Pantheism

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Pantheism is the belief that all of reality is identical with divinity,[1] or that everything composes an all-encompassing, immanent god.[2] Pantheists thus do not believe in a distinct personal or anthropomorphic god.[3]

In the West, pantheism was formalized as a separate theology and philosophy based on the work of the Irish philosopher Erigena and 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza[4]:p.7 (also known as Benedict Spinoza), whose book Ethics was an answer to Descartes' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate.[5] Although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as its most celebrated advocate.[6] His work, Ethics, was the major source from which Western pantheism spread.[7]

Pantheistic concepts may date back thousands of years, and some religions in the East continue to contain pantheistic elements.

Etymology[edit]

Pantheism is derived from the Greek πᾶν pan (meaning "all, of everything") and θεός theos (meaning "god, divine").

Definitions[edit]

There are a variety of definitions of pantheism. Some consider it a theological and philosophical position concerning God.[4]:p.8

As a religious position, some describe pantheism as the polar opposite of atheism.[5]:pp. 7 From this standpoint, pantheism is the view that everything is part of an all-encompassing, immanent God.[8] All forms of reality may then be considered either modes of that Being, or identical with it.[9] Some hold that pantheism is a non-religious philosophical position. To them, pantheism is the view that the Universe (in the sense of the totality of all existence) and God are identical (implying a denial of the personality and transcendence of God).[10]

History[edit]

The philosophy of Baruch Spinoza is often regarded as pantheism, although he did not use that term.[4][11]

Pre-modern times[edit]

Pantheistic tendencies existed in a number of early Gnostic groups, with pantheistic thought appearing throughout the Middle Ages.[12] These included a section of Johannes Scotus Eriugena's 9th-century work De divisione naturae and the beliefs of mystics such as Amalric of Bena (11th-12 centuries) and Eckhart (12th-13th).[12]:pp. 620–621

The Roman Catholic Church has long regarded pantheistic ideas as heresy.[13][14] Giordano Bruno, an Italian monk who evangelized about an immanent and infinite God, was burned at the stake in 1600 by the Roman Inquisition. He has since become known as a celebrated pantheist and martyr of science.[15] Bruno influenced many later thinkers including Baruch Spinoza.

Spinoza[edit]

Main article: Baruch Spinoza

In the West, pantheism was formalized as a separate theology and philosophy based on the work of the 17th-century philosopher Baruch Spinoza.[4]:p.7 Spinoza was a Dutch philosopher of Sephardi Portuguese origin,[16] whose book Ethics was an answer to Descartes' famous dualist theory that the body and spirit are separate.[5] Spinoza held the monist view that the two are the same, and monism is a fundamental part of his philosophy. He was described as a "God-intoxicated man," and used the word God to describe the unity of all substance.[5] Although the term pantheism was not coined until after his death, Spinoza is regarded as its most celebrated advocate.[6] His work, Ethics, was the major source from which Western pantheism spread.[7]

The breadth and importance of Spinoza's work was not fully realized until many years after his death. By laying the groundwork for the 18th-century Enlightenment[17] and modern biblical criticism,[18] including modern conceptions of the self and the universe,[19] he came to be considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy.[20]

Spinoza's magnum opus, the posthumous Ethics, in which he opposed Descartes' mind–body dualism, has earned him recognition as one of Western philosophy's most important thinkers. In his book Ethics, "Spinoza wrote the last indisputable Latin masterpiece, and one in which the refined conceptions of medieval philosophy are finally turned against themselves and destroyed entirely."[21] Hegel said, "You are either a Spinozist or not a philosopher at all."[22] His philosophical accomplishments and moral character prompted 20th-century philosopher Gilles Deleuze to name him "the 'prince' of philosophers".[23]

Spinoza was raised in the Portuguese Jewish community in Amsterdam. He developed highly controversial ideas regarding the authenticity of the Hebrew Bible and the nature of the Divine. The Jewish religious authorities issued a cherem (Hebrew: חרם, a kind of ban, shunning, ostracism, expulsion, or excommunication) against him, effectively excluding him from Jewish society at age 23. His books were also later put on the Catholic Church's Index of Forbidden Books.

