The War of 1812 was a military conflict, lasting for two-and-a-half years, fought by the
United States of America against the
United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Ireland, its
North American colonies, and its
American Indian allies.
Seen by the
United States and Canada as a war in its own right, it is frequently seen in
Europe as a theatre of the
Napoleonic Wars, as it was caused by issues related to that war (especially the
Continental System). The war resolved many issues which remained from the
American Revolutionary War but involved no boundary changes.
The United States declared war on June 18, 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions brought about by the
British war with
France, the impressment of
American merchant sailors into the
Royal Navy, British support of
Indian tribes against American expansion, outrage over insults to national honor after humiliations on the high seas, and possible American interest in annexing
British territory in modern-day
Canada.[3]
The war was fought in three principal theatres. Firstly, at sea, warships and privateers of each side attacked the other's merchant ships, while the British blockaded the
Atlantic coast of the
United States and mounted large raids in the later stages of the war. Secondly, land and naval battles were fought on the
American–Canadian frontier, which ran along the
Great Lakes, the
Saint Lawrence River and the northern end of
Lake Champlain. Thirdly, the
American South and
Gulf Coast also saw big land battles, in which the
American forces defeated
Britain's
Indian allies and a
British invasion force at
New Orleans.
At the end of the war both sides signed the
Treaty of Ghent and both parties returned occupied land to its pre-war owner and resumed friendly trade relations.
With the majority of its land and naval forces tied down in Europe fighting the Napoleonic Wars, the British used a defensive strategy in the
Provinces of
Upper and Lower Canada, repelling initial American invasions. This demonstrated that the conquest of the Canadas would prove more difficult than anticipated. However, the
Americans gained control of
Lake Erie in 1813, seized parts of western
Ontario, and ended the prospect of an Indian confederacy and an independent
Indian state in the
Midwest under British sponsorship. In April
1814, with the defeat of
Napoleon, the British adopted a more aggressive strategy, sending larger invasion armies.
In September 1814, the British invaded and occupied eastern
Maine. In the south-west,
General Andrew Jackson destroyed the military strength of the
Creek nation at the
Battle of Horseshoe Bend. The British victory at the
Battle of Bladensburg in August 1814 allowed them to capture and burn
Washington, D.C, but they were repulsed in an attempt to take
Baltimore. American victories in September 1814 at the
Battle of Plattsburgh repulsed the
British invasions of
New York, which along with pressure from merchants on the
British government prompted British diplomats to drop their demands at
Ghent for an independent native buffer state and territorial claims that
London previously sought. Both sides agreed to a
peace that restored the situation before the war began. However, it took six weeks for ships to cross the
Atlantic so news of the peace treaty did not arrive before the British suffered a major defeat at New Orleans in January 1815.[4]
In the United States, late victories over invading
British armies at the battles of Plattsburg, Baltimore (inspiring their national anthem, "
The Star-Spangled Banner") and New Orleans produced a sense of euphoria over a "second war of independence" against Britain.[5][6]
The Federalist Party had strongly opposed the war effort and prevented
New England from providing much in the way of soldiers and troops; it now virtually collapsed. The war ended on a high note for Americans, bringing an "
Era of Good Feelings" in which partisan animosity nearly vanished in the face of strengthened
U.S. nationalism.
Spain played a small role, but was not an official belligerent; some
Spanish forces fought alongside the British during the
Occupation of
Pensacola.
The U.S. took permanent ownership of Spain's
Mobile District.
In Upper and Lower Canada, British and
Provincial militia victories over invading
American armies became iconic and promoted the development of a distinct
Canadian identity, which included strong loyalty to Britain.
Today, particularly in Ontario, memory of the war retains its significance, because the defeat of the invasions ensured that the Canadas would remain part of the
British Empire, rather than be annexed by the United States. In
Canada, numerous ceremonies took place in
2012 to commemorate the war, offer historical lessons and celebrate
200 years of peace across the border.[7] The war is scarcely remembered in Britain, where attention focuses on the closer threat of Napoleon.
- published: 18 Apr 2015
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