Research and development

Research and Development (R&D), also known in Europe as research and technical (or technological) development (RTD), is a general term for activities in connection with corporate or governmental innovation. R&D is a component of Innovation and is situated at the front end of the Innovation lifecycle. Innovation builds on R&D and includes commercialization phases. The activities that are classified as R&D differ from company to company, but there are two primary models, with an R&D department being either staffed by engineers and tasked with directly developing new products, or staffed with industrial scientists and tasked with applied research in scientific or technological fields which may facilitate future product development. In either case, R&D differs from the vast majority of corporate activities in that it is not often intended to yield immediate profit, and generally carries greater risk and an uncertain return on investment.

Background

New product design and development is more often than not a crucial factor in the survival of a company. In an industry that is changing fast, firms must continually revise their design and range of products. This is necessary due to continuous technology change and development as well as other competitors and the changing preference of customers. Without an R&D program, a firm must rely on strategic alliances, acquisitions, and networks to tap into the innovations of others.

Federally funded research and development centers

Federally Funded Research and Development Centers (FFRDCs) are public-private partnerships which conduct research for the United States Government. They are administered in accordance with U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 48, Part 35, Section 35.017 by universities and corporations. There are currently 42 recognized FFRDCs that are sponsored by the U.S. government. FFRDCs are similar to the University Affiliated Research Centers run by the United States Department of Defense.

History of FFRDCs

During World War II scientists, engineers, mathematicians, and other specialists became part of the United States massive war effort -- leading to evolutions in radar, aircraft, computing and, most famously, the development of nuclear weapons through the Manhattan Project. The end of armed conflict did not end the need for organized research and development in support of the government.

As the Cold War became the new reality, government officials and their scientific advisors advanced the idea of a systematic approach to research, development, and acquisitions, one independent of the ups and downs of the marketplace and free of the restrictions on civil service. From this idea arose the concept of FFRDCs -- private entities that would work almost exclusively on behalf of the government, be free of organizational conflicts of interest, and maintain a stable workforce composed of highly trained technical talent.

Development

Development or developing may refer to:

Land use

Science and technology

Development (journal)

Development is a peer-reviewed scientific journal in the field of developmental biology that covers cellular and molecular mechanisms of animal and plant development. Topics covered include stem cells and nuclear reprogramming, regional specification, morphogenesis, organogenesis, evolution of the developmental process, and developmental studies of disease.

In 2009, the BioMedical & Life Sciences Division of the Special Libraries Association included Development in their list of top 100 journals in Biology and Medicine over the last 100 years. It is published by The Company of Biologists.

Brief history

Originally called Journal of Embryology and Experimental Morphology (ISSN 0022-0752) and established in 1953, the journal provided a periodical that would be primarily devoted to morphogenesis. In 1987, the journal was renamed Development. The journal’s full archive from 1953 is available online. Development now publishes 24 issues annually and content over 6 months old is freely available.

Glossary of chess

This page explains commonly used terms in chess in alphabetical order. Some of these have their own pages, like fork and pin. For a list of unorthodox chess pieces, see Fairy chess piece; for a list of terms specific to chess problems, see Glossary of chess problems; for a list of chess-related games, see Chess variants.

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[adjective: prophylactic] Prophylactic techniques include the blockade, overprotection, and the mysterious rook move.

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References

Bibliography