Emirate of Crete Iqritish
← 824/827–961 →
Capital	Chandax
Religion	Sunni Islam
Government	Monarchy
Emir
- 820s – c. 855	Umar I ibn Hafs
- 949–961	Abd al-Aziz ibn Shuayb
Historical era	Middle Ages
- Andalusian exiles land on the island	824/827
- Byzantine reconquest	961

The Emirate of Crete was a Muslim state that existed on the Mediterranean island of Crete from the late 820s to the Byzantine reconquest of the island in 961.

Crete was conquered by a group of Andalusian exiles, who landed on the island in ca. 824 or in 827/828 and quickly established an independent state there. Numerous Byzantine attempts to recover the island failed disastrously, and for the approximately 135 years of its existence, the emirate (called Iqritish or Iqritiya by the Arabs) was one of the major foes of Byzantium. Crete commanded the sea lanes of the Eastern Mediterranean and functioned as a forward base and safe haven for corsair fleets from the Muslim world that ravaged the Byzantine-controlled shores of the Aegean Sea. The emirate's internal history is less well-known, but all accounts point to considerable prosperity deriving not only from piracy, but also from extensive trade and agriculture. The emirate was brought to an end by Nikephoros Phokas, who launched a huge campaign against it in 960–961.

History[link]

Crete had been the target of Muslim attacks since the first wave of the Muslim conquests in the mid-7th century. It had suffered a first raid in 654 and again in 674/675,^[1] and parts of the island were temporarily occupied during the reign of the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid I (r. 705–715).^[2] Nevertheless, the island was never conquered and despite occasional raids in the 8th century it remained securely in Byzantine hands;^[3] Crete was too far from the Arab naval bases in the Levant for an effective expedition against it to be undertaken.^[4]

Conquest of Crete[link]

At some point in the second half of the reign of Byzantine Emperor Michael II (r. 820–829), a group of Andalusian exiles landed on Crete and began its conquest.^[5] These exiles had a long history of wanderings behind them. They were the survivors of a failed revolt against the emir Al-Hakam I of Córdoba in 818. In the aftermath of its suppression, the citizens of the Cordovan suburb of al-Rabad were exiled en masse. Some settled in Morocco, but others, numbering over 10,000, took to piracy, probably joined by other Andalusians. Some of the latter group, under the leadership of Umar ibn Hafs ibn Shuayb ibn Isa al Balluti, commonly known as Abu Hafs, landed in Alexandria and took control of the city until 827, when they were besieged and expelled by the Abbasid general Abdullah ibn Tahir al-Khurasani.^[6][7] The exact chronology of their landing in Crete is uncertain. Following the Muslim sources, it is usually dated to 827 or 828, after the Andalusians' expulsion from Alexandria.^[8] Byzantine sources however seem to contradict this, placing their landing soon after the suppression of the large revolt of Thomas the Slav (821–823). Further considerations regarding the number and chronology of the Byzantine campaigns launched against the invaders and prosopographical questions of the Byzantine generals have led other scholars like Vasileios Christides and Christos Makrypoulias to propose an earlier date, ca. 824.^[9]

The Saracen fleet sails towards Crete. Miniature from the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript.

Under the terms of their agreement with Ibn Tahir, the Andalusians and their families left Alexandria in 40 ships. Historian Warren Treadgold estimates them at some 12,000 people, of whom ca. 3,000 would be fighting men.^[10] According to Byzantine historians, the Andalusians were already familiar with Crete, having raided it in the past. They also claim that the Muslim landing was also initially intended as a raid, and was transformed into a bid for conquest when Abu Hafs himself set fire to their ships. However, as the Andalusian exiles had brought their families along, this is probably later invention.^[8] The Andalusians' landing-place is also unknown; some scholars think that it was at the north coast, at Suda Bay or near where their main city and fortress Chandax (Arabic: ربض الخندق‎, rabḍ al-ḫandaq, "Castle of the Moat", modern Heraklion) was later built,^[8][11] but others think that they most likely landed on the south coast of the island, and then moved to the more densely populated interior and the northern coast.^[12][13]

As soon as he learned of the Arab landing, Emperor Michael II reacted and sent successive expeditions to recover the island. Byzantium's ability to respond effectively however was curtailed by the losses suffered during the revolt of Thomas the Slav, and, if the landing occurred in 827/828, by the diversion of ships and men to counter the gradual conquest of Sicily by the Tunisian Aghlabids.^[14] The first expedition, under Photeinos, strategos of the Anatolic Theme, and Damian, Count of the Stable, was defeated in open battle, where Damian was killed.^[5][15] The next expedition was sent a year later and comprised 70 ships under the strategos of the Cibyrrhaeots Krateros. It was initially victorious, but the over-confident Byzantines were then routed in a night attack. Krateros managed to flee to Kos, but there he was captured by the Arabs and crucified.^[16][17] Ch. Makrypoulias suggests that these campaigns must have taken place before the Andalusians completed their construction of Chandax, where they transferred the capital from the inland site of Gortyn.^[18]

The "pirate" emirate[link]

Map of the Aegean Sea, with Crete in the bottom

Having repulsed the early Byzantine attacks, Abu Hafs slowly consolidated his control of the entire island,^[17] and installed himself as the island's ruler. He recognized the suzerainty of the Abbasid Caliphate, but ruled as a de facto independent prince.^[8] The conquest of the island was of major importance, as it transformed the naval balance of power in the Eastern Mediterranean and opened up the hitherto secure Aegean Sea littoral to frequent and devastating raids.^[19]

The Andalusians also occupied several of the Cyclades during these early years, but Michael II organized another large-scale expedition, recruiting an entire new marine corps, the Tessarakontarioi, and building new ships. Under the admiral Ooryphas, this fleet managed to evict the Arabs from the Aegean islands, but failed to retake Crete.^[20][21] Michael II's successor Theophilos (r. 829–842) sent an embassy to Abd ar-Rahman II of Córdoba, trying to win him over to a joint action against the Andalusian exiles, but beyond Abd ar-Rahman's giving his assent to any action against them, this came to nothing.^[8] In October 829, the Cretans destroyed an imperial fleet off Thasos and then proceeded to lay waste Mount Athos.^[22][23] Later they attacked Lesbos (837) and the coasts of the Thracesian Theme, where they destroyed the monastic centre of Mount Latros, but were heavily defeated by the local strategos, Constantine Kontomytes.^[8][24]

