Lorenzo Valla

Lorenzo (or Laurentius) Valla (c.1407 – August 1, 1457) was an Italian humanist, rhetorician, and educator. His family was from Piacenza; his father, Luciave della Valla, was a lawyer.

In 1431 he entered the priesthood, and after trying in vain to secure a position as apostolic secretary, he went to Piacenza, whence he proceeded to Pavia, where he obtained a professorship of eloquence. His tenure at Pavia was made unpleasant by his attack on the Latin style of the great jurist Bartolus de Saxoferrato. Valla wandered from one university to another, accepting short engagements and lecturing in many cities. In 1433 Valla made his way to Naples, to the court of Alfonso V of Aragon, who made Valla his private Latin secretary and defended him against the attacks on account of his public statements about theology, including one in which he denied that the Apostles' Creed was composed in succession by each of the twelve Apostles. These charges were eventually dropped.

Latin stylistics[link]

By this time Valla had won a high reputation for two works: his dialogue De Voluptate, and his treatise De Elegantiis Latinae Linguae. In De Voluptate (On Pleasure), he contrasted the principles of the Stoics with the tenets of Epicurus, openly proclaiming his sympathy with those who claimed the right of free indulgence for man's natural appetites. It was a remarkable utterance. Here for the first time in the Renaissance the ideas of Epicurus found deliberate and positive expression in a work of scholarly and philosophical value.

De Elegantiis was no less original, although in a different sphere of thought. This work subjected the forms of Latin grammar and the rules of Latin style and rhetoric to a critical examination, and placed the practice of composition upon a foundation of analysis and inductive reasoning. It was a basis for the movement of the Humanists to reform Latin prose style to a more classical and Ciceronian direction on a scientific basis. Valla's work was controversial when it appeared, but its arguments carried the day. As a result, humanistic Latin sought to purge itself of post-Classical words and features, and became stylistically very different from the Christian Latin of the European Middle Ages. This was thought to be a major improvement in style and elegance in Latin usage.

Exposing historical hoaxes[link]

Valla's originality, critical acumen, and knowledge of classical Latin style were put to good use in an essay he wrote between 1439 and 1440, De falso credita et ementita Constantini Donatione declamatio. In this he demonstrated that the document known as the Constitutum Constantini (or "donatio Constantini" as he refers to it in his writings), or the Donation of Constantine, could not possibly have been written in the historical era of Constantine I (4th Century), as its vernacular style dated conclusively to a later era (8th Century). One of Valla's reasons was that the document contained the word satrap which he believed Romans such as Constantine I would not have used.^[1] The document, though met with great criticism at its introduction, was accepted as legitimate, in part owing to the beneficial nature of the document for the western church. The Donation of Constantine suggests that Constantine I "donated" the whole of the Western Roman Empire to the Roman Catholic Church as an act of gratitude for having been miraculously cured of leprosy by Pope Sylvester I. This would have obviously discounted Pepin the Short's own Donation of Pepin, which gave the Lombards land to the north of Rome.

Valla was motivated to reveal the Donation of Constantine as a fraud by his employer of the time, Alfonso of Aragon, who was involved in a territorial conflict with the Papal States, then under Pope Eugene IV.^{[citation needed]} The Donation of Constantine had often been cited to support the temporal power of the Papacy, since at least the 11th century.

The essay began circulating in 1440, but was heavily rejected by the Church. It was not formally published until 1517. It became popular among Protestants. An English translation was published for Thomas Cromwell in 1534. Valla's case was so convincingly argued that it still stands today, and the illegitimacy of the Donation of Constantine is generally conceded.

