[194] Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) is the only government university that produces medical graduates in the state.[191] The Sarawak Hospice Society was set up in 1998 to promote hospice care in home settings.[195] Hospital Sentosa is the only mental hospital in Sarawak.[196]

Access to good quality healthcare is still a challenge in the rural communities.[197] For villages located outside the operational areas of health clinics, a flying doctor service (FDS) is available once a month. Village health promoters are stationed in remote villages after being provided with three weeks of first aid and basic health care training. A variety of traditional medicine practices are still being used by the various communities in Sarawak.[198][199][200][201][202]

Education[edit]

Main article: List of schools in Sarawak
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) chancellory building

Sarawak overall literacy rate was 25 percent in 1960.[203] Today, the state has a 90 percent literacy rate. The Malaysian Ministry of Education is responsible for primary and secondary education in Sarawak.[204] The oldest schools that are established in Sarawak are: St. Thomas's School Kuching (1848), St Mary's School Kuching (1848), and St Joseph's School Kuching (1882).[205] In 2012 Sarawak had 185 government secondary schools, four international schools,[206] and 14 Chinese independent schools.[207] Sarawak has a considerable number of bumiputera students enrolled in Chinese schools.[208] Sarawak State Library (also known as PUSTAKA) is the largest library in the state. Public and village libraries are found in various towns and cities.[209]

Sarawak has three public universities: Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS), Universiti Teknologi Mara (UiTM) Kota Samarahan campus, and Universiti Putra Malaysia Bintulu Campus. Sarawak also has two private universities: Curtin University Sarawak and Swinburne University of Technology Sarawak Campus.[204] Vocational training is given priority to supply a skilled workforce for the SCORE economic corridor. There are also several community colleges[206] and four teacher training colleges in Sarawak.[210] Batu Lintang Teachers' Training College is the third oldest of its kind in Malaysia.[211]

Demography[edit]

Main article: Demographics of Sarawak
Ethnic groups in Sarawak (2014)[212]
Ethnic Percent
Iban
  
 30%
Malay
  
 24.4%
Chinese
  
 24.2%
Bidayuh
  
 8.4%
Melanau
  
 6.7%
Orang Ulu
  
 5.4%
Indian
  
 0.3%
Others
  
 0.3%

As of the 2015 Malaysian census, the population of Sarawak was 2,636,000, making it the fourth most populous state in Malaysia.[4] However, due to the large area of Sarawak, it has the lowest population density in Malaysia, which stands at 20 people per km2 in Sarawak. The average population growth rate per year from 2000 to 2010 was 1.8 percent.[3] As of 2014, 58 percent of the population is urban while 42 percent of the population reside in rural areas.[213] As of 2011, the crude birth rate in Sarawak was 16.3 per 1000 individuals, the crude death rate was 4.3 per 1000 population, and the infant mortality rate was 6.5 per 1000 live births.[214]

People from Sarawak are called Sarawakians.[215] Sarawak has more than 40 sub-ethnic groups, each with its own distinct language, culture and lifestyle. Cities and larger towns are populated predominantly by Malays, Melanaus, Chinese, and a smaller percentage of Ibans and Bidayuhs who have migrated from their home villages for employment opportunities.[216] Issuing identity cards to the native people born in the remote areas is still a challenge. This problem has led to thousands of Penan people left stateless.[217][218][219] Sarawak has 150,000 registered migrant workers working as domestic workers or in plantation, manufacturing, construction, services and agriculture.[220] However, the total number of illegal immigrants may be as high as 320,000 to 350,000 people.[221] Bumiputera (son of the soil) refers to the Malays and other indigenous groups in Peninsular Malaysia, Sarawak and Sabah. This group of people generally enjoy special privileges in education, jobs, finance, and political positions.[222] Orang Asal refers to all the indigenous groups in Malaysia excluding Malays.[223]

Ethnic groups[edit]

Major ethnic groups in Sarawak. Clockwise from top right:Melanau girls with the traditional Baju Kurung, Sarawak Chinese woman in her traditional dress of Cheongsam, a Bidayuh girl, and an Iban warrior in his traditional dress.

Sarawak has six major ethnic groups: Iban, Chinese, Malay, Bidayuh, Melanau, and Orang Ulu.[216] Alongside these are several minor ethnic groups, including Kedayan, Javanese, Bugis, Murut, and Indian.[224] In 2015 the two ethnic groups, the Bidayuh and Iban, were officially recognized by the government of Malaysia as comprising the Dayak people. [225]

Sarawak's population of 745,400 Ibans is the largest in Borneo, with a majority practicing Christianity. [226] Iban settlements are usually in the form of a [[longhouse]] -- a structure providing shelter, communal space, as well as defensive fortification. Today the longhouse retains significant symbolic value to the Iban people. Historically, Iban social status was determined by caste. Examples include raja berani (rich and the brave,) orang mayuh (free people,) and ulun (slaves.)[227] The Iban still observe many of their traditional rituals such as Gawai Antu (festival of the dead) and the Gawai Dayak (Harvest Festival).[228]

Chinese traders first came to Sarawak in the 6th century AD. The Chinese population today consists of communities originating from immigrants during the Brooke era.[93] This migration was driven by the employment opportunities at gold mines in Bau, Sarawak. Sarawak Chinese are primarily Buddhist and Christian,[229] and speak a multitude of dialects: Cantonese, Foochow, Hakka, Hokkien, Teochew, and Henghua (Putian people). The Chinese celebrate major cultural festivals such as Hungry Ghost Festival and the Chinese New Year.[230] Most of the Chinese in Kuching settled near the Sarawak River in an area now called Chinatown.[231] In 1901 Wong Nai Siong led people from Fujian to Sibu, settling near the Rajang River.[232] In Miri, Chinese labourers work at coalmines and oilfields.[231]

During the Brooke era, the Malays were fishermen,[230] leading to their villages being concentrated along river banks. With the advent of urban development, Malay migrants found employment in public and private sectors. They are known for their silver and brass crafts, wood carvings, and textiles.[93][233]

The Melanaus are native to Sarawak, primarily originating from the coastal town of Mukah.[234] They worked as fishermen, boat-builders, and craftsmen. Pagan Animism was the traditional religion among the Melanaus, but over time as the Islamic rule of the Bruneian empire dominate, 73% of the population is now identify as Muslims.[235][93][note 4][236]

The Bidayuh occupy the southern part of Sarawak.[237] They are known colloquially as Land Dayaks because they traditionally live on steep limestone mountains. They consist of several sub-ethnic groups speaking mutually incompatible dialects,[238] with English language and Sarawak Malay as de-facto common languages. They are known for several musical instruments such as the pratuakng, a percussion instrument constructed of bamboo. Like the Ibans the traditional Bidayuh village consisted of longhouses, with the addition of the distinctive round baruk where communal gatherings were held. The majority of the Bidayuh are Christians.[93]

The numerous tribes who reside in Sarawak's interior such as the Kenyah, Kayan, Lun Bawang, Kelabit, Penan, Bisaya, and Berawan are collectively referred to as Orang Ulu. In the Iban language this name means "Upriver People," reflecting the location these tribes settled in.[93] Most of them reside near the drainage basin of the Baram River.[239] Both woodworking and artistry are highly visible aspects of Orang Ulu culture exemplified by mural covered longhouses, carved wooden boats, and tattooing.[93] Well-known musical instruments from the Orang Ulu are the Kayans' sapeh and Kenyah's sampe' and Lun Bawang's bamboo band. The Kelabit and Lun Bawang people are known for their production of fragrant rice.[239] The majority of Orang Ulu are Christians.[93]

Religion[edit]

Main article: Demographics of Sarawak § Religions of Sarawak
Religion in Sarawak (2010)[240]
Religion Percent
Christianity
  
 42.6%
Islam
  
 32.2%
Buddhism
  
 13.5%
Chinese folk religion
  
 6.0%
No religion
  
 2.6%
Unknown
  
 1.9%
Others
  
 1.0%
Hinduism
  
 0.2%

Although Islam is the official religion of the federation, Sarawak has no official state religion.[241] However, during the chieftainship of Abdul Rahman Ya'kub, the Constitution of Sarawak was amended to make the Yang di-Pertuan Agong as the head of Islam in Sarawak and empower the state assembly to pass laws regarding Islamic affairs. With such provisions, Islamic policies can be formulated in Sarawak and the establishment of Islamic state agencies is possible. The 1978 Majlis Islam Bill enabled the setting up of Syariah Courts in Sarawak with jurisdictions over matrimonial, child custody, betrothal, inheritance, and criminal cases in the state. An appeals court and Courts of Kadi were also formed.[68][note 5]

Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia where Christians outnumber Muslims. The earliest Christian missionaries in Sarawak were Church of England (Anglicans) in 1848, followed by Roman Catholics a few years later, and Methodists in 1903. Evangelizing first took place among the Chinese immigrants before spreading to indigenous animists.[242] Other Christian denominations in Sarawak are Borneo Evangelical Mission (or Sidang Injil Borneo),[243] and Baptists.[244] Indigenous people such as the Iban, Bidayuh, and Orang Ulu have adopted Christianity although they do retain some of their traditional religious rites. Many Muslims come from the Malay, Melanau, and Kayan ethnic groups. Buddhism, Taoism, and Chinese folk religion are predominantly practised by Chinese Malaysians.[245] Other minor religions in Sarawak are Baha'i,[246] Hinduism,[247] Sikhism,[248] and animism.[249]

  • Religious sites in Sarawak

  • St. Joseph Church

  • Old Sarawak State Mosque

  • Hong San Si Temple

Languages[edit]

English was the sole official language of Sarawak from 1963 to 1974 because the first chief minister of Sarawak Stephen Kalong Ningkan opposed the use of the Malay language in Sarawak.[250] In 1974, the new chief minister Abdul Rahman Ya'kub adopted the Malay language alongside English as an official language of Sarawak.[68][note 6] He also changed the medium of instruction in schools from English to Malay.[251] In 1985 English was dropped as an official language, leaving only Malay.[250][note 7] However, some argue that English was never actually dropped[252] as it is still used in the courts, state legislative assembly, and certain government agencies in Sarawak.[253][254] In 2015, Chief Minister Adenan Satem announced the state's re-adoption of English as an official language alongside Malay.[255]

Although the official Malay dialect of Bahasa Malaysia is spoken by the administration, it is used infrequently in colloquial conversation, where the very distinct local dialect of Bahasa Sarawak (or Sarawak Malay) dominates. Bahasa Sarawak is the most common language of Sarawak Malays and other indigenous tribes. The Iban language, which has minor regional variations, is the most widely spoken native language, with 34 percent of the Sarawak population speaking it as a first language. The Bidayuh language, with six major dialects, is spoken by 10 percent of the population. The Orang Ulu have about 30 different language dialects. While the ethnic Chinese originate from a variety of backgrounds and speak many different dialects such as Hokkien, Hakka, Foochow, and Teochew, in recent times the use of Standard Chinese has become predominant.[256]

Culture[edit]

Main article: Culture of Sarawak
A Kayan tribesman, playing the Sapeh
Ngajat, the Iban warrior dance gazetted as part of Sarawak culture.
A bowl of Sarawak laksa

Sarawak exhibits notable diversity in ethnicity, culture, and language. The Sarawakian culture has been influenced by Bruneian Malays of the coastal areas. Substantial cultural influences also came from the Chinese and British cultures. Headhunting was once an important tradition for the Ibans; the custom is no longer observed.[257] Christianity plays an important role in the daily lives of the Kelabit and Lun Bawang and has changed their ethnic identities.[258] The Penan people were the last indigenous group to abandon their nomadic way of life in the jungle.[259][260] Interracial marriages are common in the state.[261]

Sarawak Cultural Village is located at the foot of Mount Santubong, Kuching. Known as the "living museum", it showcases the various ethnic groups carrying out traditional activities in their respective traditional houses. Cultural performances are presented here.[262][263] The Sarawak State Museum houses a collection of artefacts such as pottery, textiles, and woodcarving tools from various ethnic tribes in Sarawak, as well as ethnographic materials of local cultures.[264] Orang Ulu's Sapeh (a dug-out guitar) is the best known traditional musical instrument in Sarawak. It was played for Queen Elizabeth II during her official visit to Sarawak in 1972.[265]

Oral tradition has been part of the culture of the various indigenous groups in Sarawak for generations.[266][note 8] Some of the traditional practices are the Iban's Ngajat dances,[267] Renong (Iban vocal repertory),[268] Ensera (Iban oral narratives),[250][note 9] and epic storytelling by the Kayan and Kenyah.[269][270] The Borneo Literature Bureau existed from 1958 until 1977; it encouraged the documentation of local cultures, local authors, and publications in English, Chinese, Malay, Iban and other native languages. The Bureau was replaced by the Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (DBP) in 1977, which advocated publication only in the Malay language.[250][note 10] The Sarawak Gazette was first published by the Brooke government in 1870. It recorded a variety of news in Sarawak related to economics, agriculture, anthropology, and archaeology. The Gazette is still being published today.[271] Hikayat Panglima Nikosa (Story of Nikosa the Warrior), printed in 1876 at Kuching, is one of the earliest text publications in Borneo.[272] Notable dishes in the state include Sarawak laksa,[273] kolo mee,[274] and ayam pansuh.[275][276] The state is also known for its Sarawak layer cake dessert.[277] The Sarawak government is popularly believed to exert its influence over the media.[250][note 11]

Sarawakians observe a number of holidays and festivals throughout the year.[278] Apart from national Hari Merdeka and Malaysia Day celebrations, the state also celebrates Sarawak self-government Day on 22 July[279][280] and the State Governor's birthday.[281] Ethnic groups also celebrate their own festivals. The open house tradition allows other ethnic groups to join in the celebrations.[282][283][284] Sarawak is the only state in Malaysia to declare the Gawai Dayak celebration a public holiday.[285]

Sarawak sent its own teams to participate in the 1958 and 1962 British Empire and Commonwealth Games,[286] and 1962 Asian Games before its athletes started representing Malaysia after 1963.[287][288] Sarawak was the host of the Malaysian SUKMA Games in 1990 and 2016.[289] The state was also the overall champion in the 1990, 1992, and 1994 SUKMA games.[290] Sarawak emerged as the overall champion for 11 consecutive years at the Malaysia Para Games beginning in 1994.[291]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Ooi, 2013. This denial of entry to Anthony ... (page 93) ... The anti-cession movement was by the early 1950s effectively "strangled" a dead letter.(page 98)
  2. ^ The first Communist group to be formed in Sarawak ... (page 95)
  3. ^ Alastair, 1993. The first political party, the Sarawak United Peoples' Party (SUPP) ... (page 118) ... By 1962, there were six parties ... (page 119)
  4. ^ Ishikawa, 2010 (page 169)
  5. ^ Faisal, 2012. Negri is empowered to make provisions for regulating Islamic affairs... (page 86)
  6. ^ Faisal, 2012 ... to make Bahasa Malaysia and English as negeri's official languages. (page 84)
  7. ^ Postill, 2006 ... Malay was accepted as the official language of Sarawak alongside English until 1985, when English was finally dropped. (page 64)
  8. ^ Pandian, 2014. it became the primary means of passing culture, history, and valued traditions. ... in the fact that oral literature is actualised only in performances; (page 95)
  9. ^ Postill, 2006. ... four were oral narratives ... (page 51)
  10. ^ Postill, 2006. ;... to encourage local authorship and meet local needs ... (page 51) ... The Bureau ceased to exist in 1977 when it was taken over by the federal body Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.(page 55) ... He concludes that DBP cannot publish books in regional languages (pages 59 and 60)
  11. ^ Postill, 2006. ... the government controls virtually all newspapers in Sarawak (page 76)

References[edit]