After the death of Theophilos in 842, new measures to confront the Cretan threat were undertaken by the new Byzantine regime: in 843 a new maritime theme, that of the Aegean Sea, was established to better deal with the Saracen raids, and another expedition to recover Crete was launched under the personal leadership of the powerful logothetes and regent Theoktistos. Although it succeeded in occupying much of the island, Theoktistos had to abandon the army due to political intrigues in Constantinople, and the troops left behind were slaughtered by the Arabs.^[25][26] In an effort to weaken the Saracens, in 853 several Byzantine fleets engaged in coordinated operations in the Eastern Mediterranean, and attacked the Egyptian naval base of Damietta, capturing weapons intended for Crete.^[8] Despite some Byzantine successes against the Arabs in the following years, the Cretans resumed their raids in the early 860s, attacking the Peloponnese, the Cyclades and Athos.^[8][27] In 866, the Byzantine Caesar Bardas assembled another large-scale expeditionary force to subdue Crete, but his murder at the hand of Basil the Macedonian only two weeks after the fleet set sail from the capital spelled the end of the undertaking.^[28][29]

Ooryphas punishes the Cretan Saracens, as depicted in the Madrid Skylitzes

In the early 870s, the Cretan raids reached a new intensity: their fleets, often commanded by Byzantine renegades, ranged the Aegean and further afield, reaching the Dalmatian coasts. On one occasion a Cretan fleet even penetrated into the Marmara Sea and unsuccessfully attacked Proconnesos; the first time since the Second Arab Siege of Constantinople in 717–718 that a Muslim fleet had come so close to the capital itself.^[8] In 873 and again in 874 however, they also suffered two successive heavy defeats at the hands of the new Byzantine admiral, Niketas Ooryphas. After the latter battle in particular, Ooryphas took many prisoners, whom he tortured extensively in revenge for their raids.^[8][30] These victories apparently led to a temporary truce, and it appears that the Cretan emir Saipes (Shuayb I ibn Umar) was obliged to pay tribute to Byzantium for about a decade.^[31]

Raids nevertheless soon resumed, in which the Cretans were joined by North African and Syrian fleets.^[32] The Peloponnese in particular suffered considerably from their raids, but also Euboea and the Cyclades: the island of Patmos came under Cretan control, and Naxos was forced to pay them tribute.^[33] Athens may have been occupied in ca. 896–902,^[3] and in 904, a Syrian fleet led by Leo of Tripoli sacked the Byzantine Empire's second city, Thessalonica. The Saracens of Crete co-operated closely with their Syrian counterparts, who often used Crete as a base or a stop-over, as during Leo of Tripoli's fleet return from Thessalonica, when many of the over 20,000 Thessalonian captives were sold or gifted as slaves in Crete.^[33][34] In 911, another large-scale expedition of well over 100 ships was launched against Crete, headed by the admiral Himerios, but it was forced to leave the island after a few months and was then destroyed in battle off Chios by a combined Cretan and Syrian fleet.^[33][35][36]

Byzantine reconquest[link]

The conquest of Chandax, the main Muslim stronghold in Crete, as depicted in the Madrid Skylitzes manuscript.

Cretan piracy reached another high in the 930s and 940s, devastating southern Greece, Athos and the western coasts of Asia Minor. As a result, Emperor Constantine VII (r. 913–959) sent another expedition in 949. This too was routed in a surprise attack, a defeat which Byzantine chroniclers ascribe to the incompetence and inexperience of its leader, the eunuch chamberlain Constantine Gongyles.^[33][37][38] Emperor Constantine did not give up, and during the last years of his reign began preparing another expedition. In the event, it would be carried out under his successor, Romanos II (r. 959–963), who entrusted its leadership to the capable general Nikephoros Phokas. At the head of a huge fleet and army, Phokas sailed in June or July 960, landed on the island and defeated the initial Muslim resistance. A long siege of Chandax followed, which dragged over the winter to 961, until the city was stormed on 6 March.^[33][39]

The city was pillaged, and its mosques and walls were torn down. Muslim inhabitants were either killed or carried off into slavery, while the island's last emir, Abd al-Aziz ibn Shuayb (Kouroupas), and his son al-Numan (Anemas) were taken captive and brought to Constantinople, where Phokas celebrated a triumph.^[33][40] The island was converted into a Byzantine theme, and the remaining Muslims were converted to Christianity by missionaries like Nikon "the Metanoeite". Among the converts was the prince Anemas, who entered Byzantine service and fell at Dorostolon, in the war of 970–971 against the Rus'.^[40][41]

Legacy[link]

The island's Arab period remains relatively obscure, due to a paucity of surviving evidence regarding its internal history. Furthermore, other than a few place names recalling the Saracens' presence, no major archaeological remains from the period survive in Crete, possibly due to deliberate Byzantine destructions after 961.^[42] This has influenced the way the emirate is regarded in general: scholars, relying mostly on Byzantine accounts, have traditionally viewed the Emirate of Crete through a Byzantine lens as a quintessential "corsair's nest" and little else.^[43]

The picture painted by the few and scattered pieces of evidence from the Muslim world however is that of an ordered state with a regular monetary economy and extensive trade links, and there is evidence that Chandax was a cultural centre of some importance.^[44] The survival of numerous gold, silver and copper coins, of almost constant weight and composition, testifies to a strong economy and a high living standard among the population.^[45] The economy was strengthened by extensive trade with the rest of the Muslim world, especially with Egypt, and by a booming agriculture: the need to sustain an independent state, as well as access to the markets of the Muslim world, led to an intensification of cultivation. It is also possible that sugar cane was introduced to Crete at the time.^[46]