18th century[edit]

The first known use of the term "pantheism" was in Latin, by the English mathematician Joseph Raphson in his work De spatio reali, published in 1697.[24] In De spatio reali, Raphson begins with a distinction between atheistic "panhylists" (from the Greek roots pan, "all", and hyle, "matter"), who believe everything is matter, and Spinozan "pantheists" who believe in "a certain universal substance, material as well as intelligence, that fashions all things that exist out of its own essence."[25][26] Raphson found the universe to be immeasurable in respect to a human's capacity of understanding, and believed that humans would never be able to comprehend it.[27]

The term was first used in English by the Irish writer John Toland in his work of 1705 Socinianism Truly Stated, by a pantheist.[12]:pp. 617–618 Toland was influenced by both Spinoza and Bruno, and had read Joseph Raphson's De Spatio Reali, referring to it as "the ingenious Mr. Ralphson's (sic) Book of Real Space".[28] Like Raphson, he used the terms "pantheist" and "Spinozist" interchangeably.[29] In 1720 he wrote the Pantheisticon: or The Form of Celebrating the Socratic-Society in Latin, envisioning a pantheist society which believed, "all things in the world are one, and one is all in all things ... what is all in all things is God, eternal and immense, neither born nor ever to perish."[30][31] He clarified his idea of pantheism in a letter to Gottfried Leibniz in 1710 when he referred to "the pantheistic opinion of those who believe in no other eternal being but the universe".[12][32][33][34]

In 1785, a major controversy about Spinoza's philosophy between Friedrich Jacobi, a critic, and Moses Mendelssohn, a defender, known in German as the Pantheismus-Streit, helped to spread pantheism to many German thinkers in the late 18th and 19th centuries.[35]

In the mid-eighteenth century, the English theologian Daniel Waterland defined pantheism this way: "It supposes God and nature, or God and the whole universe, to be one and the same substance—one universal being; insomuch that men's souls are only modifications of the divine substance."[12][36] In the early nineteenth century, the German theologian Julius Wegscheider defined pantheism as the belief that God and the world established by God are one and the same.[12][37]

19th century[edit]

Growing influence[edit]

During the beginning of 19th century, pantheism was the theological viewpoint of many leading writers and philosophers, attracting figures such as William Wordsworth and Samuel Coleridge in Britain; Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel in Germany; Knut Hamsun in Norway; and Walt Whitman, Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau in the United States. Seen as a growing threat by the Vatican, in 1864 it was formally condemned by Pope Pius IX in the Syllabus of Errors.[38]

In 2011, a letter written in 1886 by William Herndon, Abraham Lincoln's law partner, was sold at auction for US$30,000.[39] In it, Herndon writes of the U.S. President's evolving religious views, which included pantheism.

"Mr. Lincoln's religion is too well known to me to allow of even a shadow of a doubt; he is or was a Theist and a Rationalist, denying all extraordinary – supernatural inspiration or revelation. At one time in his life, to say the least, he was an elevated Pantheist, doubting the immortality of the soul as the Christian world understands that term. He believed that the soul lost its identity and was immortal as a force. Subsequent to this he rose to the belief of a God, and this is all the change he ever underwent."[39][40]

The subject is understandably controversial, but the content of the letter is consistent with Lincoln's fairly lukewarm approach to organized religion.[40]

Comparison with non-Christian religions[edit]

Some 19th century theologians considered various pre-Christian religions and philosophies to be pantheistic.

Pantheism was regarded to be similar to the ancient Hindu[12]:pp. 618 philosophy of Advaita (non-dualism) to the extent that the 19th-century German Sanskritist Theodore Goldstücker remarked that Spinoza's thought was "... a western system of philosophy which occupies a foremost rank amongst the philosophies of all nations and ages, and which is so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus."[41]

19th-century European theologians also considered Ancient Egyptian religion to contain pantheistic elements and pointed to Egyptian philosophy as a source of Greek Pantheism.[12]:pp. 618–620 The latter included some of the Presocratics, such as Heraclitus and Anaximander.[42] The Stoics were pantheists, beginning with Zeno of Citium and culminating in the emperor-philosopher Marcus Aurelius. During the pre-Christian Roman Empire, Stoicism was one of the three dominant schools of philosophy, along with Epicureanism and Neoplatonism.[43][44] The early Taoism of Lao Zi and Zhuangzi is also sometimes considered pantheistic.[32]

20th century[edit]

Albert Einstein is considered to be a pantheist by some commentators.