  1. ^ "Profil Negeri Sarawak (Sarawak state profile)". Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia (Malaysian Information Department). Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2016. 
  2. ^ "Sarawak State Anthem". Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2016. 
  3. ^ a b c d "Sarawak – Facts and Figures 2011" (PDF). Sarawak State Planning Unit, Chief Minister Department. pp. 5, 9, 15, 22. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 November 2015. Retrieved 24 November 2015. 
  4. ^ a b "Population by States and Ethnic Group". Department of Information, Ministry of Communications and Multimedia, Malaysia. 2015. Archived from the original on 12 February 2016. Retrieved 12 February 2015. 
  5. ^ "General Information". Centre for public policies studies. Archived from the original on 20 October 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2016. 
  6. ^ "Facts of Sarawak". The Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 23 July 2015. Retrieved 23 July 2015. 
  7. ^ "Postal codes in Sarawak". cybo.com. Retrieved 23 July 2015. 
  8. ^ "Postal codes in Miri". cybo.com. Retrieved 23 July 2015. 
  9. ^ "Area codes in Sarawak". cybo.com. Retrieved 22 July 2015. 
  10. ^ Soon, Teh Wei (23 March 2015). "Some Little Known Facts On Malaysian Vehicle Registration Plates". Malaysian Digest. Archived from the original on 8 July 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2015. 
  11. ^ a b Vernon L. Porritt (1997). British Colonial Rule in Sarawak, 1946–1963. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-983-56-0009-8. Retrieved 7 May 2016. 
  12. ^ a b Philip Mathews (28 February 2014). Chronicle of Malaysia: Fifty Years of Headline News, 1963–2013. Editions Didier Millet. pp. 15–. ISBN 978-967-10617-4-9. 
  13. ^ "Malaysia Act 1963 (Chapter 35)" (PDF). The National Archives. United Kingdom legislation. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2011. 
  14. ^ Governments of United Kingdom of Great Britain; Northern Ireland, Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak; Singapore (1963). Wikisource link to Agreement relating to Malaysia between United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Federation of Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore. Wikisource. p. 1. 
  15. ^ "Origin of Place Names – Sarawak". National Library of Malaysia. 2000. Archived from the original on 9 February 2008. Retrieved 3 June 2010. 
  16. ^ Kris, Jitab (23 February 1991). "Wrong info on how Sarawak got its name". New Sunday Times. Retrieved 14 November 2015. 
  17. ^ "The magnificent hornbills of Sarawak". The Borneo Post. 12 July 2015. Archived from the original on 6 August 2015. Retrieved 17 January 2017. 
  18. ^ Rozan Yunos (28 December 2008). "Sultan Tengah — Sarawak's first Sultan". The Brunei Times. Archived from the original on 3 April 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2014. 
  19. ^ a b "Niah National Park – Early Human settlements". Sarawak Forestry. Archived from the original on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2015. 
  20. ^ a b Faulkner, Neil (7 November 2003). Niah Cave, Sarawak, Borneo. Current World Archaeology Issue 2. Archived from the original on 23 March 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2015. 
  21. ^ "History of the Great Cave of Niah". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 22 November 2014. Retrieved 23 March 2015. 
  22. ^ "Niah Cave". humanorigins.si.edu. Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Archived from the original on 22 November 2013. Retrieved 23 March 2015. 
  23. ^ Zheng, Dekun (1 January 1982). Studies in Chinese Archeology. The Chinese University Press. pp. 49, 50. ISBN 978-962-201-261-5. Retrieved 29 December 2015. In case of Santubong, its association with T'ang and Sung porcelain would necessary provide a date of about 8th – 13th century A.D. 
  24. ^ Donald F, Lach (15 July 2008). Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume I: The Century of Discovery, Book 1. University of Chicago Press. p. 581. ISBN 978-0-226-46708-5. Retrieved 21 March 2016. ... but Castanheda lists five great seaports that he says were known to the Portuguese. In his transcriptions they are called "Moduro" (Marudu?), "Cerava" (Sarawak?), "Laue" (Lawai), "Tanjapura" (Tanjungpura), and "Borneo" (Brunei) from which the island derives its name. 
  25. ^ Broek, Jan O.M. (1962). "Place Names in 16th and 17th Century Borneo". Imago Mundi. 16 (1): 134. doi:10.1080/03085696208592208. JSTOR 1150309. Carena (for Carena), deep in the bight, refers to Sarawak, the Kuching area, where there is clear archaeological evidence of an ancient trade center just inland from Santubong. 
  26. ^ a b c d e Alastair, Morrison (1 January 1993). Fair Land Sarawak: Some Recollections of an Expatriate Official. SEAP Publications. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-87727-712-5. Retrieved 29 October 2015. 
  27. ^ Trudy, Ring; Noelle, Watson; Paul, Schellinger (12 November 2012). Asia and Oceania: International Dictionary of Historic Places. SEAP Publications. p. 497. ISBN 978-0-87727-712-5. Retrieved 29 October 2015. 
  28. ^ Mike, Reed. "Book review of "The Name of Brooke – The End of White Rajah Rule in Sarawak" by R.H.W. Reece, Sarawak Literary Society, 1993". sarawak.com.my. Archived from the original on 8 June 2003. Retrieved 7 August 2015. 
  29. ^ a b Lim, Kian Hock (16 September 2011). "A look at the civil administration of Sarawak". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 6 February 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2015. 
  30. ^ Cuhaj, George S (2014). Standard Catalog of World Paper Money, General Issues, 1368–1960. F+W Media. p. 1058. ISBN 978-1-4402-4267-0. Retrieved 13 January 2016. Sarawak was recognised as a separate state by the United States (1850) and Great Britain (1864), and voluntarily became a British protectorate in 1888. 
  31. ^ "Bintulu – Places of Interest". Bintulu Development Authority. Retrieved 19 July 2015. 
  32. ^ a b c d Ooi, Keat Gin (2013). Post-war Borneo, 1945–50: Nationalism, Empire and State-Building. Routledge. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-134-05803-7. Retrieved 2 November 2015. 
  33. ^ Marshall, Cavendish (2007). World and Its Peoples: Eastern and Southern Asia, Volume 9. Bangladesh: Marshall Cavendish. p. 1182. ISBN 978-0-7614-7642-9. Retrieved 2 November 2015. 
  34. ^ "The Borneo Company Limited". National Library Board. Archived from the original on 12 October 2015. Retrieved 25 January 2016. 
  35. ^ a b Simon, Elegant (13 July 1986). "SARAWAK: A KINGDOM IN THE JUNGLE". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015. 
  36. ^ a b Charles, de Ledesma; Mark, Lewis; Pauline, Savage (2003). Malaysia, Singapore, and Brunei. Rough Guides. p. 723. ISBN 978-1-84353-094-7. Retrieved 2 November 2015. In 1888, the three states of Sarawak, Sabah, and Brunei were transformed into protectorates, a status which handed over the responsibility for their foreign policy to the British in exchange for military protection. 
  37. ^ Saiful, Bahari (23 June 2015). "Thrill is gone, state museum stuck in time — Public". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015. 
  38. ^ "History of Sarawak". Brooke Trust. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 29 November 2016. 
  39. ^ "Centenary of Brooke rule in Sarawak – New Democratic Constitution being introduced today". The Straits Times (Singapore). 24 September 1941. Retrieved 2 November 2015. 
  40. ^ Klemen, L (1999). "The Invasion of British Borneo in 1942". dutcheastindies.webs.com. Archived from the original on 2015-04-01. Retrieved 3 November 2015. 
  41. ^ "The Japanese Occupation (1941 – 1945)". The Sarawak Government. Retrieved 3 November 2015. 
  42. ^ Ooi, Keat Gin. "Prelude to invasion: covert operations before the re-occupation of Northwest Borneo, 1944–45". Journal of the Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 3 November 2015. 
  43. ^ "Historical Monument – Surrender Point". Official Website of Labuan Corporation. Labuan Corporation. Retrieved 3 November 2015. 
  44. ^ Rainsford, Keith Carr. "Surrender to Major-General Wootten at Labuan". Australian War Memorial. Retrieved 3 November 2015. 
  45. ^ "British Military Administration (August 1945 – April 1946)". The Sarawak Government. Retrieved 3 November 2015. 
  46. ^ "Sarawak as a British Crown Colony (1946–1963)". The Official Website of the Sarawak Government. Retrieved 7 November 2015. 
  47. ^ David, Leafe (17 March 2011). "The last of the White Rajahs: The extraordinary story of the Victorian adventurer who subjugated a vast swathe of Borneo". Mail Online (UK). Archived from the original on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015. Vyner agreed to cede it to the British Crown in return for a substantial financial settlement for him and his family. So it became Britain's last colonial acquisition. 
  48. ^ Mike, Thomson (14 March 2012). "The stabbed governor of Sarawak". BBC News. Retrieved 3 November 2015. 
  49. ^ "Anthony Brooke". The Daily Telegraph. 6 March 2011. Retrieved 3 November 2015. 