It is unclear what happened to the island's Christians after the Muslim conquest; the traditional view is that most were either converted or expelled.^[17] There is evidence however from Muslim sources for the continued survival of Christians on Crete, although according to the same sources the Muslims, whether descendants of the Andalusians or more recent migrants, formed the majority.^[47] There is also some evidence of rival factions on the island, either Christian or Muslim, as when Theodosius the Deacon reports the "inhabitants of crags and caves" under their leader Karamountes descending from the mountains during Nikephoros Phokas' siege of Chandax.^[48]

List of emirs[link]

The succession of the emirs of Crete has been established by Arab and Byzantine sources, but chiefly through their coinage. The dates of their reigns are therefore largely approximate:^[49][50]

The son of the last emir, Al-Numan ibn Abd al-Aziz, Anemas in Greek sources, was captured and served in the Byzantine army, falling at the Battle of Dorostolon in 971.^[51]

See also[link]

• List of Sunni Muslim dynasties

References[link]

Sources[link]

• Canard, M. (1986). "Iqrītish". The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden and New York: BRILL. pp. 1082–1086. ISBN 90-04-08118-6. 
• Christides, Vassilios (1981), "The Raids of the Moslems of Crete in the Aegean Sea: Piracy and Conquest", Byzantion 51: 76–111 
• Christides, Vassilios (1984), The Conquest of Crete by the Arabs (ca. 824): A Turning Point in the Struggle between Byzantium and Islam, Academy of Athens 
• Gardiner, Robert, ed. (2004), Age of the Galley: Mediterranean Oared Vessels since pre-Classical Times, Conway Maritime Press, ISBN 978-0-85177-955-3 
• Kazhdan, Alexander (1991). "Anemas". In Kazhdan, Alexander. Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-19-504652-6. 
• Makrypoulias, Christos G. (2000), "Byzantine Expeditions against the Emirate of Crete c. 825–949", Graeco-Arabica 7–8: 347–362 
• Miles, George C. (1964), "Byzantium and the Arabs: Relations in Crete and the Aegean Area", Dumbarton Oaks Papers 18: 1–32, DOI:10.2307/1291204, JSTOR 1291204 
• Treadgold, Warren T. (1988), The Byzantine Revival, 780–842, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, ISBN [[Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-1462-2|978-0-8047-1462-2]] 
• Treadgold, Warren T. (1997), A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, ISBN 0-8047-2630-2, http://books.google.com/books?id=nYbnr5XVbzUC 

Crete Περιφέρεια Κρήτης
—  Region of Greece  —
NASA photograph of Crete
Coordinates: 35°13′N 24°55′E / 35.21°N 24.91°E / 35.21; 24.91Coordinates: 35°13′N 24°55′E / 35.21°N 24.91°E / 35.21; 24.91
Country	Greece
Capital	Heraklion
Regional units	List Chania Heraklion Lasithi Rethymno
Government
• Regional governor	Stavros Arnaoutakis (PASOK)
Area
• Total	8,336 km2 (3,219 sq mi)
Highest elevation	2,456 m (8,058 ft)
Population (2011)
• Total	621,340
• Density	75/km2 (190/sq mi)
ISO 3166 code	GR-M
Website	www.crete.gov.gr

Crete (Greek: Κρήτη; [kriti]) is the largest and most populous of the Greek islands, the fifth-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, and one of the thirteen administrative regions of Greece. It forms a significant part of the economy and cultural heritage of Greece while retaining its own local cultural traits (such as its own dialect, poetry, and music). Crete was the centre of the Minoan civilization (c. 2700–1420 BC), the earliest civilization in Europe, comprising the first palaces in Europe.^[1]

Name[link]

The island is first referred to as Kaptara in texts from the Syrian city of Mari dating from the 18th century BC,^[2] repeated later in Neo-Assyrian records and the Bible (Caphtor). It was also known in ancient Egyptian as Keftiu, strongly suggesting some form similar to both was the Minoan name for the island.^[3]

The Mycenaean Greek name for Crete is unknown; it is not mentioned in extant Linear B texts. The name Crete (Κρήτη) first appears in Homer's Odyssey.^[4] Its etymology is unknown. One speculative proposal derives it from a hypothetical Luvian word *kursatta (cf. kursawar "island", kursattar "cutting, sliver").^[5] In Latin, it became Creta.

The original Arabic name of Crete was Iqrīṭiš (Arabic: اقريطش‎ < (της) Κρήτης), but after the Emirate of Crete's establishment of its new capital at ربض الخندق Rabḍ al-ḫandaq (modern Iraklion), both the city and the island became known as Χάνδαξ (Khandhax) or Χάνδακας (Khandhakas), which gave Latin and Venetian Candia, from which French Candie and English Candy or Candia. Under Ottoman rule, in Ottoman Turkish, Crete was called Girit (Ottoman Turkish: كريت, as recorded by Piri Reis).

Physical geography[link]

Greece and Crete

View of Psiloritis

View of the Ha Gorge

Crete is the largest island in Greece and the second largest in the eastern Mediterranean Sea (after Cyprus). It is located in the southern part of the Aegean Sea separating the Aegean from the Libyan Sea.

Island morphology[link]

The island has an elongated shape: it spans 260 km (160 mi) from east to west, is 60 km (37 mi) at its widest point, and narrows to as little as 12 km (7.5 mi) (close to Ierapetra). Crete covers an area of 8,336 km² (3,219 sq mi), with a coastline of 1,046 km (650 mi); to the north, it broaches the Sea of Crete (Greek: Κρητικό Πέλαγος); to the south, the Libyan Sea (Greek: Λιβυκό Πέλαγος); in the west, the Myrtoan Sea, and toward the east the Karpathion Sea. It lies approximately 160 km (99 mi) south of the Greek mainland.

Mountains and valleys[link]

Crete is extremely mountainous, and its character is defined by a high mountain range crossing from west to east, formed by three different groups of mountains:

• The White Mountains or Lefka Ori 2,452 m (8,045 ft)
• The Idi Range (Psiloritis 35°11′N 24°49′E / 35.18°N 24.82°E / 35.18; 24.82 2,456 m (8,058 ft)
• The Dikti Mountains 2,148 m (7,047 ft)
• Kedros 1,777 m (5,830 ft)
• Thripti 1,489 m (4,885 ft)

These mountains lavished Crete with valleys, such as Amari valley, fertile plateaus, such as Lasithi plateau, Omalos and Nidha; caves, such as Diktaion and Idaion (the birthplace of the ancient Greek god Zeus); and a number of gorges.

