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Information Mapping is a technique that divides and labels information to facilitate comprehension, use, and recall. It was originally developed by Robert E. Horn.^[1]

Overview[link]

Information Mapping™ is a research-based approach for creating structured documents and communications. Its goal is to produce clear, concise, and user-focused communications. This is done by analyzing, organizing, and presenting information based on audience needs and the purpose of the information. The method is subject-matter and media independent.^{[citation needed]}

Robert Horn and his colleagues identified dozens of common documentation types, then analyzed them into structural components called information blocks. They identified over 200 common block types. These were assembled into information types using information maps.^{[citation needed]}

According to Horn and his colleagues, the six most common information types are:

• Procedure
• Process
• Principle
• Concept
• Fact
• Structure

The information mapping goal is measurable results that change the way people present information.

Horn's research-based, structured authoring methodology (The Method) forms the foundation of all of his company's (Information Mapping, Inc.) services: content development and management tools, professional services, and training. Institutions such as the University of Maryland's Human Computer Interaction (HCI) program and organizations such as the Parsons Institute for Information Mapping™ have extended this methodology to include greater graphic design, visualization, technology, and knowledge management capabilities into the process of mapping information.

Information Mapping has close ties to information visualization, information architecture, graphic design, information design, and data analysis. The field has responded to advances in Information Technology to also closely tie to: user experience design, graphic user interface design, and knowledge management systems.

Notable Experts[link]

• Brian Willison
• Robert Horn

References[link]

Bibliography[link]

• Robert E. Horn. Mapping Hypertext: The Analysis, Organization, and Display of Knowledge for the Next Generation of On-Line Text and Graphics. ISBN 0-9625565-0-5
• Robert E. Horn. How High Can it Fly? Examining the Evidence on Information Mapping's Method of High-Performance Communication. Note: This publication is available for download on Horn's website
  • Chapter One: http://www.stanford.edu/~rhorn/a/topic/stwrtng_infomap/HowHigh.Ch1.pdf
  • Chapter Two: http://www.stanford.edu/~rhorn/a/topic/stwrtng_infomap/HowHigh.Ch2.pdf
• The Information Mapping Method - 30 Years of Research - Research Paper & Notes [1]

External links[link]

• Parsons Institute for Information Mapping web site.
• University of Maryland, Human-Computer Interaction Lab web site.
• Robert Horn web site.
• Information Mapping web site.

Anthony Peter Buzan
Born	(1942-06-02) June 2, 1942 (age 70) Palmers Green, Middlesex
www.thinkbuzan.com

Anthony "Tony" Peter Buzan ( /ˈbuːzən/; born 2 June 1942) is an author and educational consultant. He is a proponent of the techniques of Mind Mapping^[1] and mental literacy. He claims to have worked with "corporate entities and businesses all over the world; academics; Olympic athletes; children of all ages; governments; and high profile individuals, in teaching them how to maximize the use of their brain power."^[2]

Background[link]

Buzan was born in Palmers Green, Enfield, Middlesex. He is an alumnus of Kitsilano Secondary School in Vancouver, where he was Head Boys Prefect 1959-60. His brother is the academic Barry Buzan. He is a promoter of mnemonic systems and Mind Mapping techniques. He launched his own software program to support Mind Mapping called iMindMap in December 2006. His website cites trademarks on the phrase 'Mind Maps'.

Following his 1970s series "Use Your Head" for the BBC, many of his ideas have been set into his series of five books: Use Your Memory, Master Your Memory, Use Your Head, The Speed Reading Book and The Mind Map Book. He has since authored or co-authored over 100 books that have appeared in 30 languages.^{[citation needed]}

As a popular psychology author, Tony Buzan has written on subjects relating to the brain, "genius quotient (GQ)", spiritual intelligence, memory, creativity and speed reading. He is the founder and President of the Brain Foundation (not to be confused with various medical-related bodies with the same name) and also the Brain Trust Charity, the World Memory Championships^[3] and the World Championships of the Brain. He was a co-founder of London's Mind Body Spirit Festival as well as the Mind Sports Olympiad.^[4]

Bibliography[link]

• Spore One - Structure in Hyperspace (September 25, 1972) ISBN 0-85115-016-0
• Use Your Head (January, 1974) ISBN 0-563-10790-1
• Speed Memory (January 27, 1977) ISBN 0-7153-7365-X
• Make the Most of Your Mind (February, 1984) ISBN 0-671-49519-4
• Speed Reading (20 May, 1971) ISBN 0-7221-2119-9
• The Mind Map Book (6 September, 1993) ISBN 0-563-36373-8
• Concordea (December, 2006)
• Requiem For Ted (December, 2006)
• Use Your Memory, (BBC Publications)
• Master Your Memory, (BBC Publications)
• The Memory Book, (BBC Publications, 2010)

References[link]

External links[link]

• Biography at open2.net BBC/Open University.
• Matteo Salvo - Italian certified partner.

Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Tony Buzan

Eric Richard Kandel
Kandel at Lange Nacht der Wissenschaften (Long Night of Science) in Austria in 2006
Born	(1929-11-07) November 7, 1929 (age 82) Vienna, Austria
Fields	Psychiatry and neuroscience
Institutions	Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons
Alma mater	New York University Medical School Harvard University
Known for	physiology of memory
Notable awards	Harvey Prize (1993) Wolf Prize in Medicine (1999) Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2000

Eric Richard Kandel (born November 7, 1929 in Vienna, Austria) is an American neuropsychiatrist who was a recipient of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his research on the physiological basis of memory storage in neurons. He shared the prize with Arvid Carlsson and Paul Greengard.

Kandel, who had studied psychoanalysis, wanted to understand how memory works. His mentor, Harry Grundfest, said, “If you want to understand the brain you’re going to have to take a reductionist approach, one cell at a time.” So he studied the neural system of a simple animal, Aplysia, a snail with very large nerve cells.^[1]

Kandel is a professor of biochemistry and biophysics at the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons and a Senior Investigator in the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. He was also the founding director of the Center for Neurobiology and Behavior, which is now the Department of Neuroscience at Columbia. Kandel authored In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind (WW Norton), which chronicles his life and research. The book was awarded the 2006 Los Angeles Times Book Award for Science and Technology.

Early years[link]

Kandel was born in 1929 in Vienna, Austria, in a middle-class Ashkenazi Jewish family. His mother, Charlotte Zimels, was born in 1897 in Kolomyya, Pokuttya (modern Ukraine), and came from a well-educated middle-class family. At that time Kolomyya was in Eastern Poland. His father was born in 1898 into a poor family in Olesko, Galicia (then part of Austria-Hungary). At the beginning of World War I his parents moved to Vienna where they met and married in 1923, shortly after Hermann Kandel, Eric's father, had established a toy store. They were a thoroughly assimilated and acculturated family, who had to leave Austria after the country had been annexed by Germany in March 1938. Aryanization (Arisierung) started; attacks on Jews escalated; Jewish property was confiscated. Eventually, when Eric was 9, he and his brother Ludwig, 14, boarded the "Gerolstein" at Antwerp in Belgium and joined their uncle in Brooklyn on May 11, 1939. Later his parents succeeded in moving to the US.

When Kandel won the Nobel Prize in 2000, it was claimed in Vienna that he was an "Austrian" Nobel, something he found "typically Viennese: very opportunistic, very disingenuous, somewhat hypocritical." He also said it was "...certainly not an Austrian Nobel, it was a Jewish-American Nobel." After that, he got a call from then Austrian president Thomas Klestil asking him, "How can we make things right?" Kandel said that first, Doktor-Karl-Lueger-Ring should be renamed; Karl Lueger was an anti-Semitic mayor of Vienna, cited by Hitler in Mein Kampf. Second, he wanted the Jewish intellectual community to be brought back to Vienna, with scholarships for Jewish students and researchers.^[2] He also proposed to have a symposium on the response of Austria to National Socialism.^[3] Kandel has since accepted an honorary citizenship of Vienna and participates in the academic and cultural life of his native city.^[4]

After arriving in the United States, and settling in Brooklyn, Kandel was tutored by his grandfather in Judaic studies, and was accepted at the Yeshiva of Flatbush, graduating in 1944. He attended Brooklyn's Erasmus Hall High School, a Public high school.^[5]

Kandel's initial intellectual interests lay in the area of history. (History and Literature was his undergraduate major at Harvard University.) He wrote an honors dissertation on "The Attitude Toward National Socialism of Three German Writers: Carl Zuckmayer, Hans Carossa, and Ernst Jünger." While at Harvard, a place dominated by the work of B. F. Skinner, Kandel became interested in learning and memory. It should be noted, however, that while Skinner championed a strict separation of psychology, as its own level of discourse, from biological considerations such as neurology, Kandel's work is essentially centered on an explication of the relationships between psychology and neurology.

The world of neuroscience was first opened up to Kandel through his interactions with a college girlfriend, Anna Kris, whose parents were Freudian psychoanalysts. Freud, a pioneer in revealing the importance of unconscious neural processes, was at the root of Kandel's interest in the biology of motivation and unconscious and conscious memory.