  50. ^ "Formation of Malaysia 16 September 1963". National Archives of Malaysia. Retrieved 8 November 2015. 
  51. ^ JC, Fong (16 September 2011). "Formation of Malaysia". The Borneo Post. Retrieved 8 November 2015. 
  52. ^ Tai, Yong Tan (2008). "Chapter Six: Borneo Territories and Brunei". Creating "Greater Malaysia": Decolonization and the Politics of Merger. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 154–169. ISBN 978-981-230-747-7. Retrieved 8 November 2015. 
  53. ^ "Trust and Non-self governing territories". United Nations. Archived from the original on 3 May 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2016. 
  54. ^ "United Nations Member States". United Nations. 3 July 2006. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016. 
  55. ^ "Brunei Revolt breaks out – 8 December 1962". National Library Board (Singapore). Retrieved 9 November 2015. 
  56. ^ United Nations Treaty Registered No. 8029, Manila Accord between Philippines, Federation of Malaya and Indonesia (31 July 1963) Archived 11 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.
  57. ^ United Nations Treaty Series No. 8809, Agreement relating to the implementation of the Manila Accord[dead link] Archived 12 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine.. Retrieved on 12 August 2011.
  58. ^ James, Chin. "Book Review: The Rise and Fall of Communism in Sarawak 1940–1990". Kyoto Review of South East Asia. Retrieved 10 November 2015. 
  59. ^ a b Chan, Francis; Wong, Phyllis (16 September 2011). "Saga of communist insurgency in Sarawak". The Borneo Post. Retrieved 10 January 2013. 
  60. ^ a b c "About Sarawak – Governance". Official website of State Planning Unit – Chief Minister's Department of Sarawak. Archived from the original on 13 September 2013. Retrieved 14 November 2015. 
  61. ^ "Yang di-Pertua Negeri". Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2016. 
  62. ^ "Abang Johari Ketua Menteri baharu Sarawak". BH Online. Berita Harian. Retrieved 13 January 2017. 
  63. ^ "My Constitution: Sabah, Sarawak and special interests". Malaysian Bar. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 13 November 2015. 
  64. ^ "My Constitution: About Sabah and Sarawak". Malaysian Bar. 10 January 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2015. [dead link]
  65. ^ Article 95D, Constitution of Malaysia. Accessed on 6 August 2008.
  66. ^ R.S, Milne; K.J, Ratnam (2014). Malaysia: New States in a New Nation. Routledge. p. 71. ISBN 978-1-135-16061-6. Retrieved 14 November 2015. ... the major parties in each state fall quite neatly into three categories: native-non-Muslim, native-Muslim, and non-native. 
  67. ^ a b Chin, James (1996). "The Sarawak Chinese Voters and Their Support for the Democratic Action Party (DAP)" (PDF). Southeast Asian Studies. Kyoto University Research Information Repository. 34 (2): 387–401. Retrieved 19 June 2014. 
  68. ^ a b c Faisal, S Hazis (2012). Domination and Contestation: Muslim Bumiputera Politics in Sarawak. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. p. 91. ISBN 978-981-4311-58-8. Retrieved 11 December 2015. The strongman-politician postponed the negeri election ... (page 91) 
  69. ^ Cheng, Lian (7 April 2013). "Why Sarawak is electorally unique". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 23 June 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2016. For this reason, Sarawak held its state and parliamentary elections separately – and has been adhering to the practice since 1979 whereas all the other states still hold the two elections concurrently (see Table). 
  70. ^ Tawie, Joseph (9 January 2013). "SNAP faces more resignations over BN move". Free Malaysia Today. Retrieved 19 June 2014. 
  71. ^ Mering, Raynore (23 May 2014). "Analysis: Party loyalty counts for little in Sarawak". The Malay Mail. Retrieved 19 June 2014. 
  72. ^ "SPECIAL REPORT: The Ming Court Affair (subscription required)". Malaysiakini. 9 January 2013. Retrieved 23 June 2014. 
  73. ^ "BN retains Sarawak, Taib sworn in as CM". Free Malaysia Today. 16 April 2011. Retrieved 23 June 2014. 
  74. ^ Chua, Andy (24 April 2010). "DAP: Sarawak Pakatan formed to promote two-party system". The Star (Malaysia). Star Publications. Retrieved 23 June 2014. [dead link]
  75. ^ Ling, Sharon (14 February 2014). "Muhyiddin: Umno need not be in Sarawak". The Star (Malaysia). Retrieved 23 June 2014. 
  76. ^ a b "Sarawak population". The Official Portal of the Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2015. 
  77. ^ a b Samuel Aubrey (12 April 2015). "Serian now a division". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 14 July 2015. Retrieved 15 May 2015. 
  78. ^ "Administrative Divisions and Districts". The Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 23 July 2015. Retrieved 23 July 2015. 
  79. ^ "Organisation Structure". Official Website of Ministry of Local Government and Community Development. Retrieved 14 November 2015. [dead link]
  80. ^ "New district status to accelerate growth". The Borneo Post. Retrieved 18 April 2016. 
  81. ^ Nicholas, Taring (29 August 2003). Imperialism in Southeast Asia. Routledge. p. 319. ISBN 978-1-134-57081-2. Retrieved 23 December 2015. Charles Brooke set up the Sarawak Rangers in 1862 as a paramilitary force for pacifying 'ulu' Dayaks. 
  82. ^ "Royal Ranger Regiment (Malaysia)". discovermilitary.com. Archived from the original on 8 December 2012. Retrieved 22 December 2015. 
  83. ^ "Ninth schedule – Legislative lists". Commonwealth Legal Information Institute. Archived from the original on 15 September 2014. Retrieved 22 December 2015. 
  84. ^ Chin Huat, Wong (27 September 2011). "Can Sarawak have an army?". Free Malaysia Today. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 22 December 2015. 
  85. ^ R. Haller-Trost (1994). The Brunei-Malaysia Dispute Over Territorial and Maritime Claims in International Law. IBRU. pp. 20–. ISBN 978-1-897643-07-5. 
  86. ^ Ubaidillah Masli (17 March 2009). "Brunei drops all claims to Limbang". The Brunei Times. Archived from the original on 12 July 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2013. 
  87. ^ Ubaidillah Masli (18 March 2009). "Limbang issue was never discussed: Pehin Dato Lim". The Brunei Times. Archived from the original on 15 February 2014. Retrieved 23 August 2013. 
  88. ^ "Loss of James Shoal could wipe out state's EEZ". The Borneo Post. 5 February 2014. Retrieved 17 May 2014. 
  89. ^ Jenifer Laeng (3 June 2015). "China Coast Guard vessel found at Luconia Shoals". The Borneo Post. Retrieved 3 June 2015. 
  90. ^ "Presence of China Coast Guard ship at Luconia Shoals spooks local fishermen". The Borneo Post. 27 September 2015. Retrieved 28 September 2015. 
  91. ^ "Border disputes differ for Indonesia, M'sia". Daily Express. 16 October 2015. Archived from the original on 16 February 2016. Retrieved 16 October 2015. 
  92. ^ a b c d e "Geography of Sarawak". Official website of state planning unit Chief Minister's Department of Sarawak. Archived from the original on 23 April 2015. Retrieved 14 November 2015. 
  93. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Frans Welman. Borneo Trilogy Sarawak: Volume 2. Booksmango. pp. 132, 134, 136–138, 177. ISBN 978-616-245-089-1. Retrieved 28 August 2013. 
  94. ^ "Pasir Panjang, Kuching". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015. 
  95. ^ "Damai Beach Resort". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 27 December 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015. 
  96. ^ "Tanjung Batu Beach, Bintulu". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015. 
  97. ^ "Brighton Beach/Tanjung Lobang". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015. 
  98. ^ "Hawaii Beach". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 13 April 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015. 
  99. ^ "Niah National Park, Miri". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 26 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015. 
  100. ^ "Lambir Hills National Park". Sarawak Forestry Corporation. Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015. 
  101. ^ "Gunung Mulu National Park". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 16 October 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015. 
  102. ^ "Gunung Mulu National Park (Malaysia)". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 19 March 2017. 
  103. ^ "Deer Cave and Lang's Cave". Mulu National Park. Archived from the original on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015. 
  104. ^ "Clearwater cave and Wind Cave". Gunung Mulu National Park. Archived from the original on 12 July 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015. 
  105. ^ "Gunung Mulu National Park". Malaysia Tourism Promotion Board. Archived from the original on 17 October 2015. Retrieved 27 December 2015. 
  106. ^ "Borneo plants". World Wide Fund for Nature. Archived from the original on 25 April 2016. Retrieved 2 December 2016. 
  107. ^ "Medicinal plants around us". The Malaysian Nature Society. The Borneo Post. 24 August 2014. Archived from the original on 30 August 2014. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  108. ^ "Sarawak National Park – Biodiversity Conservation". Sarawak Forestry Department. Retrieved 17 November 2015. 