Gorges, rivers, and lakes[link]

The island has a number of gorges such as the famous gorge of Samaria, Imbros gorge, Kourtaliotiko gorge, Ha gorge, Platania gorge, the Gorge of the Dead (at Kato Zakros, Sitia) and Richtis Gorge and waterfall at Exo Mouliana in Sitia.^[6][7][8][9]

The rivers of Crete include the Ieropotamos River, the Koiliaris, the Anapodiaris, the Almiros, and Megas Potamos. There are only two freshwater lakes: Lake Kournas and Lake Agia, which are both in Chania prefecture.^[10] Lake Voulismeni at the coast, at Aghios Nikolaos, was formerly a sweetwater lake but is now connected to the sea, in Lasithi.^[11]

Surrounding islands[link]

A large number of islands, islets, and rocks hug the coast of Crete. Many are visited by tourists, some are visited only by archaeologists and biologists. Some are environmentally protected. A small sample of the islands include:

• Gramvousa (Kissamos, Chania) the pirate island opposite the Balo lagoon.
• Elafonisi (Chania), which commemorates a shipwreck and an Ottoman massacre.
• Chrysi island (Ierapetra, Lasithi), which hosts the largest natural Lebanon cedar forest in Europe.
• Paximadia island (Agia Galini, Rethymno) where the god Apollo and the goddess Artemis were born.
• The Venetian fort and leper colony at Spinalonga opposite the beach and shallow waters of Elounda (Ag. Nikolaos, Lasithi).
• Dionysades islands which are in an environmentally protected region together the Palm Beach Forest of Vai in the municipality of Sitia, Lasithi.

Climate[link]

Crete straddles two climatic zones, the Mediterranean and the North African, mainly falling within the former. As such, the climate in Crete is primarily temperate. The atmosphere can be quite humid, depending on the proximity to the sea, while winter is fairly mild. Snowfall is common on the mountains between November and May, but rare in the low lying areas. While mountain tops remain snow-capped year long, near the coast snow only stays on the ground for a few minutes or hours. However, a truly exceptional cold snap swept the island in February 2004, during which period the whole island was blanketed with snow. During the Cretan summer, average temperatures reach the high 20s-low 30s Celsius (mid 80s to mid 90s Fahrenheit), with maxima touching the upper 30s-mid 40s.

The south coast, including the Mesara Plain and Asterousia Mountains, falls in the North African climatic zone, and thus enjoys significantly more sunny days and high temperatures throughout the year. There, date palms bear fruit, and swallows remain year-round rather than migrate to Africa. The fertile region around Ierapetra, on the southeastern corner of the island, is renowned for its exceptional year-round agricultural production, with all kinds of summer vegetables and fruit produced in greenhouses throughout the winter.

Human geography[link]

Crete is the most populous island in Greece with a population of more than 600,000 people. Approximately 42% live in Crete's main cities and towns whilst 45% live in rural areas.^[12]

Administration[link]

Crete with its nearby islands form the Crete Region (Greek: Περιφέρεια Κρήτης), one of the 13 regions of Greece which were established in the 1987 administrative reform.^[13] With the 2010 Kallikratis plan, the powers and authority of the regions were redefined and extended. The region is based at Heraklion and is divided into four regional units (pre-Kallikratis prefectures). From west to east these are: Chania, Rethymno, Heraklion and Lasithi. These are further subdivided into 24 municipalities.

The region's governor is, since 1 January 2011, Stavros Arnaoutakis, who was elected in the November 2010 local administration elections for the Panhellenic Socialist Movement.

Cities[link]

View of Agios Nikolaos' port

Heraklion is the largest city and capital of Crete. The principal cities are:

• Heraklion (Iraklion or Candia) (130,914 inhabitants)^[14]
• Chania (Haniá) (53,373 inhabitants)^[14]
• Rethymno (27,868 inhabitants)^[14]
• Ierapetra (23,707 inhabitants)
• Agios Nikolaos (19,462 inhabitants)
• Sitia (14,338 inhabitants)

Culture[link]

Dancers from Sfakia

Old man from Crete dressed in the typical black shirt

The Greek language spoken on the island has a distinct Cretan Greek dialect with an extended vocabulary that is Crete-specific. Crete has its own distinctive Mantinades poetry. The island is known for its Mantinades-based music (typically performed with the Cretan lyra and the laouto) and has many indigenous dances, the most noted of which is the Pentozali.

Cretan authors have made important contributions to Greek Literature throughout the modern period; major names include Vikentios Kornaros, creator of the 17th century epic romance Erotokritos (Greek Ερωτόκριτος), and in the 20th century Nikos Kazantzakis. In the Renaissance, Crete was the home of the Cretan School of icon painting, which influenced El Greco and through him subsequent European painting.

Cretans are fiercely proud of their island and customs, and men often don elements of traditional dress in everyday life: knee-high black riding boots (stivania), vráka breeches tucked into the boots at the knee, black shirt and black headdress consisting of a fishnet-weave kerchief worn wrapped around the head or draped on the shoulders (the sariki). Black is the color of mourning, and since Cretan families are notionally considered so extended as to include great-grandparents or second cousins (although they may have little actual contact) as well as all their respective in-laws, one is theoretically justified to be in continuous mourning for some relative or other, however distant. On festive occasions those who are not in mourning wear white, most notably white boots and headdress. In the small villages in the mountains some men unabashedly carry weapons including knives and guns which also appear at special occasions such as weddings.

Cretan society is well known for notorious family and clan vendettas which remain on the island to date.^[15][16] Cretans also have a tradition of keeping firearms at home, a tradition lasting from the era of resistance against the Ottoman Empire. Nearly every rural household on Crete has at least one unregistered gun.^[15] Guns are subject to strict regulation from the Greek government, yet the authorities turn a blind eye, accepting gun possession as their tradition.