Subsequent career[link]

From Naples, Valla continued his philological work. He showed that the supposed letter of Christ to Abgarus was a forgery, and by throwing doubt upon the authenticity of other spurious documents, and by questioning the utility of monastic life, he aroused the anger of some of the faithful. He was compelled to appear before a tribunal composed of his enemies, and he only escaped by the special intervention of Alfonso. He was not, however, silenced; he ridiculed the Latin of the Vulgate and accused St Augustine of heresy. In 1444 he visited Rome, but in this city also his enemies were numerous and powerful, and he only saved his life by fleeing in disguise to Barcelona, whence he returned to Naples. But a better fortune attended him after the death of Eugene IV in February 1447. Again he journeyed to Rome, where he was welcomed by the new pope, Nicholas V, who made him an apostolic secretary, and this entrance of Valla into the Roman Curia has been called "the triumph of humanism over orthodoxy and tradition." Valla also enjoyed the favour of Pope Calixtus III.

Textual criticism[link]

One of Valla's most remarkable achievements lay in his emendations of Latin texts. He made countless suggestions for better readings in his manuscript of Livy's Ab urbe condita, which, in the previous century, had belonged to Petrarch, who, likewise had inserted emendations.^[2] The emendation of Livy was also a topic discussed in book IV of his Antidotum in Facium, an invective against Bartolomeo Facio. In this part of the treatise, which also circulated independently under the title Emendationes in T. Livium, Valla elucidates numerous corrupt passages and criticises the attempts at emendation made by Panormita and Facio, his rivals at the court of Alfonso the Magnanimous.^[3]

Biographies and critical esteem[link]

All the older biographical notices of Valla are loaded with long accounts of his many literary and theological disputes, the most famous of which was the one with Poggio, which took place after his settlement in Rome. It is almost impossible to form a just estimate of Valla's private life and character owing to the clouds of dust which were stirred up by this and other controversies, in which the most virulent and obscene language was employed. He appears, however, as a vain, jealous and quarrelsome man, but he combined the qualities of an elegant humanist, an acute critic and a venomous writer, who had committed himself to a violent polemic against the temporal power of Rome. In him posterity honors not so much the scholar and the stylist as the man who initiated a bold method of criticism, which he applied alike to language, to historical documents and to ethical opinions. Luther had a very high opinion of Valla and of his writings, and Cardinal Bellarmine calls him praecursor Lutheri, while Sir Richard Jebb says that his De Elegantiis "marked the highest level that had yet been reached in the critical study of Latin." Erasmus stated in his De ratione studii that for Latin Grammar, there was "no better guide than Lorenzo Valla."

Works and translations[link]

Collected, but not quite complete, editions of Valla's works were published at Basel in 1540 and at Venice in 1592, and De Elegantiis was reprinted nearly sixty times between 1471 and 1536.

• Opera omnia, Basel 1540; reprinted with a second volume (Turin: Bottega d'Erasmo, 1962).
• Repastinatio dialectice et philosophie, ed. G. Zippel, 2 vols. (First critical edition of the three versions: Padua: Antenore, 1982).
• Elegantiae linguae Latinae, edited by S. López Moreda (Cáceres: Universidad de Extremadura, 1999).
• Dialogue on Free Will, translated by C. Trinkaus. In: 'The Renaissance Philosophy of Man', edited by Ernst Cassirer et al. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948)
• De vero falsoque bono, edited by M. de Panizza Lorch, Bari, 1970; translated by A. K. Hieatt and M. Lorch (New York: Abaris Books 1977).
• Collatio Novi Testamenti, edited by A. Perosa (Florence: Sansoni, 1970).
• In Praise of Saint Thomas Aquinas, translated by M. E. Hanley. In Renaissance Philosophy, ed. L. A. Kennedy (Mouton: The Hague, 1973).
• De falso credita et ementita Constantini donatione, ed. W. Setz (Weimar: Hermann Böhlaus Nachfolger, 1976; reprinted Leipzig: Teubner, 1994); translated by C. B. Coleman (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1993); and by G. W. Bowersock (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press 2007).
• Dialectical Disputations, Latin text and English translation of the Repastinatio by B. P. Copenhaver and L. Nauta. (I Tatti Renaissance Library), Harvard University Press, 2012 (two volumes).