  109. ^ "Rainforest is destroyed for palm oil plantations on Malaysia's island state of Sarawak (Image 1)". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 6 February 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2014. 
  110. ^ "Rainforest is destroyed for palm oil plantations on Malaysia's island state of Sarawak (Image 2)". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 8 February 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2014. 
  111. ^ "Rainforest is destroyed for palm oil plantations on Malaysia's island state of Sarawak (Image 3)". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 21 August 2014. 
  112. ^ "Sumatran Orangutans' rainforest home faces new threat". Agence France-Presse. The Borneo Post. 5 May 2013. Retrieved 21 August 2014. 
  113. ^ Meijaard, E.; Nijman, V. & Supriatna, J. (2008). "Nasalis larvatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2008. International Union for Conservation of Nature. Retrieved 4 January 2009. 
  114. ^ "25 success stories". International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO). pp. 44–45. Archived from the original on 13 June 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  115. ^ "Semenggoh Nature Reserve". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 8 May 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  116. ^ "Matang Wildlife Centre". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 14 May 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  117. ^ "Talang-Satang National Park". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 16 November 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  118. ^ "Birding in Sarawak". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 16 May 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  119. ^ "Similajau National Park". Sarawak Toursim Board. Archived from the original on 8 May 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  120. ^ "Diving in Miri-Sibuti Coral Reefs National Park". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 4 May 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  121. ^ "Gunung Gading National Park". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 16 May 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  122. ^ "Bako National Park". Sarawak Forestry Corporation. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015. 
  123. ^ "Padawan Pitcher Plant & Wild Orchid Centre". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 9 April 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  124. ^ Rogers, Alan (14 July 2013). "Wallace and the Sarawak Law". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 15 November 2016. Retrieved 15 November 2016. 
  125. ^ Lian, Cheng (31 March 2013). "Protected wildlife on the menu". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 1 April 2013. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  126. ^ "History". Official website of Forest Department Sarawak. Retrieved 16 November 2015. Mr. J.P. Mead became the first Conservator of Forests, Sarawak Forest Department, in 1919. The objectives of the Department were to manage and conserve the State's forest resources. 
  127. ^ Barney, Chan. "6. INSTITUTIONAL RESTRUCTURING IN SARAWAK, MALAYSIA". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 19 July 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  128. ^ "Sarawak Forestry Corporation – About Us – FAQ". Sarawak Forestry Corporation. Archived from the original on 12 May 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  129. ^ "About Sarawak Biodiversity Centre – Profile". Sarawak Biodiversity Centre. Archived from the original on 6 December 2014. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  130. ^ a b Joseph, Tawie (25 October 2012). "'What's really left of our forest, Taib?'". Free Malaysia Today. Archived from the original on 2 November 2012. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  131. ^ "Types and Categories of Sarawak's Forests". Sarawak Forest Department. Retrieved 16 November 2015. 
  132. ^ "New figures: palm oil destroys Malaysia's peatswamp forests faster than ever". Wetlands International. 1 February 2011. Archived from the original on 27 June 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2015. 
  133. ^ "Malaysia destroying its forests three times faster than all Asia combined". The Daily Telegraph. 1 February 2011. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2015. "Total deforestation in Sarawak is 3.5 times as much as that for entire Asia, while deforestation of peat swamp forest is 11.7 times as much," the report said. 
  134. ^ Tom, Young (2 February 2011). "Malaysian palm oil destroying forests, report warns". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 29 May 2014. Retrieved 28 July 2015. 
  135. ^ Elegant, Simon (3 September 2001). "Without a Trace". Time magazine Asia. Retrieved 14 August 2014. (subscription required (help)). 
  136. ^ "Sarawak and the Penan". Archived from the original on 8 July 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2015. 
  137. ^ "Native Customary Rights in Sarawak". Cultural Survival. Archived from the original on 5 October 2015. Retrieved 17 November 2015. 
  138. ^ "Rumah Nor: A Land Rights Case for Malaysia". The Borneo Project. Retrieved 17 November 2015. 
  139. ^ Jessica, Lawrence. "Earth Island News – Borneo Project – Indigenous victory overturned". Earth Island Institute. Retrieved 17 November 2015. 
  140. ^ Rhett, Butler. "Power, profit, and pollution: dams and the uncertain future of Sarawak". Mongabay. Retrieved 17 November 2015. One dam has already displaced 10,000 native people and will flood an area the size of Singapore. 
  141. ^ "Bakun Dam". International Rivers. Retrieved 17 November 2015. 
  142. ^ "Sarawak, Malaysia". International Rivers. Retrieved 17 November 2015. Work on access roads to the dam site began but came to a halt in October 2013 when local communities launched two blockades to stop construction and other project preparations from proceeding. 
  143. ^ Vanitha, Nadaraj (21 September 2015). "Battle Against Illegal Logging in Sarawak Begins". The Establishment Post. Archived from the original on 21 September 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2015. 
  144. ^ Mike Gaworecki (19 August 2016). "Sarawak establishes 2.2M acres of protected areas, may add 1.1M more". Mongabay. Retrieved 22 August 2016. 
  145. ^ a b c d e f "The State of Sarawak". Malaysia Rating Corporation Berhad. Archived from the original on 18 November 2015. Retrieved 12 November 2015. 
  146. ^ Chang, Ngee Hui (2009). "High Growth SMEs and Regional Development – The Sarawak Perspective". State Planning Unit, Sarawak Chief MInister Department. Archived from the original on 21 November 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2015. 
  147. ^ Desmond, Davidson (6 August 2015). "Adenan pledges to keep fighting for 20% oil royalty". The Malaysian Insider. Archived from the original on 12 August 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2015. Sarawak Chief Minister Tan Sri Adenan Satem today admitted the oil and gas royalty negotiations – for a hike of 15% from 5% to 20% – with Petronas and Putrajaya have ended in deadlock, but has vowed to fight for it "as long as I'm alive". 
  148. ^ Rasoul, Sorkhabi (2012). "Borneo's Petroleum Plays". 9 (4). GEO Ex Pro. Retrieved 20 November 2015. A simplified map showing the distribution of major sedimentary basins onshore and offshore Borneo. 
  149. ^ "An overview of forest products statistics in South and Southeast Asia – National forest products statistics, Malaysia". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). Archived from the original on 24 July 2015. Retrieved 18 November 2015. In 2000, of the country's total sawlog production of 23 million m3, Peninsular Malaysia contributed 22 percent, Sabah 16 percent, and Sarawak 62 percent. Sawlog production figures for 1996–2000 are shown in Table 2. 
  150. ^ Sharon, Kong (1 September 2013). "Foreign banks in Sarawak". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 12 September 2013. Retrieved 21 November 2015. 
  151. ^ "Sarawak shakers". The Star (Malaysia). 27 March 2010. Retrieved 21 November 2015. 
  152. ^ "Generation Portfolio". Sarawak Energy. Archived from the original on 24 November 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2015. 
  153. ^ "Generation Portfolio". Sarawak Energy. Archived from the original on 24 November 2013. Retrieved 23 November 2015. 
  154. ^ "Core Business Activities". Sarawak Energy. Archived from the original on 10 July 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2015. 
  155. ^ a b "Hydroelectric Power Dams in Sarawak". Sarawak Integrated Water Resources – Management Master Plan. Archived from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2015. 
  156. ^ Jack, Wong (22 July 2014). "Bakun at 50% capacity producing 900MW". The Star (Malaysia). Retrieved 23 November 2015. 
  157. ^ Christopher, Lindom (11 July 2015). "Making HEPs in Sarawak safe". New Sarawak Tribune. Archived from the original on 23 November 2015. Retrieved 23 November 2015. ... Murum HEP had officially started commercial operation on 8 June 2015,"...  