Economy[link]

The economy of Crete is predominantly based on agriculture and is one of the few Greek islands that can support itself independently without a tourism industry.^[17] The economy began to change visibly during the 1970s as tourism gained in importance. While an emphasis remains on agriculture and stock breeding, due to the climate and terrain of the island, there has been a drop in manufacturing, and an observable expansion in its service industries (mainly tourism-related). All three sectors of the Cretan economy (agriculture/farming, processing-packaging, services), are directly connected and interdependent. The island has a per capita income much higher than the Greek average, while unemployment is at approximately 4%, ¹⁄₂ of that of the country overall.

As in many regions of Greece, viticulture and olive groves are significant; oranges and citrons are also cultivated. Until recently there were restrictions on the import of bananas to Greece, therefore bananas were grown on the island, predominantly in greenhouses. Dairy products are important to the local economy and there are a number of speciality cheeses such as mizithra, anthotyros, and kefalotyri.

Transport infrastructure[link]

Ferries docked at Heraklion port

The palm beach of Vai, Crete

The island has three significant airports, Nikos Kazantzakis at Heraklion, the Daskalogiannis airport at Chania and a smaller one in Sitia. The first two serve international routes, as the main gateways to the island for travellers.

The island is served by ferries mostly from Athens by ferry companies such as Minoan Lines and ANEK Lines.

Tourism[link]

Crete is one of the most popular holiday destinations in Greece. Fifteen percent of all arrivals in Greece come through the city of Heraklion (port and airport), while charter journeys to Heraklion last year made up 20% of all charter flights in Greece.^{[citation needed]} Overall, more than two million tourists visited Crete last year,^[when?] and this increase in tourism is reflected on the number of hotel beds, rising by 53% in the period between 1986 and 1991, when the rest of Greece saw increases of only 25%. Today, the island's tourism infrastructure caters to all tastes, including a very wide range of accommodation; the island's facilities take in large luxury hotels with their complete facilities, swimming pools, sports and recreation, smaller family-owned apartments, camping facilities and others. Visitors reach the island via two international airports in Heraklion and Chania and a smaller airport in Sitia (international charter and domestic flights starting May 2012) ^[18] or by boat to the main ports of Heraklion, Chania, Rethimno, Agios Nikolaos and Sitia. Popular tourist attractions include the archaeological sites of the Minoan civilisation, the Venetian old city and port of Chania, the Venetian castle at Rethymno, the gorge of Samaria, the islands of Chrysi, Elafonisi, Gramvousa, and Spinalonga and the Palm Beach of Vai, which is the largest natural palm forest in Europe.

Sport[link]

Crete has a lot of football clubs playing in the local leagues: OFI Crete, which plays at Theodoros Vardinogiannis Stadium (Iraklion), and Ergotelis F.C., which plays at the Pankritio Stadium (Iraklion) are both members of Superleague Greece.

Archaeological sites and museums[link]

There are a significal number of monasteries in the island: Gouverneto Monastery (left) and the historical Monastery of Arkadi (right).

There are a large number of archaeological sites which include the Minoan sites of Knossos and Phaistos, the classical site of Gortys, and the diverse archaeology of the island of Koufonisi which includes Minoan, Roman, and World War II ruins.

There are a number of museums throughout Crete. The Heraklion Archaeological Museum displays most of the archaeological finds of the Minoan era.^[19]

Environmentally protected areas[link]

There are a number of environmentally protected areas. One such area is located at the island of Elafonisi on the coast of southwestern Crete. Also, the palm forest of Vai in eastern Crete and the Dionysades (both in the municipality of Sitia, Lasithi), have diverse animal and plant life. Vai has a palm beach and is the largest natural palm forest in Europe. The island of Chrysi, 15 km south of Ierapetra, has the largest naturally grown Lebanon Cedar forest in Europe. Samaria Gorge is a World Biosphere Reserve and Richtis Gorge is protected for its landscape diversity.

Development[link]

Newspapers have reported that the Ministry of Mercantile Marine is ready to support the agreement between Greece, South Korea, Dubai Ports World and China for the construction of a large international container port and free trade zone in southern Crete near Tympaki; the plan is to expropriate 850 ha of land. The port would handle 2 million containers per year, while as of 2007, there has been no official announcement of a project not universally welcomed due to its environmental, economic and cultural impact.^[20] As of January 2009, it appears the project has been canceled, in part due to the strong opposition from the local population, mostly on environmental grounds.^[20]

Holiday homes and immigration[link]

Crete's mild climate attracts interest from northern Europeans who want a holiday home or residence on the island. EU citizens have the right to freely buy property and reside with little formality.^[21] A growing number of real estate companies cater to mainly British expatriates, followed by German, Dutch, Scandinavian and other European nationalities wishing to own a home in Crete. The British expatriates are concentrated in the western prefectures of Chania and Rethymno and to a lesser extent in Heraklion and Lasithi.

Fauna and flora[link]

The Kri-kri (the Cretan ibex) lives in protected natural parks at the gorge of Samaria and the island of Agios Theodoros.

The moorish gecko crawls across walls when it gets dark.

A pair of cicadas, commonly found on the island.

The loggerhead sea turtle nests and hatches along the beaches of Rethymno and Chania and the gulf of Mesara.

The Ophrys Cretica orchid

Crete is isolated from mainland Europe, Asia, and Africa, and this is reflected in the diversity of the fauna and flora. As a result the fauna and flora of Crete have many clues to the evolution of species. There are no animals that are dangerous to humans on the island of Crete compared to other parts of Greece. Indeed, the ancient Greeks attributed the lack of large mammals such as bears, wolves, jackals, and poisonous snakes, to the labour of Hercules (who took a live Cretan bull to the Peloponnese). Hercules wanted to honor the birthplace of Zeus by removing all "harmful" and "poisonous" animals from Crete. Later, Cretans believed that the island was cleared of dangerous creatures by the Apostle Paul, who lived on the island of Crete for two years, with his exorcisms and blessings. There is a Natural History Museum operating under the direction of the University of Crete and two aquariums - Aquaworld in Hersonissos and Cretaquarium displaying sea creatures common in Cretan waters.