References[link]

•  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Lorenzo Valla". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. http://www.1911encyclopedia.org/Lorenzo_Valla. 

Selected bibliography[link]

For detailed accounts of Valla's life and work see:

• G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des classischen Alterthums (1880–81);
• John Addington Symonds, Renaissance in Italy (1897–99);
• G. Mancini, Vita di Lorenzo Valla (Florence, 1891);
• M. von Wolff, Lorenzo Valla (Leipzig, 1893);
• Jakob Burckhardt, Kultur der Renaissance (1860);
• J. Vahlen, Laurentius Valla (Berlin, 1870); L Pastor, Geschichte der Päpste, Band ii. English trans. by FI Antrobus (1892);
• the article in Herzog-Hauck's Realencyklopädie, Band xx. (Leipzig, 1908).

• John Edwin Sandys, Hist. of Class. Schol. ii. (1908), pp. 66‑70.
• Melissa Meriam Bullard, "The Renaissance Project of Knowing: Lorenzo Valla and Salvatore Camporeale's Contributions to the Querelle Between Rhetoric and Philosophy," Journal of the History of Ideas 66.4 (2005): 477-81.
• Christopher S. Celenza, "Lorenzo Valla and the Traditions and Transmissions of Philosophy,” Journal of the History of Ideas 66 (2005): 483-506.
• Brian P Copenhaver, "Valla Our Contemporary: Philosophy and Philology," Journal of the History of Ideas 66.4 (2005): 507-25.
• Matthew DeCoursey, "Continental European Rhetoricians, 1400-1600, and Their Influence in Renaissance England," British Rhetoricians and Logicians, 1500-1660, First Series, DLB 236, Detroit: Gale, 2001, pp. 309–343.
• Lisa Jardine, "Lorenzo Valla and the Intellectual Origins of Humanist Dialectic," Journal of the History of Philosophy 15 (1977): 143-64.
• Peter Mack, Renaissance Argument: Valla and Agricola in the Traditions of Rhetoric and Dialectic, Leiden ; New York : E.J. Brill, 1993.
• Lodi Nauta, In Defense of Common Sense: Lorenzo Valla's Humanist Critique of Scholastic Philosophy, Cambridge, MA : Harvard University Press, 2009.

External links[link]

• Lorenzo Valla entry by Lodi Nauta in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Lorenzo Valla, Discourse on the Forgery of the Alleged Donation of Constantine
• Tomb of Lorenzo Valla

Israel Houghton
Background information
Also known as	Israel & New Breed
Born	(1971-05-19) May 19, 1971 (age 41) Oceanside, California, United States
Genres	Contemporary Christian, gospel, contemporary worship
Occupations	Singer, songwriter, producer, arranger
Instruments	Guitar, piano
Years active	1997—present
Labels	Integrity
Associated acts	Cindy Cruse-Ratcliff, CeCe Winans, Michael W. Smith
Website	israelhoughton.net

Israel Houghton (pronounced, hoh’-tin) (born May 19, 1971) is an American Christian singer and worship leader, mostly known for his cross-cultural style of Christian music that fuses elements from gospel, jazz and rock. Houghton is usually credited as Israel & New Breed and currently signed to Integrity Music. Houghton is a worship leader at Joel Osteen's Lakewood Church in Houston, Texas. "All Around" is on the Digital Praise PC game Guitar Praise.

Musical career[link]

Recording career[link]

He has earned two gold-selling albums, six Dove Awards, two Stellar Awards, a Soul Train Award, and four Grammy® Awards—for "Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album" for The Power of One, “Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album” for A Deeper Level, “Best Traditional Gospel Album” for Alive In South Africa, and “Best Pop/Contemporary Gospel Album” for Love God, Love People.