  158. ^ CK Tan (12 May 2016). "Malaysia exports electricity to Indonesia". Nikkei Asian Review. Archived from the original on 15 May 2016. Retrieved 15 May 2016. 
  159. ^ "Development Strategy". Regional Corridor Development Authority. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 22 November 2015. 
  160. ^ "What is SCORE?". Regional Corridor Development Authority. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 22 November 2015. 
  161. ^ "Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy – Register your interest". Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy. Archived from the original on 27 June 2014. Retrieved 26 July 2015. 
  162. ^ "What is RECODA". Regional Corridor Development Authority. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 22 November 2015. 
  163. ^ "SCORE Areas". Sarawak Corridor of Renewable Energy. Archived from the original on 27 June 2014. Retrieved 31 July 2015. 
  164. ^ "Samalaju – SCORE". Regional Corridor Development Authority. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 22 November 2015. 
  165. ^ "Tanjung Manis – SCORE". Regional Corridor Development Authority. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 22 November 2015. 
  166. ^ "Mukah – SCORE". Regional Corridor Development Authority. Archived from the original on 17 November 2015. Retrieved 22 November 2015. 
  167. ^ a b "Fewer tourists visited Sarawak last year, DUN told". The Borneo Post. Retrieved 16 June 2016. 
  168. ^ a b "Pulling more tourists to Sarawak". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 19 August 2015. Retrieved 7 July 2015. 
  169. ^ a b "Sarawak's tourism strategy focuses on sustainable development". Oxford Business Group. Archived from the original on 21 November 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2015. 
  170. ^ Ava, Lai (29 July 2015). "Valuable prizes await Hornbill winners". The Star (Malaysia). Retrieved 20 November 2015. 
  171. ^ "Sarawak fest certain to be a rare treat". Bangkok Post. 22 February 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2015. (subscription required (help)). 
  172. ^ "Shopping Malls in Kuching". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 28 December 2015. Retrieved 28 December 2015. 
  173. ^ "Shopping Malls in Miri". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 4 February 2015. Retrieved 28 December 2015. 
  174. ^ "Visitor Arrivals into Sarawak 2015" (PDF). Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture Sarawak. Retrieved 31 May 2016. 
  175. ^ "About Us". MIDCom. Retrieved 17 December 2015. 
  176. ^ OECD Investment Policy Reviews OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Malaysia 2013. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) Publishing. 30 October 2013. p. 234. ISBN 978-92-64-19458-8. Retrieved 17 December 2015. All the same, there are important variations in the quantity and quality of infrastructure stocks, with infrastructure more developed in peninsular Malaysia than in Sabah and Sarawak. 
  177. ^ H., Borhanazad; S., Mekhilef; R, Saidur; G., Boroumandijazi (2013). "Potential application of renewable energy for rural electrification in Malaysia" (PDF). Renewable Energy. 59: 211. Retrieved 23 November 2015. 
  178. ^ a b Alexandra, Lorna; Doreen, Ling (9 October 2015). "Infrastructure crucial to state's goals". New Sarawak Tribune. Archived from the original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved 16 December 2015. "In 2014, 82% of houses located in Sarawak rural areas have access to water supply in comparison to 59% in 2009." Fadillah also said that the rural electricity coverage had improved over the last few years with 91% of the households in Sarawak having access to electricity in 2014 compared to 67% in 2009. 
  179. ^ "New technologies play a major role in Sarawak's development plans". Oxford Business Group. Archived from the original on 17 December 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2015. 
  180. ^ Mohd, Hafiz Mahpar (2 April 2015). "Cahya Mata Sarawak buys 50% of Sacofa for RM186m". The Star (Malaysia). Retrieved 17 December 2015. 
  181. ^ a b c d "Transport and Infrastructure". Official Website of the Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2015. 
  182. ^ Harun, Jau (8 August 2015). "New department being set up". New Sarawak Tribune. Archived from the original on 17 December 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2015. 
  183. ^ a b c d e "New land, air and sea transport links will help meet higher demand in Sarawak". Oxford Business Group. Archived from the original on 17 December 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2015. 
  184. ^ Then, Stephen (13 September 2013). "Repair Pan Borneo Highway now, says Bintulu MP following latest fatal accident". The Star (Malaysia). Retrieved 23 June 2014. 
  185. ^ Thiessen, Tamara (2012). Borneo:Sabah, Brunei, Sarawak. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 98. ISBN 978-1-84162-390-0. Retrieved 26 January 2016. All major roads are dual carriageways; there are no multi-lane expressways. In Malaysia, you drive on the left-hand side of the road and cars are right-hand drive. 
  186. ^ Yap, Jacky. "46 Things you Didn't Know about Kuching". Vulcan Post. Archived from the original on 15 June 2015. Retrieved 26 January 2016. 
  187. ^ "Airlines flying from Malaysia to Kuching". Archived from the original on 30 March 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016. 
  188. ^ "Hornbill Skyways – Wings to your destination". Hornbill Skyways. Archived from the original on 19 March 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016. 
  189. ^ Lim, How Pim (18 August 2014). "Sarawak gets 3 more hospitals". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 22 August 2014. Retrieved 19 December 2015. 
  190. ^ "Alternative pathways to overcome the lack of specialists in Sarawak". The Borneo Post. 15 November 2014. Retrieved 19 December 2015. Dr Jerip said there were currently 248 specialists distributed among the major hospitals in the state, comprising the Sarawak General Hospital, Sibu Hospital and Miri Hospital, as well as several divisional hospitals. 
  191. ^ a b "Sarawak makes efforts to boost access to health care". Oxford Business Group. Retrieved 19 December 2015. Sarawak's 221 public health clinics include only seven rural clinics. Services for the poor are also provided at 1Malaysia clinics, where assistant medical officers provide basic health care, but again, these clinics – of which the state has 18 – have historically been located mainly in urban areas. 
  192. ^ Nigel, Edgar (4 December 2013). "Wednesday, 4 December 2013 Sarawak recognises importance of private hospitals such as Borneo Medical Centre". The Star (Malaysia). Retrieved 19 December 2015. 
  193. ^ "Quality of Life". The Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 9 September 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2015. 
  194. ^ "'Sarawak wants more participation in private healthcare sector'". The Rakyat Post. 1 August 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2015. 
  195. ^ "Sarawak Hospice Society". Sarawak Hospice Society. Archived from the original on 26 January 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2015. 
  196. ^ Johnson, K Saai (28 October 2010). "'People still dump mental patients at Hospital Sentosa'". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 19 December 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2015. 
  197. ^ Chin, Mui Yoon (27 February 2012). "Access to healthcare a challenge for Sarawak's interior folk". The Star (Malaysia). Retrieved 19 December 2015. 
  198. ^ Ariff, K.M; Teng, CL (2002). "Rural health care in Malaysia". Australian Journal of Rural Health. 10 (2): 99–103. doi:10.1046/j.1440-1584.2002.00456.x. PMID 12047504. The FDS in Sarawak was launched in 1973 to provide healthcare to communities residing outside the 'extended operational area' limits of the health centre (beyond 12 km). 
  199. ^ Leng Chee, Heng; Barraclough, Simon (6 March 2007). Health Care in Malaysia: The Dynamics of Provision, Financing and Access. Routledge. p. 196. ISBN 978-1-134-11295-1. Retrieved 30 March 2016. While there were systems of tradiional medicine and a traditional pharmacopoenia amongst the indigenous communities in Sarawak, they have largely fallen into disuse ... 
  200. ^ Bawin Anggat, Nicholas. "Traditional Medicines of Borneo at Risk" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 March 2016. Retrieved 30 March 2016. 
  201. ^ "Chinese traditional medicine". The Borneo Post. 8 November 2012. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2016. 
  202. ^ Abuduli, Maihebureti; Ezat, Sharifa; Aljunid, Syed (2011). "Role of traditional and complementary medicine in universal coverage" (PDF). Malaysian Journal of Public Health Medicine. 11 (2): 1. Retrieved 30 March 2016. There are nine integrated public hospitals which are practicing T&CM in Malaysia. ... Sarawak General Hospital ... These hospitals practice traditional Malay massage, acupuncture, herbal oncology and postnatal massage. 