Prehistoric fauna[link]

Dwarf elephants, dwarf hippopotamus, and dwarf deer were native to Pleistocene Crete.^[22]

Mammals[link]

Mammals of Crete include the vulnerable Kri-kri, Capra Aegagrus Creticus that can be seen in the national park of the Samaria Gorge and on Thodorou, Dia and Agioi Pantes, (islets off the north coast), the Cretan wildcat and the Cretan spiny mouse.^{[23][24][25][26]} Other terrestrial mammals include subspecies of the Cretan marten, the Cretan weasel, the Cretan badger, the long-eared hedgehog, the edible dormouse, and the Cretan shrew, a unique endemic species of mammal in Greece, that is unfortunately threatened with extinction.^[27]

Bat species include: Blasius's horseshoe bat, the lesser horseshoe bat, the greater horseshoe bat, the lesser mouse-eared bat, Geoffroy's bat, the whiskered bat, Kuhl's pipistrelle, the common pipistrelle, Savi's pipistrelle, the serotine bat, the long-eared bat, Schreiber's bat, and the European free-tailed bat.^[28]

Birds[link]

A large variety of birds includes eagles (can be seen in Lasithi), swallows (throughout Crete but throughout the year in the south of the island), pelicans (along the coast), and cranes (including Gavdos and Gavdopoula). The Cretan mountains and gorges are refuges for the endangered Lammergeier vulture. Bird species include: the golden eagle, Bonelli's eagle, the bearded vulture or Lammergeier, the griffon vulture, Eleanora's falcon, peregrine falcon, lanner falcon, European kestrel, tawny owl, little owl, hooded crow, alpine chough, red-billed chough, and the hoopoe.^[29][30]

Reptiles and amphibians[link]

Reptiles and tortoises can be seen throughout the island. Snakes can be found hiding under rocks. Toads and frogs reveal themselves when it rains.

Reptiles include the aegean wall lizard, balkan green lizard, european chameleon, ocellated skink, snake-eyed skink, moorish gecko, turkish gecko, Kotschy's gecko, spur-thighed tortoise, and the stripe-necked terrapin.^[28][31]

There are four species of snake on the island and these are not dangerous to humans. The four species include the leopard snake (locally known as Ochendra), the Balkan whip snake (locally called Dendrogallia), the dice snake (called Nerofido in Greek), and the only venomous snake is the nocturnal cat snake which has evolved to deliver its venom in to geckos and small lizards and is not dangerous to humans.^[28][32]

Turtles include the green turtle and the loggerhead turtle which are both endangered species.^[31] The loggerhead turtle nests and hatches on north-coast beaches around Rethymno and Chania, and south-coast beaches along the gulf of Mesara.^[33]

Amphibians include the green toad, American toad, common tree frog, and the Cretan marsh frog.^[28][31]

Arthropods[link]

Crete has an unusual variety of insects. Xylophagous, known locally as Tzitzikia, make a distinctive repetitive tzi tzi noise that becomes louder and more frequent on hot summer days. Butterfly species include the swallowtail butterfly.^[28] Moth species include the hummingbird moth.^[34] There are several species of scorpion such as Euscorpius carpathicus whose venom is generally no more potent than a mosquito bite.

Crustaceans and molluscs[link]

River crabs include the semi-terrestrial potamon potamios crab.^[28] Edible snails are widespread and can cluster in the hundreds waiting for rainfall to reinvigorate them.

Sealife[link]

Apart from terrestrial mammals, the seas around Crete are rich in large marine mammals, a fact unknown to most Greeks, although reported since ancient times. Indeed, the Minoan frescoes depicting dolphins in Queen's Megaron at Knossos, indicate that Minoans knew many things about these creatures and respected them. Apart from the famous endangered Mediterranean monk seal, which lives in almost all the coasts of the country, Greece hosts whales, sperm whales, dolphins and porpoises.^[35] These are either permanent residents of the Mediterranean, or just occasional visitors. The area south of Crete, known as the Greek Abyss, hosts many of them. Squid and octopus can be found along the coast and Sea turtles and Hammerhead sharks swim in the sea around the coast. The Cretaquarium and the Aquaworld Aquarium, are two of only three aquariums in Greece, they are located in Heraklion and Hersonissos respectively, and examples of the local sealife can be seen there.^[36][37]

Some of the fish that can be seen in the waters around Crete include: scorpion fish, dusky grouper, east Atlantic peacock wrasse, five-spotted wrasse, weever fish, common stingray, brown ray, mediterranean black goby, pearly razorfish, star-gazer, painted comber, damselfish, and the flying gurnard.^[38]

Flora[link]

Common wildflowers include: camomile, daisy, gladioli, hyacinth, iris, poppy, cyclamen and tulip, among others. There are more than 200 different species of wild orchid on the island and this includes 14 varieties of Ophrys Cretica.^[39] Crete has a rich variety of indigenous herbs including common sage, rosemary, thyme, and oregano.^[39][40] Rare herbs include the endemic Cretan dittany.^[39][40] and Ironwort, Sideritis syriaca L, known as Malotira (Μαλοτήρα). Varieties of cactus include the edible Prickly Pear. Common trees on the island include the chestnut, cypress, oak, olive tree, pine, plane, and tamarisk.^[40] Trees tend to be taller to the west of the island where water is more abundant.

History[link]

The Prince of the Lilies (Knossos, c. 1550 BC)

Fresco fragment of a dancing woman (Knossos, 1600–1450 BC)

The Byzantine campaign to take back Crete in 960/1 by Nikephoros Phokas as depicted by Ioannes Scylitzes (see Skylitzes Chronicle)

Hominids settled in Crete at least 130,000 years ago. In the later Neolithic and Bronze Age period, under the Minoans, Crete had a highly developed, literate civilization. It has been ruled by various ancient Greek entities, the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Empire, the Emirate of Crete, the Republic of Venice and the Ottoman Empire. After a brief period of autonomy (1897–1913) under a provisional Cretan government, it joined the Kingdom of Greece. It was occupied by Nazi Germany during the Second World War.