Production career[link]

Israel produced an album by Michael Gungor called "Bigger Than My Imagination". This album was described as "one of the year's best worship albums" in a 2003 Christianity Today review.^[1]

Other performances[link]

This biographical section of an article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (February 2009)

He has served as worship leader for the Promise Keepers and Champions for Christ events, as well as the Hillsong Conference 2006—2010, and Hillsong Conference Europe 2008-2010. Israel currently serves as a worship leader (alongside Cindy Cruse-Ratcliff, Steve Crawford and Da'dra Crawford-Greathouse) at Lakewood Church in Houston, TX, pastored by Joel Osteen.

Israel and New Breed accompanied Alicia Keys at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards for a performance of George Michael's "Freedom '90."

Israel and New Breed performed at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards, taking part in a segment saluting Gospel music, alongside the likes of Aretha Franklin and BeBe Winans.

Israel also sang with Michael W Smith on his 2008 Album, "A New Hallelujah", recorded at Lakewood Church in Houston, TX.

Discography[link]

Albums[link]

Other recordings[link]

• "Champions for Christ" - Hi5 (Worship Leader, 2002)
• "Where Are the Fathers?" from He-Motions (EMI Gospel, 2004)
• "Send Me to the Nations" from A Wing & A Prayer (EMI Gospel, 2003)
• Lakewood Live: We Speak to Nations (Integrity, 2002)
• Lakewood Live: Cover the Earth (Integrity, 2004)
• Lakewood Live: The Gift
• Lakewood Live: Free to Worship
• Free Chapel Live: Moving Forward
• Lakewood Live: Hope for Today Worship^[2]
• Free Chapel Live: Power of the Cross (Integrity, 2009)
• New Breed Live: Generation Love (2009)
• Free Chapel Live: Echo

Awards[link]

Personal life[link]

He is of mixed heritage, Jamaican and French-as told by him personally-and was raised in a Mexican-American neighborhood. He and his wife Meleasa, and his three children, Mariah, Israel 'Sonny Boy' and Milan 'Lillie' currently reside in Houston, Texas.^{[citation needed]}

References[link]

• "Dove Award Recipients for 2005". Published by the Gospel Music Association. Retrieved 2007-02-06.
• "Dove Award Recipients for 2006". Published by the Gospel Music Association. Retrieved 2007-02-06.
• "38th Annual Dove Award Recipients". Published by the Gospel Music Association. Retrieved 26 April 2007.
• "49th Annual GRAMMY Awards Winners List". Published by The Recording Academy. Retrieved 2007-02-13.
• Powell, Mark Allan (2002). Encyclopedia of Contemporary Christian Music (First printing ed.). Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers. p. 438. ISBN 1-56563-679-1. 

External links[link]

• Israel Houghton's website
• Biography by Israel's Label
• CBN Interview with Israel Houghton
• Israel & New Breed at Allmusic
• Israel Houghton at the Internet Movie Database
• Israel Houghton at the Two Days of Hope conference

This biographical article needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately, especially if potentially libelous or harmful. (June 2011)

Pietro Citati (Florence, 1930) is a famous Italian writer^[1] and literary critic.

He has written critical biographies of Goethe, Alexander the Great, Kafka and Marcel Proust as well as a short memoir on his thirty-year friendship with Italo Calvino.

In Kafka, Pietro Citati has the great writer declare: "'I am like you, I am a man like you, I suffer and rejoice as you do, like a meticulous and buoyant angel, a being who lives far away in a world that did not belong even to him."

From 1973 to 1988, he contributed to the cultural section of Corriere della Sera and has been the literary critic for la Repubblica between 1988 and 2011, before returning to write for Corriere della Sera.

Bibliography[link]

• Goethe Dial Press (1974)
• Alexander the Great 1974
• Tolstoy Schocken (1986)
• Kafka, Milano, Rizzoli, 1987
• La colomba pugnalata 1995
• La mente colorata 2002
• La morte della farfalla 2006

References[link]

External links[link]

• Works by Pietro Citati on Open Library at the Internet Archive

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