In 2007, Dorion Sagan, the son of famous scientist and science communicator, Carl Sagan, published a book entitled Dazzle Gradually: Reflections on the Nature of Nature co-written by Sagan's ex-wife, Lynn Margulis. In a chapter entitled, "Truth of My Father", he declares: "My father believed in the God of Spinoza and Einstein, God not behind nature, but as nature, equivalent to it."[45]

In a letter written to Eduard Büsching (25 October 1929), after Büsching sent Albert Einstein a copy of his book Es gibt keinen Gott, Einstein wrote, "We followers of Spinoza see our God in the wonderful order and lawfulness of all that exists and in its soul [Beseeltheit] as it reveals itself in man and animal."[46] According to Einstein, the book only dealt with the concept of a personal god and not the impersonal God of pantheism.[46] In a letter written in 1954 to philosopher Eric Gutkind, Albert Einstein wrote "the word God is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses."[47][48] In another letter written in 1954 he wrote "I do not believe in a personal God and I have never denied this but have expressed it clearly.".[47]

In the late 20th century, pantheism was often declared to be the underlying theology of Neopaganism,[49] and pantheists began forming organizations devoted specifically to pantheism and treating it as a separate religion.[32]

Pantheism is mentioned in a Papal encyclical in 2009[50] and a statement on New Year's Day in 2010,[51] criticizing pantheism for denying the superiority of humans over nature and seeing the source of man's salvation in nature.[50] In a review of the 2009 film Avatar, Ross Douthat, an author, described pantheism as "Hollywood's religion of choice for a generation now".[52]

Levi Ponce's "Luminaries of Pantheism" in Venice, California for The Paradise Project, "dedicated to celebrating and spreading awareness about pantheism."

In 2015, notable Los Angeles muralist Levi Ponce was commissioned to paint "Luminaries of Pantheism" for an area in Venice, California that receives over a million onlookers per year. The organization that commissioned the work, The Paradise Project, is "dedicated to celebrating and spreading awareness about pantheism." The mural painting depicts Albert Einstein, Alan Watts, Baruch Spinoza, Terence McKenna, Carl Jung, Carl Sagan, Emily Dickinson, Nikola Tesla, Friedrich Nietzsche, Ralph Waldo Emerson, W.E.B. Du Bois, Henry David Thoreau, Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Rumi, Adi Shankara, and Lao Tzu.[53]

Categorizations[edit]

There are multiple varieties of pantheism[12][54]:3 and various systems of classifying them relying upon one or more spectra or in discrete categories.

Degree of determinism[edit]

The American philosopher Charles Hartshorne used the term Classical Pantheism to describe the deterministic philosophies of Baruch Spinoza, the Stoics, and other like-minded figures.[55] Pantheism (All-is-God) is often associated with monism (All-is-One) and some have suggested that it logically implies determinism (All-is-Now).[5][56][57][58][59] Albert Einstein explained theological determinism by stating,[60] "the past, present, and future are an 'illusion'". This form of pantheism has been referred to as "extreme monism", in which – in the words of one commentator – "God decides or determines everything, including our supposed decisions."[61] Other examples of determinism-inclined pantheisms include those of Ralph Waldo Emerson,[62] and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel.[63]

However, some have argued against treating every meaning of "unity" as an aspect of pantheism,[64] and there exist versions of pantheism that regard determinism as an inaccurate or incomplete view of nature. Examples include the beliefs of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling and William James.[65]

Degree of belief[edit]

It may also be possible to distinguish two types of pantheism, one being more religious and the other being more philosophical. The Columbia Encyclopedia writes of the distinction:

"If the pantheist starts with the belief that the one great reality, eternal and infinite, is God, he sees everything finite and temporal as but some part of God. There is nothing separate or distinct from God, for God is the universe. If, on the other hand, the conception taken as the foundation of the system is that the great inclusive unity is the world itself, or the universe, God is swallowed up in that unity, which may be designated nature."[66]

Form of monism[edit]

A diagram with neutral monism compared to Cartesian dualism, physicalism and idealism.