Prehistoric Crete[link]

The first human settlement in Crete dates before 130,000 years ago, during the Paleolithic age.^[41][42][43]
Settlements dating to the aceramic Neolithic in the 7th millennium BC, used cattle, sheep, goats, pigs and dogs as well as domesticated cereals and legumes; ancient Knossos was the site of one of these major Neolithic (then later Minoan) sites.^[44] Other neolithic settlements include those at Kephala, Magasa, and Trapeza.

Minoan civilization[link]

Crete was the center of Europe's first advanced civilization, the Minoan (c. 2700–1420 BC).^[1] This civilization wrote in the undeciphered script known as Linear A. Early Cretan history is replete with legends such as those of King Minos, Theseus, and the Minotaur, passed on orally via poets such as Homer. The Minoan eruption of Thera devastated the Minoan civilization.

Mycenean civilization[link]

Beginning in 1420 BC, the Minoan civilization was overrun by the Mycenean civilization from mainland Greece. The oldest samples of writing in the Greek language, as identified by Michael Ventris, is the Linear B archive from Knossos, dated approximately to 1425–1375 BC.^[45]

Roman rule[link]

Crete was involved in the Mithridatic Wars, initially repelling an attack by Roman general Marcus Antonius Creticus in 71 BCE. Nevertheless, a ferocious three-year campaign soon followed under Quintus Caecilius Metellus, equipped with three legions and Crete was finally conquered by Rome in 69 BCE, earning for Metellus the title "Creticus". Gortyn was made capital of the island, and Crete became a Roman province, along with Cyrenaica that was called Creta et Cyrenaica.

Byzantine Empire – first period[link]

Crete was separated from Cyrenaica ca. 297. It remained a part of the Roman Empire, usually referred to as the Byzantine Empire after 600 A.D. Crete was subjected to an attack by Vandals in 467, the great earthquakes of 365 and 415, a raid by Slavs in 623, Arab raids in 654 and the 670s, and again in the 8th century. Circa 732, the Emperor Leo III the Isaurian transferred the island from the jurisdiction of the Pope to that of the Patriarchate of Constantinople.^[46]

Emirate of Crete[link]

In the 820s when Crete was part of the Byzantine Empire, it was captured by Andalusian Arabs led by Abu Hafs^[47] who established the Emirate of Crete. Byzantium launched a campaign to take the island back in 842 and 843 under Theoktistos with some success. Further Byzantine campaigns in 911 and 949 failed. In 960/1 Nikephoros Phokas' campaign successfully restored Crete to Byzantium.

Byzantine Empire – second period[link]

In 961, Nikephoros Phokas returned the island to Byzantine rule after expelling the Arabs.^[48] In 1204, the Fourth Crusade seized and sacked the Imperial capital of Constantinople. Crete was initially granted to leading Crusader Boniface of Montferrat^[48] in the partition of spoils that followed. However, Boniface sold his claim to the Republic of Venice,^[48] whose forces made up the majority of the Crusade. Venice's rival the Republic of Genoa immediately seized the island and it was not until 1212 that Venice secured Crete as a colony.

Venetian rule[link]

The Venetian port of Chania

From 1212, during Venice's rule, which lasted more than four centuries, a Renaissance swept through the island as is evident from the plethora of artistic works dating to that period. Known as The Cretan School or Post-Byzantine Art, it is among the last flowerings of the artistic traditions of the fallen empire. The most notable representatives of this Cretan renaissance were the painter El Greco and the writers Nicholas Kalliakis (1645–1707), Georgios Kalafatis (professor) (ca. 1652–1720), Andreas Musalus (ca. 1665–1721) and Vitsentzos Kornaros.^[49][50][51]

Under the rule of the Catholic Venetians, the city of Candia was reputed to be the best fortified city of the Eastern Mediterranean.^[52] The three main forts were located at Gramvousa, Spinalonga, and Fortezza. Other fortifications include the Kazarma fortress. In 1492, Jews expelled from Spain settled on the island.^[53] In 1574–77, Crete was under the rule of Giacomo Foscarini as Proveditor General, Sindace and Inquistor. According to Starr (1942), the rule of Giacomo Foscarini was a dark age for Jews and Greeks. Under his rule, non-Catholics had to pay high taxes with no allowances. In 1627, there were 800 Jews in the city of Candia, about seven percent of the city's population.^[54] File:Map of Venetian Fortresses on Crete.pdf

Ottoman rule[link]

Flag of the revolutionaries during the 1866 Cretan Uprising

Statue of Cretan revolutionary, Chania

The Ottomans conquered Crete in 1669, after the siege of Candia. Many Greek Cretans fled to other regions of the Republic of Venice after the Ottoman–Venetian Wars, some even prospering such as the family of Simone Stratigo (ca. 1733 – ca. 1824) who migrated to Dalamatia from Crete in 1669.^[55] Islamic presence on the island, aside from the interlude of the Arab occupation, was cemented by the Ottoman conquest. Most Cretan Muslims were local Greek converts who spoke Cretan Greek, but in the island's 19th century political context they came to be viewed by the Christian population as Turks.^[56] Contemporary estimates vary, but on the eve of the Greek War of Independence, as much as 45% of the population of the island may have been Muslim.^[57] A number of Sufi orders were widespread throughout the island, the Bektashi order being the most prevalent, possessing at least five tekkes. Many amongst them were crypto-Christians who converted back to Christianity in subsequent years, while many others fled Crete because of the unrest, settling in Turkey, Rhodes, Syria and elsewhere. By 1900, 11% of the population was Muslim. Those remaining were relocated in 1924 Population exchange between Greece and Turkey.

During Easter of 1770, a notable revolt against Ottoman rule, in Crete, was started by Daskalogiannis, a shipowner from Sfakia who was promised support by Orlov's fleet which never arrived. Daskalogiannis eventually surrendered to the Ottoman authorities who skinned him alive. Today, the airport at Chania is named after him.

Crete was left out of the modern Greek state by the London Protocol of 1830, and soon it was yielded to Egypt by the Ottoman sultan. Egyptian rule was short-lived and sovereignty was returned to the Ottoman Empire by the Convention of London on July 3, 1840.