Medical school and early research[link]

In 1952 he started at the New York University Medical School. By graduation he was firmly interested in the biological basis of the mind. During this time he met his future wife, Denise Bystryn. Kandel was first exposed to research in Harry Grundfest's laboratory at Columbia University. Grundfest was known for using the oscilloscope to demonstrate that action potential conduction velocity depends on axon diameter. The researchers Kandel interacted with were contemplating the technically challenging idea of intracellular recordings of the electrical activity of the relatively small neurons of the vertebrate brain.

After starting his neurobiological work in the difficult thicket of the electrophysiology of the cerebral cortex, Kandel was impressed by the progress that had been made by Stephen Kuffler using a much more experimentally accessible system: neurons isolated from marine invertebrates. After becoming aware of Kuffler's work in 1955, Kandel graduated from medical school and learned from Stanley Crain how to make microelectrodes that could be used for intracellular recordings of relatively large crayfish giant axons.

Karl Lashley, a well-known American neuropsychologist, had tried but failed to identify an anatomical locus for memory storage in the cortex at the surface of the brain. When Kandel joined the Laboratory of Neurophysiology at the National Institutes of Health in 1957, William Beecher Scoville and Brenda Milner had recently described the patient HM, who had lost explicit memory storage following removal of the hippocampus. Kandel took on the task of performing electrophysiological recordings of hippocampal pyramidal neurons. Working with Alden Spencer, electrophysiological evidence was found for action potentials in the dendritic trees of hippocampal neurons. They also noticed the spontaneous pace-maker-like activity of these neurons and a robust recurrent inhibition in the hippocampus. With respect to memory, there was nothing in the general electrophysiological properties of hippocampal neurons that suggested why the hippocampus was special for explicit memory storage.

Kandel began to realize that memory storage must rely on modifications in the synaptic connections between neurons and that the complex connectivity of the hippocampus did not provide the best system for study of the detailed function of synapses. Kandel was aware that comparative studies of behavior, such as those by Konrad Lorenz, Niko Tinbergen, and Karl von Frisch had revealed conservation of simple forms of learning across all animals. Kandel felt it would be productive to select a simple animal model that would facilitate electrophysiological analysis of the synaptic changes involved in learning and memory storage. He believed that, ultimately, the results would be found to be applicable to humans. This decision was not without risks since many senior biologists and psychologists believed that nothing useful could be learned about human memory by studying invertebrate physiology.

In 1962, after completing his residency in psychiatry, Kandel went to Paris to learn about the marine mollusc Aplysia californica from Ladislav Tauc. Kandel had realized that simple forms of learning such as habituation, sensitization, classical conditioning, and operant conditioning could readily be studied with ganglia isolated from Aplysia. "While recording the behavior of a single cell in a ganglion, one nerve axon pathway to the ganglion could be stimulated weakly electrically as a conditioned [tactile] stimulus, while another pathway was stimulated as an unconditioned [pain] stimulus, following the exact protocol used for classical conditioning with natural stimuli in intact animals." Electrophysiological changes resulting from the combined stimuli could then be traced to specific synapses. In 1965 Kandel published his initial results, including a form of pre-synaptic potentiation that seemed to correspond to a simple form of learning.

Faculty member at New York University Medical School[link]

Kandel in 1978

Kandel took a position in the Departments of Physiology and Psychiatry at the New York University Medical School, eventually forming the Division of Neurobiology and Behavior. Working with Irving Kupferman and Harold Pinsker it was possible to develop protocols for demonstrating simple forms of learning by intact Aplysia. In particular, the now famous gill-withdrawal reflex, by which the tender Aplysia gill tissue is withdrawn from danger, was shown to be sensitive to both habituation and sensitization. By 1971 Tom Carew joined the research group and helped extend the work from studies restricted to short-term memory to additional experiments that included additional physiological processes required for long-term memory.

By 1981, laboratory members including Terry Walters, Tom Abrams, and Robert Hawkins had been able to extend the Aplysia system into the study of classical conditioning, a finding which helped close the apparent gap between the simple forms of learning often associated with invertebrates and more complex types of learning more often recognized in vertebrates. Along with the fundamental behavioral studies, other work in the lab traced the neuronal circuits of sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons involved in the learned behaviors. This allowed analysis of the specific synaptic connections that are modified by learning in the intact animals. The results from Kandel's laboratory provided solid evidence for the mechanistic basis of learning as "a change in the functional effectiveness of previously existing excitatory connections."