  203. ^ Silcock, T.H (1963). The Political Economy of Independent Malaya:A case-study in development. University of California Press. p. 46. Retrieved 21 December 2015. 
  204. ^ a b "Education". Official Website of the Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2015. 
  205. ^ Edgar, Ong (10 April 2015). "Can you blame Sarawak and Sabah for feeling left out?". The Ant Daily. Archived from the original on 15 June 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2015. The eight schools missing from the incomplete list are St. Thomas's School Kuching (1848), St Mary's School Kuching (1848), St Joseph's School Kuching (1882), St Teresa's School Kuching (1885), St Michael's School Sandakan (1886), St Michael's School Penampang (1888), All Saints' School, Likas (1903) and St Patrick's School Tawau (1917). 
  206. ^ a b "Sarawak's public and private sectors work together to revamp education". Oxford Business Group. Archived from the original on 21 December 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2015. 
  207. ^ "砂拉越华文独中通讯录 (Communication directory of Sarawak Chinese independent schools)" (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 31 December 2013. Retrieved 1 March 2015. 
  208. ^ "55,975 bumiputera pupils in Chinese schools". Bernama. The Sun. 17 December 2010. Archived from the original on 26 June 2016. Retrieved 26 June 2016. 
  209. ^ "Libraries". The Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 22 December 2015. 
  210. ^ "Institut Pendidikan Guru (Teachers' Training Institute)". Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia (Malaysian Ministry of Education). Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 22 December 2015. IPG Kampus Sarawak, IPG Kampus Tun Abdul Razak, IPG Kampus Batu Lintang (1st page), ... IPG Kampus Rajang (2nd page) 
  211. ^ "IPG Batu Lintang to be 'garden campus' next year". The Borneo Post. 16 August 2011. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 22 December 2015. 
  212. ^ "State statistics: Malays edge past Chinese in Sarawak". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 15 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016. 
  213. ^ "Johari: Urban-rural ratio to hit 65:35 within 10 years". The Star (Malaysia). 17 January 2014. Retrieved 24 November 2015. 
  214. ^ "Vital Statistics Summary for Births and Deaths". Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2016. 
  215. ^ Ng, Erik (25 December 2015). "Sarawakian traditional Chinese painter showcases his eye-catching works in KL". The Star (Malaysia). Retrieved 26 December 2015. 
  216. ^ a b "The Sarawak People". Sarawak Tourism Federation. Archived from the original on 6 January 2015. Retrieved 24 November 2015. 
  217. ^ "Penans 'stateless' because of fines". The Star (Malaysia). 26 September 2005. Retrieved 30 October 2016. 
  218. ^ Sheith Khidir, Abu Bakar (29 March 2016). "Stateless Penans demand citizenship papers". Free Malaysia Today. Retrieved 30 October 2016. 
  219. ^ "Mobile unit makes NRD applications easy for Penan community". The Borneo Post. 7 April 2016. Retrieved 30 October 2016. 
  220. ^ "Over 150,000 foreign workers in Sarawak hold temporary employment passes". The Sun Daily. 26 October 2015. Archived from the original on 27 October 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2015. 
  221. ^ Sulok, Tawie (11 April 2015). "Illegal immigrants in Sarawak a 'huge problem', deputy home minister admits". Malay Mail Online. Archived from the original on 25 October 2015. Retrieved 18 December 2015. 
  222. ^ Ting, Su Hie; Rose, Louis (June 2014). "Ethnic Language Use and Ethnic Identity for Sarawak Indigenous Groups in Malaysia". Oceanic Linguistics. 53 (1): 92–109. doi:10.1353/ol.2014.0002. Retrieved 30 November 2015. (subscription required (help)). In Malaysia, Bumiputera (literally translated as 'prince of the earth' or 'son of the land') refers to the Malay and other indigenous people. ... The Bumiputera in general enjoy special privileges as part of the affirmative action for advancement of the community, and these include priority in university entry, scholarships, and government jobs, special finance schemes, and political positions. 
  223. ^ "Indigenous peoples – (a) Land rights of Indigenous Peoples". Human Rights Commission of Malaysia (SUHAKAM). Archived from the original on 2 October 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015. 
  224. ^ Leong, Joe (4 August 2014). "Bizarre names like Tigabelas, Helicopter, Kissing in Borneo are real". The Ant Daily. Archived from the original on 24 November 2015. Retrieved 24 November 2015. There are several other minor ethnic groups placed under the 'others', such as Indian, Eurasian, Kedayan, Javanese, Bugis and Murut. 
  225. ^ "Putrajaya approves 'Dayak' for 'Race' category in all official forms". The Malaysian Insider. 31 October 2015. Archived from the original on 24 November 2015. Retrieved 24 November 2015. 
  226. ^ "State statistics: Malays edge past Chinese in Sarawak". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 15 April 2016. Retrieved 15 April 2016. 
  227. ^ Keat, Gin Ooi (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Volume 1. ABC-CLIO. pp. 623–625. ISBN 978-1-57607-770-2. Retrieved 25 November 2015. Ibans are found in all political divisions of Borneo but in largest numbers in Sarawak. ... Christian missionaries have been active among the Ibans for more than a century, and today many Ibans are Christians. 
  228. ^ "Our People – Iban – The official travel website for Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 25 November 2015. Retrieved 25 November 2015. 
  229. ^ Frans, Welman (2011). Borneo Trilogy Sarawak: Volume 1. Bangkok, Thailand: Booksmango. p. 177. ISBN 978-616-245-082-2. Retrieved 2 November 2015. 
  230. ^ a b "Ethnic groups". Sarawak Tourism Federation. Archived from the original on 21 October 2015. Retrieved 23 March 2017. 
  231. ^ a b "Our people – Chinese". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 30 January 2016. Retrieved 28 November 2015. 
  232. ^ John, Barwick. "Huang Naishang (1844–1924)". Biographical Dictionary of Chinese Christianity. Archived from the original on 18 May 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2015. Shortly thereafter, Huang decided to start a new settlement of Chinese in Malaysia in order to escape China's despotism and Fujian's poverty. ... In 1901, Huang traveled with settlers from Fujian to Sibu, where he founded New Fuzhou. 
  233. ^ "Our people – Malay – The official website for Sarawak Malaysian Borneo". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 30 November 2015. Retrieved 30 November 2015. 
  234. ^ "Journey to Melanau heartland". The official travel website for Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 7 December 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2015. 
  235. ^ Ishikawa, Noboru (15 March 2010). Between Frontiers: Nation and Identity in a Southeast Asian Borderland. Ohio University Press. pp. 86–87. ISBN 978-0-89680-476-0. Retrieved 9 November 2015. 
  236. ^ "Miri Visitors' Guide – Miri's inhabitants". gomiri.com. Archived from the original on 20 May 2015. Retrieved 8 August 2015. 
  237. ^ "Our people – Bidayuh". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 7 December 2015. Retrieved 7 December 2015. 
  238. ^ "Bidayuh longhouse". Sarawak Cultural Village. Archived from the original on 31 July 2012. Retrieved 7 December 2015. 
  239. ^ a b Erivina. "Our people – Orang Ulu". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 7 February 2015. Retrieved 10 December 2015. 
  240. ^ "Taburan Penduduk dan Ciri-ciri asas demografi (Population Distribution and Basic demographic characteristics 2010)" (PDF). Department of Statistics, Malaysia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 May 2014. Retrieved 11 December 2015.  p. 13
  241. ^ "Explanation sought on real status of S'wak's official religion". The Borneo Post. 12 December 2015. Retrieved 11 December 2015. The Sarawak State Constitution is clear—Sarawak has no official religion, but the official website stated otherwise. This matter was pointed out by YB Baru Bian (Ba Kelalan assemblyman and state PKR chairman) in his letter to the state secretary in July this year, and no action was taken. 
  242. ^ Carlo, Caldarola (1982). Religions and Societies, Asia and the Middle East. Walter de Gruyter. p. 481. ISBN 978-90-279-3259-4. Retrieved 15 December 2015. 
  243. ^ "SIB & BEM – A Brief Introduction to Origin of SIB". SIB Grace. Archived from the original on 26 November 2013. Retrieved 15 December 2015. 
  244. ^ "List of Baptist churches in Sarawak". Malaysia Baptist Convention. Archived from the original on 20 October 2014. Retrieved 15 December 2015. 
  245. ^ Carl, Skutsch (7 November 2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. Routledge. p. 781. ISBN 978-1-135-19388-1. Retrieved 15 December 2015. 
  246. ^ "Malaysia Bahai's – Sarawak". bahai.org.my. Archived from the original on 31 March 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016. 
  247. ^ Chieng, Connie (17 August 2015). "Sarawak is a blessed land of harmony". New Sarawak Tribune. Archived from the original on 1 April 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016. 