Heraklion was surrounded by high walls and bastions and extended westward and southward by the 17th century. The most opulent area of the city was the northeastern quadrant where all the elite were gathered together. The city had received another name under the rule of the Ottomans, "the deserted city".^[52] The urban policy that the Ottoman applied to Candia was a two-pronged approach.^[52] The first was the religious endowments. It made the Ottoman elite contribute to building and rehabilitating the ruined city. The other method was to boost the population and the urban revenue by selling off urban properties. According to Molly Greene (2001) there were numerous records of real-estate transactions during the Ottoman rule. In the deserted city, minorities received equal rights in purchasing property. Christians and Jews were also able to buy and sell in the real-estate market.

Between 1833 and 1897, several more Christian uprisings took place, and in 1898, Crete, a complex autonomous Cretan State under Ottoman suzerainty.

Cretan State[link]

The Historical flag of the Cretan State

Crete was garrisoned by an international military force, with a High Commissioner (Armostis) appointed by the government of Greece, Alexandros Zaimis. The island was partitioned in to four quarters by the four main powers jostling for power at that time. The four quarters were divided between Italy, Russia, the United Kingdom, and France, who controlled Chania, Rethymnon, Heraklion, and Lasithi respectively. Crete was joined in union with Greece on 1 December 1913.

World War II[link]

During World War II, the island was the scene of the famous Battle of Crete in May 1941. German paratroopers sustained almost 7,000 casualties, meeting fierce resistance from both locals and the British Commonwealth force, commanded by General Sir Bernard Freyberg. As a result, Adolf Hitler forbade further large-scale airborne operations. During the occupation, German firing squads were routinely used to execute male civilians, who were randomly gathered at local villages, in reprisal for the death of German soldiers, such as at Kondomari.

Minoan rhyton in form of a bull; Heraklion Archaeological Museum

Mythology[link]

Crete has a rich mythology mostly connected with the ancient Greek Gods but also connected with the Minoan civilization.

The Idaion cave at Mount Ida was the birthplace of the god Zeus. The Paximadia islands were the birthplace of the goddess Artemis and the god Apollo. Their mother, the goddess Leto, was worshipped at Phaistos. The goddess Athena bathed in Lake Voulismeni. The ancient Greek god Zeus launched a lightning bolt at a giant lizard that was threatening Crete. The lizard immediately turned to stone and became the island of Dia. The island can be seen from Knossos and it has the shape of a giant lizard. The islets of Lefkai were the result of a musical contest between the Sirens and the Muses. The Muses were so anguished to have lost that they plucked the feathers from the wings of their rivals; the Sirens turned white and fell into the sea at Aptera ("featherless") where they formed the islands in the bay that were called Lefkai (the islands of Souda and Leon).^[58] Hercules, in one of his labors, took the Cretan bull to the Peloponnese. Europa and Zeus made love at Gortys and conceived the Kings of the Minoan civilization.

The labyrinth of the palace of Knossos has the myth of Theseus and the Minotaur where the Minotaur was slain by Theseus. Icarus and Daedalus were captives of King Minos and crafted wings to escape. King Minos became a judge of the dead in Hades.

Notable people from Crete[link]

Domenikos Theotokopoulos
(El Greco)

Eleftherios Venizelos

Notable people from Crete include:

• John Aniston, actor, best known for his role as Victor Kiriakis on the NBC daytime drama Days of our Lives also father of Jennifer Aniston
• Ross Daly, a world music musician who has lived in Crete for most of his life, originally from Ireland.
• Eleni Daniilidou, an international tennis player, born in Chania.
• Odysseas Elytis, an internationally-renowned poet, who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1979, was born in Heraklion.^[59]
• Vitsentzos Kornaros, a Renaissance author from Sitia who lived in Heraklion (then Candia).
• El Greco, a Renaissance artist, born in Fodele.
• Nana Mouskouri, an internationally-known singer, born in Chania.
• Georgios Samaras, an international football player, born in Heraklion.
• Eleftherios Venizelos, an internationally-renowned former Greek Prime Minister, born in Chania Prefecture.
• Nikos Kazantzakis, an internationally-published author, born in Heraklion.

See also[link]

• Cretan dialect
• Mantinades
• Music of Crete
• List of Greek islands
• List of novels set in Crete
• List of rulers of Crete

References[link]

Sources[link]

• Panagiotakis, Nikolaos M. (1987). "Εισαγωγικό Σημείωμα ("Introduction")". In Panagiotakis, Nikolaos M. (in Greek). Crete, History and Civilization. I. Vikelea Library, Association of Regional Associations of Regional Municipalities. pp. XI–XX. 

External links[link]

Find more about Crete on Wikipedia's sister projects:
	Definitions and translations from Wiktionary
	Images and media from Commons
	Learning resources from Wikiversity
	News stories from Wikinews
	Quotations from Wikiquote
	Source texts from Wikisource
	Textbooks from Wikibooks

• Natural History Museum of Crete at the University of Crete.
• Cretaquarium Thalassocosmos, Heraklion, Crete.
• Aquaworld Aquarium, Hersonissos, Crete.
• "Ancient Crete." Oxford Bibliographies Online: Classics.
• Crete travel guide from Wikitravel
• Crete The Official website of the Greek National Tourism Organisation
• Interactive Virtual Tour of Crete
• What happened on July 21, 365 A.D.? A mega-tsunami of the ancient world

v t e Administrative division of the Crete Region Area: 8,336km² • Population : 601,131 (2001) • Capital: Heraklion Regional unit of Chania Apokoronas • Chania • Gavdos • Kantanos-Selino • Kissamos • Platanias • Sfakia Regional unit of Heraklion Archanes-Asterousia • Faistos • Gortyna • Heraklion • Hersonissos • Malevizi • Minoa Pediada • Viannos Regional unit of Lasithi Agios Nikolaos • Ierapetra • Oropedio Lasithiou • Siteia Regional unit of Rethymno Agios Vasileios • Amari • Anogeia • Mylopotamos • Rethymno Regional governor: Stavros Arnaoutakis • Website www.pkr.gov.gr