Molecular changes during learning[link]

Starting in 1966 James Schwartz collaborated with Kandel on a biochemical analysis of changes in neurons associated with learning and memory storage. By this time it was known that long-term memory, unlike short-term memory, involved the synthesis of new proteins. By 1972 they had evidence that the second messenger molecule cyclic AMP (cAMP) was produced in Aplysia ganglia under conditions that cause short-term memory formation (sensitization). In 1974 the Kandel lab moved to Columbia University as founding director of the Center for Neurobiology and Behavior. It was soon found that the neurotransmitter serotonin acting to produce the second messenger cAMP is involved in the molecular basis of sensitization of the gill-withdrawal reflex. By 1980, collaboration with Paul Greengard resulted in demonstration that cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) acted in this biochemical pathway in response to elevated levels of cAMP. Steven Siegelbaum identified a potassium channel that could be regulated by PKA, coupling serotonin's effects to altered synaptic electrophysiology.

In 1983 Kandel helped form the Howard Hughes Medical Research Institute at Columbia devoted to molecular neural science. The Kandel lab took on the task of identifying proteins that had to be synthesized in order to convert short-term memories into long-lasting memories. One of the nuclear targets for PKA is the transcriptional control protein CREB (cAMP response element binding protein). In collaboration with David Glanzman and Craig Bailey, CREB was identified as being a protein involved in long-term memory storage. One result of CREB activation is an increase in the number of synaptic connections. Thus, short-term memory had been linked to functional changes in existing synapses, while long-term memory was associated with a change in the number of synaptic connections.

Experimental support for Hebbian learning[link]

Some of the synaptic changes observed by Kandel's laboratory provide examples of Hebbian learning. One article describes the role of Hebbian learning in the Aplysia siphon-withdrawal reflex.^[6]

The Kandel lab has also performed important experiments using transgenic mice as a system for investigating the molecular basis of memory storage in the vertebrate hippocampus.^[7][8][9] Kandel's original idea that learning mechanisms would be conserved between all animals has been confirmed. Neurotransmitters, second messenger systems, protein kinases, ion channels, and transcription factors like CREB have been confirmed to function in both vertebrate and invertebrate learning and memory storage.^[10][11]

Continuing work at Columbia University[link]

Kandel actively contributes to science as a member of the Division of Neurobiology and Behavior at the Department of Psychiatry at Columbia University. In 2008, he and Daniela Pollak discovered that conditioning mice to associate a specific noise with protection from harm, a behavior called “learned safety,” produced a behavioral antidepressant effect comparable to medications. This finding, reported in Neuron, may inform further studies of the cellular interactions between antidepressants and behavioral treatments.

Kandel is also well known for the textbooks he has helped write such as Principles of Neural Science. First published in 1981 and entering its fifth edition, Principles of Neural Science is often used as a teaching and reference text in medical schools. Kandel has been a member of the National Academy of Sciences, USA, since 1974. His 2006 autobiographical book, "In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind," is a popularized account of his life and career.

Kandel has been at Columbia University since 1974, and lives in New York City.

Awards[link]

• Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research (1983)
• Gairdner Foundation International Award (1987)
• NAS Award for Scientific Reviewing of the National Academy of Sciences (1988)^[12]
• National Medal of Science (1988)
• Harvey Prize (1993)
• Wolf Prize in Medicine (1999)
• Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (2000)
• Charles A Dana Award for Pioneering Achievement in Health (1997)
• Austrian Decoration for Science and Art (2005)
• Benjamin Franklin Medal for Distinguished Achievement in the Sciences of the American Philosophical Society (2006)^[13]
• Viktor Frankl Award of the City of Vienna (2008)

He is a member of the prize committee for neuroscience of Kavli Prize.

Filmography[link]

• Petra Seeger, In Search of Memory (2008)

See also[link]

• List of Jewish Nobel laureates

References[link]

• Tallis, Raymond. "From Neuroses To Neurons". http://online.wsj.com. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702304023504577319903439493784.html. 

Further reading[link]

• Kandel, E. R. (2007), In Search of Memory: The Emergence of a New Science of Mind, New York: W. W. Norton & Company, ISBN 978-0-393-32937-7 .
• Kandel, Eric R.; Schwartz, James Harris; Jessell, Thomas M. (2000) [1981], Principles of Neural Science (Fourth ed.), New York: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-8385-7701-6 .
• Kandel, E. R. (2012), The Age of Insight: The Quest to Understand the Unconscious in Art, Mind, and Brain, from Vienna 1900 to the Present , New York: Random House, ISBN 978-1-4000-6871-5 

External links[link]

• Interview with Kandel June 2006 in German
• Eric Kandel’s Faculty Profile in the Department of Psychiatry at Columbia University
• Eric Kandel's Columbia University website
• Autobiography at the Nobel Prize website
• Science Friday: October 13, 2000 NPR interview
• Eric Kandel - A Nobel's Life
• Eric R. Kandel's United States Patents
• The Kavli Prize Prize Committee Member for neuroscience
• Explains a bit about the textbook Kandel wrote
• Eric Kandel on Charlie Rose