Philosophers and theologians have often suggested that pantheism implies monism.[67] Different types of monism include:[68][69]

  1. Substance monism, "the view that the apparent plurality of substances is due to different states or appearances of a single substance"[68]
  2. Attributive monism, "the view that whatever the number of substances, they are of a single ultimate kind"[68]
  3. Partial monism, "within a given realm of being (however many there may be) there is only one substance"[68]
  4. Existence monism, the view that there is only one concrete object token (The One, "Τὸ Ἕν" or the Monad).[70]
  5. Priority monism, "the whole is prior to its parts" or "the world has parts, but the parts are dependent fragments of an integrated whole."[69]
  6. Property monism: the view that all properties are of a single type (e.g. only physical properties exist)
  7. Genus monism: "the doctrine that there is a highest category; e.g., being" [69]

Views contrasting with monism are:

  • Metaphysical dualism, which asserts that there are two ultimately irreconcilable substances or realities such as Good and Evil, for example, Manichaeism,[71]
  • Metaphysical pluralism, which asserts three or more fundamental substances or realities.[71]
  • Nihilism, negates any of the above categories (substances, properties, concrete objects, etc.).

Monism in modern philosophy of mind can be divided into three broad categories:

  1. Idealist, phenomenalism, or mentalistic monism, which holds that only mind or spirit is real[71]
  2. Neutral monism, which holds that one sort of thing fundamentally exists,[72] to which both the mental and the physical can be reduced[73]
  3. Material monism (also called Physicalism and materialism), which holds that only the physical is real, and that the mental or spiritual can be reduced to the physical[71][72]
a. Eliminative Materialism, according to which everything is physical and mental things do not exist[72]
b. Reductive physicalism, according to which mental things do exist and are a kind of physical thing[72][note 1]

Certain positions do not fit easily into the above categories, such as functionalism, anomalous monism, and reflexive monism. Moreover, they do not define the meaning of "real".

Other[edit]

In 1896, J. H. Worman, a theologian, identified seven categories of pantheism: Mechanical or materialistic (God the mechanical unity of existence); Ontological (fundamental unity, Spinoza); Dynamic; Psychical (God is the soul of the world); Ethical (God is the universal moral order, Johann Gottlieb Fichte); Logical (Hegel); and Pure (absorption of God into nature, which Worman equates with atheism).[12]

More recently, Paul D. Feinberg, professor of biblical and systematic theology at Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, also identified seven: Hylozoistic; Immanentistic; Absolutistic monistic; Relativistic monistic; Acosmic; Identity of opposites; and Neoplatonic or emanationistic.[74]

Related concepts[edit]

Nature worship or nature mysticism is often conflated and confused with pantheism. It is pointed out by at least one expert in pantheist philosophy that Spinoza's identification of God with nature is very different from a recent idea of a self identifying pantheist with environmental ethical concerns, Harold Wood, founder of the Universal Pantheist Society. His use of the word nature to describe his worldview is suggested to be vastly different from the "nature" of modern sciences. He and other nature mystics who also identify as pantheists use "nature" to refer to the limited natural environment (as opposed to man-made built environment). This use of "nature" is different from the broader use from Spinoza and other pantheists describing natural laws and the overall phenomena of the physical world. Nature mysticism may be compatible with pantheism but it may also be compatible with theism and other views.[75]

Panentheism (from Greek πᾶν (pân) "all"; ἐν (en) "in"; and θεός (theós) "God"; "all-in-God") was formally coined in Germany in the 19th century in an attempt to offer a philosophical synthesis between traditional theism and pantheism, stating that God is substantially omnipresent in the physical universe but also exists "apart from" or "beyond" it as its Creator and Sustainer.[76]:p.27 Thus panentheism separates itself from pantheism, positing the extra claim that God exists above and beyond the world as we know it.[77]:p.11 The line between pantheism and panentheism can be blurred depending on varying definitions of God, so there have been disagreements when assigning particular notable figures to pantheism or panentheism.[76]:pp. 71–72, 87–88, 105[78]

Pandeism is another word derived from pantheism and is characterized as a combination of reconcilable elements of pantheism and deism.[79] It assumes a Creator-deity which is at some point distinct from the universe and then transforms into it, resulting in a universe similar to the pantheistic one in present essence, but differing in origin.