  248. ^ "Sikh Temple". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 10 March 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016. 
  249. ^ "Animism is alive and well in South-East Asia: What can we learn?". Pravda.ru. 24 March 2014. Archived from the original on 1 April 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2016. 
  250. ^ a b c d e John, Postill (15 May 2006). Media and Nation Building: How the Iban became Malaysian. Berghahn Books. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-85745-687-8. Retrieved 13 November 2015. because of his strong defence of English as the language of instruction in Sarawak ... ,(page 58) 
  251. ^ "Former Education Minister Calls For Return To Teaching Maths, Science In BM". Bernama. 12 November 2011. Archived from the original on 11 July 2011. Retrieved 13 November 2015. 
  252. ^ Fernandez, Joe (26 November 2015). "DAP: English remains Sarawak's official language". Free Malaysia Today. Archived from the original on 12 January 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2016. 
  253. ^ Sulok, Tawie (20 February 2012). "Usage of English, native languages officially still legal in Sarawak". The Sun Daily. Archived from the original on 13 November 2015. Retrieved 13 November 2015. 
  254. ^ "My Constitution – Sabah and Sarawak". Malaysian Bar. Retrieved 13 November 2015. English was the official language of the State Legislative Assemblies and Courts in Sabah and Sarawak on Malaysia Day, 16 September 1963. Any change of the official language to Bahasa Melayu can only become effective when the State Legislative Assembly of Sabah or Sarawak agrees to adopt federal laws that make Bahasa Melayu the official language. [dead link]
  255. ^ Ogilvy, Geryl (18 November 2015). "Sarawak to recognise English as official language besides Bahasa Malaysia". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 2 April 2016. 
  256. ^ "Sarawak, a land of many tongues". The Borneo Post. 23 December 2010. Archived from the original on 13 November 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2016. 
  257. ^ Metom, Lily (31 January 2013). Emotion Concepts of the Ibans in Sarawak. Patridge Singapore. p. 22. ISBN 978-1-4828-9731-9. Retrieved 12 January 2016. Nevertheless, all these ancient customs pertaining to headhunting are no longer observed in these modern days. 
  258. ^ Platzdasch, Bernhard; Saravanamuttu, Johan (6 August 2014). Religious Diversity in Muslim-majority States in Southeast Asia: Areas of Toleration and Conflict. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies (ISEAS). p. 383. ISBN 978-981-4519-64-9. Retrieved 26 December 2015. 
  259. ^ Kaur, Jeswan (16 December 2007). "Penan slowly abandoning their nomadic way of life". The Brunei Times. Archived from the original on 26 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015. 
  260. ^ "'Equal treatment for Penan community'". The Borneo Post. 1 March 2014. Archived from the original on 26 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015. 
  261. ^ Switow, Michael (9 February 2005). "Interracial marriage blossoms in Malaysia". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 30 September 2015. Retrieved 12 January 2016. 
  262. ^ "Explore Sarawak in Half a Day". Sarawak Cultural Village. Archived from the original on 7 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015. 
  263. ^ "Sarawak Cultural Village". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 26 December 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015. 
  264. ^ "Malaysian Borneo's Muzium Sarawak: A Colonial Legacy in Postcolonial Context". Cultural Survival. Archived from the original on 5 October 2015. Retrieved 26 December 2015. 
  265. ^ Ringgit, Danielle Sendou (26 August 2015). "From dreams into the mainstream". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 31 December 2015. Retrieved 31 December 2015. Aside from that, the late Tusau Padan performed for Queen Elizabeth during her official visit to Sarawak in 1972, ... 
  266. ^ Pandian, A; Ching Ling, L; Ai Lin, T (16 October 2014). "Chapter VII – Developing Literacy and Knowledge, Preservation skills among Remote Rural Children". New Literacies: Reconstructing Language and Education. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 95–97. ISBN 978-1-4438-6956-0. Retrieved 1 January 2016. 
  267. ^ "Tarian Ngajat Identiti Istimewa Masyarakat Iban (Ngajat dances a special identity for the Ibans)". Jabatan Penerangan Malaysia (Malaysian Ministry of Information). Archived from the original on 25 April 2015. Retrieved 31 December 2015. 
  268. ^ Nie, C.L.K; Durin, A. "Renong, An Iban Vocal Repertory (Conference paper)". Universiti Malaysia Sarawak. Archived from the original on 31 December 2015. Retrieved 31 December 2015. 
  269. ^ MacDonald, M.R. (16 December 2013). "The tradition of storytelling in Malaysia". Traditional Storytelling Today: An International Sourcebook. Routledge. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-135-91721-0. Retrieved 1 January 2016. The Kayan and the Kenyah, who dwell in the upper region of Sarawak, have a vibrant epic-telling tradition that is elaborate and specialised. 
  270. ^ Law, Daryll (14 October 2013). "Preserve traditional culture for prosperity, Iban's urged". New Sarawak Tribune. Archived from the original on 31 December 2015. Retrieved 31 December 2015. 
  271. ^ "Sarawak Gazette now available online". The Borneo Post. 31 July 2013. Archived from the original on 9 May 2015. Retrieved 5 January 2016. 
  272. ^ Walker, J.H (13 April 2005). "Hikayat Panglima Nikosa and the Sarawak Gazette: Transforming Texts in Nineteenth Century Sarawak". Modern Asian Studies. 39 (2): 427. doi:10.1017/S0026749X04001507. Retrieved 13 January 2016. 
  273. ^ "Best Sarawak Laksa in Kuching". The Malaysian Insider. 29 April 2015. Archived from the original on 8 August 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2016. 
  274. ^ "Kolo mee, a Sarawak favourite, any time of day". The Malaysian Insider. 14 September 2013. Archived from the original on 9 March 2014. Retrieved 3 January 2016. 
  275. ^ "'Ayam pansuh' — A Sarawak exotic delicacy loved by many (VIDEO)". The Malay Mail. 28 June 2015. Archived from the original on 1 July 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2016. 
  276. ^ "Sarawak Top 10 Iconic Food". Sarawak Tourism Board. Archived from the original on 15 July 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2016. 
  277. ^ "Singer Deja Moss' real passion is Sarawak layered cakes". The Star (Malaysia). 24 March 2015. Retrieved 3 January 2016. 
  278. ^ "Public Holidays 2015". The Sarawak Government. Archived from the original on 7 September 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2016. 
  279. ^ "TYT, CM attend state's 52nd anniversary of independence". The Borneo Post. 23 July 2015. Archived from the original on 11 August 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2016. 
  280. ^ Hunter, M. "Sarawak's "Independence Day"". New Mandala (Australian National University). Archived from the original on 25 July 2015. Retrieved 7 January 2016. 
  281. ^ "Pomp celebrations for Sarawak Governor's birthday". The Star (Malaysia). 12 September 2015. Archived from the original on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016. 
  282. ^ "CM and wife to have Hari Raya open house at BCCK". 15 July 2015. 15 July 2015. Archived from the original on 7 January 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2016. 
  283. ^ Aubrey, S (9 June 2015). "1,000 throng Manyin's Gawai Dayak open house". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016. 
  284. ^ "KTS holds Chinese New Year Open House in Bintulu". The Borneo Post. 9 March 2015. Archived from the original on 16 December 2015. Retrieved 8 January 2016. 
  285. ^ "Public Holiday in Sarawak in conjunctions with the Gawai Dayak Celebration". Co-operative College in Malaysia. Archived from the original on 8 January 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2016. 
  286. ^ "Commonwealth Games Federation – Countries – Sarawak". Commonwealth Games Federation. Retrieved 11 January 2016. 
  287. ^ "Japan top the list with 73 'golds'". The Straits Times. 5 September 1962. Retrieved 11 January 2016. 
  288. ^ "Jakarta 1962". Olympic Council of Asia. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2016. 
  289. ^ "S'wak to host Sukma in 2016 — Khairy". The Borneo Post. 4 September 2013. Archived from the original on 11 January 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2016. 
  290. ^ Pail, Salena (22 October 2015). "CM revs up momentum for 2016 S'wak Sukma". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 11 January 2016. Retrieved 11 January 2016. 
  291. ^ Bong, Karen (14 December 2014). "Major boost for paralympic athletes". The Borneo Post. Archived from the original on 31 July 2015. Retrieved 11 January 2016. 

External links[edit]

 South China Sea Belait, Brunei-Muara, Temburong and Tutong,  Brunei
Sabah
South China Sea North Kalimantan,  Indonesia
  Sarawak  
West Kalimantan,  Indonesia East Kalimantan,  Indonesia
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarawak&oldid=772400701"