Panpsychism is the philosophical view held by many pantheists that consciousness, mind, or soul is a universal feature of all things.[80] Some pantheists also subscribe to the distinct philosophical views hylozoism (or panvitalism), the view that everything is alive, and its close neighbor animism, the view that everything has a soul or spirit.[81]

Pantheism in religion[edit]

Traditional religions[edit]

Many traditional and folk religions including African traditional religions[82] and Native American religions[83][84] can be seen as pantheistic, or a mixture of pantheism and other doctrines such as polytheism and animism. According to pantheists there are elements of pantheism in some forms of Christianity.[85][86][87] Hinduism contains pantheistic views on the Divine, but also panentheistic, polytheistic, monetheistic and atheistic views.[88][89][90]

Spirituality and New Religious Movements[edit]

Pantheism is popular in modern spirituality and New Religious Movements, such as Neopaganism and Theosophy.[91] Two organizations that specify the word pantheism in their title formed in the last quarter of the 20th century. The Universal Pantheist Society, open to all varieties of pantheists and supportive of environmental causes, was founded in 1975.[92] The World Pantheist Movement is headed by Paul Harrison, an environmentalist, writer and a former vice president of the Universal Pantheist Society, from which he resigned in 1996. The World Pantheist Movement was incorporated in 1999 to focus exclusively on promoting a strict metaphysical naturalistic version of pantheism,[93] considered by some a form of religious naturalism.[94] It has been described as an example of "dark green religion" with a focus on environmental ethics.[95]

East/South Asian religions[edit]

Ideas resembling pantheism existed in East/South Asian religions before the 18th century (notably Hinduism, Confucianism and Taoism). Although no evidence of such influence on Spinoza's own work exists, it is evident in the writing of other contemporary philosophers such as Leibniz, and later Voltaire.[96][97]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

  1. ^ Such as Behaviourism,[73] Type-identity theory[73] and Functionalism[73]

References[edit]

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  11. ^ *Fraser, Alexander Campbell "Philosophy of Theism", William Blackwood and Sons, 1895, p 163.
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  62. ^ Dependence and Freedom: The Moral Thought of Horace Bushnell By David Wayne Haddorff [1] Emerson's belief was "monistic determinism".
    • Creatures of Prometheus: Gender and the Politics of Technology By Timothy Vance Kaufman-Osborn, Prometheus ((Writer)) [2] "Things are in a saddle, and ride mankind."
    • Emerson's position is "soft determinism" (a variant of determinism) [3]
    • "The 'fate' Emerson identifies is an underlying determinism." (Fate is one of Emerson's essays) [4]
  63. ^ "Hegel was a determinist" (also called a combatibilist a.k.a. soft determinist) [5]
    • "Hegel and Marx are usually cited as the greatest proponents of historical determinism" [6]
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  65. ^
    • Theories of the will in the history of philosophy By Archibald Alexander p 307 Schelling holds "that the will is not determined but self-determined." [7]
    • The Dynamic Individualism of William James by James O. Pawelski p 17 "[His] fight against determinism" "My first act of free will shall be to believe in free will." [8]
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    • "The idea that Unity that is rooted in nature is what types of nature mysticism (e.g. Wordsworth and Robinson Jeffers, Gary Snyder) have in common with more philosophically robust versions of pantheism. It is why nature mysticism and philosophical pantheism are often conflated and confused for one another."
    • "[Wood's] pantheism is distant from Spinoza's identification of God with nature, and much closer to nature mysticism. In fact it is nature mysticism
    • "Nature mysticism, however, is as compatible with theism as it is with pantheism."
    • "Surely what Wood understands by "nature," its value etc., is vastly different from "nature" as seen by the natural sciences."
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  94. ^ Stone, Jerome Arthur (2008). Religious Naturalism Today: The Rebirth of a Forgotten Alternative. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 10. ISBN 0791475379. 
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Sources[edit]

  • Fowler, Jeaneane D. (1997), Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press 
  • Fowler, Jeaneane D. (2002), Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism, Sussex Academic Press 
  • Long, Jeffrey D. (2011), Historical Dictionary of Hinduism, Scarecrow Press 

Further reading[edit]

  • Amryc, C. Pantheism: The Light and Hope of Modern Reason, 1898. online
  • Harrison, Paul, Elements of Pantheism, Element Press, 1999. preview
  • Hunt, John, Pantheism and Christianity, William Isbister Limited, 1884. online
  • Levine, Michael, Pantheism: A Non-Theistic Concept of Deity, Psychology Press, 1994, ISBN 9780415070645
  • Picton, James Allanson, Pantheism: Its story and significance, Archibald Constable & Co., 1905. online.
  • Plumptre, Constance E., General Sketch of the History of Pantheism, Cambridge University Press, 2011 (reprint, originally published 1879), ISBN 9781108028028 online
  • Russell, Sharman Apt, Standing in the Light: My Life as a Pantheist, Basic Books, 2008, ISBN 0465005179
  • Urquhart, W. S. Pantheism and the Value of Life, 1919. online

External links[edit]

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